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email: stefan.krmnicek@uni-tuebingen.de
Keywords
Abstract
Money is one of the most timeless, all-pervading, and arbitrary inventions in human history. Its ubiquity in time and space offers great scope
for comparative archaeological research into its varying material manifestations. This article takes a broad approach, ranging from Old World
prehistory to twentieth-century ethnography. First, the development
of archaeological approaches to coinage and money is outlined. Subsequent sections explore research into the use of objects as currencies in
prehistory; the origins of coined money; archaeological sites illustrating the adoption and functions of coinage in and around the classical
Mediterranean; and the study of coins as archaeological artifacts in the
more recent past and in non-European contexts. Finally, we suggest
some potential ways forward, employing comparative archaeological
study to enhance our understanding of the complexity of functions performed by monetary objects, both in the past and in the present.
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INTRODUCTION
Money/monetary
object: artifact (or
commodity) acting as
a means of exchange,
method of payment
and/or standard of
value
Medieval: the period
of European history
between the fall of the
western Roman
empire and the Early
Modern era
Numismatics:
academic study of
coins, medals, and
related monetary
objects
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Iron Age:
Archaeological period
characterized by iron
technology, beginning
in the late second
millennium BCE in
the east Mediterranean
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Bronze Age:
archaeological period
characterized by
bronze technology,
spanning the third and
second millennia BCE
in the Old World
Hoard: a set of objects
deliberately deposited
together, whether or
not with the intent of
later recovery
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might help us identify specic monetary objects and uses in an archaeological setting, and
most discussions of whether a certain class of
artifact might have functioned as currency are
little more than anecdotal.
Beyond the Old World, in Africa, in
Melanesia, and in the Americas, the boundaries between the archaeological and anthropological study of money tend to be blurred
[for Melanesia, see Gilliland (1975), including
archaeological documentation of the objects,
in addition to records on acquisition and export, and Akin & Robbins (1999); for Africa, see
Herbert (1984) and Eagleton et al. (2009)].
There can be little doubt that more archaeological study of money uses outside the
connes of Eurocentric history will reap signicant rewards, not only by enhancing and extending the time depth of historical and ethnographic accounts, but also by making us rethink
the functions of money in premodern Western
societies.
THE EVOLUTION OF
COINED MONEY
In economics and social science, numerous theories have been published about the supposed
reasons for the invention and consequent use of
early money and coinage (Laum 1924, Schaps
2004, Carrier 2005). Archaeology cannot claim
to provide a complete answer to these debates,
but it can contribute a solid foundation for discussion by presenting data drawn from the material record and by providing an interpretation. In the absence of literary sources that can
give further insights to the evolution of monetary use, the study of early money is, more
than any other branch of numismatic research,
dependent on the information that can be extracted from the archaeological record. Accordingly, the interpretation of whether particular
objects or commodities (e.g., salt) performed a
monetary function in prehistoric societies relies
solely on our reconstruction of that society and
its uses of material culture.
Artifacts of European and Near Eastern
prehistory made of valuable material offer an
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A similar approach has been followed in discussions of the vast number of bronze hoards
found in Bronze Age Europe (Hansel & Hansel
1997, Sommerfeld 2004). Some are a mixture of
metal scrap, seminished products, and nished
objects, whereas others contain only nished
products, both broken and intact. Deposits of
bronze sickles, ring-ingots, and bar-ingots have
received particular attention because they stand
out from other Bronze Age hoards, owing not
only to their wide geographical distribution but
also to their uniformity of weight, composition,
and production (Sommerfeld 1994, Innerhofer
2004). Again, a combination of the nature and
form of the objects on the one hand and the
deposition patterns of hoards in both ritual and
nonritual spheres on the other makes their interpretation as forms of monetary objects very
plausible.
The Late Bronze Age shipwrecks of Uluburun (Yalcin 2005) and Cape Gelidonya (Bass
1967), discovered off southwestern Turkey,
have yielded the largest archaeological assemblages to date of various traded commodities
that were previously known only from ancient
texts and Egyptian tomb paintings. In addition
to carrying bun-shaped ingots of copper and tin,
both vessels carried large quantities of oxhideshaped copper ingots, which are generally assumed to combine the functions of raw material and objects of monetary exchange within
and between Mediterranean Bronze Age societies. Their association in hoards with scrap
metal, nished products, and other objects of
value, together with their geographical distribution along trade and exchange routes from
Egypt, Cyprus, Crete, and Turkey in the east to
Sardinia and Sicily in the west, emphasizes their
supraregional signicance (Mangou & Ioannou
2000, Gale 2001, Kassianidou 2001).
Contemporary accounts in Egyptian hieroglyphs and Mesopotamian cuneiform scripts
provide our rst written conrmation of the
appropriation for monetary purposes of valuable weighed-out commodities such as precious
metal objects and grain by later Bronze Age
and Iron Age societies in the Old World. According to these sources, metals were used both
Cowrie shell:
Egg-shaped shell of
sea-snails (Cypraeidae)
with porcelain-like
shine, used in many
parts of the world as a
form of currency
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MONEY AS ARTIFACT
Like other artifacts, coined money encapsulates a wide range of material and stylistic
attributes (for developments in archaeometry,
see Ponting 2003, Nick & Diaz Tabernero
2007, Rehren & Pernicka 2008). Although only
partially explored, the archaeological evidence
for minting is better understood than are
underlying processes such as the sourcing of alloys (Butcher & Ponting 2005). Quantication
of mint output remains an imprecise science
for most periods of the past, although there
have been useful studies of how known outputs
are reected in actual coin nds (e.g., Newton
2006). Even where mint inventories and other
documents survive, archaeological data can
often add signicant information (La Guardia
2001), as studies of Spanish colonial mints in
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Circulation:
movement of coins
between individuals in
economic or social
transactions, the total
in circulation being
dened as the coin
pool
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RECONFIGURING THE
ARCHAEOLOGY OF MONEY
The production and technology of nonEuropean money have received far less attention than have European currencies. The same
is true of the archaeological study of nonEuropean monies in general. Although a range
of ethnographic accounts record the nature and
dynamics of monetary practices encountered
in the context of colonial expansion, there has
been little archaeological study of the relevant
artifacts in context to complement or qualify
the written accounts and oral traditions. Much
of the work undertaken on ethnographic monetary objects relies heavily on data gathered from
research collections, which are subject to many
of the same uncertainties as are museum coin
holdings (Casey & Reece 1988, Kluendorf
2005, Barello 2006), added to which the collection of unprovenanced objects is increasingly seen as unethical because it feeds looting
(Brodie & Renfrew 2005; for coin evidence, see
Elkins 2008).
As in other branches of archaeology, the political dimension has impacted on the study of
money. In colonial Africa, the study of money
bolstered the contemporary political agendas
of European supremacy. Coins of Mediter244
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DISCLOSURE STATEMENT
The authors are not aware of any afliations, memberships, funding, or nancial holdings that
might be perceived as affecting the objectivity of this review.
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Contents
Annual Review of
Anthropology
Volume 41, 2012
Prefatory Chapter
Ancient Mesopotamian Urbanism and Blurred Disciplinary Boundaries
Robert McC. Adams p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 1
Archaeology
The Archaeology of Emotion and Affect
Sarah Tarlow p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 169
The Archaeology of Money
Colin Haselgrove and Stefan Krmnicek p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 235
Phenomenological Approaches in Landscape Archaeology
Matthew H. Johnson p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 269
Paleolithic Archaeology in China
Ofer Bar-Yosef and Youping Wang p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 319
Archaeological Contributions to Climate Change Research:
The Archaeological Record as a Paleoclimatic
and Paleoenvironmental Archive
Daniel H. Sandweiss and Alice R. Kelley p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 371
Colonialism and Migration in the Ancient Mediterranean
Peter van Dommelen p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 393
Archaeometallurgy: The Study of Preindustrial Mining and Metallurgy
David Killick and Thomas Fenn p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 559
Rescue Archaeology: A European View
Jean-Paul Demoule p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 611
Biological Anthropology
Energetics, Locomotion, and Female Reproduction:
Implications for Human Evolution
Cara M. Wall-Schefer p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p71
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Sociocultural Anthropology
Lives With Others: Climate Change and Human-Animal Relations
Rebecca Cassidy p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p21
The Politics of the Anthropogenic
Nathan F. Sayre p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p57
Objects of Affect: Photography Beyond the Image
Elizabeth Edwards p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 221
Sea Change: Island Communities and Climate Change
Heather Lazrus p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 285
Enculturating Cells: The Anthropology, Substance, and Science
of Stem Cells
Aditya Bharadwaj p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 303
Diabetes and Culture
Steve Ferzacca p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 411
Toward an Ecology of Materials
Tim Ingold p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 427
Sport, Modernity, and the Body
Niko Besnier and Susan Brownell p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 443
Theme I: Materiality
Objects of Affect: Photography Beyond the Image
Elizabeth Edwards p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 221
The Archaeology of Money
Colin Haselgrove and Stefan Krmnicek p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 235
Documents and Bureaucracy
Matthew S. Hull p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 251
Phenomenological Approaches in Landscape Archaeology
Matthew H. Johnson p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 269
Contents
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