4 .

Fr ict iona llossesinmecha nica l-ener g y -b a la nceeq u a t ion

Thefrictionallossesfromthefrictioninthestraightpipe(Fanningfriction),enlargementlosses,
contractionlosses,andlossesinfittingsandvalvesareallincorporatedintheFtermofEq.(2.7-28)for
themechanical-energybalance,sothat
Equation2.10-18

Ifallthevelocities,,1,and2,arethesame,thenbyfactoring,Eq.(2.10-18)becomes,forthisspecial
case,
Equation2.10-19

Theuseofthemechanical-energy-balanceequation(2.7-28)alongwithEq.(2.10-18)willbeshowninthe
followingexamples.

EXAMPLE2.10-6.FrictionLossesandMechanical-Energy
Balance
Anelevatedstoragetankcontainswaterat82.2C,asshowninFig.2.10-4.Itisdesiredto
haveadischargerateatpoint2of0.223ft 3/s.WhatmustbetheheightHinftofthesurfaceof
thewaterinthetankrelativetothedischargepoint?Thepipeusediscommercialsteelpipe,
schedule40,andthelengthsofthestraightportionsofpipeareshown.
Figure2.10-4.ProcessflowdiagramforExample2.10-6.

S olu t ion:Themechanical-energy-balanceequation(2.7-28)iswrittenbetweenpoints1and
2.
Equation2.10-20

FromAppendixA.2,forwater,=0.970(62.43)=60.52lbm/ft 3and=0.347cp=
0.347(6.7197104)=2.33104lbm/fts.Thediametersofthepipesare

Thevelocitiesinthe4-in.and2-in.pipeare

TheFtermforfrictionallossesinthesystemincludesthefollowing:(1)contractionlossat
tankexit,(2)frictioninthe4-in.straightpipe,(3)frictionin4-in.elbow,(4)contractionloss
from4-in.to2-in.pipe,(5)frictioninthe2-in.straightpipe,and(6)frictioninthetwo2-in.
elbows.Calculationsforthesixitemsareasfollows:
1. Contractionlossattankexit.FromEq.(2.10-16),forcontractionfromA1toA3crosssectionalarea,sinceA1ofthetankisverylargecomparedtoA3,

2. Frictioninthe4-in.pipe.TheReynoldsnumberis

Hence,theflowisturbulent.FromFig.2.10-3,=4.6105m(1.5104ft).

Then,forNRe=219300,theFanningfrictionfactorf=0.0047.SubstitutingintoEq.
(2.10-6)forL=20.0ftof4-in.pipe,

3. Frictionin4-in.elbow.FromTable2.10-1,Kf=0.75.Then,substitutingintoEq.(2.1017),

4. Contractionlossfrom4-to2-in.pipe.UsingEq.(2.10-16)againforcontractionfrom
A3toA4cross-sectionalarea,

5. Frictioninthe2-inpipe.TheReynoldsnumberis

TheFanningfrictionfactorfromFig.2.10-3isf=0.0048.ThetotallengthL=125+
10+50=185ft.SubstitutingintoEq.(2.10-6),

6. Frictioninthetwo2-in.elbows.ForaKf=0.75andtwoelbows,

ThetotalfrictionallossFisthesumofitems(1)through(6):

Usingasadatumlevelz2,z1=Hft,z2=0.Sinceturbulentflowexists,=1.0.Also,1=0
and2=4=9.57ft/s.Sincep1andp2arebothat1atmabspressureand1=2,

Also,sincenopumpisused,WS=0.SubstitutingthesevaluesintoEq.(2.10-20),

Solving,H(g/g c)=33.77ftlbf/lbm(100.9J/kg)andHis33.77ft(10.3m)heightofwater
levelabovethedischargeoutlet.

EXAMPLE2.10-7.FrictionLosseswithPumpin
Mechanical-EnergyBalance
Waterat20Cisbeingpumpedfromatanktoanelevatedtankattherateof5.0103m3/s.
AllofthepipinginFig.2.10-5is4-in.schedule40pipe.Thepumphasanefficiencyof65%.
CalculatethekWpowerneededforthepump.
Figure2.10-5.ProcessflowdiagramforExample2.10-7.

5.Posit iv e-d isp la cement p u mp s

Inthisclassofpumps,adefinitevolumeofliquidisdrawnintoachamberandthenforcedoutofthe
chamberatahigherpressure.Therearetwomaintypesofpositive-displacementpumps.Inthe
reciprocatingpumpthechamberisastationarycylinder,andliquidisdrawnintothecylinderby
withdrawalofapistoninthecylinder.Thentheliquidisforcedoutbythepistononthereturnstroke.In
therotarypumpthechambermovesfrominlettodischargeandbackagain.Inagearrotarypumptwo
intermeshinggearsrotate,andliquidistrappedinthespacesbetweentheteethandforcedoutthe
discharge.
Reciprocatingandrotarypumpscanbeusedtoveryhighpressures,whereascentrifugalpumpsare
limitedintheirheadandareusedforlowerpressures.Centrifugalpumpsdeliverliquidatuniform
pressurewithoutshocksorpulsationsandcanhandleliquidswithlargeamountsofsuspendedsolids.In
general,inchemicalandbiologicalprocessingplants,centrifugalpumpsareprimarilyused.
Equations(3.3-1)through(3.3-5)holdforcalculationofthepowerofpositive-displacementpumps.Ata
constantspeed,theflowcapacitywillremainconstantwithdifferentliquids.Ingeneral,thedischarge
ratewillbedirectlydependentuponthespeed.Thepowerincreasesdirectlyasthehead,andthe
dischargerateremainsnearlyconstantastheheadincreases.
Pumpefficienciesofreciprocatingpumpsusedtocalculatebrakehorsepowerareasfollows:55%at2.2
kW(3hp),70%at7.5kW(10hp),77%at14.9kW(20hp),85%at37kW(50hp),and90%at373kW
(500hp).
3.3C .G as-M ov ingM achine r y
Gas-movingmachinerycomprisesmechanicaldevicesusedforcompressingandmovinggases.Theyare
oftenclassifiedorconsideredfromthestandpointofthepressureheadsproducedandincludefansfor
lowpressures,blowersforintermediatepressures,andcompressorsforhighpressures.
1.Fa ns
Thecommonestmethodformovingsmallvolumesofgasatlowpressuresisbymeansofafan.Large
fansareusuallycentrifugalandtheiroperatingprincipleissimilartothatofcentrifugalpumps.The
dischargeheadsarelow,fromabout0.1mto1.5mH2O.However,insomecasesmuchoftheadded
energyofthefanisconvertedtovelocityenergyandasmallamounttopressurehead.
Inacentrifugalfan,thecentrifugalforceproducedbytherotorcausesacompressionofthegas,calledthe
staticpressurehead.Also,sincethevelocityofthegasisincreased,avelocityheadisproduced.Boththe
static-pressure-headincreaseandvelocity-headincreasemustbeincludedinestimatingefficiencyand
power.Operatingefficienciesareintherange4070%.Theoperatingpressureofafanisgenerallygiven
asinchesofwatergageandisthesumofthevelocityheadandthestaticpressureofthegasleavingthe
fan.Incompressibleflowtheorycanbeusedtocalculatethepoweroffans.
Whentherpmorspeedofcentrifugalfansvaries,theperformanceequationsaresimilartoEqs.(3.3-7)(3.3-9)forcentrifugalpumps.

EXAMPLE3.3-3.Brake-kWPowerofaCentrifugalFan
Itisdesiredtouse28.32m3/minofair(meteredatapressureof101.3kPaand294.1K)ina
process.Thisamountofair,whichisatrest,entersthefansuctionatapressureof741.7mm
Hgandatemperatureof366.3Kandisdischargedatapressureof769.6mmHganda

velocityof45.7m/s.Acentrifugalfanhavingafanefficiencyof60%istobeused.Calculate
thebrake-kWpowerneeded.
S olu t ion:Incompressibleflowcanbeassumed,sincethepressuredropisonly
(27.9/741.7)100,or3.8%oftheupstreampressure.Theaveragedensityoftheflowinggascan
beusedinthemechanical-energy-balanceequation.
Thedensityatthesuction,point1,is

(Themolecularweightof28.97forair,thevolumeof22.414m3/kgmolat101.3kPa,and273.2
KwereobtainedfromAppendixA.1.)Thedensityatthedischarge,point2,is

Theaveragedensityofthegasis

Themassflowrateofthegasis

Thedevelopedpressureheadis

Thedevelopedvelocityheadfor1=0is

Writingthemechanical-energy-balanceequation(2.7-28),

Settingz1=0,z2=0,v1=0,andF=0,andsolvingforWS,

SubstitutingintoEq.(3.3-2),

2.Blow er sa nd comp r essor s

Forhandlinggasvolumesathigherpressurerisesthanfans,severaldistincttypesofequipmentare
used.Turboblowersorcentrifugalcompressorsarewidelyusedtomovelargevolumesofgasfor
pressurerisesfromabout5kPatoseveralthousandkPa.Theprinciplesofoperationforaturboblowerare
thesameasforacentrifugalpump.Theturboblowerresemblesthecentrifugalpumpinappearance,the
maindifferencebeingthatthegasinthebloweriscompressible.Theheadoftheturboblower,asina
centrifugalpump,isindependentofthefluidhandled.Multistageturboblowersareoftenusedtogoto
thehigherpressures.
Rotaryblowersandcompressorsaremachinesofthepositive-displacementtypeandareessentially
constant-volumeflow-ratemachineswithvariabledischargepressure.Changingthespeedwillchange
thevolumeflowrate.Detailsofconstructionofthevarioustypes(P1)varyconsiderably,andpressures
uptoabout1000kPacanbeobtained,dependingonthetype.
Reciprocatingcompresserswhichareofthepositivedisplacementtypeusingpistonsareavailablefor
higherpressures.Multistagemachinesarealsoavailableforpressuresupto10000kPaormore.
3.3D.Eq u ationsfor C om p r e ssionofG ase s
Inblowersandcompressors,pressurechangesarelargeandcompressibleflowoccurs.Sincethedensity
changesmarkedly,themechanical-energy-balanceequationmustbewrittenindifferentialformandthen
integratedtoobtaintheworkofcompression.Incompressionofgasesthestatic-headterms,velocityheadterms,andfrictiontermsaredroppedandonlytheworktermdWandthedp/termremaininthe
differentialformofthemechanical-energyequationor,
Equation3.3-10