Professional Documents
Culture Documents
in the Figures
The following list includes all the abbreviations used in the figures in Chapters 3 through 35. The abbreviations used on wing drawings for the veins and
eells (using the Comstoek-Needham terminology) are not listed in the figure
legends, but are included in the following listo Subseript numerals are used to
designate branehes of the longitudinal veins. Sueh numerals are often used to
designa te the particular thorade segment on which a strueture is loeated
O, designating the prothorax; 2, the mesothorax; and 3, the metathorax). Subseript numerals are oeeasionally used to designate the particular abdominal segment on which a sclerite is loeated.
a, anal vein
A, anal vein, anal cell
ab, abdomen, opisthosoma
ac, accessory, lanceolate, or
subanal vein
Ac, anal crossing (A
branching posteriorly
from Cu, often called the
cubito-anal cross vein)
acc, accessory cell
acg, accessory gland
acg, accessory gland
ael, antennal elub
aelp, anteclypeus
acr, acrostichal bristles
aes, acrosternite
act, acrotergite
acv, anterior cross vein
adf, adfrontal area
aed, aedeagus
af, antennal fossa
agr, scrobe, groove in beak
for reception of antenna
al, anallobe
alp, anal loop
alu, alula
am, axillary muscle
an, antenodal cross vein
AN, alinotUm
anc, anal cleft
anes, antecostal suture
anp, anal plate
anr, anal ring
ans, anus
ant, antenna
ante, antecosta
antl, antennule
ao, dorsal aorta
elm, calamistrum
elp, elypeus
elpl, elypellus
cls, claval suture
elt, claw tuft, clypeal
tubercle
elv, claval vein
cm, gastric caeca or caecum
en, colon
ena,cornea
enge, corneagenous cells
cnu, eleavage nuclei
colm, collum, tergite
of the first body
segment
com, commissural trachea
como, tritocerebral
commissure
cor, corim
covd, common oviduct
cp, crop
cph, prosoma or
cephalothorax
cpl, cortical cytoplasm
cr, cercus, lateral caudal
filament, superior
appendage
crb, cribellum
cre, cremaster
crl, crystalline lens
cm, cornicle
cro, crochets
crp, carapace
es, coronal suture
esp, cusp of mandible,
caudal spiracle
cu, cubital vein
Cu, cubital vein
mdu, microduct
mdv, median vein
mem, membrane
met, metasomatic segment
mf, medial fork (fork of
MP2)
mg, midgut or mesenteron
mh, movable hook or palp
mi, median lobe
mm, marginal macroduet
mn, mentum
mo, mouth
mp, mouthparts
Mp, posterior media
mpb, mesopleural bristles
mpo, marginal 8-shaped
pore
ms, mesoderm
msd, mesoderm
msl, mesostemallobe
mspl, medial supplement
mst, mental seta
mt, Malpighian tubule
mts, metatarsus or lirst
tarsal segment
mu, mucro
mv, marginal or radial
vein
mx, maxilla, dorsal stylet
mxa, maxillary
articulaton
mxl, maxillary lobe
mxn, maxillary nerve
mxp, maxillary palp
mxt, maxillary tentacle
n, notum
nb, notopleural bristles
ne, ventral nerve cord
nod,nodus
nll, pronotallobe
npl, notopleuron
npls, notopleural suture
nt, notaulus
nu, nucleus
nv, neuron
o,opening
ob, oeellar bristles
obv, oblique vein
oe, ocellus
oep, oeciput
oepd, ocellar pedicel
oes, ocular suleus
oeg, oecipital ganglion
og, optic ganglion
op,operculum
opl, optie lobe
opt, ocular point
orp, orbital plate
os, oecipital suleus
osm, osmeterium (seent
gland)
ot, oeellar triangle
Continued on back endpaper
---
Seventh Edition
UNIVERSIDAD
DECALDAS
B;.8lI0TECA
BC
CG
595.7
1385
2005EJ.2
Borrorand DeLong's
Introduction
to the Studyof Insects
Seventh Edition
CharlesA. Triplehorn
The Ohio State University
Norman F.Johnson
The Ohio State University
UNIVERSIDAD
DECALDAS
CENTRO
DEBIBLIOTECA
Fecha:MQr~," tr:ooo.l9~2:
Facultad:11otora
VoImen:
Convr};>t
EempB: 2.-
Donaci6n:
CmIje:
~
e
LIBRO:595.7 3737 BO
~!OR
1- \.~
! ~~
iii
ANO OELONG'S 1
OOUCTION TO THE
~1Iimll~Mm~llrn~i;
21
84.178
THOMSON
BROOKS/COLE
Australia. Canada . Mexico . Singapore Spain United Kingdom . United Statf;s'
"
THOMSON
BROOKS/COLE
Publisher: Peter Marshall
Development Editor: Elizabeth Howe
Assistant Editor: Elesha Feldman
Editorial Assistant: Lisa Michel
Technology Project Manager: Travis Metz
Marketing Manager: Ann Caven
Project Manager, Editorial Production: Belinda Krohmer
Art Director: Rob Hugel
PrintIMedia Buyer: Barbara Britton
Permissions Editor: Sarah Harkrader
Thomson Brooks/CoIe
10 Davis Drive
Belmont, CA 94002
USA
Asia
Thomson Learning
5 Shenton Way #01-01
UIC Building
Singapore 068808
AustraliaINew ZeaIand
Thomson Learning
102 Dodds Street
Southbank, Victoria 3006
Aus tralia
Canada
Nelson
1120 Birchmount Road
Toronto, Ontario MIK 5G4
Canada
Europe!MiddIe East/Africa
Thomson Learning
High Holborn House
50/51 Bedford Row
London WClR 4LR
United Kingdom
Latin America
Thomson Learning
Seneca, 53
Colonia Polanco
11560 Mexico D.F.
Mexico
Spain/PortugaI
Paraninfo
Calle Magallanes, 25
28015 Madrid, Spain
---
Preface
-~
vi Preface
Acknowledgments
vii
Jable of Contents
1 InsectsandTheirWays 1
2 TheAnatomy,Physiology,and Developmentof Insects 5
3 Systematics,
Classification,Nomenclature,
and Identification 52
4 Behaviorand Ecology 62
5 PhylumArthropoda 99
6 Hexapoda 152
7 TheEntognathousHexapods:Protura,
Collembola,Diplura 169
8 TheApterygoteInsects:MicrocoryphiaandThysanura 177
9 OrderEphemeroptera:
Mayflies 181
10 OrderOdonata:Dragonfliesand Damselflies 193
11 OrderOrthoptera:Grasshoppers,
Crickets,
and Katydids 209
12 OrderPhasmatodea:
Walkingsticksand LeafInsects 227
13 OrderGrylloblattodea:RockCrawlers 230
14 OrderMantophasmatodea 232
15 OrderDermaptera:Earwigs 234
16 OrderPlecoptera:Stoneflies 239
17 OrderEmbiidina:Web-Spinners 247
ix
Contents
18
19
20
21
OrderZoraptera:Zorapterans,Angellnsects 250
OrderIsoptera:Termites 252
OrderMantodea:Mantids 260
OrderBlattodea:Cockroaches 263
22 OrderHemiptera:TrueBugs,Cicadas,Hoppers,Psyllids,
Whiteflies,Aphids,and ScaleInsects 268
23 OrderThysanoptera:
Thrips 333
24 OrderPsocoptera:Psocids 341
25 OrderPhthiraptera:Lice 356
26 OrderColeoptera:Beetles 365
27 OrderNeuroptera:Alderflies,Dobsonflies,Fishflies,
Snakeflies,Lacewings,Antlions,and Owlflies 469
28 OrderHymenoptera:Sawflies,ParasiticWasps,Ants,Wasps,
and Bees 481
29 OrderTrichoptera:Caddisflies 558
30 OrderLepidoptera:Butterfliesand Moths 571
31 OrderSiphonaptera:Fleas 648
32 OrderMecoptera:Scorpionfliesand Hangingflies 662
33 OrderStrepsiptera:Twisted-WingParasites 669
34 OrderDiptera:Flies 672
35 Collecting,Preserving,and StudyingInsects 745
Glossary 779
Credits 798
Index 805
he science of taxonomy takes as its arbitrary startthe publication of the 10th edition of
Linnaeus's Systema Naturae in 1758. More than two
centuries later, nearly one million species of insects
have been described and named. Biology in the 21st
century has changed in many fundamental ways, led
primarily by the revolution in molecular biology. Yet
the study of diversity of life on Earth has not faded
into the past. Rather, it has become reinvigorated by
advances in other sciences and in technology. We
continue to discover new species at an increasing
rate, even as habitat destruction by the growing human population brings the threat of extinction. In
2002, entomologists announced the discovery of a
new order of insects, the Mantophasmatodea, illustrating that our understanding of even the major
groups is imperfecto Our goal in writing this book is
to provide an introduction to the diversity of insects
and their relatives and a resource for identifying the
fauna of temperate North America. We thus hope to
encourage the study of these fascinating creatures so
that we all may better understand the world in which
we live.
lnsects are the dominant group of animals on
Earth today. They far outnumber all other terrestrial
animals, and they occur practically everywhere. Several hundred thousand different kinds have been
described-three times as many as there are in the
rest of the animal kingdom-and
some authorities believe the total number of different kinds may approach 30 million. More than a thousand kinds may
occur in a fair-sized backyard, and their populations
often number many millions per acre.
A great many insects are extremely valuable to humans, and society could not exist in its present form
Ting point
'j
,.
.".
InsectsandTheirWays 3
sions, three or four. Some insects carry this phenomenon of polyembryony (more than one young from a
singleegg) much further; some platygastrid wasps have
as many as 18, some dryinid wasps have as many as 60,
and some encyrtid wasps have more than 1000 young
developing from a single egg. A few insects have another unusual method of reproduction, paedogenesis
(reproduction by larvae). This occurs in the gall gnat
genus Miastor and the beetle genera Micromalthus,
Phengodes,and Thylodrias.
In the nature of their development and life cycle,
insectsron the gamut from very simple to complex and
evenamazing. Many insects undergo very little change
as they develop, with the young and adults having similar habits and differing principally in size. Most insects,in contrast, undergo in their development rather
remarkable changes, both in appearance and in habits.
Mostpeople are familiar with the metamorphosis of insects and possibly think of it as commonplace, which,
as a matter of fact, it is. Consider the development of a
butterfly: An egg hatches into a wormlike caterpillar;
this caterpillar eats ravenously and every week or two
sheds its exoskeleton; after a time it becomes a pupa,
hanging from a leaf or branch; and finally a beautiful,
wingedbutterfly emerges. Most insects have a life cycle
like that of a butterfly; the eggs hatch into wormlike
larvae,which grow by periodically shedding their outer
exaskeleton (together with the linings of the foregut,
hindgut, and breathing tubes), finally transforming
into an inactive pupal stage from which the winged
adult emerges. A fly grows from a maggot; a beetle
growsfram a grub; and a bee, wasp, or ant grows from
a maggotlike larval stage. When these insects become
adult, they stop growing; a little fly (in the winged
stage)does not grow into a bigger one.
An insect with this sort of development (complete
metamorphosis) may live as a larva in a very different
type of place from that in which it lives as an adult.
One common household fly spends its larval life in
garbage or some other filth; another very similar fly
mayspend its larvallife eating the insides out of a grub
ar caterpillar. The june beetle that flies against the
screensat night spends its larvallife in the ground, and
the long-horned beetle seen on flowers spends its larvallife in the wood of a tree or log.
Many insects have unusual features of structure,
physiology,or life cycle, but probably the most in teresting things about insects are what they do. In many
instances the behavior of an insect seems to surpass in
intelligence the behavior of humans. Some insects give
the appearance of an amazing foresight, especially as
regards laying eggs with a view to the future needs of
the young. Insects have very varied food habits; they
have some interesting means of defense; many have
what might be considered fantastic strength (compared
Chapter
1 InsectsandTheirWays
hd
~~/
th
ept
/
/,," __ cr
/_ppt
I
.......
\1/
,\
ovp
spr
Figure 2-1 General structure of an insectoab, abdomen; ant, antenna; cr, cercus; e,
compound eye; epm, epimeron; eps, epistemum; ept, epiproct; hd, head; Ibm, labium; md,
mandible; mp, mouthparts; mx, maxilla; n, nota of thorax; Ovp,ovipositor; pIs, pleural suture; ppt, paraproct; spr, spiracles; t,_IO,terga; th, thorax; th, prothorax; thz, mesothorax;
th3,metathorax. (Modified from Snodgrass, 1935, Principies of Insect Morphology,
Comell University Press.)
:::z::
Chapter
epi
exo
eut
end
let
seu
ep
bm
pen
tmg
trg
gle
Figure2-2 Structure of the body wall (diagrammatic). bm, basement membrane; cut,
cuticle; end, endocuticle; ep, epidermis; epi, epicuticle; exo, exocuticle; glc, gland cell; gld,
duct of glandcell;Ict,layerof the cuticle;pcn,pore canal;se, seta;ss,setalsocket;tmg,
tormogen cell (which forms the setal socket); trg, trichogen cell (which forms the seta).
Abdomen 7
AMINO SUGAR
SUBUNIT
Acetylglucosamine
I'~O
NH
O=C
I
I
CH3
Figure 2-3 Chemical structure of chitin and its primary monomeric component,
N-acetylglucosamine. (From Arms and Camp 1987.)
su .....
---'"
"....
,
",
cut -_
ep
E3
bm///
Abdomen
We begin our discussion of the three tagmata of insects
with the abdomen beca use in contrast to the head and
thorax, it is relatively simple in structure. Arthropods,
like vertebrates, are built on a basic ground plan of repeated body segments, or metameres. These are most
clearly visible in the abdomen. In general, the abdomen
of an insect is made up of a maximum of 11 metameres
(Figure 2-1, ab). Each metamere typically has a dorsal
sclerite, the tergum (plural, terga; Figure 2-1, t-tlO;
Figure 2-5A, t); a ventral sclerite, the sternum (plural,
stema; Figure 2-1, stn; Figure 2-5A, stn); and a membranous lateral region, the pleuron (plural, pleura; figure 2-5A, plm). The openings to the respiratory system, the spiracles (Figure 2-1, spr) , typically are
ism
,,
aet'"
>-- ante
I
/
acs.......
.....
I
I
I
stn
I
I
ism
I
\
\
\
anes
stn
located in the pleuron. Terga and sterna may be subdivided; these parts are referred to as tergites and sternites. Sclerites in the pleural wall are called pleurites.
This segmentation of the abdomen differs from
that found in other nonarthropod protostomes such as
the segmented worms (Annelida). In these, the externally visible grooves in the body wall delimiting the
metameres serve as the points of attachment for the
dorsal and ventrallongitudinal muscles. In arthropods,
these muscles attach to internal costae, the antecostae,
which are located near, but not at, the anterior margins
of the terga and sterna (Figure 2-5B, ante). Externally,
the position of the antecosta is indicated by a groove,
the antecostal suture (Figure 2-5B, ancs). The region
of the tergum anterior to the antecostal sulcus is the
acrotergite (Figure 2-5B, act). The corresponding region of the sternum is the acrosternite (Figure 2-5B,
acs). The main dorsallongitudinal muscles extend between the antecostae of successive segments. Contraction of these muscles results in a telescoping, or retraction, of the abdominal segments. This body plan, in
which the externally visible segmentation does not
conform to the attachment of the longitudinal muscles,
is known as secondary segmentation.
The genitalia of insects are generally located on or
about abdominal segments 8 and 9. These segments
have a number of specializations associated with copulation and oviposition; our discussion of them is therefore included in the section later on the reproductive
systems. Segments 1-7, anterior to the genitalia, are the
pregenital segments. In most adult winged insects,
Thysanura,
and Microcoryphia.
Thorax
domen (representing 11 metameres and an apical nonmetamerictelson). In general, the only indications of
an Ilth segment among insects are a dorsal sclerite, the
epiproct, and two lateral sclerites, the paraprocts (Figure 2-1, ept, ppt). Between them are inserted the appendages of the apical abdominal segment, the cerci
(singular, eereus). Typically the cerci are sensory organs,but in some cases they are modified as organs of
defense(as in the forceps of Dermaptera, Figures 15-1
and 15-2) or may be specialized as accessory copulatoryorgans. Very often the apical abdominal segments
Thorax
The thorax is the locomotory tagma of the body, and it
bears the legs and wings. It is made up of three segments, the anterior prothorax, mesothorax, and posterior metathorax (Figure 2-1, th-th3). Among insects,
a maximum of two pairs of spiracles open on the thorax, one associated with the mesothorax, one with the
metathorax. The mesothoracic spiracle serves not only
that segment but also the prothorax and head. The
terga of the thorax are typically called nota (singular,
notum). Among present-day insects, wings are borne at
most on the mesothoracic and metathoracic segments;
these two segments are collectively called the
pterothorax to reflect this (pteron, Greek for "wing").
These segments have several modifications associated
with flight that are not shared with the prothorax.
The prothorax is connected to the head by a membranous necklike region, the cervix (Figure 2-6, cvx).
Dorsallongitudinal muscles extend from the mesothorax through the prothorax and insert on the head; the
pronotum has no antecosta. Movements of the head coordinate with the rest of the body by one or two pairs
of cervical sclerites (Figure 2-6, cvs) that articulate
with the prothorax posteriorly and the head anteriorly.
AN
1
spr
\
hd
\
epp
\
\
--
..
10
Chapter
The system of seeondary segmentation just deseribed in referenee to the abdomen is modified in the
pterothorax lo aecommodate the flight musculature.
The dorsal longitudinal museles of the meso- and
metathorax are greatly enlarged and are involved in
depression (downward movement) of the wings (Figure 2-7B, dlm). As a eorollary, the sites of insertion of
these museles-that is, the anteeostae of the mesothorax, metathorax, and first abdominal segments-are
also greatly enlarged and projeet downward within the
thorax and base of the abdomen. These enlarged anteeostae are called the first, second, and third phragmata
respeetively (singular, phragma; Figure 2-7B, ph-ph3).
Extemally, the mesonotum and metanotum are typieally divided transversely by a sulcus that gives added
flexibility. The sulcus divides eaeh notum into an anterior seutum (Figure 2-6, set2, set3) and a posterior
seutellum (Figure 2-6, sel2, sel3). In addition, the portions of the notum bearing the seeond and third
phragma are often separated from the following seutum from whieh they are derived, and moved forward,
sometimes even entirely fused with the selerites anterior to them. These selerites bearing the seeond and
third phragmata are ealled postnota (Figures 2-6 and
2-7, PN2, PN3).
The lateral portion of the thorax in winged inseets
is very different from the abdomen in that typieally it is
strongly selerotized and relatively rigid. The origin of
these pleural selerites has been eonsiderably debated.
Some researehers have argued that these pleural selerites evolved de novo and have no serial homologs in
other parts of the body. Many others postulate that the
pleural selerites represent the ineorporation of a basal
leg segment, the subeoxa, into the body wall. Finally,
h
n2
i
I
I
II
I
ph,
dlm
PN2ancs
, ,
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
,
ph2
n3
,
I
I
I
I
dl'm
PN3ancs
I I
I I
I
I I
,'
/t,
I
I
ph3
~
Thorax
The external pleural suture corresponds to an internal costa, the pleural ridge. This ridge extends internallyon either side as a pair of pleural apophyses
(or pleural arms; Figure 2-7 A, plap). These pleural
apophyses are connected with a corresponding pair of
apophysesarising from the sternum (Figure 2-7 A, fu).
The two may be connected by muscle or tendon, or in
somecasesthey are fused together. The bases of the
sternalapophyses are often fused together, particularly
in species in which the legs are contiguous ventrally.
The apophyses then have a Y-shaped appearance, and
the structure is called the furca.
Legs
The thoracic legs of insects are sclerotized and subdividedinto a number of segments. There are typically six
segments (Figure 2-8): the coxa (cx), the basal segment;the trochanter (tr), a small segment (occasionally
twosegments) following the coxa; the femur (fm), usuallythe first long segment of the leg; the tibia (tb), the
tb
fm
ptar
--
11
12
Chapter2 TheAnatomy,Physiology,
andDevelopmentof Insects
, ,,- - ~~
''
.~..::'::.::,.
."'
......
.,:
:;":':: ,,/
'
sn
/
I
art,
exm
I
I
,art2
I
I
I
flm
wing venation is very useful as a means of identification. Several venational terminologies have been developed, and the most widely used has been the ComstockNeedham system (Cornstock and Needham 1898, 1899)
(see Figure 2-10). This system basically recognizes a
series of six major longitudinal wing veins (with their
abbreviations in parentheses): costa (C) at the leading
edge of the wing, followed by the subcosta (Sc), radius
(R), media (M), cubitus (Cu), and anal veins (A).
Each of these veins, with the exception of the costa,
may be branched. The subcosta may branch once. The
branches of the longitudinal veins are numbered from
anterior to posterior around the wing by means of subscript numerals: the two branches of the subcosta are
designated Sc and SC2'The radius first gives off a posterior branch, the radial sector (Rs), usually near the
base of the wing; the anterior branch of the radius is R;
the radial sector may fork twice, with four branches
reaching the wing margino The media may fork twice,
with four branches reaching the wing margino The cubitus, according to the Comstock-Needham system,
forks once, the two branches being Cu and CU2;according to some other authorities, Cu. forks again distal1y,with the two branches being CUla and CUb' The
anal veins are typical1y unbranched and are usualIy
designated from anterior to posterior as the first anal
vein (11\), second anal vein (21\), and so on.
CTossveins connect the major longitudinal veins
and are usually named accordingly (for example, th!
medio-cubital crossvein, m-cu). Some crossveins havl
special names: two common examples are the humera
crossvein (h) and the sectorial crossvein (s).
The spaces in rhe wing membrane berween (he
veins are calIed celIs. CelIs may be open (extending to
Thorax
Figure2-10 Generalized wing venation, according to Comstock; for a key to the lettering, see accompanying textoIn some orders the vein here labeled Cu is called Cu in the
Comstock-Needham system (and its branches Cu and Cu2), and the remaining veins anal
veins.
spedal names, for example, the triangles of the dragonfly wing and the discal cell of the Lepidoptera.
The wings of insects are attached to the thorax at
three points (see Figures 2-11 and 2-12): with the notum at the anterior and posterior notal wing processes
(Figure 2-11, awp, pnwp), and ventrally at the pleural
wing process (Figure 2-12A, pwp). In addition, small
sclerites, the axillary sclerites (or pteralia) at the base
of the wing are important in translating the movements
of the thoracic sclerites into wing movements. Most
living insects (the Neoptera) have three axillary sclerites (Figure 2-11, axsCaxs3). Anteriorly the first axillary articulates with the anterior no tal wing process,
mdp
/
/
=_ __R
- --M
=---1A
- - -2A
- - -3A
\
\
jl
13
---'ro
14
_'1111111ii181
Chapter2 TheAnatomy,Physiology,
andDevelopment
of Insects
Flight
Many insects have powers of flight that exceed those of
all other flying animals; they can steer accurately and
quiekly, hover, and go sideways or backward. Only the
hummingbirds rival insects in their ability to maneuver
on the wing.
Most insects have two pairs of wings, and the two
wings on each side may be overlapped at the base or
hooked together in some way so that they move together as one, or they may be capable of independent
movement. In many Odonata, the front and hind wings
move independently, and there is a phase difference in
the movements of the two pairs; that is, when one pair
is moving up, the other pair is moving down. In other
Head
The head of insects consists of a series of metameric
body segments, together specialized for food gathering
and manipulation, sensory perception, and neural integration. Exactly how many segments are in the head
has long been a matter of contention among morphologists, with the postulated number ranging from 3 to 7,
The head bears the eyes, antennae, and mouthparts. Its
Head
w....................
AN
Figure2-12 Diagram of the wing muscles of an insectoA, Lateral view; B, Cross section
of a wing-bearing segmento am, axillary muscles; AN, alinotum; axs2and axs3,second and
third axillary sclerites; ba, basalare; bms, basalar muscles; ex, coxa; dlm, dorsallongitudinal muscles; ph, phragma; pl, pleuron; pIs, pleural suture; PN, postnotum; pwp, pleural
wing process; sb, subalare; sbm, subalar muscles; tsm, tergostemal muscles; w, wing;
Xl and X2,connections between basalare and subalare and wing base. (Redrawn from
Snodgrass 1935, PrincipIesoflnsectMorphology,1993, Comell University Press.)
15
--,--
16
Chapter 2
ver
I
I
ant
I
I
I
I
___
,'
fr--l
_ - sas
505----- ----nlbm
are located at the lower ends of the postoccipital sutures. These arms unite from side to side to form a tentorial bridge (Figure 2-14, ttb). Some insects have dorsal arms on the tentorium (dta) that extend to the
upper pan of the face near the antennal bases. The tentorium serves to brace the head capsule against the pull
of the powerful mandibular muscles, as the point of attachment for muscles moving the head appendages,
and as protection for the subesophageal ganglion and
pharynx.
The head appendages of hexapods, starting posteriorly and moving forward, are (1) the labium (figure 2-13, lbm); (2) the maxillae (mx); (3) the mandibles
(md); (4) the labrum (lbr); and (5) the antennae (ant).
These are described in more detail later. These represent modified appendages, serially homologous to the
thoracic walking legs. In the ancestral condition, the
moutnparts are directed downward~ sucn a nead is
called hypognathous. In many predalOry and burrowing species, the mouthparts are directed anteriorly, the
prognathous condition. FinallY' in some groups, espe-
Head
--po
_-ptp
\
\
\
\
atp
ciallythe Hemiptera, the mouthparts are directed posteriorly; this is the opisthognathous condition (or,
when speaking of the beak of Hemiptera, the
opisthorhynchous condition).
The posterior surface of the head, between the
foramenand the labium, is membranous in most insects,but in a few this region is sclerotized. This sclerotizationmay be the result of the hypostomal areas
(areasbelow the subgenal sulci posterior to the mandibles) extending ventrally and toward the midline to
formwhat is called a hypostomal bridge, or (particularlyin prognathous insects) the result of the postoccipitalsutures extending forward onto the ventral side
of the head, with a sclerite developing between these
suturesand the foramen. In the latter case the sclerite
iscalledthe gula (see Figure 26-4, gu) and the anterior
extensionsof the postoccipital sutures are called guIar
sutures. In some groups, the hypostomal bridge may
be "overgrown" by extensions of the postgenae, thus
creatinga postgenal bridge.
The number of segments making up the head is
notapparenrin the adult insect, as the head sulci rarely
coinicidewith the sutures between the original segments.Entomologists do not agree on the number of
segmentsin the insect head; the one area of consensus
is that the posterior three sets of mouthparts correspond to appendages (serially homologous with the
Antennae
The antennae are paired segmented appendages 10cated on the head, usually between or below the compound eyes. The basal segment is called the scape
(Figure 2-15N, scp), the second segment the pedicel
(ped), and the remainder the flagellum (O). In insects
(the Pterygota and the apterous orders Thysanura and
Microcoryphia), the "segments" of the flagellum lack
intrinsic musculature and therefore are thought to represent subsegments of the apical, third true antennal
segmento These are often called flagellomeres to distinguish them from true musculated segments (although
this anatomical characteristic is widely recognized,
these subsegments are still often called segments). This
type of antenna is called an annulated antenna, refer-
17
-18
e
o
F
I
ar
K
ask
Head
Mouthparts
MandibulateMouthparts
The most generalized condition of the mouthparts is
found in chewing insects, such as a cricket. These are
said to be "chewing" or "mandibulate" mouthparts because of the heavily sclerotized mandibles that move
transversely and are able to bite off and chew particles
of food. You can most easily see and study the mouthparts by removing them from a preserved specimen one
at a time and examining them under a microscope.
The labrum, or upper lip (Figure 2-13, lbr; figure 2-16E), is a broad, flaplike lobe located below the
clypeus on the anterior side of the head, in front of the
other mouthparts. Gn the posterior or ventral side of
the labrum may be a swollen area, the epipharynx.
The mandibles (Figure 2-13, md; Figure 2-16D)
are the paired, heavily sclerotized, unsegmented jaws
lying immediately behind the labrum. In the winged
insects and the order Thysanura, they articula te with
the head capsule at two points, one anterior and one
posterior, and move transversely (and therefore these
two taxa are classified together as the Dicondylia). The
mandibles of chewing insects may vary somewhat in
structure; in so me insects (including the cricket), they
bear both cutting and grinding ridges, whereas in others (such as certain predaceous beetles) they are long
and sicklelike.
The maxillae (Figure 2-13, mx; Figure 2-16A) are
paired structures lying behind the mandibles; they are
segmented, and each maxilla bears a feelerlike organ,
the maxillary palp (mxp). The basal segment of the
maxilla is the cardo (cd, plural cardines); the second
segment is the stipes (stp, plural stipites). The palp is
borne on a lobe of the stipes called the palpifer (plC).
The stipes bears at its apex two processes: the lacinia
(lc), an elongate jawlike structure; and the galea (g), a
lobelike structure.
The labium, or lower lip (Figure 2-13, lbm; Figure 2-16C), is a single median structure (although it
is derived from two maxilla-like mouthparts fusing
along the midline) lying behind the maxillae. It is divided by a transverse sulcus into two portions, a basal
19
20
art:::
A
E
haustellate mouthparts
like or are lacking.
Head
md-hyp--
Figure
2-17 Mouthparts of the large milkweed bug,
fasciatus(Dalias).A, Lateralviewof the head
Oncopeltus
showingbeak, with the labrum detched from front of
beak; B, Cross section of stylets (somewhat
diagram-
labialpalps). The salvary channel is in the hypopharynx, and the food channel is located between the
groovedlabrum and the hypopharynx (for example,
the mosquitoes) or between the labrum and the mandibles(for example, punkies and horse flies). The labium does no piereing and folds up or back as the
styletsenter the tissue pierced.
The Muscomorpha lack mandibles, and the maxillae are represented by the palps (maxillary stylets are
usuallylacking). The proboseis consists of the labrum,
hypopharynx, and labium. There are two modifications
ofthe mouthparts in these flies: (a) a piereing type and
(b) a sponging or lapping type.
The Muscomorpha with piereing mouthparts ineludethe stable fly (Figure 2-19), tsetse fly, horn fly,
and louse flies. The prineipal piereing structure in
theseflies is the labium; the labrum and hypopharynx
areslender and styletlike and le in a dorsal groove of
the labium. The labium terminates in a pair of small,
hard plates, the labella, which are armed with teeth.
The salivary channel is in the hypopharynx, and the
foodchannel is between the labrum and hypopharynx.
Ibr
\
\
fe
I
Figure2-19 Mouthparts of the stable fly,Stomoxys ealcitrans (L.). A, Anterior view of head; B, Cross section
through haustellum. bk, rostrum; clp, clypeus;fe, food
channel; hst, haustellum; hyp, hypopharynx; lbl, labellum; lbm, labium; lbr, labrum; mxp, maxillary palp; se,
salivary channel. (Redrawn from various sources; somewhat diagrammatic.)
21
"
22
--prb
e
B
Figure2-21 Mouthparts of a moth. A, Lateral view of head; B, Anterior view of head;
C, Cross section through proboscis. ant, antenna; atp, anterior tentorial pit; e, compound
eye;fe, food channel;fr, frons; Ibr, labrum; Ip, labial palp; m.x,maxilla (galea); oe, ocellus;
pf, pilifer; prb, proboscis. (Redrawn from Snodgrass 1935, Principies of Inseet Morphology,
1993, Comell University Press.)
Digestive System
Insed Muscles
Ihe muscular system of an insect is comprised of from
severalhundred lO a few thousand individual muscles.
Allconsist of striated muscle cells, even those around
the alimentary canal and the heart. The skeletal musdes, which attach lO the body wall, move the various
parts of the body, including the appendages. The cell
membranesof the muscle and epidermis are interdigitatedand interconnected by desmosomes; from the
desmosomes,microtubules run to the outer epidermal
cellmembrane, and from there attachment fibers run
through the cuticle to the epicuticle. The attachment
fibersare not broken down between the times when the
epidermisis separated from the old cuticle (apolysis)
andthe shedding of that cuticle (ecdysis; see section on
moltinglater). Thus the muscles remain attached to
the body wall, and the insect continues to be able to
moveduring the period when a new cuticle is being
formed.The locations of the points of attachment of
theskeletal muscles are sometimes useful in determiningthe homologies of various body parts. The visceral
musdes, which surround the heart, the alimentary
canal,and the ducts of the reproductive system, produce the peristaltic movements that move materials
alongthese tracts. They usually consist of longitudinal
andcircular muscle fibers.
Ihe muscles moving the appendages are arranged
segmentally,generally in antagonistic pairs. Some appendageparts (for example, the galea and laeinia of the
maxillaeand the pretarsus) have only flexor muscles.
Thesestructures are usually extended by a combinationof hemolymph pressure and the elastieity of the
cutide.Eachsegment of an appendagenormally has its
ownmuscles. The tarsal and flagellar "segments" do
nothave their own muscles and thus are not true segments.
lnsect muscles seem to us to be very strong: Many
insectscan lift 20 or more times their body weight, and
jumping insects can often jump distances equal to
manytimes their own length. These feats appear very
remarkablewhen compared to what humans can do;
theyare possible not because the muscles of insects are
inherently stronger, but because insects are smaller.
The power of a muscle varies with the size of its crosssectional area, or with the square of its width; what the
muscle moves (he mass of the body) varies with the
cube of the linear dimension. Thus as the body becomes smaller, the muscles become relatively more
powerful.
Insect muscles are often capable of extremely
rapid contraction. Wing stroke rates of a few hundred
per second are fairly common in insects, and rates up
to 1000 or more per second are known. In insects with
relatively slow wing-stroke rates and in most other
skeletal muscles, each muscle contraction is initiated
by a nerve impulse. Such muscles are called synchronous or neurogenic muscles because of this one-to-one
correspondence between action potentials and muscle
contractions. In insects with higher wing-beat frequencies, the muscles contract much more often than
the rate at which neural impulses reach them. The
rates of contraction in such asynchronous muscles
(found prineipally in flight muscles but sometimes in
other oscillating systems) depend on the characteristics of the muscles themselves and the assoeiated
sclerites. Nerve impulses are necessary to initiate contractions, but thereafter serve to generally maintain
the rate of contractions rather than to stimulate each
one individually:
That insect muscles may have such an extremely
rapid contraction frequency, which is sometimes maintained for a prolonged period, attests to the effieiency
of their metabolismo The tracheal system provides the
large volumes of oxygen needed for such metabolic
rates. In most insects, the tracheoles (across whose
walls gas exchange takes place) indent the cell membranes of the muscles, thus minimizing the distance
across which diffusion of gases must take place. Insects
use a variety of fuels for flight. Carbohydrates are important for many speeies; in others, lipids are the primary fuels; in some flies (such as the tsetse), amino
acids form the substrate for generating the energy necessary for flight.
Digestive System
Insects feed on almost every organic substance found
in nature, and their digestive systems exhibit considerable variation. The alimentary canal is a tube, usually
somewhat coiled, which extends from the mouth to the
anus (Figure 2-22). It is differentiated into three main
regions: the foregut, or stomodaeum; the midgut, or
mesenteron; and the hindgut, or proctodaeum. Both
the foregut and hindgut are derived from ectodermal
tissue and are lined intemally by a thin layer of cuticle,
the intima. This cuticle is shed at each molt along with
the outer exoskeleton.
23
;8:
24
cp
gn
nc
gn mg
Digestive System
has large, thick rectal pads that are important in removing water fram the feces.
The filter chamber is a modification of the alimentary canal in which two normally distant parts are
held close together by connective tissue; it occurs in
many of the Hemiptera and varies somewhat in form
in different members of the order. The midgut in these
insects is differentiated into three regions: the first,
second, and third ventriculi. The first and second ventriculi are saclike structures immediately posterior to
the esophagus, and the third ventriculus is a slender
tube. Typically, the third ventriculus turns forward and
comes to lie close to the first ventriculus, often coiling
about it, where it is held in place by connective tissue.
This complex-the
first ventriculus, the coiled third
ventriculus, and the connective tissue-forms
the filter chamber (Figure 2-23). Beyond the filter chamber,
the alimentary canal continues backward, usually as a
slender tube, to enter the rectum. The Malpighian
tubules emerge either fram the filter chamber or just
beyond it.
fch
eso
eso
vnt
vnt
prct
rec
rec
B
25
26
Chapter2 TheAnatomy,Physiology,
andDevelopmentof Insects
their food, and aphids inject amylase into the plant tissu es and thus digest starch in the food plant. Such extraintestinal digestion is also found in the predaceous
larvae of antlions and predaceous diving beetles, and
bugs that feed on dry seeds.
Most chemical digestion of the food takes place
within the midgut. Some of the midgut epithelial cells
produce enzymes, and others absorb digested food.
Sometimes the same cells carry out secretion and absorption. Enzymes may be released into the lumen of
the midgut by the disintegration of the secretory cells
(holocrine secretion) or by the release of small
amounts of enzymes across the cell membrane (merocrine secretion).
Only a few species of insects produce enzymes
that digest cellulose, but some can use cellulose as food
as a result of symbiotic microorganisms present in their
digestive tracts. These microorganisms, usually bacteria or flagellated protists, can digest the cellulose, and
the insects absorb the products of this digestion. Such
microorganisms are present in termites and many
wood-boring beetles and are often housed in special organs connected to the gut.
The fat body is a large, often somewhat amorphous organ housed in the abdomen and thorax. In
many ways its function is analogous to that of the liver
among vertebrates. It serves as a food reservoir and is
an important site of intermediate metabolismo In some
species it is also important in storage excretion (see
page 27). The fat body is usually best developed in the
late nymphal or larval instars. By the end of meta morphosis, it is often depleted. Some adult insects that do
not feed retain their fat body in adult life.
Excretory System
The primary excretory system of an insect consists of a
group of hollow tubes, the Malpighian tubules, which
arise as evaginations at the anterior end of the hindgut
(Figure 2-22, mt). These tubules vary in number from
one to more than several hundred, and their distal, free
ends are closed. These tubules function in removing nitrogenous wastes and in regulating, together with the
hindgut, the balance of water and various salts in the
hemolymph. Ions apparently are actively transponed
across the outer membrane of the tubule, generating an
osmotic flow of water into the lumen. Along with this
water a number of small solutes-amino
acids, sugars,
and nitrogenous wastes-enter
the tubule passively.
This primary urine is therefore an isosmotic solution
containing the small molecules present in the hemolymph. Some of these solutes and the water may be
actively resorbed into the hemolymph in the basal por-
Circulatory System
Figure
2-24
CirculatorySystem
Theprincipal function of the blood, or hemolymph, is
the transport of materials-nutrients,
hormones,
wastes,and so forth. In most cases it plays a relatively
minorrole in the transport of oxygen and carbon dio xideoThe hemolymph is also involved in osmoregulation, the balance of salts and water in the body; this
function also involves other organs, particularly the
Malpighiantubules and the rectum. The hemolymph
has an important skeletal function-for
example, in
molting,in the expansion of the wings after the last
27
-.
..
28
Respiratory System
Gas transport in insects is the function of the tracheal
system. The circulatory system of insects, unlike that
of vertebrates, usually plays only a minor role in this
process.
The tracheal system (Figure 2-25) is a system of
cuticular tubes (the tracheae) that extemally open at
the spiracles (spr) and intemally branch and extend
throughout the body. They terminate in very fine
closed branches, called tracheoles, that permeate and
actually penetra te the living tissues (indenting but not
actuaUy breaking through the cell membranes). The
tracheae are lined with a layer of cuticle, and in the
larger branches this is thickened to form helical rings,
called taenidia, that simultaneously give the tracheae
strength (against collapse) and flexibility (lo bend and
twist). The tracheoles (also lined with cuticle) are
minute intracellular tubes with thin walls, and they often contain fluido It is across the walls of the tracheoles
~~ts.~~hange.ac.tually
takes. ~~!ce.
Figure2-25 Diagram of a horizontal section of an insect showing the arrangement of the principal tracheae.
ant, antenna; com, commissural trachea; dtra, dorsal trachea; e, compound eye; 1,legs; Itra, main longitudinal tracheal trunk; spr, spiracles; stra, spiracular trachea; vtra,
ventral tracheae.
Respiratory System
tachinidflylarvamtJ~mA"it)tcm)Af
BI~l'OTECA
29
-.-
30
Chapter2 TheAnatomy,Physiology,
andDevelopmentof Insects
ocpd
"'
"
~~
'/..,
Body Temperature
Insects are generally considered cold-blooded or poikilothermic; that is, their body temperature rises and falls
with the environmental temperature. This is the case
with most insects, particularly if they are not very active, but the action of the thoracic muscles in flight
usually raises the insect's temperature above that of the
environment. The cooling of a small object is fairly
rapid, and the body temperature of a small insect in
flight is very close to that of the environment. In insects such as butterflies and grasshoppers, the body
temperature in flight may be 5C or 10C above the environmental temperature, and in insects such as moths
and bumble bees (which are insulated with scales or
hair), the metabolism during flight may raise the temperature of the flight muscles 20C or 30C above the
environmental temperature.
With most flying insects, the temperature of the
flight muscles must be maintained above a certain
point to produce the power necessary for flight. Many
larger insects may actively increase the temperature of
their flight muscles before flight by a "shivering" or a
vibration of the wing muscles.
Honey bees remain in the hive during the winter,
but do not go into a state of dormancy at the onset of
cold weather (as most other insects do). When the
temperature gets down to about 14C, they form a cluster in the hive and, by the activity of their thoracic
muscles, maintain the temperature of the cluster well
over 14C (as high as 34C to 36C when they are rearing brood).
Nervous System
The central nervous system of an insect consists of a
brain in the head above the esophagus, a subesophageal ganglion (Figure 2-26, segn) connected to the
brain by two nerves (the circumesophageal connectives,
cec) that extend around each side of the esophagus, and
a ventral nerve cord extending posteriorly from the subesophageal ganglion. The brain consists of three pairs of
lobes, the protocerebrum (br.), deutocerebrum (br2),
and tritocerebrum (br3). The protocerebrum innervates
the compound eyes and ocelli, the deutocerebrum innervates the antennae, and the tritocerebrum innervates
the labrum and foregut. The two lobes of the tritocerebrum are separated by the esophagus and are connected
ao
'.....Ibn
Figure2-26
Nervous System
SenseOrgans
Aninsect receives information about its environment
(including its own internal environment) through its
senseorgans. These organs are located mainly in the
bodywall, and most are microscopic in size. Each is
usuallyexcited only by a specific stimulus. Insects have
senseorgans receptive to chemical, mechanical, auditory,and visual stimuli, and possibly such stimuli as
relativehumidity and temperature.
Senses
Chemoreceptors-those involved in the senses of taste
(gustation)and smell (olfaction)-are important parts
ofan insect's sensory system and are involved in many
Iypesof behavior. Feeding, mating, habitat selection,
and parasite-host relationships, for example, are often
directedby the insect's chemical senses:
Generally each sensillum consists of a group of
sensorycells whose distal processes form a bundle exlendingto the body surface (Figure 2-27C). The endings of the sensory processes are usually in a thinwalled,peglike structure (scn). The peglike process
maybe sunk in a pit, or the sensory processes may end
in a thin cuticular plate set over a cavity in the cutic1e.
Insomecases the endings of the sensory processes may
liein a pit in the body wall and may not be covered by
cuticle.
Ihe organs of taste are located principally on the
mouthparts, but some insects (for example, ants, bees,
andwasps) also have taste organs on the antennae, and
Chemical
Mechanical
Senses
Insect sense organs sensitive to mechanical stimuli react to touch, pressure, or vibration, and provide the
insect with information that may guide orientation,
general movements, feeding, flight from enemies, reproduction, and other activities. These sense organs are
of three principal types: hair sensilla, campaniform
sensilla, and scolopophorous organs.
The simplest type of tactile receptor is a hair sensillum (Figures 2-27A and 2-28). A process from the
sensory neuron extends to the base of the seta, and
movements of the seta initiate impulses in the neuron.
dm
I
I
dp
I
- --cut- --
/
/
trg
I
snc
\
nv
I
I
nv
/
tro
bm
\
nv
Figure2-27 Insect sensilla. A, Hair sensillum; B, Campaniform sensillum; C, Chemoreceptor. bm, basement membrane; cut, cuticle; dm, domelike layer of cuticle over nerve
ending; dp, distal process of sensory cell; ep, epidermis; nv, neuron; scn, sense cone; se,
seta; snc, sensory cell; trg, trichogen cell. (A, C, Redrawn from Snodgrass 1935, PrincipIes
of Insect MorphoIogy,1993, Comell University Press.)
31
-.-
32
..
.~.
- B
~~~.".
'-~~
\'~
"-
\\;l~'" ~
\\\,
1. .
Figure2-28 Scanning electron microscope photographs of some insect sensilla. A, Sensilla on the antenna of an aphid, 1750x; B, Hair sensilla on the antenna of a clearwing
moth, 95 X; e, Hair sensilla on the antenna of a braconid, 500 x.
ble to the statocysts of crustaceans, although air bubbles carried on the body surfaces by certain aquatic insects when they submerge may act in a similar manner.
The forces of gravity and pressure generally are detected by other means.
Many joints in insects have tactile setae that register any movements, providing the insect with information on the position of the joint (lhis is known as proprioception). Pressure on the body wall, whether
produced by gravity or some other force, is usually detected by campaniforrn sensilla. Pressure on the legs
may be detected by subgenual organs or by sensitive
setae on the tarsi.
An insect detects movements of the surrounding
medium (air or water currents) chiefly by tactile setae.
lt receives information on its own movements both by
mechanoreceptors and by visual cues. Movements of
air or water past an insect (whether the insect is stationary and the medium is moving, or the insect is
moving) are detected largely by the antennae or sensory setae on the body. In the Diptera and Hymenoptera, the antennae seem the most important detectors of such movements. In other insects, sensory
setae on the head or neck may be the most important
receptors. The halteres of the Diptera play an important role in maintaining equilibrium in flight. They
move through an arc of nearly 180 degrees at rates of
up to several hundred times per second. Any change in
the insect's direction strains the cuticle beca use of the
gyroscopic property of the rapidly beating halteres and
is detected by the campaniforrn sensilla distributed on
the base of the haltere.
:'
_
..
NervousSystem 33
Hearing
Theability to detect sound (vibrations in the substrate
or in the surrounding medium) is developed in many
insects,and sound plays a role in many types of behavior. Insects detect airborne sounds by means of two
types of sense organs, hair sensilla and tympanal organsoThey detect vibrations in the substrate subgenual
organs.
Manyinsects apparently can detect sound, but entomologistsdo not always know which sensilla are involved.In some of the Diptera (for example, mosquitoes), however, entomologists know that the setae of
the antennae are involved in hearing (the sensilla being
]ohnston's organ in the second antennal segment).
Tympanal organs are scolopophorous organs in
which the sensory cells are attached to (or very near to)
tympanic membranes. The number of sensory cells involvedranges from one or two (for example, in certain
moths) up to several hundred. The tympanic membrane (or tympanum) is a very thin membrane with air
on both sides of it. Tympanal organs are present in certain Orthoptera, Hemiptera, and Lepidoptera. The
tympana of short-horned grasshoppers (Acrididae) are
located on the sides of the first abdominal segment.
Those of katydids (Tettigoniidae) and crickets (GryIlidae), when present, are located at the proximal end of
the front tibiae (Figure 2-8D, tym). The tympana of cicadas are located on the first abdominal segment (Figure 22-45, tym). Moths may have tympana on the
metathorax or the base of the abdomen.
Vibrations in the substrate may be initiated in the
substrate directly or may be induced (through resonance) by airborne sound vibration. The detection of
substrate vibration is mainly by subgenual organs. The
frequency range to which these organs are sensitive
varies in different insects, but is mainly between about
200 and 3000 Hz. Some insects (for example, bees)
may be largely insensitive to airborne sound but can
detect sound vibrations reaching them through the
substrate.
The sensory setae that detect airborne sound are
generally sensitive only to relatively low frequencies (a
few hundred Hertz or less; rarely, a few thousand).
Probably the most efficient auditory organs in insects
are the tympanal organs. These are often sensitive to
frequencies extending well into the ultrasonic range
(up to 100,000 Hz or more),2 but their discriminatory
ability is targeted to amplitude modulation rather than
to frequency modulation. An insect's response (its behavior and the nerve impulses initiated in the auditory
nerves) is not affected by differences in the frequencies
of the sound as long as these frequencies are within the
detectable range; an insect thus does not detect differ2
--
-34
Chapter2 TheAnatomy,Physiology,
andDevelopmentof Insects
cna
I
1
cna
I
I
..-+---
---
cc
--/
pgc
--
rh
snc
Reproductive Systems
35
EndocrineSystem
Severalorgans in an insect are known to produce hormones,the principal functions of which are the control
of the reproductive processes, molting, and metamorphosis. Chemicals similar to hormones of vertebrates,
includingandrogens, estrogens, and insulin, have been
detectedin insects, but their function is yet unknown.
The neurosecretory celIs in the brain are neurons
thatproduce one or more hormones that playa role in
growth, metamorphosis, and reproductive activities.
One of these, commonly calIed the brain honnone or
prothoracicotropichonnone (PTTH), plays an important
role in molting by stimulating a pair of glands in the
prothorax to produce the hormone ecdysone that
causes apolysis. Other hormones produced by the
brain may have other functions. For example, entomologistsbelieve that a brain hormone plays a role in
caste determination in termites and in breaking diapausein some insects.
Ecdysone (Figure 2-30A) initiates growth and developmentand causes apolysis. This hormone occurs
in all insects groups that have been studied, in crustaceans,and in arachnids, and it is probably the moltinghormone of alI arthropods. It also plays a role in the
differentiationof the ovarioles and accessory reproductiveglands in females and in several steps in the processof egg production (oogenesis). Ecdysone, in fact,
is alsoproduced within the ovaries of insects.
Thecorpora alIata (Figure 2-26, ca) produce a hormonecalled the juvenile honnone H) (Figure 2-30B),
theeffectof which is the inhibition of metamorphosis.
Various substances, particularly terpenes such as
famesol,show considerable juvenile hormonelike activity.JH also has effects on other processes besides
the inhibition of metamorphosis. It is involved in
Reproductive
Systems
Internal Reproductive
Systems
The internal reproductive system of the female (Figure 2-31A) consists of a pair of ovaries (ovy), a system
of ducts through which the eggs pass to the outside,
and associated glands. Each ovary generalIy consists of
a group of ovario les (ov1). These lead into the lateral
oviduct posteriorly (ovd) and unite anteriorly in a suspensory ligament (51)that usualIy attaches to the body
walI or to the dorsal diaphragm. The number of ovarioles per ovary varies from 1 to 200 or more, but it is
usualIy in the range of 4 to 8. Oogonia (the primary
germ celIs) are located in the anterior apical portion of
the ovariole, the germarium. The oogonia undergo mitosis, giving rise to the oocytes and trophocytes (or
nurse celIs; entomologists do not know what mechanism determines which daughter celIs become oocytes
and which become trophocytes). Ovarioles in which
trophocytes are produced are calIed meroistic ovarioles;
no trophocytes are produced in panoistic ovario les.
The oocytes pass down through the ovario les, maturing as they go. Thus the spatial sequence in the ovariole reflects the temporal sequence of oocyte matura-
OH
HO
HO
o
A
/ \
CH3-CH2-C-CH-
UNIVERSIDAD
DECALDAS
CH2-CH3
I
i3IBLIOTECA
CH3
I
2-30
COOCH3 Figure
CH3
B
l.
--
...
36
I
I
Reproductive Systems
37
-~
38
atb
gpl
gap,
I
I
I
,
gcx,
e
Figure2-32 Ovipositor of insects. A, Ovipositor of Thysanura, ventral view; B, Ovipositor of a leafhopper, lateral view with parts spread out; C, Secondary ovipositor of
Mecoptera, lateral view.atb, anal tube; gcx" first gonocoxa; gcx2,second gonocoxa; gap"
first gonapophysis; gap2,second gonapophysis; gpl, gonoplac; gst, first gonostylus; gst2,
second gonostylus. (A, C, Redrawn from Snodgrass 1935, Principies oIInsect Morphology,
1993, Comell University Press.)
substrate in order to oviposit. In the Orthoptera, however, the gonoplacs are cutting or digging structures,
taking over the function of the second gonapophyses,
which are smaller and function as egg guides.
There are a number of modifications of this basic
appendicular ovipositor structure within the pterygotes, but the most generalized condition is found in
some Odonata, Hemiptera (Auchenorrhyncha),
Orthoptera, and Hymenoptera. In many Holometabola,
the appendicular components of the ovipositor are very
much smaller and are not involved in oviposition. Instead, the terminal abdominal segments form a telescoping tube, called the pseudovipositor or oviscapt, which
the female extends when ovipositing (Figure 2-32C). In
some cases, such as tephritid flies, this type of ovipositor bears apical cutting plates, enabling the female to
place her eggs deep within a suitable substrate.
The external genitalia of male insects show such
incredible diversity that it has been difficult for entomologists to infer the primitive structures from which
they evolved and to homologize the parts in different
orders. The genitalia of the Thysanura and Microcoryphia are generally similar to that of the females,
but with an additional median penis derived from
segment 10 (Figure 2-33A). However, the mal e geni-
,/,
39
,
40
Chapter 2
enters the egg and undergoes cleavage to produce haploid (male) tissue in an otherwise female individual.
lndividuals with a sexual condition intermediate between maleness and femaleness are called intersexes.
These usually result from gene tic imbalance, particulady in polyploids (for example, a triploid Drosophila
with an XXY sex chromosome content is an intersex
and is sterile).
Eggs
The eggs of different insects vary greatly in appearance
(Figures 2-34 through 2-36). Most eggs are spherical,
oval, or elongate (Figure 2-34B,C,G), but some are
barrel shaped (Figure 2-35), some are disk shaped, and
G
E
F
~
.(
~
,.
""
J(
,. -..
.J(
..
c::
u'"
EQ)
E
c.
o
a;>
'"
C>
"O
c::
'"
.<::
f:!
'"
~
Q)
c::
-;
i:i
B
o,
o
E
C>
Figure2-35
Development
41
-..
42
mcp
I
I
I
cpl- nu, 1T!F.~~~
\.
\ 0:r~:.~~~~~.
.'. :",
\-,
~:";Ht~~{~;~j;:;\
.(...
;"
,cho
o:.Y.. 0";:,('.'~:
.'
?e:
i}/
--vm
.....
bl
~;~I:'/}.
.?t;;~
"
- -yc
cpl
::..:~.~.:::,
;.e~~~.:.
e
Figure2-37
derm layer formed. bl, blastoderm; cho, chorion; cnu, cleavage nuclei; cpl, cortical cytoplasm; gel, germ cells; mcp, micropyle; nu, nucleus; vm, vitelline membrane; yc, yolk cells;
yo, yolk. (Redrawn from Snodgrass 1935, PrincipIesoflnsect Morphology. 1993, Comell
University Press.)
eral cytoplasm becomes subdivided into cells, usually
each with one nucleus, forming a celllayer, the blastoderm (Figure 2-37C, bl). This is the blastula stage.
Within the blastoderm, in the mass of yolk material,
are a few cells that do not take pan in forming the blastoderm; these consist mainly of yolk cells.
The blastoderm cells on the ventral side of the egg
enlarge and thicken, forming a germ band or ventral
plate that will eventually form the embryo. The remaining cells of the blastoderm become the serosa and
(later) the amnion. The germ band differentiates into a
median area or middle plate and two lateral areas, the
lateral plates (Figure 2-38A). The gastrula stage begins
when the mesoderm is formed from the middle in
one of three ways: by an invagination of this plate (figure 2-38B,C), by the lateral plates growing over it (Figure 2-38D,E), or by a proliferation of ceIls from its inner surface (Figure 2-38F). CeIls proliferate from each
end of the mesoderm and eventuaIly grow around the
yolk. These cells represent the beginnings of the endoderm, and they form the lining of what wiIl be the
midgut of the insect (Figure 2-39). From the three
germ layers--ectoderm, mesoderm, and endodermthe various organs and tissues of the insect develop: the
ectoderm gives rise to the body waIl, tracheal system,
nervous system, Malpighian tubules, and anterior and
posterior ends of the alimentary tract; the mesoderm
gives rise to the muscular system, heart, and gonads;
the endoderm develops into the midgut.3
The alimentary tract is formed by invaginations
from each end of the embryo, which extend to and
unite with the primitive midgut (Figure 2-39). The anterior invagination becomes the foregut, the posterior
invagination becomes the hindgut, and the central part
(lined with endoderm) becomes the midgut. The cells
lining the foregut and hindgut are ectodermal in origin
and secrete cuticle.
Body segmentation becomes evident fairly early in
embryonic development, appearing first in the anterior
pan of the body. It involves ectoderm and mesoderm,
Note that these embryonic tissues, in particular, the so-called endoderm, may not be homologous to that of deuterostomes.
...
LP
-.
'mdp
- ---.,
E
band differentiated
-....ect
'ect
-, "F
,
O
L.
'mdp
LP
'ect
University Press.)
yo
I
/
.,.,.
f'..,<.? o c~ Q C)rJ
o 0::..~
f.<jl)}.;/:r.:\?(H~;'{2}
~~.<;>.o~)~)(?'?S-:(~ .
' endr
e
std,
"-
"-
11'1o=='Io~'
/
mo
\mg
Figure2-39 Diagrams showing the formation of the alimentary canal. A, Early stage in which the endoderm is
represented by rudiments; B, C, Development of endoderm around yoIk; D, CompIetion of alimentary canal. ans,
anus; eet, ectoderm; mdr, endodermal rudiments; mg,
midgut; mo, mouth; ms, mesoderm; prct, proctodaeum; std,
stomodaeum or foregut;yo, yoIk. (Redrawn from Snodgrass
1935, Principies of Insect Morphology, 1993, Cornell University Press.)
43
.'f.~
.
44
Postembryonic Growth
Having an exoskeleton presents a problem as far as
growth is concerned. To function as an exoskeleton,
r." , the insect's body wall must be.relatively rigid, but if it
..!\'. ,P..' .'"
~
Development and Metamorphosis
cuticleallows insects that pupa te in the soil, for exampIe,to crawl to the surface, there to expand the cuticle.
Insomespecies,researchershave identified a proteinaceoushormone, bursicon, that controls the process of
sclerotization.
45
UNIVERSIDAD
DECALDAS
BIBLIOTECA
46
9.
..
~
e
Figure 2-41 Stages in the development of the grass bug, Arhyssus sidae (Fabricius).
A, Egg; B, First instar; C, Second instar; D, Third instar; E, Fourth instar; F, Fifth instar;
G, Adult female. (Courtesy of Readio 1928 and the Entomological Society of America.)
..
Development and Metamorphosis
c;;;;;;;>
e
~
D
Figure2-42 Stages in the development of the sugarbeet root maggot, Tetanopsmyopaefonnis (Roder). A, Adult female; B, Adult male; C, Egg; D, Larva; E, Puparium (pupa inside). (From Knowlton 1937, used courtesy of the Utah Agricultural Experiment Station.)
f
1.0mm
L = 30 mm
o
L = 45 mm
47
"'-
,
48
A
B
Variations in LifeHistory
49
50
References
Allner, H., and R. LofLUS.1985. Ullraslruclure and funclion of
insecl lhermo- and hygroreceptors. Annu. Rev. Enlomo\.
30:273-295.
Anderson, D. T. 1973. Embryology and Phylogeny in Annelids
and Anhropods. New York: Pergamon Press, 495 pp.
Arms, K., and P.S. Campo 1987. Biology. Philadelphia: Saunders College Publishing, 1142 pp.
Chapman, R. E 1982. The Insects: SlrucLUreand Funclion, 3rd
ed. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 919 pp.
Commonwealth Scienlific and Induslrial Research Organizalion (CSIRO). 1970. The InsecLS of Australia. Carhon,
Victoria: Melbourne Universily Press, 1029 pp.
Comstock,]. H., and]. G. Needham. 1898. The wings of insecLS. Amer. Nat. 32:43-48, 81-89, 231-257, 335-340,
413-424,561-565,768-777,903-911.
Comstock,]. H., and]. G. Needham. 1899. The wings of insecLS.Amer. Nat. 33:117-126, 573-582, 845-860.
Daly, H. v.,]. T. Doyen, and P.R. Ehrlich. 1978. An Introduction to Insect Biology and Diversity. New York: McGrawHill, 564 pp.
Davey, K. G. 1965. Reproduction in the InsecLS. San Francisco: Freeman, 96 pp.
Denlinger, D. L. 1986. Dormancy in tropical insecLS. Annu.
Rev. Entorno\. 31:239-264.
Dethier, V. G. 1963. The Physiology of Insect Senses. New
York: Wiley, 266 pp.
Dethier, V.G. 1976. The Hungry Fly: A Physiological SLUdyof
Behavior Associated with Feeding. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 489 pp.
Eberhard, W G. 1985. Sexual selection and animal genitalia.
Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 224 pp.
Ferris, G. E, and B. E. Rees. 1939. The morphology of
Panorpa nuptialis Gerstaecker (Mecoptera: Panorpide).
Microentomology 4:79-108.
References
Vol. 6: Nervous Systern: Sensory; 710 pp. Vol. 7: Endocrinology 1; 564 pp. Vol. 8: Endocrinology
Il; 595 pp.
Vol. 9: Behaviour; 735 pp. Vol. 10: Biochernistry;
715 pp.
Vol. 11: Pharrnacology;
740 pp. Vol. 12: lnsect Control;
849 pp. Vol. 13: Curnulative lndexes; 314 pp. New York:
Pergamon Press.
Knowlton, G. E 1937. Biological control of the beet leafhopper
in Utah. Proc. Utah Acad. Sci., Arts, Letters 14:111-139.
Kukalov-Peck, J. 1978. Origin and evolution of insect wings
and their relation to rnetarnorphosis,
as docurnented
by
the fossil record. J. Morphol. 156:53-126.
Kukalov-Peck, J. 1983. Origin of the insect wing and wing
articulation frorn the arthropodan
leg. Can. J. Zool.
61:1618-1669.
Kukalov-Peck,J. 1985. Epherneroid
wing venation based on
new gigantic Carboniferous
rnayflies and basic rnorphology, phylogeny, and rnetarnorphosis
of pterygote insects.
Can. J. Zool. 63:933-955.
Manton, S. M. 1977. The Arthropoda,
Habits, Functional
Morphology, and Evolution.
Oxford,
UK: Clarendon
Press, 527 pp.
Matheson, R. 1951. Entornology
for introductory
courses.
lthaca, NY: Cornstock Publishing Cornpany, lnc., 600 pp.
Matsuda, R. 1970. Morphology
and evolution
of the insect
thorax. Mern. Entornol. Soco Can. No. 76; 431 pp.
Matsuda, R. 1976. Morphology
and Evolution of the lnsect
Abdomen, with Special Reference to Developrnental
Patterns and Their Bearing on Systernatics. New York: Pergamon Press, 532 pp.
McAlpine, J. E, B. V. Peterson, G. E. Shewell, H. J. Teskey, J.
R. Vockeroth, and D. M. Wood. 1981. Manual of Nearctic
Diptera, vol. 1. Ottawa: Research Branch, Agricultural
Canada Monograph
No. 27,674 pp.
Menn,J.J., and M. Beroza (Eds.). 1972. lnsectJuvenile
Hormones, Chernistry
and Action. New York: Acadernic
Press, 341 pp.
Nachtigall, W 1968. lnsects in Flight (translated
frorn German by H. Oldroyd, R. H. Abbott, and M. BiederrnanThorson). New York: McGraw-Hill,
153 pp.
Neville, A. C. 1975. Biology of the Arthropod
Cuticle. New
York: Springer, 450 pp.
Novak, V.J. A. 1975 (2nd ed.). lnsect Hormones.
New York:
Halsted, 600 pp.
Paulus, H. E 1979. Eye structure
and the rnonophyly
of
Arthropoda. In Arthropod Phylogeny, ed. A. P. Gupta, pp.
299-383. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 762 pp.
Payne, 1. L., M. C. Birch, and C. E. J. Kennedy (Eds.). 1986.
Mechanisrns in Insect Olfaction. Oxford, UK: Clarendon
Press, 364 pp.
Peterson, A. 1948. Larvae of Insects. Part I. Lepidoptera
and
Hymenoptera. Ann Arbor, MI: Edwards, 315 pp.
Peterson, A. 1951. Larvae of Insects. Part Il. Coleoptera,
Diptera, Neuroptera,
Siphonaptera,
Mecoptera,
Trichoptera. Ann Arbor, MI: Edwards, 416 pp.
Raabe,M. 1986. Insect reproduction:
Regulation of successive
steps. Adv. lns. Physiol. 19:29-154.
Rainey,R. C. (Ed.). 1976. Insect Flight: Proceedings of a Syrnposium. New York: Halsted, 288 pp.
Readio, P. A. 1928. Studies on the biology of the genus
Corizus (Coreidae: Herniptera).
Ann. Entornol. Soco Arner.
21:189-201.
51
--
Systematics, Classification,
Nomenclature, and Identification
52
Systematics
Classifications of insects and their relatives form the
heart of this book. Classifications are tools that provide names for groups of species and serve as a shorthand for communicating information about those
species. These instruments are utilitarian products
that emerge from systematics, the study of the diversity and interrelationships of organisms. Although the
fieId is as old as any area of biological inquiry, it has
undergone a remarkable resurgence over the past two
...
Systematics
decades.
This renaissance
has been fueled by (1) theoreticaladvances in the nature and analysis of systematicdata; (2) the development of new sources of data
fromnuc\eic acid sequences; (3) the development of
powerfuland affordable computers with which to analyzethese data; and (4) the grawth of the size and
scope of natural history collections. As a result, the
process that began approximately 50 years ago has
now transformed the systematics fram a field do minatedby arcane facts and argument by authority, into
a science driven by data, explicit hypotheses, and
quantitativeanalysis. Nevertheless, systematics retains
theaesthetic appeal that comes fram the continual discoveryof new, beautiful, sometimes bizarre, but alwaysfascinatingforms of life.
The conceptual advances in systematics were first
coherently articulated by an entomologist, Willi
Hennig,a specialist on Diptera. Hennig published his
principiesin German (Hennig 1950), but after publicationin English his ideas received much more attention(Hennig 1965,1966). He called this new appraach
systematics;today it is often referred to
phylogenetic
simplyas phylogenetics or as cladistics. The ideas are
fairly straightforward. The characters of a species
arepassed down fram ancestor to descendant. Species,
in general, do not interbreed; therefore characteristics
in one species cannot be transferred to a different,
parallellineage. The appearance of new lineages, the
processof speciation, involves splitting an ancestral
speciesinto two (or possibly more) descendant species.
Ifa character changes, that is, becomes modified fram
itsancestralstate, then this new, derived character will
appearonly in the species in which it arase or in its
descendants.Therefore, the sequence of appearance of
lineagesthrough time can be reconstructed by documentingthe distribution of derived characters.
Asin any specialty, entomology has a fair amount
ofjargon that the student must understand. Derived
charactersare called apomorphies (even if the characteris chemical, behavioral, or so on, and not morphologicalat all). The ancestral characters are referred to
asplesiomorphies. Branches on the phylogenetic tree
arehypothesized on the basis of shared derived characters among the species, called synapomorphies.
Suchgroupsare considered monophyletic (sometimes
calledholophyletic) graups and consist of an ancestral
speciesand all its descendants. Shared ancestral charactersare symplesiomorphies; graups defined on the
basisof symplesiomorphies are paraphyletic. Unnaturalgroups, such as a graup containing only insects
andmosses, are polyphyletic. This is an extreme example,of course, but polyphyletic graups usually resultfrom the misinterpretation of characters, such as
thinkingthat two structures are "the same" when in
factthey evolved independently in the species con-
cerned. Thus the primary goal of phylogenetic systematics is the discovery of monophyletic graups.
These ideas that a structure found in two different
species is the same structure and that they share it because they inherited the structure fram their common
ancestor constitute the definition of a homologous
character. As you can see, the definitions of homologous characters and synapomorphies are equivalent.
Characters that are not homologous, but only seem so,
arise thraugh the evolutionary processes of convergence, parallelism, and reversals. Convergence and
parallelism are the development of similar structures
independently in two different species. A reversal is a
character that "Iooks" like the ancestral condition,
usually the loss or reduction of so me feature. The absence of a structure may be due either to the fact that
the species (and its ancestors) never had it in the first
place, or to its subsequent loss. It is usually difficult, if
not impossible, to distinguish between these two hypotheses simply by studying the character itself. That
conclusion relies on considering all the evidence on the
phylogeny of the species.
How, then, can you determine if a character is ancestral or derived? First, we must divorce ourselves
fram the idea that in science we can actually determine
the truth of any statement. Rather, we form hypotheses
that are based on evidence and subject to testing. The
dominant means of hypothesizing character polarity,
whether it is ancestral or derived, is to look at the form
in which the character occurs in graups outside of our
group of interest. The species being studied constitute
the in-group; those species with which the characters
are being compared inorder to hypothesize their polarity make up the out-group. The state in which the
character is found in the out-group is hypothesized to
be the plesiomorphic condition. Thus the choice of
species lObe included in the out-graup is critical to the
analysis. Ultimately, out-group analysis is based on the
principIe of parsimony (see later discussion).
The hierarchical pattern of distribution of synapomorphies is represented as a treelike branching diagram known as a cladogram (Figure 3-1). The two
groups of species that diverge at any node are sister
groups. A cladogram resembles many of the classical illustrations of the "tree of life," but with an important
exception. Gn a cladogram, the units that are being
studied-often
species, but the unit could be a group
of species as well-are shown only at the apex of the
diagram, at the ends of the branches. If a fossil species
is included, it is found at the end of a branch, just as
any living species would be. The internodes, then, do
not represent ancestral species. The order in which the
graups are listed (for example, from top to bottom in
Figure 3-1) is of no significance; the cladogram can be
ratated about any of its nodes. The meaning of a clado-
53
54
E. zephyrus
H
H
5
6
4
I
I
O. canadensis
O. americanus
C. dorsalis
C. ventralis
B. niger
B. flavens
H
H
H
A
67
A. longipes
A. curtipes
O. canadensis
O. americanus
C. dorsalis
C. ventralis
B. niger
B. flavens
64
H
2
t--t---t---t1
1
1
2 2
A. longipes
A. curtipes
C. dorsalis
C. ventralis
8
:
B. niger
I
1
1
BIla,.n,
12 15
A. longlpes
A. curtipes
Systematics
veloped to find the most likely phylogenetic hypothesis (cladogram) given the observed data and model of
base substitution.
Often the internodes of a cladogram are labeled
with information that indicates the support for the hypothesis that it represents a monophyletic group. This
may be a listing of the apomorphic characters that define that section of the cladogram; also commonly
found are bootstrap support values or Bremer support
values. A bootstrap value represents the percentage of
times that grouping (or clade) appears when a large
number of subsets of the original data set are analyzed.
Some researchers think a high number (say, 98%) indicates that the data strongly support the hypothesized
monophyletic group. Note, however, that this is not a
statistical test in the usual sense of the termo The hypothesis, the proposed monophyletic group, is not rejected on the basis of this number. A Bremer support
value indicates the number of further steps that would
be added to the entire cladogram if the clade under
consideration were not included and its species were
placed in a different pattern. The significance of the absolute value of such a number, then, depends on the totallength of the cladogram, which, in turn, depends on
the number of taxa and characters.
The student will often see published cladograms
in which a node do es not give rise to two branches but
instead gives rise to three or more. This polytomy indicates either that there are no data to support any one
of the possible sets of dichotomous possibilities at that
point, or that the data conflict so that no one possibility is more parsimonious (or likely) than another. Polytomies are expressions ofignorance or ambiguity in the
underlying data. Although it is biologically reasonable
to believe that an ancestral species could give rise,
more or less simultaneously, to three or more daughter
species, the methodology of cladistics, and of science
in general, compels us to search for a completely dichotomously branching cladogram. To do otherwise
would be to actively ignore the phylogenetic signal that
do es exist in the data.
It is probably becoming clear at this point that calculating the most parsimonious cladogram for a group
of any size requires the use of a computer and cladistic
software. Only in cases with a relatively small number
of species or an unambiguous data set is it possible to
arrive at the best answer manually. A number of
software packages are now available for these analyses;
two of the most popular are PAUP (Phylogenetic
Analysis Using Parsimony) and the WinClada package.
MacClade is a popular tool for visualizing and manipulating data on cladograms. However, even with the
most powerful hardware and software some phylogenetic problems are inherently intractable. In many
cases, the analysis results in large numbers of equally
55
56
Chapter3 Systematics.Classification.Nomenclature.andIdentification
Classifications
In a formal biological classification, species are
grouped into monophyletic groups. Such groups are
called taxa (sing., taxon). These taxa are arranged in a
hierarchical pattem. The most commonly used categories or levels in the system of zoological classification are the following (listed from most inclusive to
least) :
Phylum
Subphylum
Class
Subclass
Order
Suborder
Superfamily
Family
Subfamily
Tribe
Genus
Subgenus
Species
Subspecies
In this scheme, the animal kingdom is divided into
a number of phyla (sing., phylum). Each phylum is divided into classes, classes into orders, orders into families, families into genera (sing., genus), and genera
into species. Finer distinctions in the levels is afforded
by prefixes attached to these category names, such as
supeifamily or subgenus. This list provided is not comprehensive, but does illustrate the normal categories
that are used. The species is probably the only level
that can be assessed by objective criteria. A genus is
one or more species classified together in a monophyletic group; a family is one or more genera; and so
on. Any scheme of classification that is developed for a
group of animals will be affected by the particular characters used, the relative weight they are given, and how
they are analyzed. If different people use different characters or a different "weighting" of a series of characters, they may arrive at different classifications.
A classification is derived from a phylogeny by
designating monophyletic groups for each category. Of
course, a dichotomous cladogram of n species will have
n -1 monophyletic groups. For a cladogram of any
size, particularly in insects where one order may have
more than 100,000 species, not all these groups are formally named. The usual approach systematists take is
similar to the admonition in the Hippocratic oath to do
Nomenclature
Animals have two types of names, scientific and commono Scientific names are used throughout the world,
and every known animal taxon has a scientific name
unique to it. Common names are vernacular names,
and they are often Iess precise than scientific names.
(Some common names are used for more than one
taxon, and a given animal taxon may have several.)
Many animals lack common names beca use they are
small or seldom encountered.
Scientific Nomenclature
The scientific naming of animals follows certain rules,
outlined in the IntemationaI Code of ZooIogicaI Nomenclature (ICZN 1999). Scientific names are latinized, but
they may be derived from any language or from the
names of people or places. Most names are derived
from Latin or Greek words and usually refer to some
characteristic of the animal or group named.
Nomenclature
Argia
fumipennis(Burmeister)- The speciesfumipenniswas described by Hermann Burmeister in some
genusother than Argia and has subsequently been
transferred to the genus Argia. There are three
subspeciesof this species in the eastern United
States:a northern subspecies (violaeea) with clear
wingsand considerable violet coloration, a southem subspecies (fumipennis) with smoky wings and
considerable violet coloration, and a subspecies in
peninsular Florida (atra) with very dark wings
lThroughoutthis book Linnaeus is abbreviated "L."
57
58
Chapter3 Systematics.
Classification.
Nomenclature.
andIdentification
Types. Whenever a new taxon (from subspecies to superfamily) is described, the describer is supposed to
designa te a type, which serves to anchor the name to a
taxonomic concepto The type of a species or subspecies
is a single specimen (rhe type, or holotype); the type of
a genus or subgenus is a species (the type species); and
the type of a taxon from tribe through superfamily is a
genus (the type genus). Names of taxa from tribe
through superfamily (see the previous examples) are
formed by adding the appropriate ending to the root of
the name of the type genus. For the type genus Apis in
the previous examples, the stem is Ap-. If a species is
divided into subspecies, the particular subspecies that
includes the holotype of the species has the same subspecific name as its specific name (for example, Argia
fumipennisfumipennis). Similarly, if a genus is divided
into subgenera, the subgenus that includes the type
species of the genus has the same subgenus name as
genus name-for example, Formica (Formica) ruja L.
(The name in parentheses is the subgenus.) As concepts of the limits of species or other taxa are revised,
it is often necessary to refer to the available types (and
ultimately the holotypes of the relevant species) to determine to which concepts of taxa of the systematist
the types belong, and, thus, to determine which name
or names are applicable to it. The significance of holotypes has to do with nomenclature; they do not represent a "typical" member of a species.
Priority. The staning point of modem binomial zoological nomenclature was the publication of 10th edition of
Unnaeus' Systema Naturae; the date is taken as 1January
1758. lt often happens that a panicular taxon is described independently by two or more people, and hence
may have more than one name. In such cases the first
name used from 1758 on (if the describer has followed
certain roles) is the correct name, and any other names
become synonyrns and should no longer be used. A particular name is often used for a long time before someone
discovers that another name has priority over it.
Sometimes a person describing a new taxon gives
it a name that has previously been used for another
taxon; if those taxa involved are at the same taxonomic
level, the names are termed homonyms, and all but the
oldest must be discarded and the taxa renamed. There
cannot be two (or more) species or subspecies with the
same name in a given genus. There cannot be two (or
more) genera or subgenera in the animal kingdom with
the same name. Nor can there be two (or more) taxa in
the family group of categories (rribe through superfamily) with the same name (although the names of the
typical subdivisions will be the same except for their
endings). The fundamental role is that every animal
taxon must have a unique name.
Because of the large number of animal taxa and the
vast amount of zoological literature, errors in naming
Pronunciation
The pronunciation of some of the technical names and
terrns used in entomology may be found in a good dictionary or glossary, but very few texts or references give
the pronunciation of the bulk of scientific names.
There are roles for the pronunciation of these names,
but few entomologists are familiar with them, and
many names are pronounced differently by different
people and in different countries. We have therefore included some of the general roles by which technical
names and terms used in zoology are generally pronounced in American English. We realize that not all
entomologists will agree with the pronunciation of
some names. There are two reasons for such disagreement: (1) a given pronunciation, whether it follows the
roles or not, may become established through usage as
the "correct" pronunciation; and (2) the correct pronunciation of many scientific names depends on the
derivation of the name and the vowel sound in the
source language, and it is difficult or impossible to determine the derivation of some names. Hence there will
always be a question as to the correct pronunciation of
some scientific names.
The principal roles for the pronunciation of scientific names and terms are outlined here:
Vowels. All vowels in scientific names are pronounced. Vowels are generally either long or short, and
in the examples that follow a long vowel sound is indicated by a grave accent O) and a short vowel sound by
an acute accent (O; for example, mate, mt, mete, mt,
bite, bU, rope, rt, cute, ct, by, symmetry. A vowel at the
end of a word has the long sound, except when it is an
-a; a final -a has the uh sound, as in idea. The vowel in
the final syllable of a word has the short sound, except
-es, which is pronounced ease.
Diphthongs. A diphthong consists of two vowels written together and pronounced as a single vowel. The
diphthongs are ae (pronounced e, rarely ), oe (usually
pronounced e, rarely ), oi (pronounced as in oi/), eu
Nomenclature
59
-.
60
...
Geographic(overageof ThisBook
References
Borror,D. J. 1960. Dictionary of Word Roots and Combining
Forms. Palo Alto, CA: Mayfield, 134 pp.
Brown,R. W 1978. Composition
of Scientific Words. Washington, DC: Smithsonian
lnstitution
Press, 882 pp.
Crowson, R. A. 1970. Classification
and Biology. New York:
Atherton Press, 350 pp.
Eldredge,N., andJ. Cracraft. 1980. Phylogenetic
Patterns and
the Evolutionary Process: Method and Theory in Comparative Biology. New York: Columbia
349 pp.
University
Press,
Hennig,W 1950. Grundzge einer Theorie der phylogenetischen Systematik. Berln: Deutscher Zentralverlag.
Hennig,W 1965. Phylogenetic
systematics. Annu. Rev. Entomal. 10:97-116.
Hennig,W 1966. Phylogenetic
Systematics.
sity of lllinois Press, 263 pp.
Urbana:
Univer-
lnternational
Commission on Zoological Nomenclature.
2000. International Code of Zoological Nomenclature,
4th ed. London: The International Trust for Zoological
Nomenclature 1999,306 pp.
Mayr, E., and P. D. Ashlock. 1991. PrincipIes of Systematic
Zoology, 2nd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 475 pp.
Schuh, R. T. 2000. Biological Systematics: PrincipIes and Applcations. Ithaca, NY: Comstock Publshing Associates,
Cornell University Press, 236 pp.
Stoetzel, M. B. 1989. Common Names of Insects &: Related
Organisms 1989. College Park, MD: Entomological Society of America, 199 pp.
Wiley, E. O. 1981. Phylogenetics: The Theory and Practice of
Phylogenetic Systematics. New York: Wiley, 439 pp.
Winston,j. E. 1999. Describing Species: Practical Taxonomic
Procedure for Biologists. New York: Columbia University
Press, 518 pp.
61
;;----
Properties of Behavior
A common misconception is that compared to vertebrates, insects have simple and limited behavioral
repertoires, because insects are constrained by small
nervous systems and short lives. Yet, like other animals, insects are not predictabIe automatons. They do
not remain inert until provoked by particular stimuli to
perform specific acts, and when stimulated to respond
in a characteristic way, they are not limited to a rigid
preprogrammed set of movements. Instead, much of
insect behavior is outwardly spontaneous and can adjust to particular circumstances. The jobs insects carry
out during their lives are the result of a complex in terplay between environmental stimuli, internal sta te, and
experience, and the way their activities are organized
often is exceedingly complex.
Composition
and Pattern
,
':
(~:
jIIIII
Propertiesof Behavior 63
spectto somevariation in the distribution of environmentalstimuli. Even behavior patterns that start spontaneously,such as the search for food or a mate, nevertheless typically are guided by the arrangement of
variousvisual, chemical, or mechanical stimuli. Insects'oriented movements are categorized as either ki"esesor taxes. Kineses are simply changes in the speed
oflocomotionor rate of turning as an insect moves and
encountersan increased or decreased stimulus in tensity,withoutregardto the direction, source, or gradient
ofthe stimulus. Kineses have the effect, through randommovements, ofbringing the insect into a favorable
zoneor away from an unfavorable one. For example,
an insectexhibiting positive klinokinesis with respect
to temperature makes more turns as it encounters increasinglyfavorable temperatures, so it tends to remain
inzonesof optimal temperature. Taxes, in contrast, are
positionsand movements with respect 10 the source,
direction,or gradient of a stimulus (for example,
chemotaxis,phototaxis). Different mechanisms may be
involved.Insects can move up or down a stimulus gradient(towardor away from its source) by balancing the
stimulion the right and left, either by turning alternatelyright and left or by sampling both sides simultaneously(klinotaxis and tropotaxis, respectively), or by
maintaininga "fix" on the source itse!f Ctelotaxis). They
alsocan use te!otaxis to maintain themse!ves at a fixed
anglefrom the stimulus source (menotaxis). This allowsthemto remain right side up with respect to skylightor gravity and to walk or fly in a straight line
throughvaried landscape, using the sun or moon as a
fixedframe of reference-essentially
as a compass.
Thesebasic kinds of orientation mechanisms, applied
toproblemssuch as nest building in a difficult spot, allowan insect to behave effective!y in a complex and
changingworld, even when the guided behavior is entirelyindependent of experience.
When insects locate food and mates through vision,sound, or chemicals, accurate orientation is essentia\.They typically use tropo taxis or telotaxis 10 orient toward attractive sounds and visual objects at a
distance.At close range they follow gradients of a
chemical,temperature, or humidity by employing
klinotaxisor tropotaxis. However, the need for flying
insectsto locate a distant source of volatile chemicals
presentsa special problem. It is impossible for them to
geta fix on the source by scanning the environment,
andstimulusgradients are lost beyond a few centimetersfromthe source, as chemicals waft downwind in
dilute,meandering swirls and filaments. Instead, they
orientupwind (positive anemotaxis) in the presence of
pulses
ofthe stimulating odor, guided in their forward
progressby the passage of objects on the ground beneaththem.This behavior has the effect of bringing
themverycloseto the odor's source. If the odor stimu-
lus is lost, the insect ceases to fly upwind and makes erratic turns or reverts to a crosswind or downwind
searching flight. In moths, males progressing upwind
in the presence of female sex pheromone automatically
zigzag across the odor plume continuously, making it
more difficult to lose the scent altogether.
Some kinds of orientation remain enigma tic. The
migration of monarch butterflies is noteworthy because
they trave! thousands of kilometers between the northern reaches of their distribution and very localized
southern overwintering sites. The slow northward migration involves up 10 three successive generations of
butterflies. Thus all adults that overwintered are dead
by the time the population reaches its northern limit
during the summer, and those that fly back to the
overwintering site in the south have never been there
before. Research evidence indicates that they use a
time-compensated sun compass, and perhaps also geomagnetic cues, to guide them toward the correct longitude and latitude. If this is correct, it suggests that the
monarch butterflies have an innate sense of what those
coordinates should be, which vary considerably between eastern and western populations.
Behavior Modification
All behavioral abilities of an insect are inherited, but
they are not invariably expressed, even under identical
environmental conditions. Insects respond to certain
stimuli or perform particular behaviors only when internal organs, hemolymph chemistry, and the nervous
system itseU are in particular states. The state of responsiveness, or motivational state, regulates the expression of even the most rudimentary and stereotypic
instincts. Even learning, the ability of an insect to modify its behavior adaptively, following experience with
particular external stimuli and their consequences, is
an innate capacity.
Motivation: A variety of internal factors influence an
insect's motivational state.
Rhythms:
Nearly all insects go through cycles of
activity and inactivity, the most common type being the
24-hour die! (daily) cycle. During its active phase, the
insect may become active spontaneously and conduct
searches for one or more necessities: mates, food,
oviposition sites, or shelter. Also, at this time it is responsive to particular stimuli that it ignores when inactive. These die! rhythms are maintained by an internal clock, which is repeatedly set by the periods of dark
and light. When an insect is artificially deprived of the
natural time-setting light-dark transitions at regular
intervals, the rhythm continues but drifts away from
the 24-hour period, giving rise to the term circadian
rhythm (around a day).
UNNERSIDADDECALDAS
BIBLIOTECA
64
Inhibitory Feedback: An insect's state of responsiveness changes when particular behaviors cause a
temporary physiological change. After eating food, an
insect's threshold of response to food stimuli rises, so
that it requires stronger stimuli before it wiIl taste or
ingest more. If it has ingested enough, it wiIl not respond to stimuli of any strength. A classic example is
the tarsolabeIlar reflex of the blow fly.When its crop is
empty, if it tastes sugar with its front tarsi the fly extends its proboseis. When the crop contains a substantial sugar meal, nerves from foregut stretch receptors
block the reflex. The time it takes for the fly to become
motivated again (that is, has a lower threshold of the
tarsolabeIlar reflex) is simply a function of crop volume
and the rate at which the crop empties, which in turn
depends on how fast absorbed sugar is depleted from
the hemolymph. Some changes are the result of cyclic
internal processes. For example, female insects do not
exhibit oviposition behaviors until they have a batch of
eggs ready to be laido
Long- Term Physiological Changes: Other behavioral changes are long-Iasting or permanent. These
often are the result of development and maturation. After the final molt, adult insects do not immediately express sexual or other reproductive behaviors, but
hormone-induced nervous or other internal changes
lead to their expression and may last a lifetime. Juvenile hormone-a misnomer in these cases--often is the
mediator. For example, juvenile hormone causes adult
female mosquito es lO become sexuaIly receptive, and
after mating and insemination they immediately become unreceptive to further sexual advances by males.
First mechanical stimuli from copulation and insemination, then chemical stimuli from the male's semen,
abolish her receptivity for a long period or a lifetime.
The tendency to migrate or to enter diapause (discussed later in this chapter) may occur only early in
adult life, only when the insect is crowded during development, or only when photoperiod shortens and
temperatures begin to drop. Complete metamorphosis
is an extreme example of developmentally altered behavior. Larval and adult forms of the same individual
are often so different, both morphologically and ecologically, that they act like different speeies with entirely different behavioral repertoires.
Learning: Insect learning generally is the experienceinduced modification of instinctive behavior patterns,
rather than formation of new behavior patterns. Learning differs from instinct mainly in that it involves properties of the nervous system that permit useful modifications in behavior, but the distinctions among
motivational change, sensory adaptation, and true
learning are not always obvious. Even in clear cases of
learning, there exists a continuous range between pre-
programmed and modified behaviors, so four categories of behavior are useful (based on Alcock 1979):
(l) closed instincts, the fixed programs, such as
courtship sequences; (2) open instincts, in which feedback from experience alters the program, such as improved nectar-collecting effieiency or ignoring sudden
movements (habituation); (3) restricted learning, in
which limited stimuli alter behavior in a preeise way,
such as attaching new meanings to stimuli (classical
conditioning); and (4) flexible learning, in which an experience can lead to a wide range of changes in the
behavior pattern, such as familiarity with unique landscapes (exploration or latent learning) and reinforcement of modified behavior (operant conditioning). The
ability to achieve any of these acts, and the constraints
placed on them, have a genetic basis. Modification by
learning is most valuable to species that live where information is reliable for extended periods within the
lifetime of the insect, but not reliable over many generations or over the population's entire range. Information that remains reliable need not be learned and can
be committed to rigid stimulus-response programming.
Thus, with instinct, short-lived insects get it right the
first time.
Insects are capable of most types of learning
known to animals. The first three, here, are well established: (1) Habituation is a diminished response to a
stimulus after repeated exposures with no relevant
consequences or assoeiations. An example from nature
is the ability of male wasps to learn to avoid being
tricked into "mating" with orchid flowers that crudely
mimic female wasps in appearance and odor. In captivity, insects usually habituate to startling noises, movements, and handling. (2) Associative learning takes two
major forms: (a) In classical conditioning, a previously
neutral stimulus, when paired with a favorable or unfavorable stimulus that normaIly causes a speeific response, becomes a conditioned stimulus, elieiting the
response by itself (the new stimulus becomes associated with the old stimulus because of its effect). For example, a honey bee, instinctively attracted to a blue
flower that has a neutral odor, obtains nectar and subsequently is attracted to that odor when the blue color
is absent. A variation of this is preimaginal conditioning,
in which a neutral stimulus that an immature insect
encounters while feeding on a suitable food, such as an
unusual host plant, becomes the stimulus that, after
metamorphosis, the adult female chooses for oviposition. This is similar to imprinting, weIl known in birds
that become attached to the appearance of their parents, but imprinting has a narrow sensitive period soon
after hatching and occurs without an assoeiated favorable or unfavorable stimulus. (b) Operant conditioning
is a particular act, followed by a positive or negative
consequence that reinforces either performing or the
..
Properties of Behavior
Figure
4-1 FemalediggerwaspAmmophila(Spheciclae)at the entrance to its underground nest. Initially, she
becomesfamiliar with its position while digging. When
aboutto leave, she hides the nest by filling the opening
withsand grains evenly with the ground's surface. As she
fiiesaway,she updates her memory of its position relativeto surrounding landmarks, so that she can find it
when she returns.
Structure
of Behavior
65
~..
66
bernetic models), which borrow heavily from engineering and use 110wdiagrams, electrical schematics,
and computer-like notations. These more closely represent nervous systems, are more l1exible (they can easily depict both hierarchical and weblike arrangements
of behaviors), and minimize the number of assumptions required. They are formed from basic conceptual
patterns of control, such as chains, meshes, and positive and negative feedback loops. For example, they
have been used to explain the mechanism by which a
praying mantis can strike with its fore legs in the correct direction toward prey, even though its head moves
independently of its thorax and can be held at different
angles. A broader approach employs optimality theory,
the general evolutionary assumption that animals evaluate their causal-sta te variables and tend to make decisions that minimize costs and maxirnize gain according
to some criterion. This type of rnodeling can incorporate probabilistic roles and take a variety of mathematical forrns. The dynamic stochastic modeling method,
widely used in behavioral ecology, relies heavily on
computer analysis to predict sequences of decisions.
The simple ethological model can account for
many aspects of an insect's behavioral organization,
such as spontaneous behavior, the shifting dominance
of different behaviors, and sequences that lead to a
goal. A famous example of an appetitive sequence is
predation by the bee-wolf Philanthus, a digger wasp
that specializes in catching honey bees to provision its
nests. lt starts when the wasp l1ies from 110wer to
110wer,searching for a bee. When it sees a moving object, the visual stirnulus releases the behavior of hovering downwind of the object. If bee odor is perceived,
that releases seizing the bee. And if tactile stimuli (either mechanical or chemical) are beelike, then stinging
behavior is released. Thus the goal is achieved through
a series of behaviors, each of which prepares the inseCl
for encounter with the next releaser. A similar series is
performed by beetles locating host plants for oviposition, mosquitoes locating vertebrate animals for blood
feeding, and male moths locating pheromone-releasing
fernales in order to mate. In the Philanthus case, researchers can assume that stinging the prey is the consummatory act, which lowers the motivation to collecl
prey, so one of the competing behaviors connected
with reproduction now becomes dominant, probably
oviposition, a sequence involving taking the prey to a
nest and laying an egg on it. This process also has been
studied in detail. A case made famous by]. Henri Fabre
is Sphex,a wasp that digs a nest in the ground, then
finds and stings a grasshopper and brings it to the nest
entrance. The wasp uncovers the entrance, makes an
inspection visit of the tunnel that terminates in a chamber, then returns to the surface. She grasps the prey by
its antennae, pulls it down into the chamber, lays an
Properties of Behavior 67
~~
.~
111
"1
an inspection. Lack of feedback from the previous inspection makes her incapable of improvising in this
rare circumstance.
The complexity of the en tire repertoire of nesting
behavior and its hierarchical organization is epitomized in some digger wasp species (Figure 4-2). Ammophila adriaansei females can maintain several nests
at the same time, in various stages of founding and progressive provisioning with caterpillars. Experiments
have demonstrated that, for each nest serviced, there
are three levels of subsystems within the reproductive
I
I
...
H_O_".W'
INSPECTING
EGO
LAYU.G
UIUNG
.ICAVATlNO
CAAAYINOSANO
HAACHINO
TUTINO
,.XINO
ITA
CLUOS
CLUOS
CLUOS
,NO
SUACHINO
"AIY
""'AOACHINO
r-T.ITtNG
UIZINQ
ITlIIOINO
"UIICH,
FINAL
NO
CLOSING
A.AYINO
AITAIIV'NO
:TOA'NO
DEFENDING
!.!A!!!!IJi
SI.II".IIO
!TIltO
HASlltO
Figure4-2 Hierarchical control of nest provisioning in the digger wasp Ammophila adriaansei (Sphecidae). Nesting behavior is pan of the reproductive behavioral system (Rp),
which competes with the maintenance system (Mt). Several nests (a, b, e, d, e) are in
memory (M) at one time, but during a phase of activity on a nest, attention is not diverted
to other nests. Phases 1, U, and III are characterized by the amount of food (caterpillars)
required, and they utilize different combinations of subsystems and sub-subsystems.
Founding occurs only in Phase 1and Final CIosing only in Phase IlI. Each phase begins
with lnspecting. An evaluation of the presence of a larva, its size, and the amount of food
remaining determines, by heterogeneous summation (HS), which of the three phases wiIl
occur. If no larva is present, or if a phase is completed, the wasp scans (S) its memory and
redirects attention to the oldest uncompleted nest. If none needs funher provisioning at
the time, a new one is founded and its position learned (L) during digging.
I
I
I
~_J
FOUNOING
PROVISIONING
68
...
Properties
resources.The famous monarch butterfly, Danaus plexippus(L.), migration is a seasonal round trip between
northernNorth America, including southern Canada,
andits more mild southern reaches. In this migration,
dormancyplays an integral part. Ihe southward-flying
butterfliesare in a state of reproductive diapause duringtheir approximately 3,300-km (2,000-mile) journey,although they continue to feed on nectar. In their
mainoverwintering habitats in coastal California and
centralMexico, they are usually torpid but will fly and
drinkwater on warm days. Only in the spring, when
theystart the northward journey, do they become reproductivelyactive, breeding on milkweed plants. Up
10 three generations are passed during this more
leisurelyspring migration. Many other insects that migrateseasonally simply die out at the end of their
northernmigration as winter approaches, rather than
retumingsouth. Quite different are the migrations of
thenotorious locusts, such as the desert locust, Schistacerca
gregaria(Forskal), which are species of grasshoppers(Acrididae) capable of developmental dimorphism.They perform a one-way trip with no diapause,
noparticulardestination, no periodicity, and no finishingtime.The root of migration is a shrinking suitable
habitat,which causes crowding, and mutual stimulationofgrasshoppers leads 10 their transformation from
a solitaryphaseto a gregarious phase. The complete
transfonnationtakes up to three generations, and the
gregariouslocusts are strikingly colored and behave
quitedifIerentlyfrom solitary ones. The gregarious forms
remaina cohesive unit, even when their swarms numberin the tens of billions and cover up 10 1,000 km2.
Theymay travel across continents, eating plants and
reproducingas they go. If unchecked, they eventually
arecarriedby wind to regions where rain is falling and
forageis growing over wide areas, so they become dispersedand revert to the inconspicuous solitary phase.
Locustmigrations, known throughout all history, are
stilla serious problem in Africa and the Middle East.
Locustsalso occur in China, South America, and Australia.The species that plagued the North American
plainsin the 18005 is now extinct. Like locusts, when
aphidsbecome too crowded on a plant they begin developingwings and migrate to new plants, also a onewaytrip. The emigration of some aphids has a roundtrip aspect, because they migrate from a spring
host-plantspecies to a summer one, the shift being
causedby a physiological change in the spring plant.
Theaphids return to the spring host species the followingyear. Tropical army ant (for example, Eciton)
coloniesmake impressive daily raids from a central
bivouac
but are nomads on a perpetual one-way trip.
Duringtheir nomadic phase,the entire bivouac, queen
andall,must be moved daily while the larvae are growing,because these carnivores are continually depleting
of Behavior 69
70
Chapter4 BehaviorandEcology
Behaviorallnteractions
Conspecifics
between
Mating
SexualEncounter: The vast majority of insect species
are sexually dioecious, occurring as either female or
male, and most engage in mating, even those whose
females have the option of parthenogenesis (see Chapter 2). Mating presents the problem of finding a receptive member of the opposite sex, and insects have two
solutions. (1) In sexual aggregation, individuals that
need to mate convene in special sites, often at certain
times of the day or night, during the mating season.
These sites may be species-specific places of emergence, feeding, or oviposition, or distinctive landmarks. The aggregations typically have an operational
sex ratio strongly skewed toward males, beca use much
of a male's fitness depends on his ability to obtain
mates, whereas a female's fitness is distributed more
broadly among activities connected with feeding and
nesting, and she may have less to gain from multiple
matings. Because of their intense competition, the
males of many species establish territories that they defend against other males. The territories can have actual value to females for feeding or oviposition, as in
the case of dragonflies, or they may be leks, symbolic
territories that have no intrinsic value but are sought
by females and therefore are prized by males and defended by those with the best competitive ability-for
example, Hawaiian Drosophila on plant leaves. Highdensity sexual aggregations over landmarks usually are
aerial, the males forming a seething mating swarm that
makes establishment of a territory virtually impossible.
In that case, competition is based on a male's ability to
loca te a female quickly as she approaches or enters the
swarm, to seize her, and to deny other males access to
her before the couple departs. Male-biased mating
swarms are typical of many ants and small nematocerous Diptera, such as gnats, midges, and mosquitoes.
(2)In sexualattraction, one sex of a speciesmay broadcasta visual, chemical, or auditory signal indicating
that the signalerwants
oppositesex use the signal to find its source. To preeludeuseless hybrid matings, these signals must be
speciesspecific for a given area and season. Visual signalsare transmitted in the flashing colors of butterflies'
wingsin sunlight and in the blinking lights of fireflies'
photicorgans. In common firefly species, both males
andfemalesproduce light, the flying mal e giving a periodic,species-specific calling flash, and the sedentary
answeringwith a flash from the ground. In this
female
case,it is the female that attracts the male, by answeringeachof his calls after a prescribed interval, allowinghimto locate her. Malesof some Pteroptyx species,
bestknown in Southeast Asia, gather together in trees
alongthe banks of rivers and flash in unison. This
combinedeffort is thought to be effective in attracting
flyingfemales over long distances; at close range, individualattraction still is necessary.Males of some tree
cricketand katydid species seem to do the same thing,
bysynchronizing their calling songs. The best known
auditory attractants are produced by cicadas and
variousOrthoptera, such as crickets and katydids (Figure4-3). Cicada males buzz by rapidly vibrating two
membranes(tymbals) within chambers of the first abdominalsegment. The much quieter leafhoppers and
planthoppersalso use tymbals. Most orthopteran males
relyon wing stridulation. A scraper on one wing rubs
alonga ridgedfile on the other, causing the wings to vibrate.Some grasshoppers stridulate by rubbing their
legsagainsttheir foldedwings. For typical chemicalattraction,as in moths, females release a volatile sex
pheromone,which is distinct for each species (even the
isomermust be correct) and often is a mixture of two
ormorechemicals in a specific ratio. Sex pheromones
canelicitreactions in males many kilometers from the
female
caller.As a general rule, males emit attractants
thatarerisky or energetically costly, such as sound, and
females
emitattractants that are safeand cheap, such as
pheromones.Risky attractants are those that predators
andparasites can use to locate the sendero
Courtship:Once males and females have encountered
each
other,they may proceed directly to copulation or
mayfirst engage in various rituals, collectively known
ascourtship.Although both
~4
3
2
1
~5
J:4
~3
. ...
...
.
~d~~IIII~
"'02
gu 1
O)
~7
O)a
0.5
~4
3
~2 :C
,g1
~
1I
1I
.S: 8
>'7
ga
0)5
g.4
~ 3
u-2
1
7
6
5
4
3
21
O.O
-e
0.5'
1.0'
1.5'
Time in Seconds
2.0'
71
,P.!'
72
/
/'
~
.E
~
Figure 4-4 Courtship of the neo tropical mosquito Sabethes cyaneus (Fabricius), which is iridescent blue and
silver. Mating consists of three phases: precoupling, superficial genital coupling, and full copulation. Within
these phases, the male performs a series of courting
stages with overt movements that involve extensive use
of the midlegs, which on both sexes have "paddles." The
stages always occur in this order: free-Iegwaving, swinging, waving, and waggling. If the female is receptive, she
lowers her abdomen during the swinging stage (shown
here), making genital coupling possible. Full copulation
occurs right after waving, and it is during the waggling
stage that insemination occurs.
73
,.
74
Chapter4 BehaviorandEcology
Social Systems
Insects that fonn cooperative units have two large advantages over insects that live alone: (1) They are quick
to discover and monopolize resources, by communicating the location of food, mounting mass attacks on
invaders, and maintaining territories to exclude competitors. (2) They can build large nests rapidly, which
protects them and their offspring against natural enemies, harsh weather, and stressful environments, and
their close association aIlows easy transmission of mutualistic organisms.
The rudiments of advanced sociality among
groups of arthropods are evident in paren tal careo In a
convenient classification, presocial insects are divided
iOlo those that are subsocial, rearing their offspring
alone, and those that are parasocial, sharing their rearing with other parents of the same generation. These
presocial arthropods include members of many insect
orders and also crustaceans and spiders. Each subcategory has gradations that end in eusociality. Eusocial insects traditionally meet three criteria: Their groups
contain overlapping generations, perfonn cooperative
brood care, and have a caste of nonreproductives, the
"sterile caste." Within the subsocial category of presociality are primitive forros that lack complete overlap of
generations, intennediate fonns whose generations
overlap, and advanced fonns in which the offspring remain with the group and share in caring for further offspring, including their own. Within the parasocial
group, which consists primarily of bees, are primitive
species in which females nest together, either gregariously (separate nest entrances) or communally (a
shared nest entrance). Tent caterpillars and webwonns
(both Lepidoptera) sometimes are considered communal, because they build, expand, and repair their protective nest together and cooperate on foraging expeditions. Nevertheless, the group consists only of
immatures and thus does not involve parental careo A
more advanced parasocial fonn is quasisociality, in
which communal nesters coopera te in providing brood
careo Still more advanced is semisociality, in which the
cooperatively brooding adults include some nonreproductives. Yet this group abandons the nest before the
emergence of the next generation, and those offspring
start new nests elsewhere. Primitively eusocial insects
meet aIl three criteria but there is only one relatively
undifferentiated sterile caste, the workers. Progressively more advanced eusocials show more differentiation among colony members, including large differences in fonn and behavior between reproductives and
workers. Colonies of advanced termites may contain
several kinds of worker and soldier castes, and advanced ant societies have multiple worker subcastes,
including the large majors, the soldiers, medias that do
..
Behaviorallnteractions between Conspecifics
most
of the foraging, and tiny minors
c:
'"
E
c.
o
Q;
>
'"
C>
"C
c:
'"
.r=
"
ro
:
'"
a:
~
B
.~
o
:E
o
75
76
act as primers, most of them pheromones, either stimulate or inhibit development into a particular caste or
prevent particular behaviors from being expressed.
Primer pheromones commonly are transmitted during
trophallaxis, the exchange of food and secretions, or
during grooming. Mouth-to-mouth trophallaxis is typical of Hymenoptera, whereas termites transfer many
materials through their feces, and communication is
therefore anus-to-mouth trophallaxis. The best understood recruitment systems are trail making in ants and
dancing in honey bees (discussed later). Contact chemicals are important in allowing a worker to identify the
stages and castes of its nestmates and to recognize dead
nestmates. In addition, the ability to recognize nestmates in general is universal among social insects. The
characteristic odor of each colony is carried on the insect and appears to involve both genetic and environmental factors. An individual entering another nest,
even if of the same species, generally is attacked.
Social insects often work together to accomplish
extraordinary tasks that suggest planning and insight.
Honey bees are recruited to the best sources of nectar,
shape the cells of their wax combs into structurally
ideal hexagons, and thermoregulate their hives; ants
take the shortest routes to food, make flanking movements during raids, and build neat walls of uniform
thickness to seal the nest; termites build underground
arches that meet in the middle; weaver ants cooperatively pullleaves together so that others, holding silkproducing larvae, can bind them (discussed later). You
might infer that all these activities require either understanding of the larger goals or an exceedingly complex system of communication, entailing explicit instructions from a leader or detailed information passed
back and forth among individual members. Yet a close
examination of individuals engaged in cooperative activities often reveals afine level of disorder and apparent chaos. Effectiveness emerges at a higher, statistical
level, through mass action. Studies indica te that even
the most clever and efficient activities are performed by
individual workers following very simple behavioral
rules, through a process of self-organization. Communication simply meshes the behaviors in particular
ways to make this possible.
Social Communication
'4'
('..'''''\q/~~
"'\ ~.""
i '."
=)n~3i:f. !
~.
',:itf] ..
A'I~_I
77
ofthe colony. Typically, termites have a single reproductivepair, a king and a queen. Hymenopterans, in
contrast,have helpless larvae that usually contribute
liuleor nothing to the colony, so various forms of femaleadults do all the work. Adult males also contributenothing and are present only during mating periods.Asa general rule, there is a single reproductive,
thequeen.
Mosttermites are pale or white, whereas ants tend
tobeyellow,red, brown, or black, and have a narrow
constrictionat the base of the abdomen. Yet termites
and many ant species share superficial similarities,
suchas having colonies that last for years, royalty that
shedtheir wings, workers that never have wings, soldierforms,and a readily visible reproductive exodus
swarm.Their nests often are constructed of "carton"
(madeof dead plant materials, feces, or soil) or are 10catedin protected cavities in tree trunks, logs, or underground.These similarities give rise to the termite
misnomer"white ants."
Termite Societies
Figure4-7 Visible portion of subterranean-based Cubitermes termite colony in equatorial Africa. The architecture apparently is designed to shed water during the
heavy rains, yet allow exhaust of stale air and intake of
fresh air, by convection.
UNIVERSIDAD
DECALDAS
BIBLIOTECA
78
Chapter4 BehaviorandEcology
Figure4-8
lack functional ovaries. They collect wood fibers, expand the nest, forage for nectar, meat (prey or carrion),
and water, and defend the nest against intruders, using
a venomous sting. There is some tendency among
workers to specialize in certain tasks, but they are capable of doing any of them. The helpless larvae contribute lO the colony only by supplying nutrients lO the
adults by traphallaxis.
New colonies are founded by inseminated females
destined to be queens. In temperate climates, these
foundress wasps overwinter in sheltered sites, either in
a cluster (Polistes) or in isolation (for example,
Vespula). In the spring they start new nests (old nests
are rarely used) by themselves. Vespula foundresses always perform all foraging, construction, egg laying,
feeding, and defending duties until the first workers
emerge as adults. Polistes foundresses sometimes are
joined by one or two females fram the same generation,
which assume the rank of subordinate foundress with
nonfunctioning ovaries and perform the tasks of workers. If at any time the foundress dies, one of the subor-
predators, capturing mainly arthropods. Fungus gardeners (he leafcutter ants, tribe Attini) cut fresh leaves
and petals from shrubs and trees and place them in
chambers where fungus is cultured (see later). Slave
makers specialize in raiding or taking over the nests of
other ant species and using the labor of the conquered
workers. Nest parasites maintain their entire colonies
within the nests of other ant species, often lacking a
worker caste altogether and depending on the host for
defense and food. Most kinds of foraging ants use trail
pheromones to lead other foragers to a source of food.
A forager that has found food leaves a trail on the substrate as she returns directly to the nest (having used
the sun compass to keep track of her position relative
to the nest), then recruits other ants to follow the trail.
Each ant that finds the food adds to the trail on her return, but when all food has been removed the trail no
longer is reinforced and soon disappears.
Colonies of ants typically start like those of paper
wasps: periodic production and dispersal of a new generation of reproductives. At a particular season winged
adults of both sexes leave the colony, the males form
aerial mating swarms that females enter to find a mate.
Inseminated females, destined to be come queens, shed
their wings and find a site to establish a colony on their
own. A queen begins by laying eggs and feeding the larvae from her metabolic stores to develop a generation
of workers. As the worker base expands, the colony becomes self-maintaining by foraging for food, feeding
the larvae, and leaving the queen to egg production.
After several years, the colony is sufficiently large that
winged males and reproductive females are produced
and exodus flights occur. Another type of colony formation, seen in army ants, is division of the parent
colony into two groups, one with the old queen and
one with a few new, uninseminated female reproductives. All but one are removed from the new colony and
allowed to die. The remaining new queen is inseminated by males from her own or other colonies. Control of female caste generally is pheromonal-nutritional.
The queen produces a pheromone that prevents workers from feeding female larva e a royal diet until the
time of winged exodus approaches, when she also lays
unfertilized eggs that will be fed a male diet. Larval diets that allow development of various female subcastes
are determined by the needs of the colony, also presumed to be mediated by pheromones.
Honey Bee Society
Honey bee (Apis mellifera L.) colonies have been assisted or maintained by humans for thousands of years,
to obtain their stored honey or pro mote their pollinating abilities, which are extremely important to agriculture. Consequently they are the most intensively stud-
79
80
Chapter4 BehaviorandEcology
Figure4-9
which remains in the intruder and attracts other workers to the site of the sting and induces further stinging.
An assembly pheromone, released by a forager after returning from a successful expedition, causes other foragers to gather around to obtain information about the
food source. Much of this information is transmitted
during a dance, which has components suggesting
symbolic language. The dance language differs slightly
among different races of honey bee. The following dialect applies to the Carniolan race of northern Europe:
When food is less than 20 meters from nest, the forager
performs a round dance, in which it walks in an almost
complete circle, alternating between clockwise and
counterclockwise directions. This pattern indicates
that the source is nearby, its richness is indicated by the
duration and vigor (vibrations) of the dance, and its
odor is imparted by the dancer. Between 20 and 80 meters, a transitional sickle dance is performed, which
contains elements of the waggle dance. Foragers do a
perfect waggle dance when food is more than 80 m
away. It consists of alternating left and right semicircles, with a straight waggle run in between, in which
the bee vigorously wags its abdomen from side to side
while walking forward. Richness and odor of the food
source are transmitted as in the round dance. The approximate distance to the food is indicated by the duration of the waggle run, and consequently the number
of waggles in it and number of waggle runs per unit of
time. The direction to the food is indicated by the angle between the direction of the waggle run and the
vertically upward direction. This angle represents the
angle between the food source and the sun's azimuth,
which is the sun's coordinate on the horizon. The
dance occurs within an almost completely dark nest on
a vertical surface, so recruited workers detect its geometric features entirely by mechanical stimuli coming
from the dancing bee, which they follow during the
course of her dance, and from their sense of gravity.
The most abstract feature of this communication is the
representation of the real sun's azimuth on a horizontal
landscape by the direction "up" on a vertical dancing
platform.
New honey bee colonies are founded when a large
one divides into two parts. The process starts when
workers start building queen cells, large cells that hang
vertically off the face of ordinary honeycomb, and rearing future queens in them. Typically, the old queen
leaves with about half the workers in a prime swarm, a
mass of bees that comes to rest on a tree branch or
other aerial site. By using the surface of this cluster of
bees, permanent nest-site foragers employ the waggle
dance to recruit each other to cavities that might be
suitable, and those dances reporting the best site gradually recruit more workers until a critical mass agrees.
Then they allleave together with the queen to relocate
CommunityAssociations
intertidal zone. Green plants are the universal producers of organic materials, using energy derived from the
sun. Phytophagous (herbivorous) arthropods feed on
plants to obtain these materials and are thus primary
consumers. Zoophagous anhropods are secondary, tertiary, or quaternary consumers, feeding at so me more
distant link in the food chain, either on animals that
feed on plants or on animals that feed on other animals. Detritivores feed on dead matter at any of several
trophic links, further using the organic materials there.
Some insect detritivores are omnivorous, feeding opportunistica11y on living plant or animal tissue as we11.
At each step in the transfer of food from consumed to
consumer, roughly 90% of the energy contained in the
food is lost. Thus the total amount of biomass among
primary consumers is large, but at the top of this
trophic pyramid the biomass is sma11. This means the
environment sustains a greater mass of herbivores
(grasshoppers and buffalo) than carnivores (lice and
eagles). Actual relations among members in a community do not form a simple pyramid based on a few food
chains. Rather, they usua11y form a food web, with each
species either eating or being eaten by several other
species (Figure 4-10). This is beca use in every feeding
category, species vary along a continuum of food preferences, from extreme generalists lo extreme specialists. Furthermore, not a11 relationships involve just
eating and being eaten. The exact nature of the relationship between one insect species and other organisms, whether based on food and or another vital
resource, defines its ecological role or niche. By convention, in mutualism both organisms bepefit from the
relationship. In commensalism, one benefits and the
other is unaffected. In parasitism, the sma11 organism
(the parasite) benefits and the large one (the host) is
weakened. In predation, the large organism (the predator) benefits and the sma11one (the prey) is killed. Between parasitism and predation, there are pathogens
(bacteria, protozoa, nematodes, fung) and parasitoids
(insects), which are sma11parasites that seriously harm
or gradua11y kill the larger host. The term symbiosis is
reserved for the physica11y close and long-lived relationships observed in mutualism, commensalism, and
parasitismo
Microbial Relationships
Community
Associations
Arthropodsin general are major players in a11biotic
communities.In the marine environment, crustaceans
havelargeroles, whereas on land and in freshwater, insectsare dominant but are virtua11y absent in marine
cornmunities.Exceptions are a few insect species on
theocean'ssurfaces and along marine beaches and the
Mutualists: A variety of microbes assist insects nutritiona11y, living in close association with them or interna11y. In return, the insect provides a home, a
source of food, and a mechanism for transmission to
other insects. Many wood-eating termites, and also
wood-eating cockroaches, harbor colonies of fiagellate protists and bacteria in a special chamber in the
anterior hindgut. These microbes break down ce11u-
81
82
TERTlARY
CONSUMERS
Parasites
SECONDARY
CONSUMERS
PRIMARY
CONSUMERS
PRIMARY
PRODUCERS
Figure 4-10 Major feeding links within a community in one English woodland, illustrating the general nature of food webs and the integral roles of insects in them. Tortrix is
a moth, Cyzenis is a tachinid fly,Philonthus is a staphylinid beetle, and Abax and Feronia
are carabid beetles.
CommunityAssociations
relationships(biological transmission), which are obligaleandfairlyspecies specific, the parasite completes its
tXtrinsic
cycle in the vector, by multiplying (propagative),multiplyingand transforming (cyclopropagative),
or only Iransforming and growing (cyclodevelopmental).Propagativepathogens include viruses, rickettsiae,
spirocheles,and eubacteria. Cyclopropagative pathogensinelude sporozoan and fIagellate protists. Cyclodevelopmentalparasites include fIukes, tapeworms,
roundworms,and thorny-headed worms. Many of
hesecause serious diseases in humans and livestock,
affectinghundreds of millions of people. On a global
basis,among the most noteworthy livestock and pet
diseases(and their vectors) are babesiosis (ticks), theileriasis(ticks), nagana (tsetse flies), equine encephalilis (mosquitoes), and dog heartworm (mosquitoes).
Amongthe most infamous human diseases are malaria
(mosquitoes),river blindness (black fIies), elephantiasis(mosquitoes), encephalitis (mosquitoes), Lyme disease(ticks), spotted fever (ticks), dengue (mosquitoes),epidemic typhus (lice), relapsing fever (lice and
ticks),Chagas disease (kissing bugs), yellow fever
(mosquitoes),sleeping sickness (tsetse fIies), leishmaniasis(sand flies), and plague (fIeas). Most arthropod
veclorsare blood feeders (discussed later), offering the
palhogenor parasite an easy way to pass between verebraleand invertebrate hosts without exposure to the
outsideenvironment, but there are many variations in
heexact manner of host inoculation. These include
venebrateautoinoculation with the crushed vector or
itsfecesor inadvertent ingestion of the infected arthropodo
Within the vertebrate, the pathogen completes its
intrinsic
cycleand then is infectious to the arthropod
again.Ihis alternation between hosts is called horizontalIransmission.By contrast, some propagative pathogensalsoare transmitted from generation to generation
ofarthropodby transovarian transmission, that is, verThis helps maintain the chain of inticaltransmission.
fectionin the face of vertebrate immunity and conditionswhen horizontal transmission is impossible, as
during winter.
83
84
Figure 4-11 Two ants drinking nectar from an extrafloral nectary on an Inga tree. These ants attack insects that land on nearby leaves.
mosquito and fly larvae fall into this category. Still others create tiny shelters (domatia) for predaceous mites,
or have glands (extrafloral nectaries) that provide
sugar for parasitoid wasps and ants that patrol the
plant and disturb or attack plant-feeding insects (Figure 4-11). Myrmecophytes, or ant plants, provide shelter, food, or both, to the ants, in retum for protection,
and have a fairly species-specific and interdependent
relationship with them. The best known of these is the
bull's hom acacia, a small tree in the Neotropics that
provides both food and shelter for one Pseudomyrmex
ant colony. The ants, including queen and larvae, are
housed in large, hollow, twin thoms that are scattered
over the branches and twigs. Sugar is provided from
extrafloral nectaries at the base of leaf petioles, and
protein and fat are derived from Beltian bodies, pelletlike extensions of the leaflets that the ants pick and
carry to the thoms for colony distribution. For their
part, the ants act as ferocious body guards, biting and
stinging both insects and vertebrates that come into
contact with the tree. They also prevent competing
plants from growing around the base of the tree. An entirely different kind of relationship occurs between
Philidris ants and bulbous epiphytes (Rubiaceae:
Myrmecodia and Hydnophytum) that grow on small
trees in nutrient-poor sandy soils of Southeast Asia.
The pseudobulb has rootlets clinging to the host tree
and has a single twig of leaves. It is riddled with cavems that house the ants and provide them with cavities
for depositing refuse, which consists mainly of remains
of the ant's insect prey and of dead ants. The linings of
CommunityAssociations
beetles, corn-ear worrns, gypsy moths), and the parasites, especially the endoparasites, are the most host
specific (such as leafminers, gall-makers). Yet, many
species with leaf-chewing larvae have be come dedicated to particular kinds of plants containing toxic substances or other defenses that only a specialized insect
can overcome (such as monarch butterflies, pipevine
swallowtails, zebra butterflies). Herbivores make host
choices during the appetitive sequence that leads from
a general search to successive and overlapping responses to volatiles, visual appearance, taste, and initial ingestion or oviposition. The behaviors often are
elicited by chemical "sign stimuli," kairomones and
phagostimulants that are associated only with the family, genus, or species of plant that the insect is adapted
to feed on. Specialists have host-detecting equipment
and digestive and metabolic systerns dedicated to the
particular host, giving them a competitive advantage
over generalists or allowing them to eat plants from
which generalists are excluded altogether. A further advantage is that the host-plant poisons can be incorporated into the insects' bodies, giving them protection
from their own predators. Generalists, however, have
more food options, making it relatively easy to locate a
host plant and providing a large resource base for their
populations. Also, their evolutionary fates are not tied
to the success of one or a few species of plant.
Plant defenses against phytophagous insects fall
into anatomical, chemical, developmental, behavioral,
and mutualistic defense categories. Anatomical qualities include (l) visual devices such as unattractive colors and low reflectance, divergent leaf shapes within a
genus (making it harder to learn and recognize suitable
hosts), and visual mimicry of inedible plants; (2) mechanical and structural devices such as thick and fibrous tissues, spines, hooks, and hairs (trichomes),
and sticky sap as a wound response; (3) small seeds
that make searching and feeding inefficient. Chemicals
include repellents, distasteful substances, natural insecticides, digestive enzyme inhibitors, antimetabolites, and growth regulators (hormone mimics). These
properties are produced by various alkaloids, terpenoids, phenolics, proteins, gIycosides, and cyanides.
Developmental defenses include seed tactics that make
seeds and seedlings an unreliable food source: wide
dispersal, erratic production, and unpredictable germination or long dormancy. Another developmental defense connects the rate of growth to chemical and
structural defenses in one of two strategies. According
to the plant apparency hypothesis, plants tend to be either (l) inapparent (fast growing, herbaceous, annual,
with edible parts available for short periods and with
highly toxic substances produced in low concentrations) and are fed on by specialist insects, or (2) apparent (slowly growing, woody, perennial, with tough
85
86
Chapter4 BehaviorandEcology
some associations are more involved. Aphids may retain their honeydew until an ant solicits it or have special structures for holding the droplet rather than discharging it. Others have grasping devices to cling to the
ants when disturbed, or they may reproduce viviparously throughout the year, so that clones of them are
constantly producing large amounts of honeydew.
Ants, for their part, solicit honeydew; carry aphid eggs
int.J the ant nest for the winter; select appropriate food
plants and carry the aphids to them; apply substances
similar to juvenile hormone to the aphids, to prevent
them from developing wings; respond to an aphid
alarm pheromone by searching for possible enemies;
build shelters on the plant to house scale insects; and
carry scale insects on nuptial flights in order to establish them in new colonies. Lycaenid caterpillars provide a special substance from a dorsal gland on the abdomen. Ants covet the secretion and provide
protection in return. When disturbed, the caterpillars
emit a sound that attracts the ants, and within the ant
nest the caterpillars are nurtured and protected. Humans and honey bees also have a long history of foodfor-care mutualism, although it is not interdependem
and is cultural rather than genetic.
Commensals:A large assortment of insects gain by living in close association with other animals, doing little
or no harm by their presence. Typically they live in the
animal's nest and are known collectively as inquilines.
In addition to accessing shelter and protection, they eat
the host's waste, other inquilines, or the host's food
supplies, the latter causing a very slight drain on resources and thus crossing the line into social parasitism. A few species of domestic cockroaches and their
human hosts fall into this category. Termites and ants
provide an ancient habitat for many specialized inquilines, termed termitophiles and myrmecophiles, respectively. These fall into three categories: (1) Synecthrans are attacked by the hosts but can escape
or protect themselves; they scavenge food or waste.
(2) Synoeketes are ignored by the host beca use they
move quickly or do not appear foreign; they generally
scavenge food or waste but also sometimes kill and ea!
host immatures. (3) Symphiles are accepted by the hos!
as members of the colony; they may be fed, carried, and
groomed by the host. Symphiles share various characteristics that suit them to this role: They secrete appeasement substances that the hosts find attractive and
palatable; they have chemical, tactile, or visual resemblances to the host (Wasmannian mimicry), or they
have a sheltering cara pace that prevents hosts from
contacting vulnerable parts; they exhibit morphological regression, including flightlessness and reduction
or loss of eyes and appendages; and they use the chemical and behavioral communication systems of the
...
CommunityAssociations
87
--
.j'"
lB
a.
..:
..;
:s:
Figure4-12 Periodic blood feeders of vertebrate animals. A, Human bed bug feeding.
This species (Cimex lectularius) lives within human habitations. All members of the family Cimicidae are wingless blood feeders throughout life and most live in the roosts and
nestsof bats and birds. B,Asiantiger mosquitofeeding.This species,Aedesalbopictus
(Skuse), often lives near human dwellings, but not in them, and occurs mainly in rural
or wooded areas. All adult members of the family Culicidae have wings, and the females
of most species feed on blood. Their larvae are mostly free-living detritivores.
Jj
...;
:s:
88
Chapter4 BehaviorandEcology
CommunityAssociations 89
B
look like flowers themselves. lt is not clear if this concealment or disguise facilitates prey capture or prevents predation by the predators' own enemies. Insectgenerated lures include bright lights (Waitomo
.:g worms, larvae of mycetophilid larva e that live in caves
in New Zealand and attract insects to their sticky<!:i stranded webs), flashing lights (female Photuris fire--, flies that attract Photinus males to their deaths by mimicking the answering signal of a receptive Photinus
female), and attractive chemicals (bolas spiders that
mimic female moths by releasing
moth sex
pheromones and snaring male moths that come within
range of their sticky bolas). The last two examples exhibit the tactic known as aggressive mimicry.
Arthropods are prey for many vertebrate animals.
They form much of the diet of freshwater fish, amphibians, reptiles (notably lizards and small snakes),
many groups of birds (such as flycatchers, bee eaters,
warblers, creepers, woodpeckers), and some mammals
(notably shrews, small bats, and anteaters). Even vertebrates that do not specialize in arthropods make
them an important part of the diet during the breeding
season (for example, hummingbirds, squirrel monkeys) or include them as a minor constituent of their
omnivorous diets (for example, field mice, chimpanzees, humans). Predation pressure on arthropod
populations has led to a spectacular array of protective
measures directed primarily against vertebrate predatorso These may be classified as follows: (l) Defense and
offense discourage an attack by resisting, threatening,
Figure4-14
A, Robber fly (Asilidae) feeding on moth.
Robber!lies typically await prey fram perches, then fly
out to seize them in mid-air. The proboseis is inserted
into the prey, lytic saliva is injected, and then digested
tissuesare withdrawn as liquido The proboseis also can
be used as a defensive weapon. B, Flower fly larva (Syrphidae) feeding on an aphid. Because aphids tend to be
sedentary,they are easily seized by predators, including
those that have smaller bodies.
combinationof the two. Traps include the sticky aerialwebsof spiders, the aquatic nets of some caddisfly
larvae,and the sand pits of antlion (Myrmeleontidae)
andwormlion (Vermileonidae) larvae. Lures include
fiowers,which attract insect prey to within striking
distance of predators that wait on or behind the
fiower.Crab spiders and ambush bugs apply this technique.Often they are the same color as the flower
wherethey wait (Figure 4-15), and some mantids
90
Chapter4 BehaviorandEcology
~c:
'"
e'"
E
c.
o
Q;
>
'"
CI
"C
c:
'"
-5
1;;
~
'"
a:
JiI!'
.B
~
:;
.:1
~o
::
o
CommunityAssociations
91
Batesian mimics, too. (c) In object resemblance, the insect looks like an inanimate and inedible object, such
-g as a rock, stick, leaf (Figure 4-19) , or feces (Figure 4-20).
(d) In thanatosis, the insect feigns death. (3) In con~ cealment, the insect seems not to be there. This ap~ proach includes background resemblance, countershading (= obliterative shading: body appears fIat,
., rather than solid and three-dimensional), shadow elim-
~
C>
~
Figure
4-18 An example of mimicry in butterflies.
A,Theviceroy, Basilarchia archippus (Cramer); B, The
monarch,Danaus plexippus (L.).
ination
(body appears
joined
to substrate),
disruptive
coloration (body outline is obliterated), natural camoufIage (body covered with natural materials, such as
tree bark, living lichens, the remains of an insect's prey,
or its own feces), and hiding in an unexposed place;
insects can hide under physical objects or in nests
or cases of their own construction. Open concealment works best when the insect remains motionless.
~
<i
:;:
92
Chapter4 BehaviorandEcology
Detritivores
Animal carcasses and dung piles are "fugitive habitats," environments with resources that quickly dissipateo During the period of utility, they are invaded by
successive but overlapping waves of insects that deal
effectively with certain stages in the degradation and
drying process and with each other. A cow pat in North
America often is invaded first by horn flies and face
flies, whose females oviposit on it immediately after the
feces drop to the ground. Yellow dung flies, sepsids,
and ulidiid flies come, then leave, at various stages as it
cools and a crust forms. These are followed by scarab
and hydrophilid beetles, and by staphylinid beetles that
either feed on the eggs of other insects or parasitize developing fly larvae. Soldier flies show up still later. By
the time the cowpat is stiff and only moist in the middIe, it is occupied primarily by the larvae and pupae of
slow-growing fly and scarab-beetle larvae, each developing in zones of the cow pat that differ in physical
characteristics (crust, center, base). Arthropod succession in carcasses follows a similar pattern, typically
with blow flies appearing first, beetles later. In late
stages of decay, the carcass community may consist
mainly of dermestid beetles and moths that eat dried
skin and ligaments. The exact species composition and
rate of change depend not only on the geographic 10cality but also on the exact habitat (carcasses transform
very differently in sun and shade), weather, and season.
Knowledge of the pattern and speed of faunal succession in a carcass can be critical to forensic investigatorso From data on the arthropod species and their
stages in a corpse when it is discovered, it is possible to
estimate the postmortem interval and thus the time of
death.
94
Chapter4 BehaviorandEcology
PREDATORS
/
c~
l;~
~h
~
T'"S
:)
}<
~.~
PIT FEEDERS
'~D
;00
PARAS1rlDS
-"...
.~/
~:~~//
..
STRIPFEEDERS
"T
SAP FEEDERS
59
SPECIES
COLLARD FOUAGE
Figure4-21 Food web on a single plant, illustrating the presence of three guilds of
plant-feeding insects: 18 species of pit feeders, 17 species of strip feeders, and 59 species
of sap feeders. The parasitoids and predators of these insects, not numbered, also form
guilds.
competition, but partitioning and environmental instability prevent the exclusion of one competitor by another. Thus we find many insect guilds, groups of insect species that use the same food source but do so in
slightly different ways (Figure 4-21). The fact that over
half of all described species of organisms, and about
three quarters of all animal species, are insects suggests
they are exceptional in their ability to assume a myriad
of unique lifestyles.
There appear to be four interconnected reasons for
this diversity, all directly or indirectly resulting in a
high speciation-to-extinction
ratio: (1) Exoskeleton:
Population
Size and Its Control
Thenumbers of individuals in an insect population is
determinedfirst by the size of the entire community in
whichthey can exist, their biotope. Beyond that, their
densityis controlled by an array of exogenous and endogenous factors affecting reproduction, death, and
migration rates. Exogenous factors are principally
[ood, space, natural enemies (predators, parasites,
pathogens),and weather. The first three vary in their
intensityaccording to how dense the population is,
and are termed density-dependent factors, responsible
for regulating the density within somewhat narrow
bounds around the species' equilibrium density.
Weather-relatedfactors, in contrast, usually are densityindependent,having an effect proportional to insect
96
Chapter4 BehaviorandEcology
FILAMENTOUS
ALGAE
DlATOMS
Figure4-22 Simple freshwater aquatic food web, showing the pivotal roles of insects
at the primary- and secondary-consumer trophic leve\s.
ing how weather-related factors and biotic factors combine to determine population growth and depression
help entomologists anticipa te conditions when the EIL
wiIl be exceeded. The ideal goal is to find low-impact
ways to alter a pest's environment so that the EIL is
never reached and insecticides are unnecessary.
-References
References
Alcock,j. 1979. Animal Behavior: An Evolutionary Approach,
ed. 2. Sunderland,
MA: Sinauer Associates, 532 pp.
Andersson, M. 1994. Sexual SeIection. Princeton, N]: Princeton University Press, 599 pp.
Baerends, G. P. 1976. The functional organization
of behaviour. Anim. Behav. 24: 726-738.
Barth, E G. 1991. Insects and Flowers: The Biology of a
Partnership.
Princeton,
N]: Princeton
University
Press,
408 pp.
Barton Browne, L. 1974. Experimental
Analysis of Insect Behaviour. New York: Springer, 366 pp.
Bell, W j., and R. T. Card (Eds.). 1984. Chemical
Insects. Sunderland,
MA.: Sinauer Associates,
Ecology of
524 pp.
(Eds.).
FraenkeI, G. S., and D. L. Gunn. 1961. The Orientation of Animals. New York: Dover, 376 pp.
Frank, S. A. 1998. Foundations of Social Evolution. Princeton, N]: Princeton University Press, 268 pp.
Frisch, K. von. 1967. The Dance Language and Orientation of
Bees. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 566 pp.
Gadagkar, R. 1991. Belonogaster, Mischocyttarus, Parapolybia,
and independent founding Ropalidia. In K. G. Ross and
R. W Matthews (Eds.), The Social Biology ofWasps, pp.
149-100. Ithaca, NY: Comell University Press.
Holldobler, B., and E. O. Wilson. 1990. The Ants. Cambridge,
MA: BeIknap/Harvard University Press, 732 pp.
Houston, A. l., andj. M. McNarnara. 1999. ModeIs of Adaptive Behavior: An Approach Based on State. Cambridge,
UK: Carnbridge University Press, 378 pp.
Ito, Y. 1993. Behaviour and Social Evolution of Wasps. New
York: Oxford University Press, 159 pp.
Lloyd,j. E. 1983. Bioluminescence and cornrnunication in insects. Annu. Rev. Entorno\. 28: 131-160.
Mangel, M., and C. W Clark. 1988. Dynamic Modeling in Behavioral Ecology. Princeton, N]: Princeton University
Press, 308 pp.
Matthews, R. W., and j. R. Matthews. 1978. Insect Behavior.
New York: Wiley, 507 pp.
McFarland, D. j. (Ed.) 1984. Motivational Control Systems
Analysis. New York: Acadernic Press, 522 pp.
Michener, C. D. 1974. The Social Behavior of Bees: A Comparative Study. Carnbridge, MA: BeIknap/Harvard University Press, 404 pp.
MitteIstaedt, H. 1962. Control systems of orientation in insects. Annu. Rev. Entorno\. 7: 177-198.
Papaj, D. R., and A. C. Lewis (Eds.). 1993. Insect Leaming.
Ecological and Evolutionary Perspectives. New York:
Chapman &: Hall, 398 pp.
Price, P. W 1997. Insect Ecology. New York: Wiley, 874 pp.
Real, L. A. (Ed.). 1994. Behavioral Mechanisrns in Evolutionary Biology. Chicago: University of Chicago Press,
469 pp.
Roitberg, B. D., and M. B. Isrnan (Eds.). 1992. Insect Chernical Ecology. An Evolutionary Approach. New York:
Chaprnan &: Hall, 359 pp.
97
98
Chapter4 BehaviorandEcology
PhylumArthropoda1
Arthropods
e are concerned in this book principally with into point out the place of
theinsectsin the animal kingdom and to include at
leasta briefaccount of the animals most closely related
toandsometimes confused with the insects.
Theinsects belong to the phylum Arthropoda, the
principalcharacters of which are as follows:
Wsects,but it is appropriate
99
JI
100
Chapter5 PhylumArthropoda
exl
Chelicerata3
SubphylumTrilobita2
dopodite (Figure5-IC).
101
102
Chapter5 PhylumArthropoda
have an extra leg segment, the patella, between the femur and the tibia. The legs are generally uniramous;
that is, there is no exite or exopodite.
Class Merostomata4
Subclass Eurypteridas: The Eurypterida lived during
the Paleozoic era, from the Cambrian to the Carboniferous periods. They were aquatic and somewhat similar to the present-day Xiphosura, and some reached a
length of more than 2 meters. The prosoma bore a pair
of chelicerae, five pairs of leglike appendages, and a
pair each of simple and compound eyes; the opisthosoma was 12-segmented, with platelike appendages
concealing gills on the first 5 segments, and the telson
was either spinelike or lobelike.
and ticks
Pseudoscorpiones (Pseudoscorpionida,
Chelonethida)-pseudoscorpions
Solifugae (Solpugida)-windscorpions
Chernetes,
1',
2(1).
2'.
Araneae
p.105
Acari
p.129
Opisthosoma ending in a sting (Figure 5-3); first pair of legs not greatly
elongated; second ventral segment of opisthosoma with a pair of comblike
organs
Scorpiones
3(1').
3'.
4(3).
4',
5(4').
5'.
6(5').
6'.
7(3'),
7'.
8(7').
Opisthosoma not ending in a sting; first pair of legs longer than other
pairs (Figure 5-4A,B); second ventral segment of opisthosoma without
comblike organs
Pedipalps slender, similar to legs (Figure 5-4A); minute forms, 5 mm
or less in length
5
Palpigradi
Pedipalps usually much stouter than any of the legs (Figure 5-4B);
mostly larger forms
With two median eyes on a tUbercle anteriorly and a group of three eyes
on each lateral margin; taillong, filiform, and many-segmented; pedipalps
nearly straight or curved mesad, extending forward, and moving laterally
(Figure 5-4B); body blackish, more than 50 mm in length
Uropygi
p. 104
p.104
p.104
p.105
p.135
8'.
Solifugae
9
9(8').
First pair of legs very long, with long tarsi; opisthosoma constricted at
base; mainly tropical
10
First legs similar to the others and (except in the Opiliones) not usually
long; opisthosoma not particularly constricted at base
11
Prosoma longer than wide, lateral margins nearly parallel, and with a
transverse membranous suture in caudal third; opisthosoma with a very
short terminalappendage;length 5-8 mm (see also couplet 6')
Schizomida
p.105
Prosoma wider than long, lateral margins rounded or arched, and without
a transverse suture; opisthosoma without a terminal appendage; length
variable, up lOabout 50 mm
Amblypygi
p.105
9'.
10(9).
lO'.
p.135
..
,
104
Chapter5 PhylumArthropoda
11(9').
11'.
Ricinulei
p.128
Size and color variable, but without broad flap at anterior end of
prosoma covering chelicerae; legs variable in length, often very long
and slender (Figure 5-14); widely distributed
Opiliones
p.129
sting. The young are born alive and, for a time after
birth, ride about on the mother's back. Scorpions grow
slowly, and some species require several years to reach
maturity. The function of the pectines is not known,
but they are believed to be tactile organs.
The effect of a scorpion sting depends primarily
on the species of scorpion involved. The sting of most
species is painful and usually accompanied by local
swelling and discoloration, but it is not dangerous. Of
the 40-odd species of scorpions in the United States,
only one-Centruroides
sculpturatus Ewing-is
very
venomous, and its sting may be fatal. This species is
slender and rarely exceeds 65 mm in length. It varies in
color from almost entirely yellowish to yellowishbrown with two irregular black stripes down the back.
There is a slight dorsal protuberance at the base of the
sting. As far as is known, this species occurs only in
Arizona.
Scorpions do not ordinarily attack people but will
sting quickly if disturbed. In areas where scorpions occur, be careful in picking up boards, stones, and similar objects, and brush off, rather than swat, a scorpion
found crawling on your body.
ORDER Palpigradi9-Micro Whipscorpions: These
are tiny arachnids, 5 mm or less in length, somewhat
spider-like in appearance but with a long segmented
tail (Figure 5-4A). The pedipalps are leglike, and the
first pair of legs is the longest. These animals usually
live under stones or in the soil. This group is represented in the United States by three species in Texas
and California.
ORDER UropygPO-Whipscorpions: The whipscorpions are mainly tropical and, in the United States, occur only in the South. They are elongate and slightly
flattened, with a slender, segmented tail about as long
as the body, and powerful pedipalps (Figure 5-4B); the
maximum body length is about 80 mm, and the total
length including the tail may be 150 mm or more. They
.Palpigradi: palpi, palp or feder; gradi, walk (referring to the leglike
character of the pedipalps).
Figure5-3
A scorpion, 2X.
Figure5-4 Arachnids. A, A micro whipscorpion (Order Palpigradi); B, A whipscorpion (Order Uropygi); C, A windscorpion (Order Solifugae). (Courtesy of the Institute of
Acarology.)
called
vinegaroons
(or vinegarones)
IlSchizomida:
schizo, split (referring to the transverse suture on the
prosoma).
13Araneae: from the Latin, meaning a spider. This section was written by Jeremy A. Miller and Oarrell Ubick.
..
106
Chapter5 PhylumArthropoda
habitats may support up to 800 spiders per square meter. Point estimates of spider diversity range from 20
species per hectare in the temperate zone to more than
600 species per hectare in tropical forests (Coddington
and Colwell 2001).
Unique derived characters that define spiders inelude cheliceral venom glands (tost in the family Uloboridae), abdominal spinnerets, and the modification
of the male pedipalps into sperm transfer organs.
MedicallyImportantSpiders. Although spider bites are
widely feared, few species are dangerous to humans.
Brown reeluse spiders and their relatives (13 North
American species ineluding 2 exotics, genus Loxosceles,
family Sicariidae) and black widow spiders (5 North
American species, genus Latrodectus, family Theridiidae) are the most medically important spiders in the
United States.
Loxosceles (Figures 5-91, 5-10) lives mostly in the
Midwest and Southwest. A species introduced from Europe has been found on the eastern seaboard and elsewhere in the United States, but the venom of this
species is relatively mild (Gertsch and Ennick 1983).
Brown reeluse venom causes a small, dry, irregular
necrotic lesion that heals very slowly. Contrary to popular belief, brown reeluse bites cannot be conelusively
diagnosed from the wound. Serious medical conditions, ineluding Lyme disease, chemical burn, and anthrax infection, have been misdiagnosed as brown
reeluse bites, delaying proper treatment (Osterhoudt et
al. 2002, Sandlin 2002). It is not uncommon for such
misdiagnoses to occur outside the range of the brown
reeluse spider (Vetter and Barger 2002, Vetter and Bush
2002).
Latrodectus (Figure 5-HA) is widespread in the
United States. Black widow venom is a neurotoxin.
Typical symptoms of envenomation inelude swelling of
the lymphatic nodes, profuse sweating, rigidity of the
abdominal museles, facial contortions, and hypertension. Antivenin is readily available to counteract the effects of Latrodectus envenomation. No deaths have
been attributed to widow bites in the United States
since the 1940s.
Neither Loxosceles nor Latrodectus species known
from North America are aggressive. Unlike groups such
as fieas, ticks, biting fiies, and bed bugs, spiders do not
take blood meals from humans and do not normally
bite humans except in self-defense.
Two other spiders have been implicated in causing
minor necrotic lesions. Both are introduced from Europe. Tegenaria agrestis (Walckenaer) (family Agelenidae) is found in the Pacific Northwest; Cheiracanthium mildei Koch (family Miturgidae) is now
widespread in human structures in North America.
2
Steel
N
I
E
z
'"o
Frame silk
0.1
0.2
Strain=
0.3
A length
initiallength
Figure5-5
cephalothorax bears the eyes, mouthparts, legs, pedipalps, and stomach. The abdomen contains the primary reproductive structures, respiratory system, intestine, anus, silk glands, and spinnerets.
The cephalothorax is covered dorsally by the carapace and ventrally by the sternum. Anterior to the sternum is a small sclerite called the labium, which may be
fused to the sternum. Spiders primitively have eight
simple eyes, but some taxa have fewer eyes. Eye number and arrangement is important in identifying spiders. The area between the anterior eye and the edge of
the carapace is the clypeus.
The first pair of appendages is called the chelicerae. Chelicerae have two segmems, a base and a
fango The opening for the poison gland is located near
the tip of the fango The base may be quite robusto The
base may receive the fang in a furrow, which is usually
lined with rows of teeth. In some families, the cheliceral bases may be fused by a membranous lamella
Figure 5-6 Structural characteristics of spiders. A, Dorsal view (generalized); B, Ventral view, araneomorph; e, Ventral view, mygalomorph.
108
Chapter5 PhylumArthropoda
~
I
,~,
'~~~
__,
,SS
MT
G
~CN
TA
/
--- --~,- ,
-<~..'''.
. -,::::-"---':~
- i\"""m_~"'I.\\\U\\"_'"
-CT
\
SC
Figure5-7 Legs, chelicerae, and male palp characters of spiders. A, First leg of Mimetus puritanus Chamberlin (Mimetidae); B, Fourth metatarsus of Achaearanea tepidariorum
(c. L. Koch) (Theridiidae); C, Fourth tarsus and metatarsus of Callobius deces
(Chamberline and Ivie) (Amaurobiidae); D, Tarsus of Araneus diadematus Clerck
(Araneidae); E, Tarsus of Tibellus oblongus (Keyserling) (Philodromidae); F, Trilobe
membrane between metatarsus and tarsus of Heteropodavenatoria (L.) (Sparassidae);
G, Stridulatory striae on lateral face of chelicera, Mermessus dentiger; H, Chelicera of
Araneus diadematus showing condyle on proximolateral parto 1, Male palp of a haplogyne
spider, Latrodectus rec/usaGertsch and Mulaik (Sicariidae); J, Palp of an entelegyne male,
Mermessus dentiger O. Pickard-Cambridge (Linyphiidae). CA, calamistrum; CB, ventral
comb of setae; Cl, claws; CN, condyle; CT, claw tufts; CY, cymbium; MT, metatarsus;
P, paracymbium, SC, scopula; SS, stridulatory striae; TA, tarsus; TM, trilobe membrane,
TR, trichobothrium.
ti
110
Chapter5 PhylumArthropoda
Classification
of Spiders
Spidersare divided into two suborders: Mesothelae and
Opisthothelae. The Mesothelae are currently restricted
to southeastern Asia andJapan. These relict taxa retain
rnany features of primitive spiders, such as abdominal
segmentation and ventral spinnerets. The vast majority
of spiders belongs to the suborder Opisthothelae,
which itself is divided into two infraorders, Mygalornorphae and Araneomorphae. Both occur in North
America. A few basal mygalomorphs have vestiges of
abdominal segmentation in the form of abbreviated tergites. A sclerotized scutum covering pan of the abdomen is found sporadically among araneomorph spider taxa and is not derived from primitive abdominal
segmentation. Mesothele and mygalomorph spiders
have chelicerae oriented so that the fangs are more or
lessparallel (Figure 5-6C); araneomorph spiders usuallyhave opposing fangs (Figure 5-6B) , although some
taxahave secondarily modified chelicerae. Mesotheles,
rnygalomorphs, and the most basal groups of araneornorph spiders have two pairs of book lungs. In North
America, only hypochilids among the araneomorphs
retain the posterior pair of book lungs. In most araneomorph spiders, the posterior pair of book lungs is
rnodified into a tracheal system (Figure 5-6B). Secondary modifications of the respiratory system occur in
some derived groups of araneomorph spiders.
Individual species can produce up to seven distinct types of silk, each with a specialized function,
such as dragline production, egg sac construction, and
both the adhesive and nonadhesive parts of a web.
Basalaraneomorph spiders produce adhesive silk from
a platelike cribellum just anterior to the spinnerets
(Figure 5-8A, CR). The cribellum is covered in tiny
spigots. Cribellate silk consists of hundreds of very
fine, dry silk fibers around a few thicker core fibers.
The physical basis of stickiness in cribellate silk is not
wellunderstood, but the adhesive force is proponional
to the surface area contact between the silk and the object being held (Opell 1994). Cribellate silk is combed
spiders
112
Chapter5 PhylumArthropoda
Oonopidae
Pholcidae-cellar spiders
Diguetidae
Plectreuridae
Ochyroceratidae
Leptonetidae
Telemidae
Sicariidae
Scytodidae-spitting
spiders
Entelegynae
Eresoidea
Oecobiidae
Hersiliidae
Orbiculariae
Uloboridae-hackled-band
orb-weavers
Deinopidae-ogre-faced
spiders
Araneidae
Tetragnathidae
Theridiosomatidae
Symphytognathidae
Anapidae
Mysmenidae
Mimetidae-pirate
spiders
Theridiidae-cobweb
spiders
Nesticidae
Linyphiidae
Pimoidae
Titanoecidae
RTA Clade
Dictynidae
Zodariidae
Hahniidae
Agelenidae
Cybaeidae
Desidae
Amphinectidae
Amaurobiidae
Tengellidae
Zorocratidae
Superfamily Lycosoidea
Ctenidae-wandering
spiders
Zoropsidae
Miturgidae
Oxyopidae-Iynx spiders
Pisauridae-nursery-web
and fishing
spiders
Trechaleidae
Lycosidae-wolf spiders
Clade Dionycha
Clubionidae
Anyphaenidae
Corinnidae
Liocranidae
Zoridae
Gnaphosidae
Prodidomidae
Homalonychidae
Selenopidae
Sparassidae-giant
crab spiders
Philodromidae
Thomisidae
Salticidae-jumping
spiders
Arachnological
= anterior
abbreviations
PLE = posterior lateral eyes; LE = lateral eyes. Spinnerets: AMS = anterior median spinnerets; ALS = anterior lateral spinnerets; PMS = posterior median spinnerets; PLS = posterior lateral spinnerets. Measurements: L = length;
W = width; PT/C is the ratio of the patella+tibia length divided by carapace length. The term procurved refers to
a line in which the ends are anterior to the center of the line; a recurved line has the ends posterior to the middle.
1.
1'.
2(1).
= 3 to
11
-Key
to SpiderFamiliesof NorthAmerica
2/.
3(2).
3'.
4(3').
4/.
5(2/).
5/.
6(5/).
6/.
7(6).
7/.
8(6').
8'.
9(8/).
9'.
10(9/).
10'.
ll(l').
ll'.
12(1l).
12/.
5
Atypidae
p.120
Mecicobothriidae
p.120
Antrodiaetidae
p.120
Theraphosidae
p.122
6
7
8
Nemesiidae(Calisoga) p.122
Dipluridae
Ctenizidae
p.120
(Cyclocosmia)
p. 120
Cyrtaucheniidae
(Eucteniza)
Males or females with tarsus llaeking seopula, but with lateral spines;
if tarsus 1with a weak seopula and laeking spines, then retromargin of
chelicera without teeth (but may have a few denticles); widespread in
distribution
10
Ctenizidae(inpart)
p.120
Cyrtaucheniidae
(in part)
12
p.122
14
27
13
p.122
113
114
Chapter5 PhylumArthropoda
13(12).
Tarsi 3-clawed, scopulae and claw tufts absent (Figure S-7D); mostly
web builders; if legs are slender and relatively delicate, assume tarsi are
3-clawed
51
Tarsi 2-clawed, usually with scopulae and claw tufts (Figure S-7E);
if claw tufts are present, assume tarsi are 2-clawed
81
Hypochilidae
14'.
15
15(14').
15'.
16
17
16(15).
13'.
14(11').
(Hypochilus)
p.122
Uloboridae
(Miagrammopes)
p.124
p.126
16'.
Dictynidae(Lathys)
17(15').
17'.
PME huge, several times the diameter of remaining eyes (Figure S-9G)
PME not so enlarged
Deinopidae(Deinopis) p.124
18(17').
18'.
19
20
19(18).
Anal tubercle enlarged and fringed with long setae; chelicerae free;
entelegyne (epigynum present)
Oecobiidae(Oecobius) p.124
19'.
18
Filistatidae
21
20(18').
20'.
22
21(20).
Zorocratidae
(Zorocrates)
p.122
p.127
21'.
Anterior tibia with 6-7 pairs of ventral spines; PER recurved; all tarsi
with 2 claws; body patterned; California (introduced)
22(20').
22'.
Zoropsidae(Zoropsis) p.127
23
25
23(22).
Uloboridae(in part)
23'.
24
24(23'). Endites converging apically; cribellum usually entire; legs usually without
spines
24'.
Endites parallel; cribellum divided; legs with spines
25(22'). Cheliceral margins with 5 to 7 stout teeth; male palpus with embolus
threadlike, enclosed in membranous conductor; California, Texas
to Florida
25'.
Dictynidae(in part)
Titanoecidae
(Titanoeca)
Amphinectidae
(Metaltella)
p.124
p.126
p.126
p.126
26
Desidae(Badumna)
p.126
26'.
AME at most 1.2X larger than ALE; male palpus with embolus usually
short and stout, iflong, then arcuate, never enc10sed in conductor
27(12'). Eyes complete1y lacking (but may have small eye spots)
27'.
At least 2 eyes present
28(27).
28'.
29
30
29(28).
29'.
Cybaeidae
(in part)
p.126
Dictynidae(in part)
p.126
30(28').
30'.
31(30).
31
32
Telemidae
(Usofila)
p.123
31'.
Linyphiidae(in part)
33
Theridiidae
(Thymoites)
p.125
Nesticidae(in part)
p.126
Caponiidae(in part)
35
p.122
35(34').
35'.
36
37
36(35).
36'.
Symphytognathidae
(Anapistula)
Nesticidae(Nesticus)
37(35').
Male palp with exposed bulb, not enc10sed by cymbium (Figure 5-71);
female lacking epigynum, but may have some sc1erotization at epigastric
area (haplogynes)
38
48
37'.
p.126
p.125
p.126
38(37).
38'.
39
39(38).
39'.
Eyes in 2 triads
Pholcidae(in part)
40
40(39').
40'.
Scytodidae
(Scytodes) p.123
41
41(40').
41'.
Sicariidae(Loxosceles)p.123
Diguetidae(Oiguetia) p.123
42
p.123
..
116
Chapter5 PhylumArthropoda
42(38'),
42',
Size >5 mm; tracheal spiracles paired, conspicuous, located near book
lung openings (Figure 5-9H)
Size < 5 mm; tracheal spiracles inconspicuous, if paired, then not near
book lungs
43(42),
43'.
44(42').
44'.
45(44').
45'.
46(45').
46'.
47(46').
43
44
Dysderidae
(Dysdera) p.122
p.123
Segestriidae
Telemidae
(Usof/a)
p.123
45
p.123
Oonopidae(in part)
46
Legs relatively long (PT/C > 1.5); PME usually posteriorly displaced
from LE, if eyes contiguous then occupying less than '/2 cephalon width
Leptonetidae
(in part)
p.123
47
Oonopidae(in part)
p.123
p.123
47'.
48(37').
48'.
Ochyroceratidae
(Theotma)
49
50
49(48).
49',
p. 126
Cybaeidae
(Cybaeozyga)
50(48').
50'.
51(13).
51'.
52(51).
52'.
53(52').
Eyes in 3 groups, with AME forming a dyad and the others 2 triads
(Figure 5-9F); chelicerae fused at base (Figure 5-9F)
53'.
54(53').
54'.
55(51').
55'.
56(55').
56'.
Dictynidae(in part)
p.126
Nesticidae(in part)
p.126
Linyphiidae(in part)
p.126
52
55
Caponiidae(Ca/pona) p.122
53
Pholcidae(in part)
54
p.123
Plectreuridae
p.123
Tetragnathidae
(in part) p.125
Pholcidae(in part)
67
56
57
p.123
57(56). PLS with long apical segment, about as long as abdomen; eyes clustered
on a mound at center of cephalon; Texas, Florida
57/,
62'.
63(61'). Sternum with a pair of pits at labial margin; tibia IV with long
trichobothria; legs stout; size < 2.5 mm
63'.
Sternum without such pits; tibia IV without long trichobothria;
legs variable; size usually larger
64(63'). Clypeus higher than 4 diameters of AME; chelicerae usually with
stridulatory file on lateral surface, lacking condyle (Figure 5-7G);
legs weakly spined; tarsi cylindrical; leg break at patella-tibia joint;
sheet web builders
64/.
65(64).
65/.
Hersiliidae(Tama)
58
p.124
Mimetidae
p.125
59
60
61
Nesticidae(in part)
p.126
Theridiidae(in part)
62
p.125
63
Anapidae
(Gertschanapis)
Mysmenidae
Theridiosomatidae
( Theridiosoma)
p.125
p.125
p.125
64
65
66
Pimoidae(Pimoa)
p.126
Linyphiidae(in part)
p.126
Araneidae
p.125
Tetragnathidae
(in part)
p.125
118
Chapter5 PhylumArthropoda
67(56').
67'.
68(67).
68'.
69(68').
69'.
70(69).
70'.
71(69').
68
78
Zodariidae
ALSat most only slightly larger than the others; endites not strongly
converging; serrula present
69
Colulus large and broad, occupying at least half the width of the
spinning area
Colulus width less than 1/2of the spinning area
Distribution: southern Florida
Distribution: southern California
Spinnerets arranged in transverse row; tracheal spiracle positioned
well anterior of spinnerets
71'.
72(71').
Legs with plumose hairs; both eye rows strongly procurved, straight in
Tegenaria,which has distinctive sternum markings
p.126
70
71
Desidae(Paratheuma)
p.126
Dictynidae(Saltonia)
p.126
Hahniidae(in part)
72
p.126
p.126
72'.
Legs lacking plumose hairs; eye rows straight; sternum typically 1 color
Agelenidae
73
73(72').
73'.
Cybaeidae
(in part)
74
p.126
74(73').
74'.
Hahniidae(in part)
75
p.126
75(74').
75'.
76
76(75).
76'.
Size > 5 mm
Size < 5 mm
77(75').
Legs long and slender, PT/C > 1.25; male palp with apically produced
cymbium
Hahniidae(in part)
Hahniidae
(Calymmaria)
77'.
77
78(67').
Legs shorter and stouter, PT/C < 1; male palp with unmodified cymbium
Tarsi long and flexible
78'.
Dictynidae(in part)
Trechaleidae
(Trechalea)
79
79(78').
Oxyopidae
79'.
80
80(79').
80'.
81(13').
81'.
PER strongly recurved with PLE posterior to PME so that eyes appear
as 3 rows (Fgure 5-9C); male palp lacking retrolateral tibial apophyss
PER not as strongly recurved, PLE lateral to PME (Figure 5-9D); male
palp with retrolateral tibial apophysis
p.126
p.126
p.126
p.127
p.127
Lycosidae
p.127
Pisauridae
p.127
Legs laterigrade: extending laterally from the body and twisted so that
the morphologically pro lateral surface of the anterior legs s functionally
dorsal (Figure5-11 C)
82
85
82(81).
Anterior legs thicker and longer than posterior ones (Figure 5-11C);
tarsi lacking scopulae; chelicerae lacking teeth (except Isaloides)
Thomisidae
83
Philodromidae
(in part) p.128
Larger spiders (size usually > 10 mm); cheliceral retromargin with teeth
or denticles
84
84(83').
Sparasiidae
(in part)
84'.
Tengellidae
(Lauricius) p.126
82'.
83(82').
83'.
Salticidae
p.128
p.128
p.128
86
87
90
87(86).
87'.
88
89
88(87).
AER strongly recurved with ALE small and contiguous with PME and
PLE; size > 6 mm
Ctenidae
p.128
p.128
88'.
89(87').
Zoridae(Zara)
Philodromidae
(Tibellus)
89'.
Homalonychidae
(Homalonychus)
90(86').
90'.
91(90').
91',
92(91).
92'.
PERstronglyprocurved;ALSwith numerousconspicuouslyelongated
spigots; tarsal claws and cheliceral margins lacking teeth
Anyphaenidae
91
p.128
p.128
p.128
92
93
Gnaphosidae
(in part)
p.128
Prodidomidae
(in part) p.128
120
Chapter5 PhylumArthropoda
Miturgidae
94
p.127
Corinnidae (Trachelinae)
p. 128
95
95(94').
96
95'.
98
96(95).
93(91').
93'.
94(93').
94'.
96'.
Corinnidae(Corinninae,
Phrurolithinae)
p. 128
97
97(96').
Tengellidae(in part)
97'.
98(95').
98'.
Liocranidae(Apostenus)p. 128
Corinnidae
(Castianeirinae)
p. 128
99
99(98').
Clubionidae
p. 127
99'.
p. 128
Infraorder Mygalomorphae
These are the tarantulas and their allies. These spiders
have large and powerful chelicerae with the fangs
parallel to each other and two pairs of book lungs (Figure 5-6C). Females are long-lived and molt after sexual maturity. Most species are large (5-34 mm), heavybodied, and stout-Iegged. Many species are burrowers;
some dose their burrows with a trapdoor or silk collar.
This group is largely tropical, but 138 species occur in
North America. Most of these occur in the South and
Southwest, but a few occur as far north as Massachusetts and southeastern Alaska.
Family Antrodiaetidae-Folding-Door
Spiders:
Members of this group have one to three dorsal abdominal tergites, some separation between the labium
and the sternum, and a longitudinal or pitlike thoracic
furrow. The burrows of these spiders are dosed with a
pair of flexible, silken doors (Antrodiaetus) or with a
single thin door (Aliatypus), or remain open on a turret (Atypoides). They are medium-sized mygalomorphs
(6-16 mm) with 25 species widely distributed in North
America.
Family Atypidae-Purse-Web Spiders: These moderately large spiders (8-30 mm) have one dorsal abdominal tergite, sometimes enlarged into a scutum in
males. The sternum and labium are fused, and the thoracic furrow is transverse. These spiders build silken
~'.tI'! . ubesthat may le hO~W1t\ly on the ground or extend
ft{" . up the base of a tree. The tUbesare camouflagedwith
p. 126
121
Figure5-9
B IB ,l .r
DE CA' ...".
n..
. ,-""",A
,
122
Chapter5 PhylumArthropoda
FamilySegestriidae:These three-clawed,ecribellate
spidershave six eyes arranged in three dyads. They are
distinguished by having the third pair of legs directed
anteriorly. The tracheal system is as in dysderids.
Segistriids are widespread in the United States, with
seven described species.
Family Oonopidae: Tiny 0.5-3 mm) ecribellate,
two-clawed spiders with six eyes arranged in a tight
group. Many species have large sclerotized plates in
various configurations covering parts of the abdomen.
The tracheal system is as in dysderids. These spiders
can be found in leaf litter or buildings; some species are
saltatory.There are 24 North American species, mostly
in the southem United States.
Family Pholcidae-Cellar Spiders: Small to mediumsized (1.5-9 mm) ecribellate, three-clawed spiders
with fused chelicerae, six or eight eyes (Figure 5-9F) ,
and very long, thin legs with tarsi subdivided into
many pseudosegments. Unlike most haplogynes, the
female genital regio n may be covered by a sclerotized
"epigynum," as in most entelegyne spiders. However,
the ducts of pholcid genitalia are haplogyne. Pholcids
build irregular webs and may vibrate their webs when
disturbed. Eggs are carried in the chelicerae loosely
bound with silk. Pholcids are common in basements,
garages,and other such unimproved structures. Thirtyfour species are represented in North America.
Family Diguetidae: Small to medium-sized (410 mm) ecribellate, three-clawed spiders with six
eyes arranged in three dyads, long thin legs, and first
tarsus of the male subdivided into many pseudosegments. The chelicerae are fused medially with a flexible membrane; the outer surface has a stridulatory
file. A pair of tracheal spiracles are located anterior to
the spinnerets about one third the distance to the epigastric furrow. These spiders live in silken tubes attached to a series of overlapping silken disks that are
arranged like shingles on a roof and attached to vegetation. There are seven species in the southwestern
United States.
Family Plectreuridae: Medium-sized (5.5-12 mm)
ecribellate, three-clawed spiders with eight eyes. The
chelicerae are as in diguetids. These spiders construct
silk tubes with silk radiating out at the entrance and
are often found in hot, arid habitats. There are 16
species in the southwestem United States.
Family Ochyroceratidae:Tiny (1-2 mm), ecribellate,
six-eyed, three-clawed spiders with long, thin legs.
These spiders resemble pholcids but lack pseudosegmented tarsi. The chelicerae are free, although a median lamella is presento These spiders have a distinctive
purplish coloration. One species is found in Florida.
Family Leptonetidae: Tiny (1-3 mm), three-clawed
spiders that may be six-eyed, four-eyed, or blindo Most
six-eyed species have a posterior dyad set apart from an
anterior row of four eyes. There are 34 species, mostly
in the southem United States. Some live in caves; others are associated with rocks and leaf litter.
FamilyTelemidae: Tiny (1-2 mm) three-clawed spiders that may be six-eyed or blindo Legs are long and
thin. The book lungs are modified into an anterior set
of tracheae. The abdomen has a distinctive sclerotized
"zigzag" above the pedicel. There are four species in
westem North America, usually associated either with
caves or damp leaf litter.
.
Family Sicariidae:Small to medium-sized (5-12 mni.~
two-clawed spiders with six eyes arranged in three
widely separated dyads (Figure 5-91). The chelicerae are
fused basally; the lateral face has coarse stridulatory
striae. The legs are relatively long and slender. This family is represented in North America by the genus Loxoseeles, which includes the brown recluse (Figure 5-10).
Loxoseeles contains some of the most poisonous species
found in North America. Nevertheless, as mentioned,
the frequency of envenomation has been exaggerated.
Thirteen species of Loxoseeles can be found in the Midwest, Southwest, and Atlantic seaboard.
Family Scytodidae-Spitting Spiders: Small (3.55.5 mm), three-clawed spiders with six eyes arranged in
three widely separated dyads, carapace domed in profile, highest posteriorly. The chelicerae are weak and
fused basally. The legs are long and slender. These slowmoving spiders do not construct snares, but capture
their prey by spitting out a mucilaginous substance that
engulfs the prey and fastens it to the substrate. There
are five North American species.
Clade Entelegynae
The term entelegyne condition refers to the female genitalia, which has separate ducts for the reception and
expulsion of sperrn. Entelegyne spiders usually have
123
124
Chapter5 PhylumArthropoda
Eresoidea
This small group of spiders is mostly tropical and contains some social species. lt includes cribellate and
ecribellate spiders in three families, two of which are
represented in North America.
Family Oecobiidae:
This familyof tiny 0-4.5 mm)
three-clawed spiders is distinguished by its enlarged,
jointed anal tubercle fringed with long curved hairs.
Four eyes are well developed, four are degenera te.
North American species have a divided cribellum, although other family members are ecribellate. This family is widely distributed and is often found in houses.
There are eight North American species.
Family Hersiliidae:These flat, ecribellate threeclawed spiders are easily distinguished by their extremely long, tapered posterior spinnerets, with the distal segment about as long as the abdomen. Two species
are, rarely, collected in southern Texas and Florida.
Clade Orbiculariae
This large group of three-clawed spiders includes the
orb-weavers (Figure 5-llB) and their descendents.
The Uloboridae and Deinopidae have an undivided
cribellum and comprise the Deinopoidea; the 11 remaining families are ecribellate and belong to the Araneoidea. Many araneoids have a paracyrnbium attached
to the retrolateral part of the cymbium (Figure 5-7J);
this structure is of taxonomic importance.
Family Uloboridae-Hackled-BandOrb-Weavers: This
four- or eight-eyed family lacks poison glands and builds
a complete or reduced orb web. The family of small to
medium-sized spiders (2-6 mm) is widespread in North
America, with 14 species.
Family Deinopidae-Ogre-Faced Spiders: These
night-active spiders are easily recognized by their extremely large posterior median eyes (Figure 5-9G).
They have an elongate body (12-17 mm) and long,
Figure5-11 A, Black
widow spider, Latrodectus
sp. (Theridiidae), female
hanging from its web;
B, A garden spider, Argiope
aurantia Lucas; C, A crab
spider, Misumenops sp.
(Thomisidae); D, Ajumping spider, Phidippus audax
(Hentz) (Salticidae).
(A, Courtesy of Utah
Agricultural Experiment
Station.)
slender
legs. They build a modified orb web, which
theyhold in their first two pairs of legs and cast like a
netto capture prey. There is one species in the southeastemUnited States.
FamilyAraneidae:This is a diverse family,nearly all
ofwhichconstruct an orb web. Included in this group
arethe distinctive day-active spiny orb-weavers of the
generaGasteracantha and Micrathena, the garden spidersofthe genus Argiope, and the Bolas spiders (genus
Mastophora).Bolas spiders have abandoned the orb
web;theyuseaggressivechemicalmimicry to lure male
moths,which they disable by striking them with a
globuleof sticky silk swung on the end of a line. There
are 164 araneid species widely distributed in North
Ameriea.
FamilyTetragnathidae:This family of orb-weavers
includesNephila clavipes (L.), which builds a golden
orb web that may be a meter in diameter. Female
Nephila
are very large (22-26 mm), but the males are
muehsmaller (6-8 mm) and may be overlooked by
colleetors.Nephila can be common in the southern
states.Nephila and most araneids build vertical orb
webs;the remaining tetragnathids typically build horizontalorb webs. Members of the genus Tetragnatha
oftenbuild webs over water. These spiders are longbodiedwith very long and protruding chelicerae, especiallyin the males. There are 43 tetragnathid species
widelydistributed in North America.
These tiny (1-2.5 mm)
FamilyTheridiosomatidae:
orb-weaversare recognized by the presence of a pair of
pitson the anterior part of the sternum adjacent to the
!abium,by their truncated sternum, and long trichobothriaon tibiae III and IV.In our genus, the spider
sitsat the center of a vertical orb pulled into a cone by
athreademanating from the hubo There are two species
ineastemNorth America.
Symphytognathiclsand
FamilySymphytognathidae:
anapidsboth build small horizontal orb webs. These
webs
aredistinctivebecause the spider builds a second
seriesof radii after the sticky spiral is laid down. As a
result,the spiral threads to not change direction at
everyradius, as they do in all other orb webs. Symphytognathidwebs differ from anapid webs in having
manymore of these secondary radii, and by the
absenceof any radii outside the plane of the web
(Eberhard1982, 1986; Coddington 1986). Symphytognathidsare distinguished by the basal fusion of their
chelicerae,the absence of the female pedipalp (shared
withAnapidae), the modification of the book lungs
intotraeheae,and the loss of the posterior tracheal systemoThere is one tiny (0.5 mm) four-eyed species in
Florida.
FamilyAnapidae:Anapids are distinguished fram
otherspiders by the presence of a spur arising from just
abovethe oral cavity behind and between the che-
126
Chapter5 PhylumArthropoda
Family Nesticidae:
Nesticids may have eight, six, or
four eyes or lack them altogether. They are typically
pale in color and many species are associated with
caves. Nesticids share several characteristics with
theridiids, including a comb on tarsus IV; nesticids
have a well-developed colulus. Males are readily distinguished from theridiids by presence of a conspicuous
paracymbium fused to the retrobasal part of the cymbium. There are 37 species in North America, mostly
endemic to the Appalachian region.
Linyphiidsare the most speciesFamilylinyphiidae:
rich spider family in North America (>800 species).
Whereas some species build conspicuous sheet or
dome-shaped webs, most species are tiny (1-3 mm) and
live in leaf litter. The males of some species have bizarre
head modifications that are associated with mating.
Linyphiids are typically eight-eyed spiders (rarely sixeyed or blind) with a high clypeus, stridulatory striae
on the lateral face of the chelicerae (Figure 5-7G), and
a tendency for legs to break at the patella-tibia joint.
The male palp features a small, often hooklike paracymbium attached to the retrobasal part of the cymbium by a membrane (Figure 5-7J). The palpal tibia
may or may not have one or more apophyses.
Family Pimoidae:
These spiders resemblelinyphiids
but are larger than most of those species (4.5-10.5 mm).
They share with linyphiids a high clypeus, stridulatory
striae, and leg breakage at the patella-tibia joint; theyare
best separated from them by details of the genitalia.
The pimoid paracymbium is fused to the retrobasal
part of the cymbium; the palpal tibia never has an
apophysis. Thirteen species are represented in western
North America.
The remaining spiders all belong to a large clade of
spiders that, along with some non-North American
groups, is the sister group to the Orbiculariae. This group
does not have a formal taxonomic name at this time. Relationships among the taxa within this clade are not all
well defined, but some distinctive groups are noted.
Smallto medium-sizedspiders
FamilyTitanoecidae:
(3.5-8 mm) with a well-developed, divided cribellum.
These spiders sometimes have short, inconspicuous
tarsal trichobothria. Males have ventral rows of short
macrosetae on metatarsi and tibiae I and Il, reduced in
females. Four species are widespread in North America.
RTA (retrolateral
Family Dictynidae:Dictynids are eight-eyed (occasionally six-eyed or blind), three-clawed spiders. The
family includes both cribellate and ecribellate members; when present, the cribellum is usually entire, but
occasionally is divided. Some dictynids have lost the
tarsal trichobothria. There are over 280 North American species.
Family Zodariidae:These three-clawed, ecribellate
spiders are distinguished by the absence of serrula on
the distal margin of the endites, and by the reduction
or absence of the posterior lateral and posterior median
spinnerets. There are five North American species.
Family Hahniidae:Hahniids are ecribellate, threeclawed, sheet web builders. Many North American
hahniids are easily distinguished by the configuration
of the spinnerets in a transverse row and the advanced
position of the tracheal spiracle. Other hahniids lack
these characters, but are distinguished by rows of ventral spines on metatarsus and tibia 1, by the presence of
an undivided colulus, and the absence of plumose
hairs.
Family Agelenidae:
These three-clawed spiders are
characterized by the presence of a divided colulus (Figure 5-8B). They typically have feathery hairs on the abdomen, elongated posterior spinnerets, and build a
funnel web. Their webs can be quite numerous and
conspicuous. There are 89 North American species.
Family Cybaeidae:
These three-clawed spiders have
contiguous anterior spinnerets that are longer than the
posterior spinnerets and a more or less transverse, entire colulus. There are 44 North American species.
Family Desidae:These three-clawed spiders are
characterized by their greatly enlarged, distally projecting chelicerae. We have only two species in North
America. Paratheuma is a three-clawed, ecribellate spider with widely separated anterior spinnerets. It is associated with intertidal habitats in coastal Florida. Badumna has a divided cribellum and is introduced to
California.
These three-clawed spiders
Family Amphinectidae:
have a divided cribellum and 5-7 strong teeth on both
cheliceral margins. The male palpus has a filiform embolus enclosed in a membranous conductor. One
species is introduced to California and the Gulf coastal
region.
Family Amaurobiidae:Amaurobiids are threeclawed, cribellate or ecribellate spiders. They may
build large sheet webs, or live in silk tubes with only a
few lines radiating from the opening. There are 124
North American species.
Family Tengellidae:North American species are
ecribellate spiders with two or three claws, claw tufts,
and two rows of tarsal trichobothria. There are 23
North American species, including several associated
with caves.
Family Zorocratidae: These large (5-13 mm) spiders have a large, divided cribellum, scopulate tarsi,
and two rows of tarsal trichobothria. Tarsus 1has three
claws; other tarsi have third claw absent. The chelicerae have lateral stridulatory striae. There are five
speciesin the southwestern United States.
Supeamily
Lycosoidea
Family Pisauridae-Nursery-Web and Fishing Spiders: These medium to large (6.5-31 mm) spiders resemble wolf spiders, but differ in the eye arrangement:
The anterior eye row is variable, usually smaller than
the posteriors; the posterior row is strongly recurved,
with the eyes subequal in size (Figure 5-9D). The egg
sac is carried by the female under her cephalothorax,
held there by the chelicerae and pedipalps. Before the
eggs hatch, the female attaches the sac to a plant,
builds a web around it, and stands guard nearby.
Pisaurids forage for their prey and build webs only for
their young. Some spiders in this group, particularly
the fishing spiders of the genus Dolomedes, are quite
large. Dolomedes live near water; they may walk over
the surface of the water or dive beneath it to feed on
aquatic insects and sometimes small fish. There are 13
species in North America.
Family Trechaleidae: Large (14-16 mm), flattened,
fast-moving, three-clawed spiders with long, flexible
tarsi. There is one species in the Arizona, found near
permanent streams in xeric regions. Females may carry
a disc-shaped egg case attached to the spinnerets.
Family Lycosidae-Wolf Spiders: Lycosids are distinctive three-clawed spiders recognized by their eye
pattern: anterior eyes small in a more or less straight
row; posterior median eyes very large, posterior lateral
eyes smaller, positioned well behind the posterior medians (Figure 5-9C). The male palp lacks a tibial
apophysis. Most North American species are foragers,
except Sosippus,which constructs a sheet web with a
funnel-shaped retreat. The egg sac is carried by the female, attached to her spinnerets. When the young
hatch, they are carried for a time on the back of the femaleo Lycosids are widely distributed, with over 250
species in North America. They occur in many different habitats and are often quite common.
Clade Dionycha
The Dionycha include the 13 families listed next. This
is a large group of two-clawed, eight-eyed (North American fauna), ecribellate spiders; it is probably not monophyletic. Unless otherwise noted, they have scopulae
(at least on tarsi 1 and ll, often on the metatarsi also)
and claw tufts. All North American representatives forage without a web, although this does not hold true
worldwide. Sparassidae, Selenopidae, Philodromidae,
and Thomisidae are crab spiders with laterigrade legs
(Figure 5-100; the remaining families have the typical
prograde orientation. Laterigrade legs are rotated so
that the morphologically pro lateral surface is dorsal.
Family Clubionidae: These small to medium
(2.5-10.5 mm) spiders have dense claw tufts and thin
scopulae. They are usually pale yellow or light gray.
Clubionids typically spend the day in silk tube retreats
127
128
Chapter5 PhylumArthropoda
are flattened, nocturnal, fast-moving, two-clawed spiders that lack a colulus. There are six species in the
southern United States.
Family Sparassida~iant Crab Spiders:These large
spiders 00-25 mm) are distinguished by a unique
trilobed membrane on the dorsoapical part of the
metatarsi (Figure 5-7F). Eleven species are generally confined to the southern United States, but are sometimes
found in the North associated with shipments ofbananas.
Family Philodromidae:These somewhat flattened
spiders have dense scopulae and claw tufts. The eyes
are usually subequal in size and not on tubercles. Teeth
are present on the promargin of the chelicerae, absent
from the retromargin. The legs are either subequal in
length, or leg Il is much longer than the others. There
are nearly 100 species in North America.
Thesesomewhatflattenedspiders
FamilyThomisidae:
lack scopulae and claw tufts. The lateral eyes are often
larger than medians and positioned on tubercles (Figure 5-9E) The chelicerae are almost always without
teeth, or have both margins toothed. Legs I and Il are
longer and thicker than legs III and IV (Figure 5-11C).
One common species in this group is the goldenrod spider, Misumena vatia (Clerk), which is white or yellow
with a red band on either side of the abdomen. This spider is a sit-and-wait predator, often occupying a flower
and attacking pollinators. This spider can change color,
over a period of a few days, depending on the color of the
flower. There are over 140 species of thomisids in North
America.
Family Salticidae-Jumping Spiders: These stoutbodied, short-Iegged spiders have a distinctive eye pattern, with the anterior median eyes by far the largest
(Figures 5-9B, 5-11D). The body is rather hairy and is
often brightly colored or iridescent. Some species are
antlike in appearance. Jumping spiders forage for prey
in the daytime. They approach their prey slowly, and
then suddenly leap onto it. They can jump many times
their own body length. Before jumping, they attach a
silk thread dragline, which they can use to climb back
to their starting position. Salticids are the world's most
diverse spider family, with over 330 representatives in
North America.
Order Ricinulei14-Ricinuleids
This is a small group of rare tropical arachnids. They
are somewhat ticklike in appearance, and one of their
distinctive features is a movable flap at the anterior end
of the prosoma that extends over the chelicerae. The
tarsi of the third pair of legs in the male are modified as
copulatory organs. One species, Cryptocellus dorotheae
14Ricinulei: Rcin, a kind of mite or tick; ule, small (a diminutive
suflix).
130
Chapter5 PhylumArthropoda
Figure5-14 The American dog tick, Dennacentor variabilis (5ay) (Ixodidae). A, Larva;
B, Nymph; e, Adult (unengorged). (Courtesy of U5DA.)
SUBORDER
Holothyrina:
The members of this group
are fair-sized (2-7 mm in length), rounded or oval
mites that occur in Australia, New Guinea, New
Zealand, some islands in the Indian Ocean, and in the
American tropies. They are found under stones or in
decaying vegetation and are predaceous.
Mesostigmata:This is the largest suborSUBORDER
der of the Parasitiformes and includes predaceous,
scavenging, and parasitie forms. The majority are freeliving and predaceous and are usually the dominant
mites in leaf litter, humus, and soil. The parasitic mites
in this group attack birds, bats, small mammals,
snakes, insec15, and rarely humans. One parasitic
species, the chicken mite, Dennanyssus gallinae (De
Geer), is a serious pest of poultry. lt hides during the
day and attacks poultry and sucks their blood at night.
Ihis species also causes a dermatitis in humans.
Ixodida-Ticks:Twofamiliesof ticks ocSUBORDER
cur in North America, the Ixodidae or hard ticks and the
Argasidaeor 50ft ticks. Ticks are larger than most other
Acariand are parasitic, feeding on the blood of mammals,
birds,and reptiles. Those attacking humans are annoying
pests,and some species serve as disease vectors. Ticks are
the most important vectors of disease to domestic animalsand second only to mosquitoes as vectors of disease
to humankind. Certain ticks, especially engorging females feeding on the neck or near the base of the skull of
their host, inject a venom that produces a paralysis; the
paralysismay be fatal if the tick is not removed. The most
important tick-bome diseases are Rocky Mountain spotted fever, relapsing fever, Lyme disease, tularemia, Texas
cattle fever, and Colorado tick fever.
Ticks lay their eggs in various places, but not on
the host; the young seek out a host after hatching. Most
species have a three-host life cycle: the larva feeds
131
132
Chapter5 PhylumArthropoda
are soft-bodied, and the mouthparts are ventrally 10cated and are not visible from above.
Group 11I.Acariformes
These are small mites that have the abdomen unsegmented, and the spiracles are near the mouth parts or
absent (Figure 5-16).
SUBORDERProstigmata:This is a large group
whose members vary considerably in habits. Some are
free-living (in litter, moss, or water) and vary in food
habits; some are parasitic; and some are parasitic as larvae but predaceous as adults. This group includes the
spider mites, gall mites, water mites, harvest mites,
feather mites, and others.
The spider mites (Tetranychidae) are plant feeders, and some species do serious damage to orchard
trees, field crops, and greenhouse plants. They feed on
the foliage or fruits and attack a variety of plants. They
are widely distributed, multivoltine, and sometimes occur in tremendous numbers. The eggs are laid on the
plant and, during the warm days of summer, hatch in 4
or 5 days. There are fOUTinstars (Figure 5-17), and
growth from egg to adult usually requires about three
weeks. Most species overwinter in the egg stage. The
immature instars are usually yellowish or pale in color,
and the adults are yellowish or greenish. (These animals are sometimes called red mites, but they are seldom red.) Sex in these mites is determined by the fertilization of the egg. Males develop from unfertilized
eggs, and females from fertilized eggs.
The gall mites (Eriophyoidea) are elongate and
wormlike and have only two pairs oflegs (Figure 5-18).
A few species form small, pouchlike galls on leaves, but
the majority feeds on leaves without forming galls and
produces a rusting of the leaves. Some attack buds, and
one forms the conspicuous witches' -broom twig gall on
OPISTHOSOMA
- - - - - - - - - _1_ - - - - - - - - - - -,
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
,
I
I
I
L__,__~L
GNATHOSOMA
L
r
PODOSOMA
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __J
PROSOMA
L_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __~
B
o
A
ti
e
Figure
5-17 The fourspotted spider mite, Tetranychus
canadensis(McGregor). A, Egg; B, First instar or larva;
e, Secondinstar, or protonymph; D, Third instar, or
deutonymph; E, Fourth instar, adult female. (Courtesy of
USDA,after McGregor and McDunough.)
133
JI
134
Chapter5 PhylumArthropoda
jn housedust
allergi:e~~:
Figure5-21
Pseudoscorpiones17-Pseudoscorpions
scorpion.
Chelonethida,
refers
Florida). They are called by a variety of names: windscorpions (they run "like the wind"), sunscorpions, sunspiders, and camelspiders. They are 20-30 mm in
length, are usually pale colored and somewhat hairy,
and the body is slightly constricted in the middle (Figure 5-4C). One of their most distinctive features is
their very large chelicerae (often as long as the prosoma), giving them a very feroeious appearance. They
may bite, but they do not have venom glands. The
males have a flagellum on the chelicera. The fourth legs
bear, on the ventral side of the coxae and trochanters,
five short, broad, T-shaped structures (attached by the
base of the T) called racket organs or malleoli, which are
probably sensory in function.
Windscorpions are largely nocturnal, hiding during the day under objects or in burrows. They are fastrunning and predaceous, sometimes even capturing
small lizards. The pedipalps and first legs are used as
feelers, and these animals run on the last three pairs of
legs. Two families occur in the United States, the Ammotrechidae (first legs without claws, and anterior
edge of prosoma rounded or pointed) and the Eremobatidae (first legs with one or two claws, and anterior
edge of prosoma straight).
Class Pycnogonida20-Sea
Spiders
to this fea-
flee (referring
to the nocturnal
habits
of
UNIVERSIDAD
DECALDAI
136
Chapter5 PhylumArthropoda
CrustaceaZ1-Crustaceans
The crustaceans are a large and varied group of arthropods, with more than 44,000 known species. Most of
them are marine, but many occur in fresh water, and a
few are terrestrial. In addition to the larger and more
familiar types, such as lobsters, crayfish, (Figure 5-22)
crabs, and shrimp, a multitude of small to minute
aquatic forms are very important in aquatic food webs.
The appendages and body regions vary greatly in this
group, but typically there are two pairs of antennae, the
functional jaws consist of endite lobes of the gnathal (jaw)
appendages, and many of the appendages are biramous. A
2lCrustacea: from the Latin, referring to the crustlike exoskeleton
possessed by many of these animals.
chp
I
1
I
I
I
__
,,
I
I 1
' ',1/11/ 11
--1
There are differences of opinion regarding the classification of these crustaceans, but four fairly distinct
groups are usually recognized, the Anostraca, Notostraca, Conchostraca, and Cladocera. The first two of
these are sometimes placed in a group called the Phyllopoda, and the last two are sometimes called the
Diplostraca.
The Anostraca,23 or fairy shrimps (Figure 5-23A),
have an elongated and distinctly segmented body, without a carapace and with 11 pairs of swimming legs, and
the eyes are on stalks. The fairy shrimps are often abundant in temporary pools. The Notostraca,24 or tadpole
shrimps, have an oval convex carapace covering the anterior part of the body, 35 to 71 pairs of thoracic appendages, and two long, filamentous caudal appendages. These animals range in size from about 10 to
50 mm and live only in the westem states. The Conchostraca,25 or clam shrimps, have the body somewhat
flattened laterally and entirely enclosed in a bivalved
carapace and have 10 to 32 pairs of legs. Most species
are 10 mm in length or less. The Cladocera,26 or water
fleas (Figure 5-24A), have a bivalved carapace, but the
head is not enclosed in the carapace. There are four to
six pairs of thoracic legs. The water fleas are 0.2 to 3.0 mm
in length and are very common in freshwater pools.
Three groups of small crustaceans living in fresh water have a bivalved carapace, and observers are likely to
confuse these groups. The Ostracoda (Figure 5-24B,C)
and Conchostraca have the body completely enclosed in
the carapace, whereas in the Cladocera (Figure 5-24A)
the head is outside the carapace. The Ostracoda have
only three pairs of thoracic legs; the Conchostraca have
10 to 32 pairs.
23
HNotostraca;
"Conchostraca:
"Branchiopoda:
branchio,
'6Cladocera:
shell.
branch;
cera, hom
ostraca,
(referring
shell.
to the antennae).
138
Chapter5 PhylumArthropoda
Figure5-23 Crustaceans. A, A fairy shrimp, Eubranchipus (subclass Branchiopoda, order Anostraca), 6X; B, A female copepod, Cyclops sp., 50X, with two egg sacs at posterior end of body.
Figure5-24 Crustaceans. A, A
water flea or cladoceran, Daphnia
sp., 25x; B, An ostracod, Cypridopsis sp., lateral view; C, Same,
but with left valve of carapace removed. ans, anus; ant, antenna;
antl, antennule; at, alimentary
tract; bp, brood pouch; cm, caecum; e, compound eye;fu, furca;
hr, heart; 1, first and second thoracic legs; Ibr, labrum; md, mandible; mx, maxilla; pa, postabdomen;
sh, bivalved shell; thap, thoradc
appendages; y, developing young.
(C, Modified from Kesling.)
ClassCopepoda27
Someof the copepods are free-swimming, and others are
parasiticon fish. The parasitic forms are often peculiar
in body fono and quite unlike the free-swimming forms
in generalappearance. This group includes both marine
andfreshwater forms. The female of most copepods carriesher eggs in two egg sacs located laterally near the
endof the abdomen (Figure 5-23B). The parasitic copepods,often called fish lice, live on the gills or the skin or
burrow ioto the flesh of their host. When numerous,
theymayseriously injure the host. Some species serve as
intermediatehosts of certain human parasites for exampie, the fish tapeworm, Diphyllobothnum
latum (L.).
ClassOstracoda28
in the smaller
Cephalocarida,30 Mystacocarida,31 Branchiura,32 Tantulocarida,33 and Remipedia.34 The nine known species of
Cephalocarida are marine bottom-dwelling
forms that
often occur in very deep water. The Mystacocarida are
minute (mostly about 0.5 mm in length) marine forms
living in the intertidal zone. Nine species of these have
been described. The Branchiura are ectoparasites on
the skin or in the gill cavities of fish (both marine and
freshwater fish). About 130 species are known. The
Tantulocarida (four known species) are ectoparasites
of deep-water crustaceans. The Remipedia (eight
known species) have a long and wormlike body, and
live in island caves connected to the sea.
Class Malacostraca35
ClassCirripedia29
Thebest-known members of the class Cirripedia29 are
the bamacles, the adults of which live attached to
rocks,pilings, seaweeds,boats, or marine animals, and
whichare enclosed in a calcareous shell. A few species
areparasitic, usually on crabs or mollusks. Most mem-
140
Chapter 5
PhylumArthropoda
the preceding classes (sometimes called the Entomostraca) in having appendages (swimmerets or
pleopods) on the abdomen. There are typically 19 pairs
of appendages, the first 13 being cephalothoracic and
the last 6 abdominal. The leglike appendages on the
cephalothorax are often chelate. This class contains
some 13 orders. Only the more common ones can be
mentioned here.
ORDER Amphipoda:36The body of an amphipod is
elongate and more or less compressed; there is no carapace; and seven (rarely six) of the thoracic segments
are distinct and bear leglike appendages. The abdominal segments are often more or less fused, and hence
the six or seven thoracic segments make up most of the
body length (Figure 5-26). This group contains both
marine and freshwater forms. Many of them, such as
the beach fleas (Figure 5-26B), live on the beach under
stones or in decaying vegetation. Most amphipods are
scavengers. Some tropical species are common on the
floor of moist forests.
ORDERIsopoda:37The isopods are similar to the
amphipods in lacking a carapace, but are dorsoventrally flattened. The last seven thoracic segments are
distinct and bear leglike appendages. The abdominal
segments are more or less fused, and hence the thoracic
segments (with their seven pairs of legs) make up most
of the body length (Figure 5-27). The anterior abdominal appendages of the aquatic forms usually bear gills.
The terminal abdominal appendages are often enlarged
and feelerlike. The isopods are small (most are less
than 20 mm in length), and most are marine, but some
live in fresh water and some are terrestrial. The marine
3.Stomatopoda:
39Decapoda:
stomato,
mouth;
Figure
5-26 Amphipods.
A, A common freshwater scud,
Dikerogammarusfasciatus (Say),
10-15 mm in length; B, A sand
flea or beach flea, Orchestia agilis
Smith, abundant underneath seaweed along the coast near the high
tide mark; C, A common freshwater scud, Hyalella knickerbockeri
(Bate), about 7 mm in length;
D, A sea scud, Gammarus annulatus Smith, a common coastal form,
about 15 mm in length. (Courtesy
of Kunkel and the Connecticut
State Geology and Natural History
Survey; C, After Smith.)
Figure
5-27 Isopods. A, Oniscus asellus L., a common sowbug; B, Asellus communis
Say,a common freshwater isopod; C, Cylisticus convexus (DeGeer), a pillbug capable of
rolling itself into a ball. (Courtesy of the Connecticut State Geology and Natural History
Survey. A, C, Courtesy of Kunkel 1918, after Paulmier; B, Courtesy of Kunkell918,
after Smith.)
Figure5-28
sp., P/2X.
142
Chapter5 PhylumArthropoda
Atelocerata40
ate/os, defective;
second antennae
are present
rudiments.
ies have done little to alleviate the considerable uncertainty concerning the interrelationships among Crustacea, Myriapoda, and Hexapoda. Some researchers
suggest that the myriapods are a polyphyletic or paraphyletic group; others that hexapods are most closely
related to a subset of crustaceans (and, therefore, that
Crustacea is paraphyletic).
Class Diplopoda41-Millipedes. The millipedes are
elongatt:, wormlike animals with many legs (Figure 5-29). Most millipedes have 30 or more pairs of
legs, and most body segments bear 2 pairs. The body
is cylindrical or slightly fIattened, and the antennae
are short and usually seven-segmented. The external
openings of the reproductive system are located at
the anterior end of the body, between the second and
third pairs of legs. One or both pairs of legs on the
seventh segment of the male are usually modified
into gonopods, which function in copulation. Compound eyes are usually present. The first tergum behind the head is usually large and is called the collum
(Figure 5-30A).
The head in most millipedes is convex above,
with a large epistomal area, and fIat beneath. The
bases of the mandibles form a part of the side of the
head. Beneath the mandibles, and forming the fIat
ventral surface of the head, is a characteristic liplike
structure called the gnathochilarium (Figure 5-30B,
gna). The gnathochilarium is usually divided by sutures into several areas: a median more or less triangular plate, the mentum (mn); two laterallobes, the
stipites (stp); two median distal plates, the laminae
linguales (1l); and usually a median transverse basal
sclerite, the prebasalare (pbs), and two smalllaterobasal sclerites, the cardines (cd). The size and shape
of these areas differ among groups of millipedes, and
the gnathochilarium
often provides characters by
which the groups are recognized.
ilDiplopoda: diplo, two; poda, foot or appendage (referring to the
fact that most body segments bear two pairs of legs).
Figure5-29
5-30
Figure
Millipedes are usually found in damp places: under leaves, in moss, under stones or boards, in rotting
wood, or in the soil. Many species can give off an illsmellingfluid through openings along the sides of the
body.This fluid is some times strong enough to kill insectsthat are placed in ajar with the millipede, and it
hasbeen shown (in some cases at least) to contain hydrogen cyanide. Millipedes do not bite people. Most
millipedes are scavengers and feed on decaying plant
2'
3(2').
3'.
Adults with 13 pairs of legs; integument soft; body hairs forming long
lateral tufts; 2-4 mm in length
Polyxenida
Body with 14-16 segments and with 11-13 tergites; male gonopods at
caudal end of body, modified from last 2 pairs of legs; southern and
western United States
Glomerida
3
4
5
p.144
p. 144
144
Chapter5 PhylumArthropoda
4(3).
Platydesmida
p.145
4'.
Polyzoniida
p.145
5(3').
Body with 18-22 segments; eyes absent; body more or less flattened,
with lateral carinae
Polydesmida
p.144
Chordeumida
Julida
8'.
Spirobolida
p.145
9(8).
Cambalida
p.145
Spirostreptida
p.145
S'.
6(5').
6'.
7(6').
7'.
8(7').
9'.
p.145
p. 145
Class Chilopoda-Centipedes
Ihis is a large group, with about 250 North Americanspecies. Many are brightly colored, and most of
themhavescent glands. Oxidusgracilis(Koch), a dark
brownto black millipede, 19-22 mm in length and
2.0-2.5rnrn wide, is a common pest in greenhouses.
Ihis order is divided into 10 families, and its members
occurthroughout the United States.
ORDER
Chordeumida:45
Thesemillipedeshave 26-30
segments,and the terminal tergite bears one to three
pairsof hair-tipped papillae (spinnerets). The body is
usuallycylindrical. The head is broad and free and not
overlappedby the collum. One or both pairs of legs on
theseventh segment of the male may be modified into
gonopods.This relatively large group has about 170
speciesin North America. A few are predaceous.
Ihree suborders of Chordeumida occur in the
UnitedStates. The suborder Chordeumidea, with nine
families(some classifications place these millipedes in
a single family, the Craspedosomatidae), are small
(mostly4-15 mm in length), soft-bodied millipedes
with no keels on the metazonites and without scent
glands; they are not very common. The suborder
Lysiopetalidea, with one family, the Lysiopetalidae
(= Callipodidae), contains larger millipedes, which are
usuallykeeled. These millipedes can coil the body into
a spiral. The secretions of the scent glands are milky
whiteand very odoriferous. The suborder Striariidea,
withone family (the Striariidae), have no scent glands,
theanal segment three-lobed, and a high middorsal carina on the metazonite. These millipedes are mostly
southern and westem in distribution.
Julida:46
This order and the next three are by
ORDER
some authorities combined into a single order, the
Opisthospermophora. These four groups have a cylindricalbody, with 40 or more segments. The collum is
largeand hoodlike and overlaps the head. Either both
pairs of legs on the seventh segment of the male are
modified into gonopods or one pair is absent. Scent
glandsare presento The diplosomites are not differentiated into prozonite and metazonite. The millipedes in
theorder Julida have the stipites of the gnathochilarium
broadlycontiguous along the midline behind the laminae linguales. Segment 3 and the terminal segment are
legless;segments 1, 2, and 4 have one pair of legs each;
and the remaining segments have two pairs of legs each.
Morethan a hundred species of julids occur in North
America,and some reach a length of about 90 mm.
The millipedes in this order
ORDERSpirobolida:47
differ from the Julida in having the stipites of the
gnathochilarium separated (Figure 5-30B) and from
the following two orders in having one pair oflegs each
Class Chilopoda53-Centipedes
The centipedes are elongate, flattened animals with 15
or more pairs oflegs (Figure 5-31). Each body segment
bears a single pair of legs. The last two pairs are directed backward and often differ in form from the other
pairs. The antennae consist of 14 or more segments.
The genital openings are at the posterior end of the
body, usually on the next to last segment. Eyes may be
present or absent; if present, they usually consist of
numerous ommatidia. The head bears a pair of mandibles and two pairs of maxillae. The second pair of maxspiro, spiral; streptida,twisted.
'.Spirostreptida:
"'Cambalida: derivation unknown.
5OColobognatha: colobo, shortened; gnatha, jaws.
"Platydesmida:
145
,
146
Chapter5 PhylumArthropoda
A
Figure5-31
pIe, but the larger ones of the South and the tropics
can inflict a painful bite. Centipedes overwinter as
adults in protected situations and lay their eggs during
summer. The eggs are usually sticky and become covered with soil, and are deposited singly. In so me
species the mal e may eat the egg before the female can
cover it with soil.
Some centipedes produce silk, which is used in
mating. The male makes a small web in which he deposits a package of sperm, and this package is then
picked up by the female.
2'
Scutigeromorpha
p. 147
Lithobiomorpha
p.147
3(1').
3'
Scolopendromorpha p.147
Geophilomorpha
ORDERScutigeromorpha:54
This group includes the
common house centipede, Scutigera coleoptrata (L.)
(Figure5-31B), which is found throughout the eastem
UnitedStates and Canada. Its natural habitat is under
logsand similar places, but it frequently enters houses,
whereit feeds on flies, spiders, and the like. In houses
it often frequents the vicinity of sinks and drains. lt is
harmlessto people. This order contains the single familyScutigeridae.
ORDERLithobiomorpha55-StoneCentipedes: These
are short-legged, usually brown centipedes with 15
pairsoflegs in the adults (Figure 5-31C). They vary in
lengthfrom about 4 to 45 mm. Some members of this
order are quite common, usually occurring under
stones or logs, under bark, and in similar situations.
When disturbed, they sometimes use their posterior
legsto throw droplets of a sticky material at their attacker.This order contains two families, the Henicopidae (4-11 mm in length, the legs without strong
spines,and the eyes consisting of a single facet each or
absent) and the Lithobiidae (10-45 mm in length, at
leastsome legs with strong spines, and the eyes usually
consistingof many facets).
This group is princiORDERScolopendromorpha:56
pallytropical and, in the United States, occurs mainly
in the southem states. The scolopendrids include the
largest North American centipedes, which reach a
lengthof about 150 mm (Figure 5-31A). Some tropical
speciesmay be a half a meter or more in length. Many
scolopendrids are greenish or yellowish in color. These
arethe most venomous centipedes in our area; the bite
ofthe larger species is quite painful, and they can also
pinchwith their last pair of legs. Two families occur in
this order in the United States, the Scolopendridae
(eacheye with four facets) and the Cryptopidae (each
eyewith one facet).
ORDERGeophilomorpha57-SoilCentipedes: The
members of this order are slender, with 29 or more
pairsof short legs and large poison jaws, and are usuallywhitish or yellowish. Most species are small, but
p. 147
ClassPauropoda58
Pauropods are minute, usually whitish myriapods,
1.0-1.5 mm in length. The antennae bear three apical
branches. The nine pairs of legs are not grouped in
double pairs as in the millipedes. The small head is
so me times covered by the tergal plate of the first body
segment (Figure 5-33A). The genital ducts open near
the anterior end of the body. Pauropods occur under
stones, in leaf litter, and in similar places.
s.Pauropoda:
B
"Sculigeromorpha:
scuti, shield;
"Lilhobiomorpha:
lilho, stone;
tipede); morpha, formo
"Scolopendromorpha:
o[ centipede); morpha,
"Geophilomorpha:
scolopendro,
formo
geo, earth;
centipede
philo, loving;
is a genus
(Scolopendra
morpha,
formo
formo
of cenis a genus
148
Chapter5 PhylumArthropoda
Class Symphyla59
The symphylans are slender, whitish myriapods, 1-8 mm
in length, with 15-22 (usually 15) body segments and
10-12 pairs of legs (Figure 5-33B). The antennae are
slender and many-segmented, and the head is well developed and distinct. The genital openings are located
near the anterior end of the body. Symphylans live in
humus soil, under stones, in decaying wood, and in
other damp situations. The garden symphylan,
Scutigerella immaculata (Newport), feeds on the roots
of plants and is sometimes a pest of vegetable crops, of
the seedlings of broad-Ieaf trees, and in greenhouses.
ClassHexapoda60
The class Hexapoda is included here to indicate its position in the phylum. Because the bulk of this book is
concerned with this group, we say no more about them
here.
5.Symphyla:
6OHexapoda:
meaning
growing
together.
References
Aguinaldo, A. M. A., j. M. Turbeville, L. S. Linford, M. C.
Rivera, j. R. Garey, R. A. Raff, and j. A. Lake. 1997. Evidence of a clade of nematodes, arthropods, and other
moulting animals. Nature 387:489-493.
Anderson, D. T. 1973. Embryology and Phylogeny in
Annelids and Arthropods. New York: Pergamon Press,
495 pp.
Barnes, R. D. 1987. Invertebrate zoology, 5th ed. Philadelphia:
Saunders, 893 pp.
Brusca, R. c., and G. j. Brusca. 1990. Invertebrates. Sunderland, MA: Sinauer Associates, 922 pp.
Clarke, K. U. 1973. The Biology of Arthropods. New York:
American EIsevier, 270 pp.
Cloudsley-Thompson, j. L. 1958. Spiders, Scorpions, Centipedes, and Mites. New York: Pergamon Press, 228 pp.
Eddy, S., and A. C. Hodson. 1950. Taxonomic Keys to the
Common Animals of the North Central States Exclusive
of the Parasitic Worms, Insects and Birds. Minneapolis:
Burgess, 123 pp.
Edgecomb, G. D., G. D. F. Wilson, D. j. Colgan, M. R. Gray,
and G. Cassis. 2000. Arthropod cladistics: combined
analysis of histone H3 and U2 snRNAsequences and morphology. Cladistics 16:155-203.
Fortey, R. A., and R. H. Thomas (Eds.). 1997. Arthropod relationships. London: Chapman & Hall, 383 pp.
Fryer, G. 1997. A defence of arthropod polyphyly. In R. A.
Fortey and R. H. Thomas (Eds.), Arthropod relationships, pp. 23-33. Chapman & Hall, London, 383 pp.
Giribet, G., and C. Ribera. 2000. A review of arthropod phylogeny: New data based on ribosomal DNA sequences
and direct character optimization. Cladistics 16:204-231.
Gupta, A. P. 1979. Arthropod Phylogeny. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 762 pp.
Levi, H. v., L. R. Levi, and H. S. limo 1968. Spiders and Their
Kin. New York: Golden Press, 160 pp.
Manton, S. M. 1964. Mandibular mechanisms and the evolution ofthe arthropods. Phi\. Trans. Roy. Soc. B 247:1-183.
Manton, S. M. 1977. The Arthropoda. Habits, Functional
Morphology, and Evolution. Oxford, UK: Clarendon
Press, 257 pp.
Pimentel, R. A. 1967. Invertebrate Identification Manual.
New York: Reinhold, 150 pp.
Regier, j. c., and j. W Shultz. 1997. Molecular phylogeny of
the major arthropod groups indicates polyphyly of crustaceans and a new hypothesis for the origin of hexapods.
Mo\. Bio\. Evo\. 14:902-913.
Snodgrass, R. E. 1935. Principies of Insect Morphology. New
York: McGraw-Hill, 677 pp.
Snodgrass, R. E. 1952. A Textbook of Arthropod Anatomy.
Ithaca, NY: Comstock Associates, 363 pp.
Tiegs, O. W, and S. M. Manton. 1958. The evolution of the
Arthropoda. Bio\. Rev. 33:255-337.
Wagele, j.-W, and B. Misof. 2001. On quality of evidence in
phylogeny reconstruction: a reply to lrzavfs defence of
the "Ecdysozoa" hypothesis. j. lo o\. Syst. Evo\. Res.
39:165-176.
lrzavy,j. 2001. Ecdysozoa versus Articulata: clades, artifacts,
prejudices. j. loo\. Syst. Evo\. Res. 39: 159-163.
lrzavy, j., S. Mihulka, P. Kepka, A. Bezdik, and D. Tietz.
1998. Phylogeny of the Metazoa based on morphological
and 185 rDNA evidence. Cladistics 14:249-285.
References
TheChelicerata
Arthur, D. R. 1959. A Monograph of the Ixodoidea. Part V.
Ihe Genera Dermacentor, Anocentor, Cosmiomma,
Boophilus,and Margaropus. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge
University Press, 251 pp.
Baker,E. W, T. M. Evans, D. ]. Gould, W B. Hull, and H. L.
Keegan. 1956. A Manual of Parasitic Mites of Medical or
Economic Importance. New York: National Pest Control
Association, 170 pp.
Baker,E. W, and G. W Wharton. 1952. An Introduction to
Acarology. New York: Macmillan, 465 pp.
Beatty,J. A. 1970. The spider genus Ariadna in the Americas
(Araneae, Dysderidae). Bull. Mus. Comp. Zoo\., 139:
433-517.
Beck,L., and H. Schubart. 1968. Revision der Gattung CryptocellusWestwood1874 (Arachnida:Ricinulei).Senckenberg Bio\. 49:67-78.
Bishop,S. C. 1949. The Phalangida (Opiliones) of New York,
with special reference to the species in the Edmund Niles
Huyk Preserve. Proc. Rochester Acad. Sci. 9(3):159-235.
Bristowe,W S. 1958. Ihe World of Spiders. London: Collins.
Carico,]. E. 1993. Revision of the genus Trechalea Thorell
(Araneae, Trechaleidae) with a revision of the taxonomy
of the Trechaleidae and Pisauridae of the Westem Hemisphere.]. Arachno\. 21:226-257.
Chamberlin,]. C. 1931. Ihe arachnid order Chelonethida.
Stanford Univ. Pub\. Bio\. Ser. 7(1):1-284.
Coddington,]. A. 1986. The monophyletic origin of the orb
web. In W A. Shear (Ed.), Spiders: Webs, Behavior, and
Evolution, pp. 319-363. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
Coddington,]. A., and R. K. Colwell. 2001. Arachnids.In S. A.
Levin (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Biodiversity, pp. 199-218.
San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
Coddington,]. A., and H. W Levi. 1991. Systematics and evolution of spiders (Araneae). Annu. Rev. Eco\. Syst.
22:565-592.
Corey,D. T., and D. ]. Mott. A revision of the genus Zora
(Araneae, Zoridae) in North America. ]. Arachno\.
19:55-61.
Coyle,F.A. 1971. Systematics and natural history of the mygalomorphspider genus Antrodiaetusand related genera
(Araneae, Antrodiaetidae). Bull. Mus. Comp. Zoo\.
141:269-402.
Coyle, F. A. 1981. The mygalomorph spider genus Microhexura (Araneae, Diplurdae). Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist.
170:64-75.
Coyle,F.A. 1988. A revision of the American funnel-web mygalomorph spider genus Euagrus (Araneae, Dipluridae).
Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. 187:203-292.
Dondale, C. D., and]. H. Redner. 1978. The crab spiders of
Canada and Alaska (Araneae: Philodromidae
and
Ihomisidae). The Insects and Arachnids of Canada.
Part 5. Ottawa: Canadian Government Publishing Centre, 255 pp.
Dondale, C. D., and]. H. Redner. 1982. The sac spiders of
Canada and Alaska (Araneae: Clubionidae
and
Anyphaenidae). The Insects and Arachnids of Canada.
Part 9. Ottawa: Canadian Government Publishing Centre, 194 pp.
149
150
Chapter5 PhylumArthropoda
References 151
Vollrath, F. 1991. Leg regeneration in web spiders and its implications for orb weaver phylogeny. Bull. Brit. Arachnol.
Soc.8:177-184.
Vollrath, F.and D. P.Knight. 2001. Liquid crystalline spinning
of spider silk. Nature 410:541-548.
Weygoldt, P. 1969. The Biology of Pseudoscorpions. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 145 pp.
The Crustacea
Crowder, W. 1931. Between the Tides. New York: Dodd,
Mead, 461 pp.
Edmondson, W T. (Ed.). 1959. Fresh Water Biology. New
York: Wiley, 1248 pp.
Green, J. 1961. A Biology of the Crustacea. Chicago: Quadrangle Books, 180 pp.
Klots, E. B. 1966. The New Book of Freshwater Life. New
York: Putnam's, 398 pp.
Kunkel, B. W 1918. The Arthrostraca of Connecticut. Bull.
Conn. Geol. Nat. Hist. Surv. 26:1-261.
Miner, R. W 1950. Field Book of Seashore Life. New York:
Putnam's, 888 pp.
Pennak, R. W 1978. Fresh-Water Invertebrates of the United
States, 2nd ed.. New York: Wiley Interscience, 803 pp.
Willoughby, L. G. 1976. Freshwater Biology. New York: Pica
Press, 168 pp.
The Myriapods
Bailey, J. W 1928. The Chilopoda of New York State, with
Notes on the Diplopoda. N. Y. State Mus. Bull. 276:5-50.
Chamberlin, R. v., and R. L. Hoffman. 1958. Checklist of the
millipedes of North America. U.s. Nad. Mus. Bull.
212:1-236.
Comstock,J. H. 1933. An introduction to entomology. Ithaca,
NY: The Comstock Publishing Co., Inc., 1044 pp.
Eason, E. H. 1964. Centipedes of the British Isles. London:
Frederick Wame, 294 pp.
Johnson, B. M. 1954. The millipedes ofMichigan. Papo Mich.
Acad. Sci. 39(1953):241-252.
Keeton, W T. 1960. A taxonomic stUdy of the millipede family Spirobolidae (Diplopoda, Spirobolida). Mem. Entorno!. Soco Amer. No. 17, 146 pp.
Shear, W A. 1972. Studies in the millipede order Chordeumida (Diplopoda): A revision of the family Cleidogonidae and a rec\assification of the order Chordeumida in
the New World. Bull. Mus. Comp. lo o!. Harvard
144(4):151-352.
Hexapoda1
152
Hexapoda:hexa,six; poda,rool.
TJ~ ~ 11!i"~
~~~..l~j~..;r.(
';!.
:~
Table6-1
Order
Familiesin America
North of Mexicod
North Americaa
Australiab
World Estimates'
73
812
125
24
20
599
435
1,210
33
10
30
1,630
31
7
28
84
302
500
>6,000
800
350
370
2,000
5,000
>20,000
> 2,500
25
3
3
12
4
2
3
21
11
16
4
1
7,786
1,800
2,000
<200
30
> 2,300
1,800
<4,000
35,000
4,500
>3,000
>3,000
> 300,000
5,500
115,000
>7,000
150,000
2,380
500
550
> 150,000
6
9
3
1
4
2
5
90
7
28
18
128
15
74
26
84
8
5
5
103
78,175
826,108
698
Protura
Collembola
Diplura
Microcoryphia
Thysanura
Ephemeroptera
Odonata
Orthoptera
Phasmatodea
Grylloblattodea
Mantophasmatodea
Dermaptera
Plecoptera
Embiidina
Mecoptera
Strepsiptera
Diptera
23
622
11
2
44
30
67
11,298
695
264
941
24,085
400
20,372
1,415
11,673
314
83
91
19,782
Total
95,553
Zoraptera
Isoptera
Mantodea
Blattodea
Hemiptera
Thysanoptera
Psocoptera
Phthiraptera
Coleoptera
Neuroptera
Hymenoptera
Trichoptera
Lepidoptera
Siphonaptera
2,827
150
-
63
196
65
348
162
428
5,650
422
299
255
28,200
649
14,781
478
20,816
88
27
159
'FromR.w.
Poole and P. Gentili (Eds.), 1996, Nomina Insecta Nearctica: A checklist of the insects of North America, 4 vols. (Rockville, MD: Enlomological Infortnation
Services).
'From CSIRO (Ed.), 1991, The insects
boume University Press).
of Australia:
A textbook
estimates
for students
based
and research
both
workers,
on the number
2 vols (Carlton,
of described
species
Victoria,
Australia:
Me!-
of species
5. Thysanura(Ectognatha, Ectotrophi,
Zygentoma)-silverfish, firebrats
Pterygota-winged and secondarily wingless insects
6. Ephemeroptera (Ephemerida, Plectoptera)mayflies
7. Odonata-dragonflies and damselflies
8. Orthoptera (Saltatoria, including Grylloptera)grasshoppers and crickets
UNIVERSIDAD
DECALDAf
~9J"
"BI 1:"
'[, ,,- .
,
154
Chapter6 Hexapoda
Jable 6-2
Era
26. Trichoptera-caddisflies
27. Lepidoptera (including Zeugloptera)butterflies and moths
28. Siphonaptera-fleas
29. Mecoptera (including Neomecoptera)scorpionflies
30. Strepsiptera (Coleoptera in part)twisted-wing parasites
31. Diptera-flies
Formsof life
Periods
First human
Pleistocene
Pliocene
Miocene
Cenozoic
70
Mesozoic
135
180
225
Cretaceous
Jurassic
Triassic
270
Permian
350
Carboniferous
400
Devonian
440
500
600
Silurian
Ordovician
Cambrian
Paleozoic
Tertiary
Precambrian
'From the beginning of he periodo
Oligocene
Eocene
Paleocene
First birds
First mammals
who study hexapods and makes it difficult to recognize homologies across such a wide range of species.
In recent years the widespread adoption of the principIes of phylogenetic systematics, the emergence of
molecular data as a new source of characters, the development of computer technologies and software,
and the continued discovery of new taxa has led to a
resurgence in interest in the study of phylogeny, particularly in the elassical "problems" that have long interested systematists. The discussion that follows is
basedon the recent combined morphological and moleeular analyses of Wheeler et al. (2001). This paper
should be consulted for details of the synapomorphic
eharaeters for the higher taxa.
The fossil record for Precambrian time is quite
seanty,but by the Cambrian period marine arthropods
were present, consisting of trilobites, crustaceans,
and xiphosurans. The first terrestrial arthropodsscorpions, spiders, and millipedes-appeared
later, in
the Silurian period, and the first hexapods appeared
in the Devonian. Relatively few fossils are known from
theDevonian, but many are known from the Carboniferousand later periods.
The hexapods are believed to have arisen from
a myriapod-like ancestor that had paired leglike appendages on each body segment. The change to the
hexapodous condition involved the development
ofa head, modification of the three segments behind
the head as locomotory segments, and a loss or
reduetion of most of the appendages on the remaining body segments. The first hexapods were undoubtedly wingless and, therefore, are sometimes
ealledapterygotes.
The Protura, Diplura, and Collembola are very distinetgroups that were traditionally elassified as insects.
Many authorities now place them in three separate
classes, some coneluding that the characteristics of
"hexapods" evolved at least four times independently
(for example, see Manton 1977). Others reject that
conclusion but agree with the elassification, in so doingemphasizing the differences with the true insects.
Thesethree elasses are primitively wingless and have
thelateral portions of the head prolonged and fused to
thelabium to form a pouch, thus enveloping the mandiblesand maxillae. This latter characteristic gives rise
tothe name of a taxon sometimes used to contain the
threeorders, the Entognatha. There is, as yet, no consensuson the pattern of relationships among these orders.The Protura and Collembola are often recognized
asa monophyletic group, the Ellipura. The monophyly
ofthe Diplura is disputed. These orders represent early
offshootsof the hexapod line. The oldest known hexapodfossils (from the Devonian) are elearly identifiable
asCollembola.
156
Chapter6 Hexapoda
Collembola
Protura
Diplura
Microcoryphia
Thysanura
Ephemeroptera
Odonata
Orthoptera
Phasmatodea
Grylloblattodea
Mantophasmatodea
Dermaptera
Plecoptera
Embiidina
Zoraptera
Isoptera
Mantodea
Blattodea
Hemiptera
Thysanoptera
Psocoptera
Phthiraptera
Coleoptera
Neuroptera
Hymenoptera
Trichoptera
Lepidoptera
Siphonaptera
Mecoptera
Strepsiptera
Diptera
l'
28
2(1).
2'.
23
3(2).
3'
4(3).
4'
5(4').
5'.
10
Orthoptera
Strepsiptera
*
6
Figure6-2 lnsects with front wings thickened and hind wings membranous. A, A
pygmy grasshopper (Orthoptera); B, A band-winged grasshopper (Orthoptera); C, A stink
bug (Hemiptera); D, An earwig (Dermaptera); E, A dung beetle (Coleoptera). (A, C, and
E courtesyof Illinois NaturalHistorySurvey;B, courtesyof USDA;D, courtesyof
Knowlton and the Utah AgriculturalExperimentStation.)
p. 209
p.669
158
Chapter6 Hexapoda
6(5').
7(6).
Hemiptera*
p.268
7'.
Ephemeroptera
p.181
8(6').
Diptera
p.672
8'.
6'.
9(8').
9'.
*
Psocoptera
Hemiptera
p.341
p. 268
Figure6-5 A, A thrips
(Thysanoptera); B, A stonefly
(Plecoptera). (A, Courtesy of
Illinois Natural History Survey;
B, Courtesy of USDA.)
10(3').
10'.
Lepidoptera
11
11(10'). Wings long and narrow, veinless or with only 1 or 2 veins, fringed with
long hairs (Figure 6-SA); tarsi 1- or 2-segmented, last segment swollen;
minute insects, usually less than 5 mm in length (thrips)
11'.
Wings not as in preceding entry, or ir wings are somewhat linear,
Thysanoptera
p.571
p. 333
12
Ephemeroptera
13
p.181
14
17
Trichoptera
p. 558
15
Hymenoptera
p.481
160
Chapter6 Hexapoda
15'.
16(15').
16
Neuroptera
p.469
Mecoptera
p.662
Hind wings as long as front wings and of same shape or wider at base;
wings at rest held above the body or outstretched (never held flat over
abdomen); wings with many veins and cells; antennae short, bristlelike,
inconspicuous; abdomen long, slender (Figure 6-8); tarsi 3-segmented;
length 20-85 mm (dragonflies and damselflies)
Odonata
p.193
17'.
18
18(17').
18'.
Mouthparts haustellate
Hemiptera
19
p. 268
Mouthparts mandibulate
19(18').
Tarsi 4-segmented; front and hind wings similar in size, shape, venation
(Figure 19-1); cerci minute or absent (termites)
Isoptera
p. 252
Tarsi with 3 or fewer segments; hind wings usually shorter than front
wings; cerci present or absent
20
Hind wings with anal area nearly always enlarged and forming a lobe,
which is folded fanwise at rest; venation varying from normal to very
dense, the front wings usually with several crossveins between Cu and
M and between Cu and CU2(Figure 6-SB); cerci present, often fairly
long; mostly 10 mm or more in length; nymphs aquatic, adults usually
found near water (stoneflies)
Plecoptera
16'.
17(13').
19'.
20(19').
p. 239
Figure6-8 Odonata. A, A
dragonfly; B, A damselfly.
(Courtesy of Kennedy and the
U.s. National Museum.)
20/.
Hind wings without enlarged anal area and not folded at rest, with no
extra erossveins; eerci present (but short) or absent; mostly 10 mm in
length or less; nymphs not aquatie, adults not neeessarily near water
21(20'). Tarsi 3-segmented, basal segment of front tarsi enlarged (Figure 17-1)
(webspinners)
21',
Tarsi 2- or 3-segmented, basal segment of front tarsi not enlarged
22(21/). Cerci present; tarsi 2-segmented; wing venation redueed (Figure 18-1A);
antennae moniliform and 9-segmented
22'.
Cerci absent; tarsi 2- or 3-segmented; wing venation not partieularly
redueed (Figures 24-4 and 24-7); antennae not moniliform, usually
long and hairlike, with 13 or more segments (Figure 24-8) (psocids)
23(2/). Mouthparts haustellate, beak elongate and usually segmented
(Figure 6-3)
23',
Mouthparts mandibulate
24(23/). Abdomen with foreepslike eerci (Figure 6-2D); front wings short,
leaving most of abdomen exposed; tarsi 3-segmented (earwigs)
24'.
Abdomen without foreepslike eerci, or if so, then front wings eover
most of abdomen; tarsi variable
25(24'). Front wings without veins, usually meeting in straight line down middle
of baek; antennae generally with 11 or fewer segments; hind wings
narrow, usually longer than front wings when unfolded, with few veins
(Figure 6-2E) (beetles)
25'.
Front wings with veins, either held rooflike over abdomen or
overlapping over abdomen when at rest; antennae generally with
more than 12 segments; hind wings broad, usually shorter than front
wings, with many veins (Figure 11-8), usually folded fanwise at rest
26(25/). Tarsi with 4 or fewer segments; usually jumping inseets, with hind
femora more or less enlarged (Figures ll-l, 11-6 through 1l-10,
11-l2, 11-14 through 11-18) (grasshoppers and eriekets)
26'.
Tarsi 5-segmented; running or walking inseets, with hind femora not
particularly enlarged (Figures 20-1 and 21-3)
27(26'). Prothorax mueh longer than mesothorax; front legs modified for
grasping prey (Figure 20-1) (mantids)
27/.
Prothorax not greatly lengthened; front legs not modified for grasping
prey (Figure 20-3) (eoekroaehes)
28(1'). Body usually inseetlike, with segmented legs and usually also antennae
(adults, nymphs, and some larvae)
28'.
Body more or less wormlike, body regions (exeept possibly head) not
well differentiated, segmented thoracie legs absent; antennae present or
absent (larvae and some adults)
21
Embiidina*
p.247
23
Zoraptera
*
p.250
Psocoptera
p.341
Hemiptera
24
p. 268
Dermaptera
p. 234
25
Coleoptera
p. 365
26
Orthoptera
p. 209
27
Mantodea
p. 260
Blattodea
p. 263
29
75
29(28), Front wings present but rudimentary; hind wings absent or represented
29/.
Diptera*
30
30(29/), Antennae absent; length 1.5 mm or less (Figure 7-1); usually oeeurring
in soil or leaf litter (proturans)
30/.
Antennae usually present (sometimes small); size and habitat variable
31(30'). Eetoparasites of birds, mammals, or honey bees and usually found on host;
body more or less leathery, usually flattened dorsoventrally or laterally
Protura*
31
32
p.672
p.169
162
Chapter6 Hexapoda
31'.
35
32(31).
33
32'.
34
33(32).
Siphonaptera
p. 648.
Diptera*
p.672
Antennae distinctly longer than head; tarsi 3-segmented (bed bugs and
bat bugs)
Hemiptera
p.268
p. 356
33'.
34(32').
34'.
35(31').
35'.
36(35).
36'.
39
37
38
37(36).
37'.
38(36').
38'.
39(35').
Phthiraptera
36
Lepidoptera
p.571
Diptera*
p.672
Thysanoptera
p. 333
Hemiptera
p.268
Hymenoptera
p.481
39'.
40(39'). Abdomen with 3 long, threadlike caudal filaments and with stylelike
appendages on some abdominal segments (Figure 6-9D); mouthparts
mandibulate, but often more or less retracted into head; body nearly
always covered with scales; terrestrial (silverfish, bristletails)
40'.
Abdomen with only 2 threadlike caudal filaments or none; if with
3 (mayfly nymphs), then aquatic; other characters variable
41(40). Compound eyes large, usually contiguous; body somewhat cylindrical,
with thorax arched; ocelli present; middle and hind coxae nearly always
with styli; abdominal styli on segments 2-9 (Figure 8-1)
41'.
Compound eyes small and widely separated, or absent; body somewhat
Oattened dorsoventrally, thorax not arched; ocelli present or absent;
middle and hind coxae without styli; abdominal segments 1-6 usually
without styli
42(40'). Aquatic, often with tracheal gills
42'.
Terrestrial, without tracheal gills
43(42). Nymphs; compound eyes and usually wing pads present
43'.
Larvae; compound eyes and wing pads absent
44(43). Labium prehensile, folded under head at rest, and when extended much
longer than head (Figures 10-1G, 10-3, and 10-11B) (dragonOyand
damselOy nymphs)
44'.
Labium normal, not as in preceding entry
45(44'). With 3 caudal filaments; tarsi with 1 claw; gills located on lateral
margins of abdominal terga, usually leaflike or platelike (Figure 9-2)
(mayOy nymphs)
45'.
With 2 caudal filaments; tarsi with 2 claws; gills (rarely absent) more or
less fingerlike, usually located on underside of thorax (Figures 16-2B
and 16-3) (stoneOy nymphs)
46(43'). With 5 pairs of prolegs on ventral side of abdominal segments, the
prolegs with tiny hooks (crochets) (aquatic caterpillars)
46'.
Abdominal segments without prolegs or with terminal pair only
47(46'). Mouthparts consisting of 2 slender and elongate structures, longer than
head; antennae long and slender, at least one third as long as body;
tarsi with 1 claw (Figure 27-6D); living in freshwater sponges (larvae
of Sisyridae)
47'.
Mouthparts, usually also antennae, short, not as in preceding entry
48(47'). Tarsi with 2 claws; abdomen with long slender lateral processes and a
long slender terminal process (Sialidae, Figure 27-6C) or with slender
lateral processes and a pair of hooklike structures apically (Corydalidae,
Figure 27-6A,B) (fishOyand alderOy larvae)
48'.
Tarsi with 1 or 2 claws;if with 2, then abdomennot as in preceding
entry
49(48'). Abdomen with pair of hooks, usually on anal prolegs, at posterior end
and without long lateral processes (but sometimes with fingerlike gills);
tarsi with 1 claw; usually living in cases (caddisOy larvae)
49'.
Abdomen with 4 hooks at posterior end (Figure 26-19A) or none,
with or without long lateral processes (Figures 26-19 and 26-21);
tarsi with 1 or 2 claws; not living in cases (beetle larvae)
40
41
42
Microcoryphia
p.177
Thysanura
43
p.179
50
44
46
Odonata
p.193
45
Ephemeroptera
p.181
Plecoptera
p. 239
*
Lepidoptera
47
p. 571
Neuroptera
48
p. 469
Neuroptera
p. 469
49
Trichoptera
p. 558
Coleoptera
p. 365
164
Chapter6 Hexapoda
50(42').
51
52
Diplura*
p.174
Collembola
p.170
Coleoptera*
53
p.365
Compound eyes usually present; body shape variable, but usually not
wormlike; wing pads often present (adults and nymphs)
54
Compound eyes and wing pads absent; body usually worrnlike in shape
(larvae)
66
54(53).
54'.
Tarsi 5-segmented
55
60
55(54).
50'.
51(50).
51'.
52(50').
52'.
53(52').
53'.
p.662
Mecoptera*
56
Strepsiptera
*
57
p.669
57(56').
57'.
Cerci l-segmented; body and legs very slender (Figure 12-1, 14-1)
58
59
58(57).
58'.
Phasmatodea
p.227
Mantophasmatodea*
p.232
59(57').
Body flattened and oval, head more or less concealed from above by
pronotum (Figure 21-3); ocelli usually present; widely distributed
(cockroaches)
Blattodea
p.263
Grylloblattodea
*
61
p.230
55'.
56(55').
56'.
59'.
62
Phasmatodea*
p.227
Dermaptera
p. 234
Embiidina*
p. 247
63
63(62'). Grasshopper-like insects, with hind legs enlarged and fitted for jumping;
length usually over 15 mm (grasshoppers)
63',
Not grasshopper-like, hind legs usually not as above; length less than
lOmm
64(63'). Tarsi 4-segmented; pale, soft-bodied, wood- or ground-inhabiting
insects (termites)
64'.
Tarsi 2- or 3-segmented; color and habits variable
65(64'). Cerci present, l-segmemed, terminating in long bristle; antennae
9-segmemed, moniliform (Figure 18-1B-D); compound eyes and ocelli
absent; tarsi 2-segmemed (zorapterans)
65',
Cerci absent; antennae with 13 or more segments, usually hairlike
(Figure 6-9C); compound eyes and 3 ocelli usually presem; tarsi 2- or
3-segmented (psocids)
66(53'). Ventral prolegs present on 2 or more abdominal segmems
(Figures 32-lB and 30-3)
66'.
Abdominal prolegs absent or on terminal segment only
67(66). With 5 pairs of prolegs (on abdominal segments 3-6 and 10) or fewer,
prolegs with tiny hooks (crochets); several (usually 6) stemmata on
each side of head (caterpillars, butterfly and moth larvae)
67'.
With 6 or more pairs of abdominal prolegs, prolegs without crochets;
number of stemmata variable
68(67'). Seven or more stemmata on each side of head; prolegs on segments 1-8
or 3-8, usually inconspicuous, pointed structures (Figure 32-1B)
(scorpionfly larvae)
68'.
One stemma on each side of head; prolegs fleshy, not pointed, usually
on abdominal segments 2-8 and 10, sometimes on 2-7 or 2-6 and 10
(Figure 28-37) (sawfly larvae)
69(66'). Mandible and maxilla on each side united to form sucking jaw that is
often long (Figures 27-9B and 27-11); tarsi with 2 claws; labrum absem
or fused with head capsule; maxillary palps absent (Planipennia: larvae
of lacewings and antlions)
69'.
Mandibles and maxillae not as in preceding emry; tarsi with 1 or 2 claws;
labrum and maxillary palps usually present
70(69'). Head and mouthparts directed forward (prognathous), head about as
long along midvemralline as along middorsalline, usually cylindrical
or somewhat flattened
70'.
71(70).
71'.
Orthoptera
64
Isoptera
65
p.252
Zoraptera
*
p.250
Psocoptera
p.341
67
69
Lepidoptera
p.571
68
Mecoptera*
p.662
Hymenoptera
p.481
Neuroptera
p. 469
70
71
73
Coleoptera
72
p. 209
p.365
Neuroptera
p.469
Coleoptera
p.365
Mecoptera
*
p.662
74
..
166
Chapter6 Hexapoda
74(73/).
Coleoptera
p.365
Coleoptera *
and Strepsiptera *
p.365
75(28/).
75'.
Diptera
76
p.672
76(75').
Hemiptera
77
p.268
Strepsiptera *
p.669
74/.
76'.
77(76').
77'.
78(77').
78/.
79(78).
79'.
80(79).
80'.
81(80/).
81/.
82(81').
82'.
83(79/).
83/.
84(83').
78
79
86
80
83
Siphonaptera
*
81
p.648
Lepidoptera
p.571
82
Coleoptera
p.365
Diptera
p.672
Coleoptera
p.365
84
Lepidoptera
p.571
References
84'.
85(84'). Mandibles not heavily sclerotized and not brushlike; spiracles usually
present on thorax and most abdominal segments, posterior pair not
enlarged; larvae occurring in plant tissues, as parasites, or in cells
constructed by adults (Apocrita)
85'.
Mandibles usually brushlike; spiracles usually not as in preceding
entry-if present in several abdominal segments, posterior pair much
larger than others; occurring in wet places, in plant tbsues, or as
internal parasites (fly larvae, mostly Nematocera)
86(78'). Mouthparts of normal mandibulate type, with opposable mandibles and
maxillae; antennae usually present (beetle larvae)
86'.
Mouthparts reduced or modified, with only mandibles opposable, or
with parallel mouth hooks present; antennae usually absent
87(86'). Body behind "head" (first body segment) consisting of 13 segments;
full-grown larvae usually with sclerotized ventral plate ("breast bone")
located ventrally behind head (larvae of Cecidomyiidae)
87'.
Body consisting of fewer segments; no "breast bone"
88(87'). Mouthparts consisting of 1 or 2 (if 2, then parallel, not opposable)
median, dark-colored, decurved mouth hooks (maggots; larvae of
Muscomorpha)
88'.
Mandibles opposable, but sometimes reduced, without mouth hooks
as described in preceding entry (larvae of Apocrita)
85
Hymenoptera
p.481
Diptera
p. 672
Coleoptera
p. 365
87
Diptera
88
p.672
Diptera
p.672
Hymenoptera
p.481
References
Amen, R. H. 1985. American Insects: A Handbook of the Insects of America North of Mexico. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 850 pp.
Borrar, D.]., and R. E. White. 1970 (paperback
ed., 1974). A
Field Guide to the Insects of America North of Mexico.
Baston: Houghton Mifflin, 404 pp.
Boudreaux, H. B. 1979. Arthropod
Phylogeny with Special
Reference to Insects. New York: Wiley, 320 pp.
Brues, C. T., A. L Melander, and F. M. Carpenter. 1954. Classification of insects. Bull. Mus. Comp. lo o\. Harvard No.
108,917 pp.
Carrnean, D., and BJ. Crespi. 1995. Do long branches attract
mes? Nature 373:234.
Chinery. M. 1974. A Field Guide to the Insects of Britain and
Northem Europe. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 352 pp.
Chu, P. 1949. How to Know the Immature Insects. Dubuque,
lA: William C Brown, 234 pp.
Cornrnonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization (CSIRO). 1970. The Insects of Australia.
Carlton,
Victoria: Melboume University Press, 1029 pp.
Cornstock,]. H. 1949. An Introduction
to Entomology,
ed. Ithaca, NY: Comstock,
1064 pp.
9th
Daly, H. v.,]. 1. Doyen, and P. R. Ehrlich. 1978. An Introduction to Insect Biology and Diversity. New York: McGrawHill, 564 pp.
Elzinga, R. ]. 1981. Fundamentals of Entomology, 2nd ed.
Englewood Cliffs, N]: Prentice Hall, 432 pp.
Essig, E. O. 1958. Insects and Mites of Westem North America. New York: Macmillan, 1050 pp.
Friedlander, C. P. 1977. The Biology of Insects. New York:
Pica Press, 190 pp.
Grass, P. P. (Ed.). 1949. Trait de loologie; Anatomie, Systmatique, Biologie. Vo\. 9. Insectes: Paleontologie,
Gonmie, Aptrygotes, Ephmropteres,
Odonatopteres, Blattoptroides, Orthoptroides, Dermaptroides,
Colopteres. Paris: Masson, 1117 pp.
Grass, P. P. (Ed.). 1951. Trait de loologie: Anatomie, Systmatique, Biologie, Vo\. 10: Insectes Suprieurs et
Hemiptroides, Part 1: Neuroptroides, Mecoptroides,
Hemiptroides, pp. 1-975, Part 11: Hymenoptroides,
Psocoptroides,
Hemiptroides,
Thysanoptroides,
pp. 976-1948. Paris: Masson.
Hovrnller, R., 1. Pape, and M. Kiillerj. 2002. The
Palaeoptera problem: Basal pterygote phylogeny inferred
167
,
168
Chapter6 Hexapoda
285
rDNA
sequences.
Cladistics
Order Collembola-springtails
Poduridae
Hypogastruridae
Onychiuridae
Isotomidae
Entomobryidae
Neelidae
Sminthuridae
Mackenziellidae
Tomoceridae
Cyphoderidae
Oncopoduridae
Paronellidae
Order Diplura (Entotrophi)-diplurans
Campodeidae
Procampodeidae
Anajapygidae
japygidae (Iapygidae)
groups evolved the hexapodous condition independently and that each should be treated as a separa te
class.We follow here the conclusions of Boudreaux
(1979)and the nomenclature
suggestions of Kristensen
(1981)and group them as the Entognatha. As such, they
arethe sister group of the insects (which includes the
Microcoryphia, Thysanura, and Pterygota). Together the
Entognatha and Insecta make up the Hexapoda.
There are other differences of opinion regarding
thetaxonomic status of these groups and the names to
begiven them. Our arrangement is outlined as follows,
withsynonyms and other arrangements
in parentheses.
OrderProtura (Myrientomata)-proturans
Eosentomidae
Protentomidae
Acerentomidae
(including
Order Protura1-Proturans
The proturans are minute whitish hexapods, 0.6 to
1.5 mm in length. The head is somewhat conical, and
there are no eyes or antennae (Figure 7-1). The mouthparts do not bite, but are apparently used to scrape off
food particles that are then mixed with saliva and sucked
into the mouth. The first pair of legs is principally sensory in function and is carried in an elevated position
like antennae. The tarsi are one-segmented. Styli are present on the first three abdominal segments. On hatching
Hesperentomidae)
'Protura:
UNIVERSIDAD
DECALDII
BIBLIOTE.CA
170
Chapter7 TheEntognathous
Hexapods
from the egg, the proturan abdomen consists of 9 segments. At each of the next three molts, segments are
added anterior to the apical ponion (the telson), so that
the adult abdomen appears to have 12 segments (11
metameric segments and the apical telson).
Eosemtomidae
Protentomidae
p.170
Acerentomidae
p.170
p.170
Order Collembola2.3-Springtails
The common name "springtail" is derived from the
forked structure or furcula that propels these minUle
hexapods through the air. Many Collembola (almost all
Onychiuridae, many Hypogastruridae, and some Isotomidae) lack a furcula. The furcula arises on the ventral
side of the fourth abdominal segment and, when al
rest, is folded forward beneath the abdomen and held
in place by a clasplike appendage on the third abdominal segment called the retinaculum. When disturbed
the animal jumps by extending the furcula downward
and backward. A springtail 3 to 6 mm in length may be
able to leap 75 to 100 mm. A large number of species,
especially those dwelling in soil, have reduced or 10tally atrophied spring mechanisms.
Many collembolans have up to eight ommatidia 00
each side of the head, whereas others have the ommatidia reduced or are totally blindo Mouthparts vary
enormously, but generally are somewhat elongate aod
always concealed within the head. Although some
species are carnivores or fluid feeders, most species
feed on decaying vegetable material and fungi and have
Figure7-1 Dorsal view of a proturan, Filientomon bar. beri barberi (Ewing). (Courtesy of Ewing and the Entomological Society of America.)
10
2(1).
2'.
First thoracic segment without dorsal setae and often not visible dorsally
3(2).
Poduridae
3'.
4(3').
Onychiuridae
p.172
Hypogastruridae
p.172
Tomoceridae
p.174
6(5').
Dens with dentate spines; muero length about equal to or greater than
length of dens
Oncopoduridae
6'
l'
4'
5(2').
5'.
7(6').
7'
8(7').
8'
9(8').
Eyes and pigment absent; dens with large dorsal scales and without
apicallobe
9'
Eyes and pigment present; dens without dorsal scales, with apicallobe
Isotomidae
p.172
p.174
p.172
8
Entomobryidae
9
p.172
Cyphoderidae
Paronellidae
p.174
p.174
172
10(1').
Neelidae
10'.
11
11(10').
Mackenziellidae
p.174
11'.
Sminthuridae
p.172
p.172
Figure7-2 Springtails. A, Poduraaquatica (L.) (Poduridae); B, Pseudachorutesaureofasciatus (Harvey) (Hypogastruridae); C, Onychiurus ramosus Folsom (Onychiuridae);
D, Isotomurus tricolor (Packard) (Isotomidae); E, Entomobrya socia Denis (Entomobryidae); F, Tomoceruselongatus Maynard (Tomoceridae); G, Neelus minutus (Folsom) (Neelidae); H, SminthurusJloridanus MacGillivray (Sminthuridae). (Courtesy of Peter H.
Carrington and R.J. Snider.)
174
Chapter7 TheEntognathousHexapods
Figure 7-3
MackenzielliapsocoidesHammer, female
(Mackenziellidae)
Order Diplura4-Diplurans
1/
2(1).
Parajapygidae
2'
Japygidae
p.l:
p.l:
3(1/).
Campodeidae
p.1:
3'
2
3
...
Collectingand PreservingEntognatha 175
4(3').
4'.
Procampodeidae
p.175
Anajapygidae
p.175
176
Chapter7 TheEntognathous
Hexapods
References
Bernard, E. c., and S. L. Tuxen. 1987. Class and order Protura. In F. W Stehr (Ed.), Irnrnature Insects, vo\. 1,
pp. 47-54. Dubuque, lA: KendalVHunt, 754 pp.
Betsch, J.-M. 1980. Elrnents pour une rnonographie des
Collernboles Symphypleones (Hexapodes, Aptrygotes).
Mern. Mus. Nat. Hist. Natur., Serie A 116:1-227.
Boudreaux, H. B. 1979. Arthropod phylogeny with special reference to insects. New York: Wiley, 320 pp.
Carapelli, A., F. Frati, F. Nardi, R. Dallai, and C. Sirnon. 2000.
Molecular phylogeny of the apterygotan insects based on
nuclear and rnitochondrial genes. Pedobiologia 44:361-373.
Christiansen, K. 1964. Bionornics of Collernbola. Annu. Rev.
Entorno\. 9:147-178.
Christiansen, K. A., and P. F.Bellinger. 1988. The Collernbola
of North Arnerica North of the Rio Grande. Grinnell, lA:
Grinnell College, 1322 pp.
Christiansen, K. A., and R. J. Snider. 1984. Aquatic Collernbola. In R. W Merritt and K. W Curnrnins (Eds.), An Introduction to the Aquatic Insects, 2nd ed., pp. 82-93.
Dubuque, lA: KendalVHunt.
Ewing, H. E. 1940. The Protura of North Arnerica. Ann. Entorno\. Soco Arner. 33:495-551.
Fjellberg, A. 1985. Arctic Collernbola I-Alaskan Collernbola
of the farnilies Poduridae, Hypogastruridae, Odontellidae, Brachystornellidae, and Neanuridae.
Entorno\.
Scand. Supp\. No. 21, 126 pp.
Gisin, J. 1960. Collernbolenfauna Europas. Geneva: Musurn
d'Histoire Naturelle, 312 pp.
Hopkin, S. 1997. The biology of springtails, Insecta: Collernbola. New York: Oxford University Press, 300 pp.
Kristensen, N. P. 1981. Phylogeny of insect orders. Annu. Rev.
Entorno\. 26: 135-157.
Lubbock, J. 1873. Monograph of the Collernbola and Thysanura. London: Royal Society of London, 276 pp.
TheApterygote Insects
Microcoryphia
andThysanura
Microcoryphia'-Jumping
Bristletails
small; coryphia,
head.
177
178
Chapter8 TheApterygoteInsects
1'.
Machilidae
p.179
Meinertellidae
p.179
Order Thysanura-Silverfish3
The silverfish are moderate-sized
to small
insects,
Lepidotrichidae
1'.
2(1').
Lepismatidae
p.179
Nicoletiidae
p.179
2',
FamilyLepidotrichidae:
This familyis represented in
theUnited States by a single species, Tricholepidion
gerlschi
Wygodzinsky, which lives under decaying bark
offallenDouglas fir in northern California. This insect
isreddish, elongate, with a maximum body length of
about12 mm, with the antennae reaching a length of
9mmand the caudal appendages 14 mm.
Fami/yNicoletiidae:This group contains two subfamilies,which differ in appearance and habits. The
Nicoletiinaeare slender and 7-19 mm in length; they
lackscales;and the caudal filaments and antennae are
relatively
long (half as long as the body or longer). The
Atelurinaeare oval (often with the body tapering posterioriy);the body is usually covered with scales; and
thecaudal filaments and antennae are shorter (usually
lessthan half as long as the body). The Nicoletiinae are
subterraneanor occur in caves and mammal burrows.
TheAtelurinae are free-living or occur in ant or termite
p.179
180
Chapter8 TheApterygoteInsects
steam pipes. Both species are quite active and can run
rapidly. The lepismatids that occur outside buildings
are found in caves, in debris, under stones and leaves,
and in ant nests.
References
Paclt, j. 1956. Biologie der primar flgellosen insekten. Jena,
Germany: Gustav Fischer, 258 pp.
Paclt,j. 1963. Thysanura, farnily Nicoletiidae. Genera Insect.,
Fasc. 216e, 58 pp.; illus.
Rernington, C. L. 1954. The suprageneric classification of the
order Thysanura (Insecta). Ann. Entorno\. Soco Arner.
47:277-286.
Slabaugh, R. E. 1940. A new thysanuran, and a key to the domes tic species of Lepisrnatidae (Thysanura) found in the
United States. Entorno\. News 51:95-98.
Srnith, E. L. 1970. Biology and structure of sorne California
bristletails and silverfish (Apterygota: Microcoryphia,
Thysanura). Pan-Paco Entorno\. 46:212-225.
Wygodzinsky, P. 1961. On a surviving representative of the
Lepidotrichidae (Thysanura). Ann. Entorno\. Soco Arner.
54:621-627.
Wygodzinsky, P. 1972. A revision of the silverfish (Lepisrnatidae, Thysanura) of the United States and the Caribbean
area. Arner. Mus. Nov. No. 2481, 26 pp.
Wygodzinsky, P. 1987. Order Microcoryphia. In F. W Stehr
(Ed.), Irnrnature Insects, vo\. 1, pp. 68-70. Dubuque, lA:
KendalllHunt, 754 pp.
Wygodzinsky, P. 1987. Order Thysanura. In F.W Stehr (Ed.),
Irnrnature Insects, vo\. 1, pp. 71-74. Dubuque, lA:
KendalllHunt, 754 pp.
Wygodzinsky, p., and K. Schrnidt. 1980. Survey of the Microcoryphia (Insecta) of the northeastern United States and
adjacent provinces of Canada. Arner. Mus. Nov. No.
2071, 17 pp.
Order Ephemeroptera1,2
Mayflies
181
Figure9-2
eyesaresmall and
Table 9-1
Kukalov-Peck
(1985)
The
wings. Most mayflieshave two pairs of wings, but
in the Caenidae, Leptohyphidae, Baetidae, and some
Leptophlebiidae the hind wings are greatly reduced or
absent.The shape of the front wings is somewhat triangularin most mayflies, but the front wings are more
elongatein those species that have reduced hind wings
orlack them altogether. The wings are somewhat corrugated,with the veins lying either on a ridge or in a
furrow.Some veins contain bullae, weakened areas that
al!owthe wings to bend during flight.
There is considerable variation in the venational
terminologies different authorities use in this group.
Weuse here the terminology of Edmunds and Traver
(l954a; Figure 9-3), which differs a little from
that used by many earlier researchers. In addition,
A Comparisonof Venational
Terminologiesin the Ephemeroptera
C'
SeP
RA
RPI
RP2
RP3-4
MAI-2
MA3-4
MPI-2
MP3-4
CuAI-2
Cu supplements
+ CuA3-4
CuP (+AAl)
AA2
Edmundsand
Traver (1954a);
Edmundset al. (1976r
Needhamet al.
(1935)'
C
Se
C
Se
R,
R2
R,
R2
R)(a+b)
R.+,
MAl
IMA
MA2
MP,
IMP
R)
R.
R,
M,
MP2
CuA
Cubital interealaries
M2
CuP
lA
CU2
lA
CUI
Cu,
184
IMA(-)
ICuA
1 A(+)CuP(-)
SC(-)
R,(+)
R2(-)
(+)
R4+5(-)
'-MA(+)
1A(+)Cup(-)
MP,(-)
IMP(+)
" MP2(-)
CuA(+)
Figure
Baetidae (135): Acentrella (6), Acerpenna (4), Americabaetis (3), Apobaetis (3), Baetis (22), Baetodes
(6), Baetopus (l), Barbaetis (l), Callibaetis (12),
Camelobaetidius (5), Centroptilum (15),
Cloeodes (3), Cloeon (l), Diphetor (l), Fallceon (1),
Heterocloeon (4), Paracloeodes (1), Plauditus (13),
Procloeon (25), pseudocentroptiloides (2),
Pseudocloeon (6)
Baetiscidae (12): Baetisca (12)
Behningiidae (l): Dolania (1)
Caenidae (26): Americaenis (l), Brachycercus (10),
Caenis (12), Cercobrachys (3)
Ephemerellidae (96): Attenella (4), Caudatella (7),
Caurinella (1), Dannella (3), Dentatella (2),
Drunella (15), Ephemerella (34), Eurylophella (15),
Serratella (13), Timpanoga (2)
Ephemeridae (15): Ephemera (7), Hexagenia (5), Litobrancha (1), Pentagenia (2)
R4-S
CuP ~MA2
MP2 + CuA
+ MA,
+ MP,
_-l
1--
,',
!__
CuP
CuA/ MP2
MP,
MA2 MA,
I",ur--
I",UI-\ IVIr-2
MP,
."''''1
F=!2
1A
lA
CuP
ICuA- -
-:
CuA MP2
,...
185
186
Chapter9 OrderEphemeroptera
Oligoneuriidae
Bases of MP2and CuA of fore wing liule divergent fram MP. (MP2
only may diverge fram MP) (Figures 9-6C,D)
Middle and hind legs of male and alllegs of female atrophied (or lost)
beyond trochanter; vein MA of fore wing forked in basal half
(Figure 9-6A, B)
Alllegs well developed in both sexes; vein MA of fore wing forked near
middle of wing (Figures 9-3, 9-41)
4(3).
4'.
Males with penes twice as long as genital forceps; female wings white
Behningiidae
*
p.190
Males with penes shorter than genital forceps; female wings hyaline
Polymitarcyidae
p.191
5(3').
Neoephemeridae
p. 190
5'
l'
2(1').
2'.
3(2).
3'
6(5/).
6/
7(2').
7'
p.191
Potamanthidae
p.191
Ephemeridae
p.190
11
8(7).
Aeanthametropodidae
Vein MP of hind wing forked near margin; fore legs largely or entirely
dark; middle and hind legs pale
Isonyehiidae
Vein MP of hind wing forked near base or middle of wing; legs not as
in preceding entry
10
Tarsal claws of each leg dissimilar, one pointed, the other rounded or
padlike
Ameletidae
10'.
Siphlonuridae
11(7').
12
15
8',
9(8'),
9',
10(9').
11'.
12(11). Hind wings present, usually relatively large with one or more veins
forked; costal projection of hind wings, if present, shorter than width
ofwing
12'.
13
20
sgp
pe
mcf
L-i:l?J)\,\\ \
I
I '1.\ l.'
I\ n I I
\ \nHnl
gf
Figure 9-5 Apex of abdomen of male mayfly, Leptophlebiaeupida (Say), ventral view.
er, lateral caudal filament (cercus); gf, genital forceps; mef, median caudal filament; pe,
penes; sgp, subgenital plate.
p. 189
p.190
p. 189
p.191
187
188
R4+5
MA,
MA2
MP,
MP2
CuA
1A CuP--- --.'
se~R2ICUA
Se
R,
ICuA
-R2
R3
cUP~~~'
R4+5
MA
CuA
"
CuA
MP,
MP2
Se~R4+5
MA,
~MA2
1A CuP
1A Cup/ICUA
R4+5
MA,
13(12).
13'.
14(13').
14'.
15(11').
15'.
se
R,
1A
D
.=-=-.
ICuA'Cu.tn
se
R,
R4+5
~MA,
CuP CuA MP'0 MA2
MP,
MP
'
MP2
Wings of Ephemeroptera.
Figure 9-6
A, Campsurus, Campsurinae, Polymitarcyidae; B, Ephoron, Polymitarcyinae,
Polymitarcyidae; C, Stenonema, Heptageniidae; D, Siphlonurus, Siphlonuridae.
Fore wing with 1 long pair of parallel cubital intercalaries and several
shorter intercalaries between CuA and CuP; vein lA attached to hind
margin of wing by series of marginal veinlets; western United States
Ametropodidae*
14
Fore wing with short, basally detached marginal veinlets along outer
margin of wing; vein CuA basally close to or overlapping base of vein
CuP (Figure 9-4G); genital forceps of male with one terminal segment
Fore wing without basally detached marginal veinlets along outer
margin of wing; base of CuA separated from base of CuP (Figure 9-4J);
male genital forceps with 2 or 3 terminal segments (Figure 9-5)
p.189
Ephemerellidae
p.190
Leptophlebiidae
p.190
Baetiscidae
p.190
16
16(15'). Fore wing with 1 or 2 short, basally detached marginal veinlets between
main longitudinal veins; bases of veins MA2and MP2detached from
their respective stems (Figure 9-4D); 1 long and 1 short cubital
intercalary present (Figure 9-4D); hind wing small or absent; upper
portion of male eye large and on stalk
16'.
Fore wing with marginal intercalaries attached basally to other veins
(Figure 9-6C); bases ofveins MA2and MP2attached to MA, and MP,;
usually with 2 pairs (rarely 1) of cubital intercalaries (Figure 9-6C);
hind wings relatively large; male eyes not on stalks
17(16'). Hind tarsi distinctly 5-segmented
17'.
Hind tarsi apparently 4-segmented, basal segment more or less fused
to tibia
18(17). Genital forceps of male with 3 short terminal segments; MA of hind
wing unforked; rare, U.S. Northeast west to Wisconsin
18'.
Genital forceps of male with 2 short terminal segments; MA of hind
wing usually forked (Figure 9-6C); very common, widespread
19(17'). Eyes of male imago separated by distance greater than width of median
ocellus; length of fused basal segment of hind tarsus less than '/2 length
of tibia; subgenital plate of female with median cleft; abdominal sterna
without median marks
19'.
Eyes of male imago contiguous (touching) medially or nearly so; length
of fused basal segment of hind tarsus greater than '/2length of tibia;
subgenital plate of female evenly rounded; abdominal sterna with
median dots or lines
20(12'). Veins MP2and IMP of fore wing extending less than y. distance to base
of wing (Figure 9-4E); male genital forceps 2- or 3-segmented; hind
wings present or absent; thorax usually black or gray
20'.
VeinsMP2and IMPof forewingextendingnearly to baseof wing
(Figure 9-4F); male genital forceps l-segmented; hind wings absent;
thorax color variable, usually brown
FamilyAcanthametropodidae:
Two genera of these
rareand sporadically distributed mayOiesare known
fromNorth America,but only one has been collected
asan adulto They have relatively large hind wings with
theirlength one half or more of the length of the fore
wing,and three caudal filaments with the median filamentdistinctly longer than abdominal tergum 10. The
nymphshave long, slender tarsal claws (especially the
hindtarsal claws) that enable them to maintain their
positionin sandy bottom streams.
Fami/y Ameletidae: The adults are similar to
Siphlonuridae, from which they are distinguished by
the dissimilarity of the tarsal claws on each leg: one
pointedand the other rounded or padlike. The fastswimmingnymphs inhabit a wide variety of habitats,
ranging from swift-flowing streams to large rivers,
lakes,and ponds. They occur mostly among pebbles on
Baetidae
p.190
17
18
19
Arthropleidae
p. 189
Heptageniidae
p.190
Pseudironidae
*
p.191
Metretopodidae
p.190
Leptohyphidae
p.190
Caenidae
p.190
190
Chapter9 OrderEphemeroptera
References
FamilyPolymitarcyidae:
These mayflies are similar
totheEphemeridae, but have the middle and hind legs
ofIhemale, and alllegs of the female, gready reduced
orvestigia\.They are widely distributed but not very
eommon.Some (Polymitarcyinae) have a dense networkof marginal veinlets (Figure 9-6B), and the genitalforceps of the male have four segments. Others
(Campsurinae) have few marginal veinlets (Figure~A), and the genital forceps of the male have two
segments.
FamilyPotamanthidae: The nymphs of this group
livein the silt or sand at the bottom of swifdy Oowing
shallowwater. The adults are pale in color, with the
vertexand thoracic dorsum reddish brown, and the
frontwings are 7-13 mm in length. There are three
caudalfilaments,and the median filament is a litde
shorterthan the lateral ones. The wing venation is similar10Ihat of the Ephemeridae, but lA is forked near
thewingmargin (Figure 9-41).
FamilyPseudironidae:Adults of this monogeneric
familyare similar to Heptageniidae, but have only four
freetarsalsegments. The length of the fused basal segmenlof the hind tarsus is less than half the length of
thehind tibia. The nymphs have spiderlike long legs
andarefound in sand rivers over much of North Ameriea.Ihe nymphs have mouthparts adapted for predaonwith the mandibular incisors modified apically
andequipped with sharp, pointed spines. Only one
species,Pseudironcentralis McDunnough, occurs in the
UnitedStates.
FamilySiphlonuridae:
The nymphs of these mayOies
are streamlined in form and occur principally in
rapidlyflowing streams and rivers. At least some are
predaceouson tube-dwelling midge larvae and other
smallaquatic insects. The adults resemble the Heptageniidaein having MA in the hind wing forked, but
theydo not have two parallel pairs of cubital intercalaries(compare Figure 9-6C,D), and the hind tarsi
arefour-segmented (five-segmented in the Heptageniidae).Ihis is a large and widely distributed group, and
itsmembersvary in size (measured by the length of the
frontwings)from 8 to 20 mm.
References
Allen,R. K., and G. E Edmunds, Jr. 1965. A revision of the
genus Ephemerella (Epherneroptera: Ephernerellidae).
VIII.The subgenus Ephemerella in North Arnerica. Misc.
Pub!.Entorno\. SOCoArner. 4:244-282.
191
192
Chapter9 OrderEphemeroptera
Bae, Y J., and W P. McCafferty. 1998. Phylogenetic systematics and biogeography of the Neoephemeridae (Ephemeroptera: Pannota). Aquatic Insects 20:35-68.
Bednarik, A. F., and W P.McCafferty. 1979. Biosystematic revision of the genus Stenonema (Ephemeroptera: Heptageniidae). Can. Bull. Fish. &:Aquatic Sci. 201. 73 pp.
Berner, L. 1978. A review of the family Metretopodidae.
Trans. Amer. Entomol. Soco 104:91-137.
Berner, L., and M. L. Pescador. 1988. The Mayflies of Florida
(rev. ed.). Gainesville: University of Florida Press, 415 pp.
Brittain, J. E. 1982. Biology of mayflies. Annu. Rev. Entomol.
27:119-147.
Burian, S. K 2001. A revision of the genus Leptophlebia Westwood in North America (Ephemeroptera: Leptophlebiidae:
Leptophlebiinae). Bull. Ohio Bioi. Surv. n.S. 13(3).80 pp.
Burks, B. D. 1953. The mayflies of Ephemeroptera of Illinois.
Bull. Ill. Nat. Hist. Surv. 26:1-216.
Day, W e. 1956. Ephemeroptera. In R. L. Usinger (Ed.),
Aquatic Insects of California. Berkeley: University of California Press, pp. 79-105.
Edmunds, G. F.,Jr. 1962. The type localities of the Ephemeroptera of North America north of Mexico. Univ. Utah
Biol. Ser. 12(5):1-39.
Edmunds, G. F.,Jr. 1972. Biogeography and evolution of the
Ephemeroptera. Annu. Rev. Entomol. 17:21-42; illus.
Edmunds, G. F., Jr. 1984. Ephemeroptera. In R. W Merritt
and K W. Cummins (Eds.), An introduction to the
aquatic insects of North America, 2nd ed., pp. 94-123.
Dubuque, lA: KendalVHunt.
Edmunds, G. F., Jr., and R. K Allen. 1987. Order
Ephemeroptera. In F. W Stehr (Ed.), Immature Insects,
vol. 1, pp. 75-94. Dubuque, lA: KendalVHunt, 754 pp.
Edmunds, G. F.,Jr., R. K Allen, and W L. Peters. 1963. An
annotated key to the nymphs of the families and subfamilies of mayflies (Ephemeroptera). Univ. Utah Biol. Ser.
13(1):1-49.
Edmunds, G. F., Jr., S. L. Jensen, and L. Berner. 1976. The
Mayflies of North and Central America. Minneapolis:
University of Minnesota Press, 300 pp.
Edmunds, G. F., Jr., and J. R. Traver. 1954a. The flight mechanics of the wings of Ephemeroptera with notes on the
archetype wing. J. Wash. Acad. Sci. 44(12):390-400.
Edmunds, G. F.,Jr., and J. R. Traver. 1954b. An outline of a
reclassification of the Ephemeroptera. Proc. Entomol.
Soc. Wash. 56:236-240.
Edmunds, G. F.,Jr., and R. D. Waltz. 1996. Ephemeroptera. In
R. W Merrit and K W Cummins (Eds.), An introduction
to the aquatic insects of North America, 3rd ed., Chapter 11,
pp. 126-136. Dubuque, lA: Kendall Hunt.
Funk, D. H., and B. W Sweeney. 1994. The larvae of eastern
North American Eurylophella Tiensuu (Ephemeroptera:
Ephemerellidae). Trans. Amer. Entomol. SOC.120:209-286.
Hubbard, M. D. 1990. Mayflies of the world: A catalog of the
family and genus group taxa. Gainesville, FL: Sandhill
Crane Press, 119 pp.
Hubbard, M. D., and W L. Peters. 1976. The number of genera and species of mayflies (Ephemeroptera). Entomol.
News 87:245.
Kondratieff, B. e., andJ. R. Voshell,Jr. 1984. The North and
Central American species of Isonychia (Ephemeroptera:
Oligoneuriidae). Trans. Amer. Entomol. Soc. 110:129-244.
10
Order Odonata1,2
Dragonfliesand Damselflies
groups are
Adultdragonflies and damselflies are easily recog(seeFigures 10-10 thraugh 10-14). The comnized
poundeyesare large and multifaceted, and often occupymost of the head. There are three ocelli. The
antennae
are very small and bristlelike, and the mouthareofthe chewingtype. The thorax consists of a
parts
small
prothoraxand a larger pterothorax. The dorsal
andlateralsurfaces of the pterothorax, between the
pronotumand the base of the wings, are formed by
pleuralsclerites. The four wings are elongate, manyveined,
and membranous. The legs are relatively long
andsuitedfor perching and holding prey, not for walking.Theabdomen is long and slender, with 10 visible
segments.
The cerci are not segmented. Metamorphosis
issimple.
Present-dayOdonata vary in length from about 20
10more
than 135 mm.
whieh
livedabout 250 million years ago and is known
onlyframfossils,had a wingspread of about 71 cm
(28inehes)! The largest dragonflies in the United
Stales
areabout 85 to ll5 mm in length, although they
often
lookmuchlargerwhen seen on the wing.
'Odonata:
raro the Greek, meaning tooth (referring 10 the teeth on
ihe mandibles).
193
194
Chapter10 OrderOdonata
adults is relatively feeble, and they are not yet fully colored and are very soft-bodied. It is usually a few days
before the insect's full powers of flight develop, and a
week or more may elapse before the color pattern fully
develops. Many Odonata have a color or color pattern
in the first few days of their adult life that is quite different from what they will have after a week or two.
Newly emerged, pale, soft-bodied adults are called teneral individuals.
The two sexes in the suborder Anisoptera are usually similarly colored, although the colors of the males
are frequently brighter. In some of the Libellulidae, the
two sexes differ in the color pattern of the wings or abdomen. The two sexes are differently colored in most
of the Zygoptera, and the male is usually the more
brightly colored, especially in the Coenagrionidae. Females of several genera within this family are polymorphic. For example, most females of Ischnura verticalis
(Say) are heterochromatic, being orange and black
when newly emerged and rather uniformly bluish
when mature. A small proportion of the female population is homeochromatic.
Some species of Odonata are on the wing for only
a few weeks each year, whereas others may be seeo
throughout the summer or over a period of several
months. Observations of marked individuals indicate
that the average damself1y probably has a maximum
adult life of 3 or 4 weeks, and so me dragonflies may
live 6 to 10 weeks. Most species have a single generation ayear, with the egg or, usually, the nymph over-
Order Odonata
Figure
10-2 Nymphs of Aeshnoidea. A, Aeshna vertica/is
Hagen(Aeshnidae);B, Gomphus quadricolorWalsh
(Gomphidae).
(Courtesy of Walker and The Canadian
Entomologist.)
wintering.
A few of the larger darners and clubtails are
knownto spend two or more years in the nyrnphal
stage.
Dragonfliesand damselflies are peculiar among insectsin having the copulatory organs of the male 10cated
at the anterior end of the abdomen, on the ventralsideof the second and third segments. The male
genitalia
of other insects are located at the posterior
endofthe abdomen. The copulatory organs of male
Odonataare therefore considered "secondary geniBeforemating, male Odonata must transfer
!ala."
spennfromthe genital opening on the ninth segment
10Ihepenis,an extension of the third abdominal sternumthatlies in the genital pocket of the second segment.
Ihis transfer is accomplished by bending the abdomen
downward and forward.
Ihe twosexes frequently spend considerable time
with the male clasping the female by the
'intandem,"
backoftheheador
atIheendof his abdomen. Copulation is usually initiatedin !\ight, with the female bending her abdomen
downward
and forward and making contact with the
secondarygenitalia of the maleo This coupling is
knownas the "wheel position."
many
Anisoptera, the pair perches
ning
oviposition,the male remains nearby "on guard"
whilethe femaleis ovipositing and chases off other
195
196
Chapter
10 OrderOdonata
while still in tandem with the male). The eggs are usually inserted just below the surface of the water, no farther than the female can reach. In a few cases (for example, some species of Lestes), the eggs are laid in
plant stems above the water line, and in a few other
cases (for example, some species of Enallagma) the female may climb down a plant stem and insert her eggs
into the plant a foot or more below the surface of the
water. The eggs usually hatch in one to three weeks. In
tell
"er
8
\ I
9
\)
10
\
\
ppt
---er
10
VV--- ppt
D
...
Classification of the Odonata
capture
bees,butterflies, or other dragonflies. Odonata
normally
take moving prey, but some damselflies glean
stationary
prey from perches. If captured, dragonflies
~;1Ieator chew on almost anything that is put into
theirmouth-even their own abdomen!
Pond species are frequently
and, when
the nymph
emergesto transform
Superfamily Cordulegastroidea
Cordulegastridae (Cordulegasteridae) (8)spiketails, biddies
Superfamily Libelluloidea
Corduliidae (58)-cruisers,
emeralds, greeneyed skimmers
Libellulidae (114 )-skimmers
Suborder Zygoptera-damselflies
Calopterygidae (Agrionidae, Agriidae) (8)broad-winged damselflies
Lestidae (18)-spreadwinged
damselflies
Protoneuridae (Coenagrionidae in part) (3)threadtails
Coenagrionidae (Coenagriidae, Agrionidae)
(99)-pond
damsels, narrow-winged
damselflies
Platystictidae (l)-shadow
damsels
The separation of the families of Odonata is based
primarily on characters of the wings and head. We use
the Comstock-Needham system of wing vein nomenclature. This includes a number of special terms not used
in other orders and is illustrated in Figures 10-5 and
10-6. Riek and Kukalov-Peck (1984) proposed a reinterpretation of dragonfly wing venation on the basis of
fossil specimens. A comparison between their scheme
and that used here is presented in Table 10-1. The separation of genera and species is based on wing venation,
color pattem, structure of the genitalia, and other characters. Useful recent guides to identifying the genera and
species of North American Odonata are Westfall and
May (1996) for Zygoptera and Needham, Westfall
and
eventuallycomplete their complex life cycle by deinto free-living, predaceous adults. lt is not
veloping
unusualto
Jable 10-1
Classification
01 the Odonata
andMay (2000).
\uborder
Anisoptera-dragonflies
SuperfamilyAeshnoidea
Petaluridae (2)-petaltails, graybacks
Gomphidae (97)-clubtails
Aeshnidae(Aeschnidae) (39)-damers
Se
R
Asynopsis
of the nearly 450 species of Odonata occurringin North America north of Mexico is given next,
withsynonyrnsand altemate spellings in parentheses.
The
numbersin parentheses following each family are
ihenumbersof North American species, taken mainly
from
Westfalland May (1996) and Needham, Westfall,
Comparisonof Interpretations
of DragonflyVenation
+ CA +
SeP
M basally
R
Rs
MI+2
Radial supplement
RPI-2
RPI
M2
RP2
M3
RP3-4
M.
MA
Cu basally
CUI
MP
CU2
lA
CuA
Anal erossing
CuP erossing
MP
CuP
197
198
Chapter10 OrderOdonata
st
//
I
no d 'R
bcv
,....pn,
1"
I
"
M,
I
I
MI
{/I
\\~
\
1.
Front and hind wings similar in shape, narrow at base (Figures 10-6,
10-7D,F,G); wings at rest held either together above body or slightly
e,
R+M
an
M.
Cu,
Cu,
Rs
1',
2(1),
2',
3(2').
3',
4(3').
4',
5(4').
5',
6(1').
Hind wings wider than front wings, particularly at base (Figures 10-5,
10-7A-C); wings at rest held horizontally or nearly so; compound eyes
contiguous or separated by a distance less than width of eye; males with
3 appendages at end of abdomen (Figure 10-4A) (dragonflies, suborder
Anisoptera)
Tenor more antenodal crossveins (Figure 10-7D); wings not stalked, often
with black, brown, or red markings; quadrangle with several crossveins
Twoantenodal crossveins (Figures 10-6 and 10-7F); wings stalked
at base, either hyaline or lightly tinged with brown (rarely black);
quadrangle without crossveins
M) and Rs arising nearer arculus than nodus (Figure 10-6B); wings
usually held divergent at rest
M3and Rs arising nearer nodus than arculus (Figure 10-6A), usually
arising below nodus; wings usually held together at rest
Analvein and CU2long, reaching level of nodus; quadrangle distinctly
trapezoidal (Figure 10-6A)
Analvein and CU2absent or reduced to length of 1 cell; quadrangle
roughly rectangular (Figure 10-7F)
Crossvein present in cubitoanal space proximal to anal crossing
(Figure 10-7F); Cu at least 10 cells in length
No crossvein in cubitoanal space proximal to anal crossing
(Figure 10-7G); Cu at most 3 cells in length
Trianglesin front and hind wings similar in shape, about equidistant
from arculus (Figure 10-7 A); most costal and subcostal crossveins not
in line; usually abrace vein (an oblique crossvein; Figure 10-7E, bvn)
present behind proximal end of pterostigma
6
Calopterygidae
p. 205
3
Lestidae
p. 205
4
Coenagrionidae
p. 205
5
Platystictidae
p. 205
Protoneuridae
p. 205
200
Chapter10 OrderOdonata
D
bvn
Cu,
~t~,
/~,. '..
6'.
7(6).
7'.
8(7).
8'.
9(8').
Trianglesin front and hind wings usually not similar in shape, triangle
in front wing farther distad of arculus than triangle in hind wing
(Figure 10-5, 10-7B,C); most costal and subcostal crossveins in line;
no brace vein behind proximal end of pterostigma
10
Cordulegastridae
Aeshnidae
Petaluridae
p.203
p.203
p. 202
e
D
Figure10-8 Head structure in dragonflies. A, Gomphus exi/is Selys (Gomphidae), dorsal view; B, Basiaesehnajanata (Say) (Aeshnidae), dorsal view; C, Sympetrum (Libellulidae), lateral view; D, Epitheca (Corduliidae), lateral view. aelp, antec1ypeus; ant, antenna;
e, compound eye;fr, frons; lbm, labium; lbr, labrum; md, mandible; mx, maxilla; oe, ocellus; oep, occiput; pelp, postc1ypeus; pg, postgena; ver, vertex.
UNIVERSIDAD
DECMDAI
BIBLIOTeCA
11
202
Chapter10 OrderOdonata
Figure10-9 Labia of adult dragonflies. A, Tachopteryx (Petaluridae); B, Aeshna (Aeshnidae). 19,ligula or median lobe; mn, mentum; p, palp or laterallobe; plg, palpiger or
squama.
9'.
10(6').
10'.
Gomphidae
p.202
Hind margin of compound eyes lobed (Figure lO-8D); males with small
lobe on each side of second abdominal segment; inner margin of hind
wing of male somewhat notched; anal loop rounded (Figure 1O-7B) or
elongate, if foot-shaped with liule development of "toe" (Figure 10-7C)
Corduliidae
p.203
Libellulidae
p.203
Suborder Anisoptera-Dragonflies
t
D
Figure10-10
't
!
..:
'
o
204
Chapter10 OrderOdonata
colored
in the male and clear with brownish spots in
the female. The meadowhawks
(Sympetrum)
are
medium-sized,late-summer,
marsh-dwelling
insects.
Their color vares from yellowish brown to a bright
red,and the wings are usually clear except for a small
basalspotof yellowish brown. The whiteface skimmers
have a wingspread of about 40 mm and
(l.eucorrhinia)
aredark, with a conspicuous
white face. The most
commonspecies in the East is L. intacta Hagen, the
dot-tailed
whiteface, which has a yellow spot on the
dorsal
sideof the seventh abdominal segment.
Theblue dasher, Pochydiplax longipennis (Burmeister),
isacommonpond species, particularly in the central and
southemUnited States. It vares in color from a pattemedbrown and yellow to a uniform bluish, and the
wingsareoften tinged with brownish (Figure 10-12C).
Ithasa long cell just behind the pterostigma and has a
wingspreadof 50 to 65 mm. The eastem pondhawk,
Erythemis
simplicicollis (Say) , is a liule larger than
P longipennis.It has clear wings, and the body color
varies
from light green pauemed with black in females
andimmature males, to a uniform light blue in mature
males
(Figure 10-12H). The skimmers in the genera
Pantala (gliders)and Tramea (saddlebags) are mediumsized
tolarge(wingspread75-100 mm), wide-ranging
dragonllies
that have a very broad base of the hind
wings.
Those in Pantala are yellowish brown or gray
witha lightyellowish or brownish spot at the base of
thehindwing. Those in Tramea are largely black or
dark,
reddishbrown with a black or dark brown spot at
thebaseof the hind wing (Figure 10-12E).
SuborderZygoptera-Damselflies
Damselllies
have front and hind wings that are similar
inshape,both narrowed at the base. The wings of the
tWo
sexesare similar in shape and at rest are held eithertogetherabovethe body or slightly divergent. The
head
istransversely elongate and in dorsal view is usuaUywiderthan the thorax. The males have four appendagesat
206
Chapter10 OrderOdonata
D
Figure 10-13 Argia emma Kennedy (Coenagrionidae). A and B, Male; C and D, Female.
(Courtesy of Kennedy and the V.5. National Museum.)
Figure 10-14 Ischnura cervula Se\ys, male (Coenagrionidae). A, Dorsal view; B, Lateral view. (Courtesy of
Kennedy and the V.5. National Museum.)
References
References
Bick,G. H. 1983. Odonata
at risk in conterminous
United
of the
207
208
Chapter10 OrderOdonata
..
11
Order Orthoptera1,2
Grasshoppers,
Crickets,and Katydids
Orthoptera
Agreat
many types of insects "sing," but some of the
best
209
210
Chapter 11
Order Orthoptera
Figure11-1 A field cricket singing (note elevated position of front wings). (Courtesy
of R. D. Alexander.)
.A
16
N
12
.<:
4
0.1 0.2
'
-:V""''
II
l'5i
,
r ....
Median
Al
.
0_
Figure
11-2
Song
and
sound-producing
structures
of
= 1 mm);
-.. ..
1~O 1'.s
~
<=>
211
212
Chapter11 OrderOrthoptera
Superfamily Acridoidea
Romaleidae-Iubber grasshoppers
Acrididae (Locustidae)-grasshoppers
Cyrtacanthacridinae
Podisminae
Me1anoplinae
Leptysminae
Oedipodinae
Acridinae
Gomphocerinae
Infraorder Tetrigoidea
Tetrigidae-pygmy grasshoppers and pygmy
locusts
Infraorder Tridactyloidea
Tridactylidae (Gryllidae in part, GryIlotalpidae
in part)-pygmy mole crickets
Suborder Ensifera
Superfamily GryIlacridoidea
Stenopelmatidae-]erusalem,
sand, or stone
crickets
GryIlacrididae (Tettigoniidae in part)leaf-rolling grasshoppers
Rhaphidophoridae (Ceuthophilinae)cave or camel crickets
Anostostomatidae-silk -spinning
crickets
Superfamily Tettigonioidea
Tettigoniidae-katydids
Copiphorinae-cone-headed
katydids
Phaneropterinae-bush
katydids
PseudophyIlinae-true
katydids
Listroscelinae
Conocephalinae-meadow
katydids
Decticinae-shield-backed
katydids
Saginae-matriarchal
katydid
Meconematinae--drumming
katydid
Tettigoniinae-big
green pine-tree katydid
Prophalangopsidae (Haglidae)-hump-winged
crickets
Superfamily GryIloidea
Gryllidae-crickets
Oecanthinae-tree
crickets
Eneopterinae-bush
crickets
Trigonidiinae-bush
crickets
Nemobiinae-ground
crickets
Gryllinae-house
and field crickets
Brachytrupinae-short-tailed
crickets
Pentacentrinae-anomalous
crickets
Superfamily GryIlotalpoidea
GryIlotalpidae-mole
crickets
Superfamily Mogoplistoidea
Mogoplistidae-scaly
crickets
Myrmecophilidae-ant-Ioving
crickets
Front legs much dilated and modified for digging (Figure U-18); tarsi
3-segmented; length 20-35 mm
Gryllotalpidae
1'.
2(1').
Tridactylidae
2'.
3(2').
3'.
p.219
p.218
tb
~-
-- aro
e
B
sp
de
sp
strp
Figure11-4 Leg structure in Orthoptera. A-E, tibiae and tarsi; F-G, apical portion of
left hind femur; H, hind femur, mesal view. A, Nemobius (Nemobiinae, Gryllidae), hind
leg; B, Seudderia (Phaneropterinae, Tettigoniidae), front leg; C, Sehistoeerea (Cyrtacanthacridinae, Acrididae); D, Oeeanthus (Oecanthinae, Gryllidae), hind leg; E, Phyllopalpus
(Trigonidiinae, Gryllidae), hind tarsus; F,Romalea (Romaleidae); G, Melanoplus
(Melanoplinae, Acrididae); H, Acridinae (Acrididae). aro, arolium; de, movable spines or
calcaria; ex, coxa; fm, femur; sp, immovable spines; stpr, stridulatory pegs; tb, tibia; ts,
tarsus; tym, tympanum.
4(3).
Tetrigidae
4'
5(4').
S'.
Eumastacidae*
Antennae longer than front femora; wings nearly always present; size
variable, but usually over 15 mm in length; widely distributed
p.218
p.215
214
Chapter 11
6(5').
6'.
7(6).
7'.
8(3').
8'.
9(8).
9'.
10(9').
10'.
11(8').
11'.
12(11).
12'.
13(12').
13'.
14(13').
Order Orthoptera
Wings and tympana nearly always present; antennae not unusually long;
males without afile on third abdominal tergum; widely distributed
Wings and tympana absent; antennae very long, in males longer than
body; males with afile on third abdominal tergum; southwestern
United States
Tanaoceridae
*
p.215
Hind tibia with both inner and outer immovable spines at apex
(Figure 11-4F); prosternum usually with median spine or tubercle
Romaleidae
p.215
Hind tibia with only the inner immovable spine at apex, outel one absent
(Figure 11-4G); prosternum with or without median spine or tubercle
Acrididae
p.215
At least middle tarsi, and usually all tarsi, 4-segmented (Figures 11-4B,
11-lOE); ocelli usually present; ovipositor sword-shaped
11
Wingless, broadly oval; hind femora much enlarged; eyes small and ocelli
lacking; length 2-4 mm; living in ant nests
p.225
Myrmecophilidae
10
Wings very short or absent; hind tibiae without long spines (but with
apical spurs); body covered with scales; hind femora stout; southern
United States
Mogoplistidae
p.225
Wings usually well deve1oped; hind tibiae nearly always with long spines
(Figure 11-4A); body not covered with scales; hind femora only
moderate1y enlarged; wide1ydistributed
Gryllidae
p.223
12
Wings present (but sometimes very small) and with fewer than
8 principallongitudinal veins; males with stridulatory structures on
front wings (Figure 11-2 B-D); front tibiae with tympana; color variable,
but often green
15
Rhaphidophoridae
13
Gryllacrididae
p.219
p.219
14
p.219
Base of abdomen and head almost the same width as thorax; tibiae thin
Stenopelmatidae
Anostostomatidae*
p.219
15(11 '). Antennal sockets located about halfway between epistomal suture and
top of head; wings reduced, broad in male, minute in female; ovipositor
extreme1yshort; hind femora extending to about apex of abdomen
northwestern United States and southwestern Canada
Prophalangopsidae
p.221
Tettigoniidae
p.219
14'.
15'.
Antennal sockets located near top of head wings and ovipositor variable;
hind femora usually extending beyond apex of abdomen
SUBORDER
Caelifera:The Caelifera are jumping
Orthoptera,with the hind femora more or less enlarged;they inc!ude the short-horned grasshoppers and
thepygmy mole crickets. The antennae are nearly alwaysrelativelyshort, and the tarsi contain three or
fewersegments. The tympana, if present, are located
on the sides of the first abdominal segmento The
speciesthat stridulate usually do so by rubbing the
hindfemoraover the tegmina or abdomen or snapping
thewings in flight. All have short cerci and ovipositor.
Family Eumastacidae-Monkey Grasshoppers: The
membersof this group live on bushes or trees in the
chaparralcountry of the Southwest. They are wingless
andremarkably agile. Their common name refers to
theirability to progress through small trees and shrubs.
Adultsare slender, 8-25 mm in length, and usually
brownish.The face is somewhat slanting; the vertex is
pointed;and the antennae are very short (not reaching
therear edge of the pronotum). Monkey grasshoppers
donothave a stridulatory organ on the sides of the third
abdominalsegment, as do the Tanaoceridae. This group
isprincipallytropical, with 13 species in 3 genera occurringin the United States. They occur from central
California,southern Nevada, and southwestern Utah
southto southern California and southeastern Arizona.
FamilyTanaoceridae-Desert long-Horned Grasshoppers:
The members of this family resemble the
monkeygrasshoppers in being wingless and very active,and they occur in the deserts of the Southwest.
Theyare grayish to blackish in color, relatively robust,
and8-25 mm in length. The face is less slanting than
in the monkey grasshoppers, and the vertex is
1Ounded.
The antennae are long and slender, longer
(hanthe bodyin the male and shorter than the body in
thefemale.Males have a stridulatory organ on the sides
ofthe third abdominal segmento These grasshoppers
areveryseldom encountered. They are nocturnal and
1.
'.
2(1).
2'
Cyrtacanthacridinae
p.216
216
e
Figure11-5
3(2').
3'
4(1').
4'.
A, prothorax of Melanoplus
(Melanoplinae, Acrididae), ventral view;
B, pronotum of Syrbula (Acridinae, Acrididae), dorsal view; C, pronotum of Chortophaga (Oedipodinae, Acrididae), dorsal
view; D, mesothorax of Melanoplus
(Melanoplinae, Acrididae), ventral view;
E, same, Schistocerca (Cyrtacanthacridinae,
Acrididae). stl, mesosternallobe; stn2,
mesosternum; tub, prosternal tubercle.
Subfamily Cyrtacanthacridinae: The genus Schistocerca (Figure 11-6A) with 12 species is the only genus
in this subfamily. Most of them are large and strong
fliers. The desert locust, S. gregaria (Forkskil), of
Africa, the "plague" species mentioned in the Bible, belongs to this group. lt is one of the world's most destructive insects.
Leptysminae
p.217
Melanoplinae and
Podisminae
p. 216
Oedipodinae
p.217
Gomphocerinae and
Acridinae
p.217
r
Keyto the SubfamiliesofAcrididae 217
B
~"''''''
~~
~J~
,
. ..J
"L
218
Chapter11 OrderOrthoptera
Figure 11-8 A slant-faced grasshopper, Chloealtis conspersa Harris. (Courtesy of Insititut de Biologie Gnrale,
Universit de Montral.)
ure11-4B). The species that stridulate do so by rubbingthe edge of one front wing over a filelike ridge on
theventral side of the other front wing. Nearly all have
a relatvely long ovipositor, either sword-shaped or
cylindrical.
FamilyStenopelmatidae-Jerusalem, Sand, or Stone
Crickets:These insects are 20-50 mm long, and the
headand abdomen are rather large and robust. They
areusually brownish, with black bands on the abdomen.They are generally found under stones or in
loosesoil. Four species of Stenopelmatus and five
speciesof Cnemotettix represent this family in North
America.They occur in the West and are most commonin the Pacific Coast states.
Family Gryllacrididae-Leaf-Rolling Grasshoppers:
Ihis group is represented in the United States by one
species:Camptonotus carolinensis (Gerstaecker), which
occursin the East from New Jersey to Indiana and
southto Florida and Mississippi. This insect is nocturnaland feeds chiefly on aphids. During the day it sheltersina leaf rolled up and tied with silk spun from its
ownmouth.
FamilyRhaphidophoridae-Caveor Camel Crickets:
Iheseinsects are brownish and rather humpbacked in
appearance(Figure ll-lO) and live in caves, in hollowtrees, under logs and stones, and in other dark,
moistplaces. The antennae are often very long. Most
species in this group belong to the genus
Ceuthophilus,
with 89 species in the United States and
Canada.
Family Anostostomatidae-Silk-Spinning
Crickets:
The five species (four in the genus Cnemotettix) belonging to this family, spin silk from their maxillary
glands. They are all found in the Channel Islands off
the coast of California.
FamilyTettigoniidae-Katydids: This is a large family, with 265 species in 50 genera in North America,
whose members can usually be recognized by the long,
hairlike antennae, the four-segmented tarsi, the auditory organs (when present) located at the base of the
front tibiae, and the laterally flattened bladelike ovipositor. Most species have well-developed stridulating organs and are noted songsters. Each species has a characteristic songo The winter is usually passed in the egg
stage, and in many species the eggs are inserted into
plant tissues. Most species feed on plants, but a few
prey on other insects.
Front wings oval and convex, costal field broad, with many parallel
transverse veins; prostemal spine present; color green
Pseudophyllinae
l'
Front wings variable in shape, but costal field without transverse veins
as described in the preceding entry; other characters variable
2(1').
2'.
3(2).
Phaneropterinae
p. 220
Copiphorinae
p. 220
3'.
4(3').
p.221
UnitedStates
Listroscelidinae
p.221
'IhesubfamiliesSaginaeand Meconematinae, each containing one species that has been introduced and established in the United States, are
no!included in this key. The subfamilies are discussed in the tex!.
219
220
Chapter11 OrderOrthoptera
ver
/
I
,ant
4'.
Anterior portion of vertex variable, but always more than half as wide as
basal antennal segment; widely distributed
5(4').
S'.
Conocephalinae
p.221
6(5).
Decticinae
p.221
Tettigoniinae
p.222
6'.
Subfamily Copiphorinae-Cone-Headed
Katydids:
The cone-heads are long-bodied katydids that have a
conical head (Figure U-l2) and a long, swordlike
ovipositor. They have two color phases, green and
brown. They are generally found in high grass or weeds
and are rather sluggish. Their jaws are very strong, and
a person handling these insects carelessly may receive
a healthy nip. This group is a small one, with only a
few genera. The more common eastern species belong
to the genus Neoconocephalus. The songs of cone-heads
:=;.
10,
S,
~:A.__
14<
12-
~ 10~
S.
6.
g 4-S
~~ 2
i~ ~;.
.
12,
g ID.
~ S-.
.E 6.
r1
..
..
4.
g~ 2 e
>-
'.
""..-
..
...
~
tT
~
14.
12.
10.
S64-D
2o.b
"~
0.4
0.6
Time in Seconds
0.8
1.'0
Figure11-13 Audiospectrographs
of the songsof katydids(Tettigoniidae).A, northem true katydid, Pterophylla
camdlifolia(Fabricus), a two-pulse song, the pulses utteredat the rate
Figure11-12 A cone-headed
katydid, Neoconocephalusensiger
(Harris). A, male; B, female.
(Courtesy of the lnstitut de Biologie Gnrale, Universit de
Montral.)
221
222
Figure 11-15
cephalus fasciatus
female. (Courtesy
ativelyrobust, and about 25 mm in length. In the Tettigoniidae,the left front wing is uppermost, and its file
in the functional one. In this group either front wing
maybe uppermost, and the males may switch the positionof the wings while singing. The song of C. monUhler is a loud, very high-pitched (12-13 kHz)
strosa
trillabout 2 seconds in length or less, which has a
slightpulsating quality apparently due to the switching
ofthe front wings during the songo
Family Gryllidae-Crickets: The crickets resemble
thekatydids in having long, tapering antennae; stridu-
5(4).
5'.
6(5').
6'.
Hind tibiae with small teeth between longer spines; ovipositor cylindrical,
usually straight; length 11-23 mm
Eneopterinae
p.224
Trigonidiinae
Pentacentrinae
p.225
Ocelli present; head short, vertical (Figures 11-1, 11-17); hind tibiae
without teeth between spines (Figure 11-4A); black or brown insects
Oecanthinae
p. 223
Spines of hind tibiae long and movable (Figure 11-4A); last segment
of maxillary palps at least twice as long as preceding segment; body
usually less than 12 mm long
Nemobiinae
p. 224
Brachytrupinae
p.225
Gryllinae
p.224
p.224
approximation of the temperature in degrees Fahrenheit. Most species of tree crickets deliver loud trills.
Some of the tree-inhabiting species have songs consisting of short bursts of pulses. Most North American tree
crickets belong to the genus Oecanthus. The twospotted tree cricket, Neoxabea bipunctata (DeGeer), differs from Oecanthus in lacking teeth on the hind tibiae,
in having the hind wings much longer than the front
223
224
Figure11-17 A, a ground cricket, Allonemobiusfasciatus (DeGeer), male; B, the house cricket, Acheta domesticus (L.); C, a field cricket, Gryllus pennsylvanicus
Burmeister. (A, courtesy of Hebard and the Illinois Natural History Survey; B and C, courtesy of the lnstitut de
Biologie Gnrale, Universit de Montral.)
Figure11-18
The northern mole cricket, Neocurtilla
hexadactyla
CPerty). CCourtesy of Hebard and the Illinois
NaturalHistory Survey.)
225
226
Chapter11 OrderOrthoptera
References
Alexander, R. D. 1957. The taxonorny of the field crickets of
the eastern United States (Orthoptera, Gryllidae: Acheta).
Ann. Entorno\. Soco Arner. 50:584-602.
Alexander, R. D., A. E. Pace, and D. OUe. 1972. The singing
insects of Michigan. Great Lakes Entorno\. 5:33-69.
Arnedegnato, C. 1974. Les genres d'Acridiens neotropicaux,
leur classification par farnilles, sous-farnilles et tribus.
Acrida 3:193-204.
Bailey,w.J. and D. C. E Rentz (eds.). 1990. The Teuigoniidae:
biology, systernatics and evolution. Berlin: Springer Verlag, 395pp.
Blatchley, W. S. 1920. Orthoptera of Northeastern Arnerica.
Indianapolis: Nature, 785 pp.
Capinera, J. L., C. W. Scherer and J. M. Squitier. 2001. Grasshoppers of Florida. Gainsville: University Press Florida,
144 pp.
Chopard, L. 1938. La Biologie des Orthoptres. Paris:
Lachevalier, 541 pp.
Dakin, M. E. J. and K L. Hays. 1970. A synopsis of Orthoptera (sensu lato) of Alabarna. Bull. Agric. Exp. Sta.
Auburn University 404:1-118
Dirsch, V. M. 1975. Classification of the Acridornorphoid Insects. Oxford, UK: E. W. Classey, 178 pp.
Field, L. H. (ed.). 2001. The biology ofwetas, king crickets and
their allies. Wallingford, UK: CABI Publishing, 540 pp.
Froeschner, R. C. 1954. The grasshoppers and other Orthoptera of lowa. lowa State Coll. J. Sci. 29:163-354.
Gerhardt, H. C. and E Huber. 2002. Acoustic cornrnunication
in insects and anurans: cornrnon problerns and diverse
solutions. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 531 pp.
Grant, H. J., Jr., and D. Rentz. 1967. Biosysternatic review of
the farnily Tanaoceridae, including a cornparative study
of the proventriculus (Orthoptera: Tanaoceridae). PanPaco Entorno\. 43:65-74.
Gwynne, D. T. 2001. Katydids and bush-crickets, reproductive behavior and evolution of the Teuigoniidae. Ithaca,
NY: Cornell University Press, 317 pp.
Helfer, J. R. 1987. How to Know the Grasshoppers, Cockroaches, and Their Allies, 2nd ed. New York: Dover Publications, 363 pp.
Huber, E, T. E. Moore, and W. Loher (eds.). 1989. Cricket behavior and neurobiology. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University
Press.
Jago, N. D. 1971. A revision of the Gornphocerinae of the
world with a key to the genera (Orthoptera: Acrididae).
Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia 123(8):204-343.
Love, R. E., and T. J. Walker. 1979. Systernatics and acoustic
behavior of the scaly crickets (Orthoptera: Gryllidae:
Mogoplistinae) of eastern United States. Trans. Arner. Entorno\. Soco 105:1-66.
Morris, G. K, and D. T. Gwynne. 1978. Geographical distribution and biological observations of Cyphodenis (Orthoptera: Haglidae) with a description of a new species.
Psyche 85:147-166.
Nickle, D. A., T. J. Walker, and M. A. Brusven. 1987. Order
Orthoptera. In E W. Stehr (Ed.), Irnrnature Insects, vo\. 1,
pp. 147-170. Dubuque, lA: KendalVHunt, 754 pp.
12
Order Phasmatodea1
Walkingsticks
and LeafInsects
Tarsi 3-segmented
Timematidae
Tarsi 5-segmented
p. 228
227
228
Chapter12 OrderPhasmatodea
2(1').
2'.
3(2').
3'.
Adults with short wings; first abdominal tergum as long as or longer than
metanotum (longer than wide); head with 2 stout spines on vertex
Phasmatidae
p.228
Heteronemiidae
p. 228
Pseudophasmatidae
p.228
u'"
c:
'"
E
c.
o
Q;
>
'"
C>
'O
c:
'"
'5
ro
g
'"
a::
c;;
~
]
e,
o
:E
o
Figure 12-1
(Say).
A walkingstick, Diapheromerafemorata
-References 229
References
Bedford,G. O. 1978. Biology and ecology
todea. Annu.
Rev. Entorno!.
of the Phasrna-
23:125-149.
Bradley,J. c., and B. S. Gali!. 1977. The taxonornic arrangernent of the Phasrnatodea
with keys to the subfarnilies
and tribes. Proc. Entorno!. Soco Wash. 79:176-208.
Gustafson, J. F. 1966. Biological observations
on Timema califomica (Phasrnoidea:
Phasrnidae).
Ann. Entorno!. Soc.
Amer. 59:59-6l.
Helfer,]. R. 1987. How to Know the Grasshoppers,
Cockroaches, and Their Allies, 2nd edition. New York: Dover
Publications, 363 pp.
Henry,L. M. 1937. Biological notes on Timema
Scudder. Pan-Paco Entorno!. 13: 137-14l.
califomica
Strohecker, H. F. 1966. New Timema frorn Nevada and Arizona (Phasrnodea: Tirnernidae). Pan-Paco Entorno!. 42:
25-26.
Tilgner, E. 2000. The fossil record of Phasrnida (Insecta:
Neoptera). lnsect Syst. &: Evo!. 31:473-480.
Tilgner, E. H., 1. G. Kiselyova, and J. V McHugh. 1999. A
,norphological study of Timema cristinae Vickery with
irnplications for the phylogenetics of Phasrnida. Deutsch.
Entorno!. Z. 46:149-162.
Vickery, VR. 1993. Revision of Timema Scudder (Phasrnatoptera: Tirnernatodea) including three new species.
Can. Entorno!. 125: 657-692.
Vickery, V R., and D. K. McE. Kevan. 1985. The Grasshoppers, Crickets, and Related lnsects of Canada and Adjacent Regions. Ulonata: Derrnaptera, Cheleutoptera, Notoptera, Dictuoptera, Grylloptera, and Orthoptera. The
lnsects and Arachnids of Canada, Part 14. Ottawa: Canadian Governrnent Publishing Centre, 918 pp.
13
Order Grylloblattodea
RackCrawlers
he first member of this graup was not discovered un1914, when Walker described Grylloblatta campodeiformis fram Banff, Alberta. Rock crawlers are slender, elongate, wingless insects, usually about 15-30 mm
in length (Figure 13-1). The body is pale in color and
finely pubescent. The eyes are small or absent, and
there are no ocelli. The antennae are long and filiform,
consisting of 23 to 45 segments; the cerci are long, with
either 5 or 8 segments; and the sword-shaped ovipositor of the female is nearly as long as the cerci.
There are only 25 species and four genera of living
rack crawlers in the world Qapan, Siberia, China, Korea, northwestern United States and western Canada).
Eleven species, all belonging to the genus Grylloblatta
in the family Grylloblattidae, have been described fram
North America.
T til
230
References 231
References
Ando,H. 1982. Biology of the Notoptera.
Nagano, japan:
Kashiyo-Insatsu,
194 pp.
Gumey,A. B. 1948. The taxonorny and distribution
of the
Grylloblattidae. Proc. Entorno\. Soco Wash. 50:86-102.
Gumey,A. B. 1953. Recent advances in the taxonorny and
distribution of Grylloblatta (Orthoptera:
]. Wash. Acad. Sci. 43:325-332.
Grylloblattidae).
14
Order Mantophasmatodea1
Tcast of insect
In the original description of the order, it was unclear which order(s) of insects were the closest relatives of Mantophasmatodea, but Grylloblattodea and
Phasmatodea were suggested as possibilities. Unfortunately, no phylogenetic analysis preceded the descrip-
1:~?rders.
,,
~tU.~~;.
~'-!:.; f ,~~.:
; : .:..,
References 233
References
Arillo,A., V. M. Ortuo, and A. Ne\. 1997. Description
of an
enigmatic insect from Baltic amber. Bull. 50c. Entorno\.
France 102:11-14.
Klass,K.-D., O. lompro,
N. P. Kristensen,
Mantophasmatodea:
A new insect order with extant
members in the Afrotropics. 5cience 296:1456-1459.
Picker, M. D., J. F. Colville, and S. van Noort. 2002. Man-
and Raptophasma n.
Baltic amber (lnsecta:
Inst. Univ. Hamburg
2002. A review of the
loologischer Anzeiger
Dec., 2003.
UNIVERSIDAD
DECAmAS
8IBL'OTECA
15
Order Dermaptera1
Earwigs
arwigs are elongate, slender, somewhat flattened inthat resemble rove beetles but have forcepslike
cerci (Figure 15-1). Adults may be winged or wingless,
with one or two pairs of wings. If winged, the front
wings are short, leathery, and veinless (and are usually
called tegmina or elytra) , and the hind wings (when
present) are membranous and rounded, with radiating
veins. At rest the hind wings are folded beneath the
front wings with only the tips projecting. The tarsi
have three segments, the mouthparts are of the chewing type, and the metamorphosis is simple.
lmmature earwigs have fewer antennal segments
than do adults, with segments added at each molt.
lmmatures can be distinguished from adults by
the combination of a malelike lO-segmented abdomen (adult females have only 8 apparent segments) with femalelike straight forceps (adult male
forceps usually have the inner margin distinctly
curved) (Figure 15-2).
Earwigs are largely nocturnal in habit and hide
during the day in cracks, in crevices, under bark, and
in debris. They feed mainly on dead and decaying vegetable matter, but some occasionally feed on living
plants, and a few are predaceous.
Some of the winged forms are good fliers, but others fly only rarely. The eggs are laid in burrows in the
ground or in debris, generally in clusters, and are
guarded by the female until they hatch. Earwigs overwinter in the adult stage.
Some species of earwigs have glands opening on
the dorsal side of the third and fourth abdominal segments, from which they emit a foul-smelling fluid that
E sects
234
Figure15-1 The European earwig, Foifrcula auricularia L., remale, about 4X. (Courtesy of Fulton and the
Oregon Agricultural Experiment Station.)
...
heabdomen is quite maneuverable. The larger earwigs,especiallythe males, can inflict a painful pincho
Classification
of the Dermaptera
Thearder Dermaptera is usually divided into three
suborders, the Arixenina, the Diploglossata (Hemirnerina),and the Forficulina. Some authorities con-
sider the Arixenina a family (Arixenidae) of the Forficulina. The Arixenina are Malayan ectoparasites of
bats, and the Diploglossata are Somh African parasites of rodents. The Forficulina is the only suborder
occurring in North America. Of the 22 North American earwig species, 12 have been introduced from
Europe or from the tropics. Our species represent six
families, adults of which may be separated by the following key.
Farficulidae
p. 237
236
2'.
3(1').
3'.
4(3').
4'.
5(4').
5'.
Distal extension of second tarsal segment not dilated, no wider than third
segment, and with dense brush of hairs beneath; antennae 12-segmented;
black; California
Chelisochidae
p. 237
Pygidicranidae
p. 236
Labiduridae
Anisolabididae
p. 236
Labiidae
p.237
Family Pygidicranidae:
This familyis represented in
the United States by a single species, Pyragropsis buscki
(Caudell), which is fully winged and 12-14 mm in
length. This insect has been collected in southern
Florida and also occurs in Cuba, Jamaica, and Hispaniola.
Family Anisolabididae (Carcinophoridae, Psalididae,
Anisolabidae;Labiduridaein part)-Seaside and Ring-Legged
Earwigs: The seaside earwig, Anisolabis maritima
(Bonelli), is a wingless, blackish brown insect 20-25 mm
in length with 20-24 antennal segments. lt is an introduced species that is predaceous and usually found beneath debris along seashores. It now occurs locally
p. 237
References
morio (Fabricius), which is a native of the tropics (islands in the Pacific) but has be come established in California. This insect is black and 16-20 mm long.
Family Forficulidae-European and Spine-tailed Earwigs: The most common member of this family is the
European earwig, Forficula auricularia L., a brownish
black insect 15-20 mm long (Figure 15-1). It is widely
distributed throughout southern Canada south to North
Carolina, Arizona, and California. It occasionally causes
substantial damage to vegetable crops, cereals, fruit
trees, and ornamental plants. The spine-tailed earwigs
(Doru) are a liule smaller (12-18 mm in length), and are
so called because the male has a short median spine on
the terminal abdominal segment (Figure 15-2C).
References
Blatchley,W S. 1920. Orthoptera
of Northeastern
America.
Labidurinae
Nat.
Hist.
n. The
Psyche
and
Soco
237
238
Chapter15 OrderDermaptera
Steinmann, H. 1978. A systematic survey of the species belonging to the genus Labidura Leach, 1815 (Dermaptera).
Acta loo\. Acad. Sci. Hung. 25:415-423.
Steinmann, H. 1989. World Catalog of Dermaptera. Series Entomologica 43:1-934.
Vickery, V. R., and D. K. McE. Kevan. 1985. The Grasshoppers, Crickets, and Related Insects of Canada and Adjacent Regions: Dlonata: Dermaptera, Cheleutoptera, Notoptera, Dictuoptera, Grylloptera, and Orthoptera. The
Insects aDd Arachnids of Canada, Pan 14. Ottawa: Canadian Government Publishing Centre, 918 pp.
16
Order Plecoptera1,2
Stonefles
or small, some-
S what fiattened, soft-bodied, rather drab-colored insectsfound near streams or rocky lake shores. They
aregenerally poor fliers and are seldom found far
fromwater. Most species have four membranous
wings(Figure 16-1). The front wings are elongate
and rather narrow and usually have a series of
crossveinsbetween M and Cu and between Cu and
CUloThe hind wings are slightly shorter than the
[rontwings and usually have a well-developed anal
lobethat is folded fanwise when the wings are at rest.
Afewspecies of stoneflies have reduced wings or lack
wings,usually in the maleo Stoneflies at rest hold the
wingsfiat over the abdomen (Figure 16-2A). The antennaeare long, slender, and many-segmented. The
tarsiare three-segmented. Cerci are present and may
belong or short. The mouthparts are of the chewing
type,although in many adults (which do not feed)
theyare somewhat reduced. The stoneflies undergo
simplemetamorphosis, and the nymphal stages of developmentare aquatic.
Stonefiy nymphs (Figures 16-2B and 16-3) are
somewhatelongate, flattened insects with long antennaeand long cerci, and often with branched gills on
thethorax and about the bases of the legs. They are
verysimilar to mayfly nymphs but lack a median caudalfilament; that is, they have only two tails, whereas
mayflynymphs nearly always have three. Stonefiy
nymphshave two tarsal claws and mayfiy nymphs
haveonly one, and the gills are different: Mayfiy
'Pleeoptera:p/eeo, folded or plaited; ptera, wings (referring to the
bet that the anal region
areat rest).
when
the wings
nymphs have leaflike gills along the sides of the abdomen (Figure 9-2), whereas stonefly gills are always
fingerlike, either simple or branched, and only occur
ventrally (Figure 16-2B). Stonefiy nymphs are often
found under stones in streams or along lake shores
(hence the common name of these insects), but may
occasionally be found anywhere in a stream where
food is available. A few species live in underground
water, and their nymphs sometimes appear in wells or
other drinking water supplies. Some species are plant
feeders in the nymphal stage, and others are predaceous or omnivorous. Some species of stoneflies
emerge, feed, and mate during the fall and winter
months. The nymphs of these species are generally
plant feeders, and the adults feed chiefiy on blue-green
algae and are diurnal in feeding habits. The species
that emerge during the summer vary in nymphal feeding habits. Many do not feed as adults.
In many species of stoneflies, the sexes get together in response to acoustic signals. The males drum
by tapping the tip of the abdomen on the substrate. Virgin females respond to this drumming, and answer
with a drumming of their own either during or immediately after the male drumming. The males drum
throughout their adult life, and the signals are species
specific.
239
240
Chapter16 OrderPlecoptera
Se R
I
Figure16-1
8
Figure16-3 Stonefly nymphs. A, Isoperla transmarina (Newman) (Perlodidae);
B, Nemoura trispinosa Claassen (Nemouridae); C, Oemopteryx glacialis (Newport)
(Taeniopterygidae). (Courtesy ofHarden and the Entomological Society of America.)
91
Zwick(1973) showed that the families Pteronarcyidae
and Peltoperlidae belong in the group Systellognatha.
Henoted that the structure of the labium is a function
offeedingmethod, with herbivores exhibiting similarly
sizedglossae and paraglossae, and carnivores having
themmodified in size and shape.
Different authorities recognize different numbers
offamilies;we follow here the arrangement of Stark et
al.(1986), who recognize nine families in North Amerira.Ihis arrangement is outlined next, with alterna te
namesand arrangements in parentheses. The numbers
in parentheses, representing the numbers of North
Americanspecies, are from Stark et al. (1986).
242
Chapter16 OrderPlecoptera
Labium with glossae and paraglossae about the same size, labium thus
appearing to have 4 similar terminallobes (Figure 16-4A)
1'.
2(1).
2'
Basal tarsal segment short, much shorter than third segment (Figure 16-6E)
Basal tarsal segment longer, nearly as long as or longer than third segment
(Figure 16-6A-D)
3(2).
Anal area of front wing with 2 series of crossveins (Figure 16-7 A);
head with 3 ocelli; gill remnants on sides of first 2 or 3 abdominal
segments; large slOneflies, usually over 25 mm in length
Pteronarcyidae
p.245
Rs
~1
~pe R,
A
Se,
Cu,
1A
Se,
Figure16-7 Wings of Plecoptera. A, Pteronarcys(Pteronarcyidae); B, Taenionema (Taeniopterygidae); C, Leuctra (Leuctridae); D, Nemoura (Nemouridae); E, front wing of a
capniid. apc, apical crossvein; BA, basal anal cell.
3',
4(2').
4',
5(4').
5'.
6(5).
Peltoperlidae
p. 245
Taeniopterygidae
p. 244
Second segment of tarsi much shorter than each of the other 2 segments
(Figure 16-6B-D)
Cerci short and l-segmented; front wing with 4 or more cubital crossveins,
2A forked (Figure 16-7C)
Cerci long and with 4 or more segments; front wing with only 1 or
2 cubital crossveins, 2A not forked (Figure 16-7E)
Front wings flat at rest, with an apical crossvein (Figure 16-7D, apc)
Capniidae
Nemouridae
p.245
p. 244
243
/
244
--
:
I
6'.
7(1').
7'.
8(7').
8'.
leuctridae
p.244
Front wing with cu-a (if present) opposite basal anal cen, or distad of it
by no more than its own length; remnants of branched gills on thorax
(Figure 16-5)
Perlidae
p.245
Front wing with cu-a (if present) usuany distad of basal anal cen by more
than its own length; no remnants of branched gills on thorax (some
Perlodidae may have remnants of unbranched or fingerlike gills on thorax)
Hind wings with anallobe wen developed, with 5-10 anal veins; front
wing with no forked vein arising from basal anal cen; pronotum
rectangular, the corners acute or narrowly rounded (Figure 16-8B,D);
length 6-25 mm
Perlodidae
p.245
Hind wings with anallobe reduced (rarely absent), and usuany with no
more than 4 anal veins; front wing sometimes with forked vein arising
from basal anal cen; pronotum with corners rounded (Figure 16-8C);
length 15 mm or less
Chloroperlidae
p.245
...
References
References
Baurnann, R. W 1987. Order Plecoptera. In E W Stehr (Ed.),
Irnmature Insects, vo!. 1, pp. 186-195.
Dubuque,
lA:
KendalllHunt, 754 pp.
Baurnann, R. W, A. R. Gaufin, and R. E Surdick. 1977. The
stoneflies (Plecoptera)
of the Rocky Mountains.
Mem.
Amer. Entorno!. Soco 31, 208 pp.
Claassen, P. W 1931. Plecoptera nymphs of America (north of
Mexico). Thornas Say Foundation
Pub!. 3, 199 pp.
Frison, T. H. 1935. The stoneflies, or Plecoptera,
of Illinois.
Ill. Nat. Hist. Surv. Bull. 20(4):281-471.
245
246
Chapter 16
Order Plecoptera
17
Order Embiidina1,2
Web-Spinners
by Edward
editorial
247
248
2(1').
2/.
3(2).
3/.
Anisembiidae
p.248
Teratembiidae
p. 248
Oligotomidae
(in part) p.248
Family Anisembiidae: The Anisembiidae are represented in the United States by three species: Anisembia
texana (Melander) of the south central states, and
Dactylocerca rubra (Ross) and D. ashworthi Ross of the
Southwest. In some habitats, both winged and wingless
males occur in colonies of A. texana. In humid regions,
males are always ala te, whereas in colder and arid regions males are always apterous.
Family Teratembiidae(Oligembiidae):This family is
represented in the southeastern United States by
five species: Oligembia hubbardi (Hagen) of Florida,
~~~r~
:1
'fJ..
;
-References
Collecting
and PreservingEmbiidina
Themales, which are generally more easily identified
thanthe females, are often collected at lights, during
andafter the rainy season while the soil or bark is
damp.None of the Anisembiidae fly to light, nor do
thoseof melanic Oligembiamelanura.Well-pigmented
ormelanic males apparently never disperse at night.
249
References
Ross,E. 5.1940. A revision ofthe Ernbioptera ofNorth
ica. Ann. Entorno\. Soco Arner. 33:629-676.
Arner-
UNIVERSIDAD
DECAI8
BIBL'OTeCA
18
Order Zoraptera1
Zorapterans,
AngelInsects
T length,
250
.'
ihotight
tne wingless
condition
was a distinctive
feature
of the order.
References 251
References
Caudell,A. N. 1918. Zorotypus hubbardi, a new species of the
order Zoraptera frorn the United States. Can. Entornol.
50:375-381.
Caudell, A. N. 1920. Zoraptera not an apterous
Entornol. Soco Wash. 22:84-97.
Caudell, A. N. 1927. Zorotypus
Zoraptera frarn Jamaica.
29:144-145.
order.
Prac.
Delarnare Deboutteville,
C. 1956. Zoraptera. In S. L. Tuxen
(Ed.), Taxonornist's Glossary of Genitalia in Insects, pp.
38-41. Copenhagen:
Munksgaard.
Gurney,A. B. 1938. A synopsis of the order Zoraptera, with
notes on the biology of Zorotypus hubbardi Caudell. Prac.
Entornol. Soco Wash. 40:57-87.
Gumey,A. B. 1959. New distribution
records for Zorotypus
hubbardi Caudell (Zoraptera).
Prac. Entornol. Soco Wash.
61:183-184.
Gumey,A. B. 1974. Class Insecta, Order Zoraptera. In W G.
H. Coa ton (Ed.), Status of the Taxonorny of the Hexapoda of Southern Africa. RSA Dept. Agr. Tech. Serv., Entornol. Mern. 38:32-34.
'1
19
,/
'
Order Isoptera
1,2
Termites
./
ermites are medium-sized, cellulose-eating social inup the order Isoptera, a relatively small
group of insects, consisting of approximately 1900
species worldwide. They live in highly organized and
integrated societies, or colonies, with the individuals
differentiated morphologically into distinct forms or
castes-reproductives,
workers, and soldiers-that
perform different biological functions. The four wings
(present only in the reproductive caste) are membranous. The front and hind wings are almost equal in size
(Figure 19-1), hence the name Isoptera. The antennae
are moniliform or filiform. The mouthparts of the
workers and reproductives are of the chewing type.
The metamorphosis is simple. The nymphs have the
potential to develop into any one of the castes. Experiments have shown that hormones and inhibitory
pheromones secreted by the reproductives and soldiers
regulate caste differentiation.
Although termites are popularly referred to as
"white ants," they are not ants, nor are they closely related to ants, which are grouped with bees and wasps
in the Hymenoptera, whose social system has evolved
independently of that in the Isoptera. Termites are
most closely related to the cockroaches and mantids
(Thorne and Carpenter 1992, Wheeler et al. 2001).
The primitive living species Mastotennes darwiniensis
Froggatt from Australia has some similarities with
some cockroaches, such as the folded anallobe in the
hind wing and an egg mass resembling the oothecae of
cockroaches and mantids. However, the Mastotennes
egg mass differs in structural details from the ootheca
and is probably more similar to egg pods of other Or-
T sects making
lIsoptera:
252
'This
chapter
was edited
by Kumar
Krishna,
Figure19-1
Termite Castes
TermiteCastes
Thereproductive function in the termite society is carriedout by the primary reproductives, the king and
queen-most commonly one pair to a colony-which
developfrom fully winged (macropterous) adults (Figure I9-2A). They are heavily sclerotized and have
compound eyes. The king is generally small, but in
manyspeciesthe queen developsan enlarged abdomen
asa result of her increasing egg-Iaying capacity, and in
sometropical species she can reach a size as great as
11 cm (compared with 1-2 cm for the king). The
wingedreproductives from which the king and queen
developare produced in large numbers seasonally.
Theyleave the colony in a swarming or colonizing
fiight,shed their wings along a suture, and, as individ-
-.'~~
"'"-~
- --
253
,.
254
Chapter19 OrderIsoptera
The workers are usually the most numerous individuals in a colony. They are pale and soft-bodied, with
mouthparts adapted for chewing. They perform most
of the work of the colony: nest building and repair, foraging, and feeding and grooming the other members of
the colony. Because of its feeding function, the worker
caste causes the widespread destruction for which termites are notorious. In the primitive families, a true
worker caste is absent and its functions are carried out
by wingless nymphs called pseudergates, which may
molt from time to time without change in size.
The soldier has a large, dark, elongated, highly
sclerotized head, adapted in various ways for defense.
In the soldiers of most speeies, the mandibles are long,
powerful, hooked, and modified to operate with a seissorlike action to behead, dismember, or lacerate enemies or predators (usually ants). In the soldiers of
some genera, such as Cryptotermes, the head is short
and truncated in front and is used in defense to plug
en trance holes in the nest.
The mechanical means of defense are sometimes
supplemented or displaced by chemical means, in
which a sticky and toxic fluid is secreted by the frontal
gland and ejected through an opening onto the enemy.
In Coptotermes and Rhinotermes, the gland occupies a
large portion of the head. In the subfamily Nasutitermitinae, the mechanism of defense is exclusively
chemical: the mandibles are reduced, the frontal gland
is greatly enlarged, and the head has developed a snout,
or nasus (Figure 19-2B) through which a sticky, repellent secretion is squirted at the enemy.
In a few genera, such as Anoplotermes, the soldier
caste is absent, and the nymphs and workers defend
the colony.
Habits of Termites
Termites frequently groom each other with their
mouthparts, probably as a result of the attraction of secretions that are usually available on the body. The
food of termites consists of the cast skins and feces of
other individuals, dead individuals, and plant materials
such as wood and wood products.
Figure19-3 Head of Prorhinotermes,dorsal view,showing fontanelle (ton). (Modified fram Banks and Synder.)
Some termites live in moist subterranean habitats,
and others live in dry habitats aboveground. The subterranean forrns normally live in wood buried beneath or in
contact with the soil. They may enter wood remo te froro
the soil, but must maintain a passageway or connecting
gallery to the soil, from which they obtain moisture.
50me speeies construct earthen tubes between the soil
and wood aboveground. These tubes are made of din
mixed with a secretion from a pore on the front of the
head (the fontanelle; Figure 19-3, fon). The nests may
be entirely subterranean, or they may protrude above
the surface: Some tropical speeies have nests (termitaria)
9 meters high. The drywood termites, which live aboveground (without contact with the ground), live in posts,
stumps, trees, and buildings construeted of wood. Their
ehief souree of moisture is metabolic water (water resulting from the oxidation of food).
The eellulose in a termite's food is digested by
myriads of flagellate protists living in the termite's digestive traet. A termite from which these flagellates
have been removed will eontinue to feed, but it will
eventually starve to death beeause its food is not digested. This assoeiation is an exeellent example of symbiosis, or mutualism. 50me termites harbor bacteria
rather than flagellates. Termites engage in a unique
form of analliquid exehange Ctrophallaxis), and this is
how intestinal mieroorganisms are transmitted from
one individual to another.
l'
Fontanelle usually present (Figure 19-3, fon); wings with only 2 heavy
veins in anterior part of wing beyond scale, R usually without anterior
branches (Figure 19-4A)
Fontanelle absent; wings with 3 or more heavy veins in anterior part of
wing beyond scale, R with 1 or more anterior branches (Figure 19-4B)
2
3
......
:......
,.......................................................
",
............
...................
1'~F;ii02:;::::"
B
2(1).
Rhinotermitidae
p.256
Termitidae
p.257
Kalotermitidae
p.256
Ocelli absent; shaft of tibiae usually with spines; antennae usually with
more than 21 segments; cerci long, 4-segmented; westem United States,
southem British Columbia, and Queen Charlotte Island
Termopsidae
p. 256
Termitidae
p. 257
l'
2(1'),
2',
3(1'),
3',
2'.
3(2).
3'
3
Kalotermitidae
Rhinotermitidae
p.256
p.256
256
Chapter19 OrderIsoptera
4(3).
Termitidae
Kalotermitidae
6(5').
Termopsidae
p.256
6'.
Hind femora not, or only slightly, swollen; antennae with fewer than
23 segments; shaft of tibiae without spines
Kalotermitidae
p.256
4'.
5(4').
S'.
p.257
p. 256
GAME LAWS
OF OHlO
1921
MIl)
1922
. C. BA~TER
Cf.._
Figure 19-6
Terrnite damage.
258
Chapter19 OrderIsoptera
References
Abe, T., D. E. Bignell, and M. Higashi (Eds.). 2000. Termites:
Evolution,
SOciality, Symbioses,
Ecology
Dordrecht:
Kluwer Academic, 488 pp.
Constantino,
R. 1998. Catalog of the living termites of the
New World (Insecta: Isoptera).
(Sao Paulo) 35(2):135-231.
Arquivos
de Zoologia
Coop. Econ.
of Florida
Termites.
Coral
196 pp.
64 pp.
References 259
Terrnites, pp. 1-30. Dunn Loring, VA: National Pest Control Association, 57 pp.
Thorne, B. L. and]. M. Carpenter. 1992. Phylogeny of the
Dictyoptera. Syst. Entorno!. 17:253-268.
Weesner, F. M. 1960. Evolution and biology of the terrnites.
Annu. Rev. Entorno!. 5:153-170.
Weesner, F. M. 1965. The Terrnites of the United States. A
Handbook. Elizabeth, NJ: National Pest Control Association, 71 pp.
Weesner, F.M. 1987. Order Isoptera. In F.W Stehr (Ed.), Irnmature
Insects,
pp.
132-139.
Dubuque,
lA:
KendalllHunt.
Wheeler, W c., M. Whiting, Q. D. Wheeler, and ]. M.
Carpenter. 2001. The phylogeny of the extant hexapod
orders. Cladistics 17: 113-169.
20
Order Mantodea1,2
Mantids
peculiarly modified front legs (Figure 20-1). The prothorax is greatly lengthened and movably attached to the
pterothorax; the front coxae are very long and mobile;
and the front femora and tibiae are armed with strong
spines and fitted for grasping prey. The head is freely
movable. Mantids are the only insects that can "look
over their shoulders." These insects are highly predaceous and feed on a variety of insects (including other
mantids). They usually lie in wait for their prey with the
front legs in an upraised position. This position has
given rise to the common names "praying mantis" and
"soothsayer" that are often applied to these insects.
Mantids overwinter in the egg stage, and the eggs
are deposited on twigs or grass stems in a Styrofoam-like
'Mantodea, from the Greek, meaning a soothsayer or a kind of
grasshopper.
'This chapter was edited by David A. Nickle.
260
introducedfrom Asia. The European mantis, Mantis religiosaL., a pale-green insect about 50 mm in length,
wasintroduced in the vicinity of Rochester, New York,
about75 years ago and now occurs throughout most of
theeastern states.
Pronotum quadrate or only slightly longer than wide; small species found
only in south Florida
1'.
2(1').
Fore femur with deep pit or groove between first and second spines on
outer ventral margin to receive apical ventral claw of fore tibia
Fore femur lacking deep pit or groove between first and second spines on
outer ventral margin
Outer ventral margin of fore femur with 5-7 spines; antenna basally
broad, flattened
Outer ventral margin of fore femur usually with 4 spines; antenna thin,
filamentous
2'.
3(2').
3'
Liturgusinae(Gonatista, 1 sp.)
4(3').
Fore tibia armed dorsoapically with 1-2 spines; long slender species
4'.
Oligonychinae (Oligonicella,
2 spp., Thesprotia,1 sp.)
5
5(4').
Amelinae
5'
Larger species, greater than 40 mm long; eyes globose, with costal margin
of tegmen glabrous
Ihe female mantid usually eats the male immediatelyafter or actually during mating. No males are
knownforBrunneriaborealisScudder,a fairlycommon
speciesin the South and Southwest.
Mantids are highly touted as biological control
agents,and you can buy them to place in gardens to
helpcontrol pest insects. This practice is not recommendedbecause the mantids cannot possibly keep up
withpopulations of damaging insects. In addition,
mantidsdo not discrimina te between destructive and
useful
insectsand sometimesbecome a pest themselves,
especially
around beehives, where they may have a real
ofhoneybees going to and from the hive.
feast
Mantinae (Pseudovates,
1 sp.; Iris, 1 sp.,
Mantis, 1 sp.; Tenodera,
2 spp., Stagmomantis,
5spp.)
Mantodea
Mantids are relatively large and slow-moving and,
once found, are fairly easy to collecL The best time for
collecting the adults of most species is from midsummer to late fallo The egg masses are large and fairly
conspicuous, especially on the bare twigs of trees during the winter. Pin adults through the right tegmen, in
about the middle of the body (from front to rear). If
the specimen is very soft-bodied, support the body by
a piece of cardboard or by pins; otherwise, it will sag
at either end.
261
262
Chapter20 OrderMantodea
References
Blatchley, W. S. 1920. Orthoptera of Northeastern America.
Indianapolis: Nature, 785 pp.
Gurney, A. B. 1951. Praying mantids of the United States.
Smithson. Inst. Rep. 1950:339-362.
Hebard, M. 1934. The Dermaptera and Orthoptera of Illinois.
Ill. Nat. Hist. Surv. Bull. 20:125-179.
Helfer, J. R. 1987. How to Know the Grasshoppers, Cockroaches, and Their Allies, 2nd ed. New York: Dover Publications, 363 pp.
21
Order Blattodea1,2
Cockroaches
Polyphagidae (Cryptocercidae)*-sand
and others
Blattellidae-German,
'Valuable
contributions to this chapter made by Philippe Grandcolas.
Blaberidae-giant
cockroaches
263
264
Chapter21 OrderBlattodea
2*
3
2(1).
*
Polyphagidae
p.265
2'.
Blattellidae*
p. 266
3(1').
3'.
4(3).
4
8
4'.
Blattellidae(in part)*
5
5(4').
Blattidae
p.265
Blattellidae(in part)
p.266
5'.
6(5).
6'.
7(5').
7'.
Front femora with only 1 apical spine; supra-anal plate weakly bilobed;
glossy light brown, with sides and front of pronotum and basal costal part
of frontwingsyellowish;15-20mm long;FloridaKeys(Phoetalia,
Eplampra) Blaberidae(in part)*
Front femora with 2 or 3 apical spines; supra-anal plate not bilobed; size
and color variable; wideiy distributed (Ectobius, Latiblattella, Ischnoptera,
Parcoblatta,
Euthlastoblatta,
Aglaopteryx)
Blattellidae(in part)
n 11' n
e
Figure
21-1
p.266
p.266
p.266
8(3').
Polyphagidae*
p.265
8'.
9*
9'.
10*
10(9').
11*
10'.
11(10'). Wings well developed, the anal area of hind wings folded fanwise at rest;
frons flat, not bulging; length over 16 mm, pale green in color (Panchlora,
Pycnoscelus,Nauphoeta, Leucophaea)
11'.
Anal area of hind wings flat, not folded fanwise at rest (some females are
wingless); frons thickened and somewhat bulging; usually (except some
Arenivaga)less than 16 mm in lengthand never green (Holocompsa,
Eremoblatta,Compsodes,
Arenivaga)
e
Figure21-2
p. 266
p. 266
p.266
Polyphagidae*
p.265
265
r
I
I
I
266
Chapter 21
Order Blattodea
eas (some burrow in the sand like moles), and the females are wingless. Some Arenivaga are nearly 25 mm
in length. Other species are 6.5 mm in length or less.
The brown-hooded cockroach, Cryptocercus punctulatus Scudder, is a subsocial species that occurs in
hilly or mountainous areas from Pennsylvania to Georgia and Alabama in the East and from Washington to
northern California in the West. This cockroach is
wingless, 23-29 mm in length, and shining reddish
brown with the dorsal surface finely punctured and is
somewhat elongate and parallel-sided. It occurs in decaying logs, particularly oak logs. This cockroach has
intestinal protists that break down the cellulose ingested (as in termites). Cryptocercus traditionally has
been placed in its own family Cryptocercidae. We follow here the phylogenetic results of Grandcolas and
D'Haese (2000 in grouping them in the Polyphagidae.
Family Blattellidae: This is a large group of small
cockroaches, most of them 12 mm in length or less. Several species invade houses. One of the most important of
these is the German cockroach, Blattella germanica (L.)
(Figure 2l-3C,F), which is light brown with two longitudinal strip es on the pronotum. Another is the brownbanded cockroach, Supella longipalpa(Fabricius). A
number of species in this group occur outdoors; the
References
Collecting
and Preserving Blattodea
Cockroaches
are mainly nocturnal creatures, and night
isoften the best time to callect them. They can be
foundby searching in leaf litter or under bark, or by
overtumingfallen logs. Many species, including the
cornmonhousehold pests, can be caught by putting
molassesor a similar bait in the bottom of a trap like
References
Atkinson,1. H., P. G. Koehler,
and R. S. Patterson.
1991. Cat-
1984. A rnyrrnecophilous
cockStates (Blattaria: Polyphagidae).
rnolecular
ofNorth
of cock-
hypothesis
ro-
studies
of cockroaches.
Comell Univ. Agr. Exp. Sta. Mern. No. 189, 197 pp.
McKittrick,F. A. 1965. A contribution
to the understanding
of the cockroach-terrnite
affinities. Ann. Entorno\. Soco
Amer. 58:18-22.
267
22
Order Hemiptera1,2
TrueBugs,Cicadas,Hoppers,
Psyllids,
Whiteflies,Aphids,
and ScaleInsects
T considerably
268
IV
111
bk
Classificationof
/590
the Hemiptera
Theclassification of the troe bugs, or Heteroptera, followsSchuhand Slater (1995) with the inclusion of superfamiliesas listed in Henry and Froeschner (1988).
Suborder
Heteroptera
Infraorder Enicocephalomorpha
Superfamily Enicocephaloidea
Aenictopecheidae
Enicocephalidae-unique-headed
bugs,
gnat bugs
Infraorder Dipsocoromorpha
Superfamily Dipsocoroidea
Ceratocombidae
Dipsocoridae-jumping
ground bugs
Schizopteridae-jumping
ground bugs
Figure22-1 Structure of a
plant bug, Lygus oblineatus (Say),
family Miridae. A, dorsal view;
B, lateral view. ant, antenna;
aro, arolia; bk, beak; buc, buccula;
el, clavus; els, claval suture;
cor, corium; cun, cuneus;
cx, coxa; e, compound eye;
fm, femur;j, jugum; lbr, labrum;
lo, lorum; mem, membrane;
nj, pronotum; plj, propleuron;
sel, scutellum; sgo, scent gland
opening; spr, spiracle; tb, tibia;
tel, tarsal claw; ts, tarsus; ty, tylus;
ver, vertex; I-IV, antennal
segments.
lnfraorder Gerromorpha
Superfamily Hebroidea
Hebridae-ve1vet water bugs
Superfamily Mesovelioidea
Mesoveliidae-water
treaders
Superfamily Hydrometroidea
Macroveliidae
Hydrometridae-water
measurers, marsh
treaders
Superfamily Gerroidea
Veliidae-broad-shouldered
water striders,
riffle bugs
Gerridae-water
striders
lnfraorder Nepomorpha
Superfamily Nepoidea
Belastomatidae-giant
water bugs
Nepidae-waterscorpions
269
270
Chapter22 OrderHemiptera
Superfamily Gelastocoroidea
Gelastocoridae-toad
bugs
Ochteridae-velvety
shore bugs
Superfamily Corixoidea
Corixidae-water boatmen
Superfamily Naucoroidea
Naucoridae-creeping
water bugs
Superfamily Notonectoidea
Notonectidae-backswimmers
Pleidae-pygmy backswimmers
Infraorder Leptopodomorpha
Superfamily Leptopodoidea
Saldidae-shore bugs
Leptopodidae-spiny
shore bugs
Infraorder Cimicomorpha
Superfamily Reduvioidea
Reduviidae (including Phymatidae,
Ploiariidae)-assassin
bugs, ambush
bugs, thread-legged bugs
Superfamily Thaumastocoroidea
Thaumastocoridae-royal
palm bugs
Superfamily Miroidea
Microphysidae
Miridae-leaf bugs, plant bugs
Superfamily Tingoidea
Tingidae-lace bugs
Superfamily Cimicoidea
Nabidae-damsel bugs
Lasiochilidae
Lyctocoridae
Anthocoridae-minute
pira te bugs
Cimicidae-bed bugs
Polyctenidae-bat bugs
Infraorder Pentatomomorpha
Superfamily Aradoidea
Aradidae-flat bugs
Superfamily Pentatomoidea
Acanthosomatidae
Cydnidae-burrower
bugs
Pentatomidae-stink
bugs
Scutelleridae-shield-backed
bugs
Superfamily Lygaeoidea
Berytidae-stilt bugs
Rhyparochromidae
Lygaeidae-seed bugs
Blissidae
Ninidae
Cymidae
Geocoridae-big-eyed
bugs
Artheneidae
Oxycarenidae
pachygronthidae
Heterogastridae
Superfamily Piesmato idea
Piesmatidae-ash-gray
leaf bugs
Superfamily Pyrrhocoroidea
Largidae
Pyrrhocoridae-red
bugs, cotton stainers
Superfamily Coreoidea
Alydidae-broad-headed
bugs
Coreidae-squash
bugs, leaf-footed bugs
Rhopalidae-scentless
plant bugs
Suborder Auchenorrhyncha
Superfamily Cicadoidea
Cicadidae-cicadas
Cercopidae-froghoppers,
spittlebugs
Aetalionidae
Membracidae-treehoppers
Cicadellidae-leafhoppers
Superfamily Fulgoroidea
Delphacidae
Cixiidae
Fulgoridae
Achilidae
Derbidae
Dictyopharidae
Tropiduchidae
Kinnaridae
Issidae (including Acanaloniidae)
Flatidae
Suborder Stemorrhyncha
Superfamily Psylloidea
Psyllidae-psyllids, jumping plantlice
Superfamily Aleyrodoidea
Aleyrodidae-whiteflies
Superfamily Aphidoidea
Aphididae (including Eriosomatidae)-aphids,
plantlice
Phylloxeridae
Adelgidae-pine
and spruce aphids
Superfamily Coccoidea
Margarodidae-giant
coccids, ground
pearls
Ortheziidae-ensign
coccids
pseudococcidae-mealybugs
Eriococcidae-felt
scales
Cryptococcidae-bark-crevice
scales
Kermesidae-gall-like
coccids
Dactylopiidae-cochineal
insects
Asterolecaniidae-pit
scales
Cerococcidae-omate
pit scales
Lecanodiaspididae-false
pit scales
Aclerdidae-grass scales
Coccidae-soft scales, wax scales, tortoise
scales
Kerriidae (Tachardiidae)-lac
scales
Phoenicococcidae-date
scales
Conchaspididae-false
armored scales
Diaspididae-armored
scales
Characters
Usedin Identifying
Hemiptera
Theprincipal characters used in separating the families
ofthe Heteroptera are those of the antennae, beak, legs,
andwings. Features of the thorax and abdomen (particularlythe symmetry or asymmetry of the genitalia,
thenature of the phallus and spermatheca, and the positian of the spiracles and trichobothria), and such
generalcharacters as size, shape, color, and habitat are
sometimesused in separating families.
The antennae may be either four- or five-segmented.
Ina few Heteroptera, such as some of the Reduviidae,
oneof the antennal segments may be divided into severalsubsegments. In counting the antennal segments,
theminute segments between the larger ones are not
counted.In the Nepomorpha, the antennae are very
shortand concealed in grooves on the underside of the
head;in the other infraorders, they are fairly long and
conspicuous.The beak is usually three- or four-segmented
andin some groups fits inlo a groove on the pros ternumwhen not in use. In the Pentatomoidea, the fivesegmentedantennae are often hidden beneath a ridge on
thesideof the head.
The posterolateral angles of the pronotum are
sometimescalled the humeral angles, or the humer.
Thedisk is the central dorsal portion of the pronotum.
Itsometimesbears slightly raised areas (the calli) anteriorly.In some cases the anterior border of the pronotumis more or less separated from the rest of the
pronotumby a groove or suture, thus forming a collar.
AfewHeteroptera have a more-or-less two-part prono-
.,
272
Chapter22 OrderHemiptera
Figure22-3 Tarsi of Hemiptera. A, hind tarsus of Lygaeus (Lygaeidae); B, middle tarsus of Nabis (Nabidae); e, front tarsus of Gerris (Gerridae); D, front tarsus and tibia of
Rhagovelia (Veliidae). aro, arolia; tb, tibia; tel, tarsal claw.
Figure22-4 Hemelytra of Heteroptera. A, Lygus (Miridae); B, Ligyrocoris (Rhyparochromidae); e, Orius (Anthocoridae); D, Boisea (Rhopalidae); E, Nabis (Nabidae);
F, Saldula (Saldidae); G, Mesovelia (Mesoveliidae); H, Largus (Largidae). el, clavus; els,
claval suture; cor, corium; cun, cuneus; emb, embolium; mem, membrane.
In the Auchenorrhyncha,
Key
to the Familiesof Hemiptera
Ihiskeyis based on aduits, but it wiI\ work for some nymphs. There should be no particulardifficuity in identifying winged specimens, but the brachypterous and wingless
fonns maybe troublesome.SomewinglessAphidoidea canbe separatedonly
if oneis fa-
miliarwith their life history. Families marked with an asterisk are reiativeiy rare or are
unlikelyto be taken by a general coIlectar.
1.
Beak arising from back of head or apparently from between front coxae;
antennae variable (bristlelike or with more than S segments); front wings
of uniform texture throughout, heid roof-like over abdomen, tips not or
but slightly overlapping
['
2(1).
65
2',
81
3(1'),
Polyctenidae*
3'
4(3'),
Head usuaIly not constricted and not divided into lobes; forewings
usuaIly divided into a distinct corium and membrane
Aenictopecheidae
p. 288
Posterior prono tal lobe not reduced, weIl differentiated in lateral view;
macropters lacking a costal fracture; ovipositor lacking or vestigial;
parameres invisible
Enicocephalidae
p. 288
6',
Antennae as long as or longer than head, usuaIly free and visible from
above; arolia present or absent; habits variable
14
7(6),
7'
4',
5(4).
5',
6(4').
p. 296
274
Chapter22 OrderHemiptera
Figure 22-5
Head structure in
Nepomorpha. A, Lethocerus
(Belostomatidae), ventroanterio
view; B, Gelastocoris (Gelastocoridae), dorsoanterior view.
ant, antenna; bk, beak; ex" fron!
coxa; e, compound eye;fm,
femur; oc, ocelli; tr, trochanter.
8(7).
Antennae hidden; front legs shorter than middle legs; eyes strongly
Gelastocoridae
p.290
Antennae exposed; front legs as long as middle legs; eyes not strongly
protuberant;beaklong, extendingat leastto hind coxae
Ochteridae*
p.290
Corixidae
p.290
9'.
10
10(9').
lO'.
Nepidae
Body without elongate terminal filaments or, at most, with short ones
(Figure 22-19); tarsi variable
11
8'.
9(7').
11(10').
p.289
Hind legs long and oarlike (Figure 22-23); hind tarsi without claws;
length 5-16 mm
Notonectidae
11'.
Hind legs not unusualIy lengthened; hind tarsi with claws; length variable
12
12( 11').
Pleidae*
12'.
More than 3 mm long, often more than 20 mm; not strongly convex;
Figure22-6
Hungerford.)
13
p.291
p. 292
Belostomatidae
p. 289
Naucoridae
p. 291
Hydrometridae
p. 292
15
16
17
Gerridae
p. 293
Veliidae
p.293
18
58
Reduviidae
19
Figure22-7 A, antenna of Cryptostematida (Dipsocoridae); B, head of Sinea (Reduviidae). ant, antenna; bk, beak; ex, coxa; e, compound eye;fm, femur; stg, prostemal
groove; tr, trochanter.
p. 296
.,
276
Chapter22 OrderHemiptera
19(18').
Tingidae
19'.
20
20(19').
20'.
Ocelli present
Ocelli absent
21
51
21(20).
22
21'.
22(21).
26
22'.
23(22').
precedingentry
24'.
Piesmatidae
29(28').
Thaumastocoridae* p.293
27
30
leptopodidae*
p.293
Body not spiny; third and fourth antennal segments hairy (Figure 22-7A);
1-2 mm long;widelydistributed
28'.
p.298
Head (including eyes), pronotum, front wings, front legs very spiny;
third and fourth antennal segments not hairy; front femora thickened;
28(27').
p.294
26(21' ,22).Antennae with 2 basal segments short and thick, third and fourth very
slender (Figure 22-7 A); tarsi and beak 3-segmented; length 3.5 mm
or less
26'.
Antennal segments similar, not as in preceding entry; tarsi and size
variable
27'.
Microphysidae*
25
ridges(Figure22-33)
27(26).
p.292
24
25'.
Hebridae*
24(23').
25(24').
26
23
stout-bodied,semiaquaticbugs (Merragata)
23'.
p.293
28
supracoxalcleftlong
Schizopteridae*
29
p.289
coleopteroid
Ceratocombidae*
.
! <'
,.,.' .. '~...c
p.289
29',
Dipsocoridae*
31
30'.
34
31(30).
Beak 4-segmented
Miridae
30(26') ,
(Isometopinae)
p. 294
32
31',
Beak 3-segmented
32(31'),
32',
33(32').
33'.
p. 289
insemination
traumatic
Femaleslackingapophyseson abdominalsternum 7
Lasiochilidae
*
p. 295
33
p.296
Lyctocoridae
*
Anthocoridae
p. 296
34(30') . Beak3-segmented
34',
Beak 4-segmented
35
35(34).
Saldidae
p.293
Mesoveliidae*
p.292
Macroveliidae
*
37
p. 292
Nabidae
p.294
35',
36
36(34') ,
38
Berytidae
39
40
49
41(40').
Lygaeidae
41'.
42
42(41').
43
42',
45
43(42).
43'.
44
39',
40(39).
40'.
p. 298
Rhyparochromidae* p. 298
41
Blissidae
p. 299
p. 299
44(43').
DECAOJIs
BIBLIOTECA
278
Chapter22 OrderHemiptera
44'.
45(42').
45'.
46( 45').
46'.
47(46).
47'.
Cymidae
Geocoridae
46
47
48
p.300
p.300
Artheneidae*
p.300
Oxycarenidae
p.300
Pachygronthidae
*
p.300
48'.
Fore femur at most weakly incrassate with a few small spines present;
a closed cell present basally in base of forewing membrane
Heterogastridae*
p.300
49(39').
50
49'.
Rhopalidae
p.301
50(49).
Coreidae
p.301
Alydidae
p.301
Nabidae*
p.294
52
48(46').
50'.
51(20').
51'.
52(51').
52'.
53(52').
53'.
54(53').
54'.
53
Cimicidae
54
Miridae
55
55(54'). Tarsi without arolia; body very fIat; usually dull-colored, gray, brown, or
black (Figure 22-32)
55'.
Tarsi with arolia; body not particularly fIattened; often brightly
colored
Aradidae
56
p.296
p.296
p.294
p.298
56(55'). Elongate, shining black bugs, 7-9 mm long; front femora moderately
swollenand armedbeneath with 2 rows of teeth (Cnemodus)
56'.
Color variable, but usually not shining black; 8-18 mm long; front
femora not swollen and usually not armed with teeth
57(56'). Pronotum margined laterally; sixth visible abdominal sternum entire in
both sexes
57'.
lygaeidae
57
Figure22-8
Pyrrhocoridae
p. 300
largidae
p. 300
Hebrdae*
p. 292
59
Nabidae*
p. 294
60
61
62
Thyreocoridae
p. 302
Cydnidae
p. 302
63
p. 299
(Pentatomidae).
279
280
Chapter22 OrderHemiptera
62'.
63(62).
63'.
64(62').
64'.
65(2).
65'.
66(65).
64
Pentatomidae*
p.302
Scutelleridae
p.302
Acanthosomatidae
p.303
Pentatomidae
p.302
66
76
Hind tibiae with broad, movable apical spur (Figure 22-lOC, sp); a large
group of small to minute forms, many dimorphic (with wings well
developed or short), the sexes often very different
Delphacidae
p.315
Figure 22-9
Head structure in
Auchenorrhyncha.
A, froghopper
(Cercopidae: Philaenus), lateral
view; B, cicada (Cicadidae:
Magicieada), anterior view;
C, planthopper (Flatidae:
Anormenis), lateral view. ant,
antenna; bk, beak; clp, clypeus;
e, compound eye;fr, frons; nI>
pronotum; De, ocelli; ver, vertex.
R4 + 5
'M, + 2
'M3+4
'-mv
A
1st m-cu
2nd m-cu
s
1st r-m
2nd r-m
Cells
OtherTerms
first sector
outer branch of first sector
inner branch of first sector
second sector
claval suture
claval veins
first crossvein
apical crossvein
apical crossvein
crossvein between sectors
apical crossvein
Termsin
ThisFigure
OtherTerms
R
1st R)
2nd R)
1st Rs
2nd Rs
2nd M
3rd M
CUla
discal cell
outer anteapical cell
first apical cell
anteapical cell
second apical cell
inner anteapical cell
third apical cell
fourth apical cell
""
282
R,
21-R3
- - R4+ 5
--MI
-.M2
M'+2
-'M3
-J--M4
--CUla
1A
-'CUlb
CU2
+ 1A
,
M-
/R2+ 3
-R4 + 5
~<,.';;::"
-M1
" '. M2
\
"
CUla
1A~"'-'
C';2
M3+4
CUlb CUla
Figure 22-12 Wings of Auchenorrhyncha and Sternorrhyncha. A, Cicadidae (Magicicada); B, Psyllidae (Psylla); C, Phylloxeridae (Phylloxera); D, Aphididae (Longistigma);
E, Adelgidae (Adelges); F, Aphididae (Colopha). C-F, front wings only.
66'.
67
67(66').
67'.
Fulgoridae
68
Second segment of hind tarsi with 2 apical spines (Ion each side) and
with apex usually rounded or conical (Figure 22-lOD)
69
Second segment of hind tarsi with a row of apical spines and with apex
truncate or emarginated
72
Front wings with numerous costal crossveins, longer than body, at rest
held almost vertically at sides of body (Figure 22-51F); clavus with
numerous small, pusmlelike tubercles
Flatidae
68(67').
68'.
69(68).
p.315
p.317
69'.
70(69').
70'.
71(70').
71'.
70
Tropiduchidae
71
Front wings very broad, venation reticulate, longer than body, at rest held
almost vertically at sides of body (Figure 22-5IE); hind tibiae without
spines except at apex
Acanaloniidae
p.317
Front wings variable in size and shape, often shorter than abdomen,
but if longer than abdomen, then usually oval; hind tibiae usually with
spines on sides, in addition to apical ones
Issidae
p.317
p.316
Terminal segment of beak short, not more than 1.5 times as long as wide
Derbidae
72'.
73
73(72').
Achilidae
72(68').
73'.
p.317
74
74(73').
Dictyopharidae
74'.
75
75(74').
p.317
p.317
Kinnaridae
p.317
75'.
Abdominal
Cixiidae
p.316
76(65').
Three ocelli (Figure 22-9B); large insects with membranous front wings
(Figure 22-43); males usually have sound-producing
organs ventrally
at base of abdomen (Figure 22-45); not jumping insects
Cicadidae
p. 305
77
78
Pronotum not extending back over abdomen, the scutellum nearly always
well exposed (Figures 22-13B, 22-47, 22-49); hind tibiae with or without
distinct spurs or spines
79
Aetalionidae
76'.
77(76').
77'.
78(77) .
p. 307
283
284
Chapter 22
Order Hemiptera
sel
78/.
Membracidae
p.306
Hind tibiae with 1 or more rows of small spines (Figure 22-14A); hind
coxae transverse
Cicadellidae
p.310
Hind tibiae without spines or with 1 or 2 stout ones laterally and a crown
of short spines at tip (Figure 22-14B); hind coxae short and conical
80
Hind tibiae without spines, but hairy; beak extending to hind coxae; head
large1ycovered dorsally by pronotum (Figure 2-13B), the face vertical
or nearly so; Florida, southern Arizona, and California (Aetalion)
Aetalionidae
p.307
80/.
Hind tibiae with 1 or 2 stout spines laterally and a crown of short spines
at tip (Figure 22-14B); head usually not large1ycovered by pronotum
(Figure 22-47), the face slanting backward; beak length variable; wide1y
distributed
Cercopidae
p.309
81(2').
82
79(77/).
79/.
80(79/).
A
Figure22-14
81'.
82(81).
82'.
86
83
83(82/). Wings usually opaque, whitish, and covered with whitish powder; hind
wings nearly as large as front wings; no cornicles
83'.
Wings membranous and not covered with whitish powder; hind wings
much smaller than front wings (Figure 22-l4C); cornicles often present
(superfamily Aphidoidea)
84(83/). Front wings with 4 or 5 (rarely 6) veins behind stigma extending to wing
margin (Rs present) (Figure 22-l2D, F); cornicles usually present
(Figure 22-l4C); antennae generally 6-segmented; sexual females
oviparous, parthenogenetic females viviparous
84/.
Front wings with only 3 veins behind stigma extending to wing margins
(Rs absent) (Figure 22-l2C, E); cornicles absent; antennae 3- to
5-segmented; all females oviparous
85(84/). Wings at rest held rooflike over body; Cu and CU2in front wing separated
at base (Figure 22-l2E); apterous parthenogenetic females covered with
waxy flocculence; on conifers
85'.
Wings at rest held horizontal; Cu and CU2in from wing stalked at base
(Figure 22-l2C); apterous parthenogenetic females not covered with waxy
flocculence (at most, covered with a powdery material)
86(81/). Abdominal spiracles presem (Figure 22-15A, spr); male usually with
compound eyes and ocelli
86',
Abdominal spiracles absent (Figure 22-16B); male with ocelli only
87(86)
,
Anal ring distinct, with numerous pores and 6 long setae; antennae
3- to 8-segmented (Figure 22-15A)
87'.
91(90/). Anal ring surroundedby short, stout setae;cluster pore plate present,
just below each posterior thoracic spirac1e; northeastern United States,
on sugar maple and beech trees
psyllidae
Aleyrodidae
p.317
p.318
84
Aphididae
p.319
85
Adelgidae
p.321
Phylloxeridae
p. 322
87
88
Ortheziidae
p.325
Margarodidae
p. 324
Kerriidae
p. 327
89
Coccidae
p. 324
90
Aclerdidae
p.326
91
Cryptococcidae
p.326
286
~.;;~.._.
a,~ mpo
:~
,
91'.
Anal ring not surrounded by short, stout setae; no cluster pore plates;
widely distributed, on various host plants
92(91').
92'.
93(92).
93'.
92
93
96
94
Kermesidae
p.326
94(93).
94'.
Asterolecaniidae
p.326
95(94).
Cerococcidae
p.326
95
Want
,,
,
,I ,
I
I
,
,
,
./..sty
I
I
,
,
,
,
,
pro
\
,
,
"','..\.,
_.~ mdu
.. ...
th2
.. ...
I
\
\
\
o:"
':0
- -.
---::,~..."
\
\
\
\
1 mm
~.:h_~'b
"';:' .,J...
;.;...
v
glt
u. V.J,J'",
,,
,
---
-ans
__~gis
--- - - _
288
95'.
96(92').
Lecanodiaspididae
p. 326
p.326
Dactylopiidae
96'.
97
97(96').
98
99
97'.
99(97').
Body surface with small irregularities; anal ring simple, with 0-2 setae
99'.
p.327
Conchaspididae
p.327
Phoenicococcidae
p.327
100
100(99'). Dorsal ostioles and usually 1-4 ventral cireuli present (Figure 22-15B,
100'.
Pseudococcidae
Dorsal ostioles and ventral circuli absent; in life usually naked, not eovered
with whitish, powdery seeretion
101
101(100'). Usually with protruding anallobes; anal ring usually with pores and setae;
host plants varied
Eriococcidae
101'.
Without protruding anallobes; anal ring simple, without pores and setae;
on oaks
The infraorder
INFRAORDEREnicocephalomorpha:
Enicocephalomorpha was forrnerly thought to be related to the Reduviidae because of similarities in head
structure. Entomologists now believe it is different
enough from other Hemiptera to eonstitute a separa te
suborder and probably represents the sister group of
the rest of the order.
FamilyAenictopecheidae:
Ihis is a rare family containing only two species, including a single American
species, Boreostolus americanus Wygodzinsky and Stys.
Ihis species lives under large, fIat stones and sandy
substrates along mountain streams in Oregon, Washington, and Colorado. It is 5 mm long and occurs in
both the macropterous and brachypterous condition. It
is presumed to be predaceous.
Family Enicocephalidae-Unique-HeadedBugs or
Gnat Bugs: Ihese are small (2-5 mm long), slender,
predaeeous bugs that have a peculiarly shaped head and
the front wings are entirely membranous (Figure 22-17).
Ihey usually live under stones or bark or in debris,
Kermesidae
p.325
p.326
p.326
Family Nepidae-Waterscorpions: The waterscorpions are predaceous aquatic bugs with raptorial front
legs and with a long caudal breathing tube formed by
the cerci. The breathing tube is often almost as long as
the body and is thrust up to the surface as the insect
crawls about on aquatic vegetation. These insects move
slowly and prey on various types of small aquatic animals, which they capture with their front legs. Waterscorpions can inflict a painful bite when handled. They
have well-developed wings but seldom fly.The eggs are
inserted on or into the tissues of aquatic plants or into
the substrate near the waterline.
Three genera and 12 species of waterscorpions occur in the United States and Canada. The nine species
of Ranatra are slender and elongate with very long legs
and are somewhat similar to walkingsticks in appearance (Figure 22-18B). The only North American
species of Nepa, N. apiculata Uhler, has the body oval
and somewhat flattened (Figure 22-18A). The body
shape in Curicta is somewhat intermediate between
those of Ranatra and Nepa. The most common North
American waterscorpions belong to the genus Ranatra;
N. apiculata is less common and occurs in the eastem
states; the two species of Cuneta are relatively rare and
live in the Southwest.
Family Belostomatidae-GiantWater Bugs:This family contains the largest bugs in the order, some of which
(in the United States) may reach a length of 65 mm. One
species in South America is more than 100 mm long.
These bugs are elongate-oval and somewhat flattened,
with raptorial front legs (Figure 22-19). They are fairly
common in ponds and lakes, where they feed on other
insects, snails, tadpoles, and even small fish. They frequently leave the water and fly about, and because they
290
Chapter 22
Order Hemiptera
figure
22-21 A toad bug, Gelastocorisoculatus
(Fabricius).
71/2 X .
Family Naucoridae-Creeping
Figure22-23 A backswirnmer,Notonectainsulata
Kirby, 4 x. (Courtesy of Slater and Baranowski and the
Wrn. C Brown Co.)
.,
292
B
Figure22-24 A, a water treader, Mesove/iamulsanti
White, 9x; B, a velvet water bug, Hebrus sobrinus Uhler,
16x. (Courtesyof Froeschnerand The AmericanMidland Naturalist.)
Figure 22-25
Kirkaldy,
71(2X .
Figure
22-26 Water striders. A, Gerris sp. (Gerridae),
5X;B,Rhagoveliaobesa Uhler (Veliidae), 10X. (Courtesy
o[Slater
and Baranowski and the Wm. C Brown Ca.)
293
,.
294
Figure22-27 Lacebugs.A,Atheas
and flowers. This species occurs throughout the eastern and central states. Other species of Lygus are serious crop pests in the West. The four-lined plant bug,
Poecilocapsus lineatus (Fabricius) (Figure 22-28E), is
yellowish or greenish with four longitudinal black
stripes on the body. lt feeds on a large number of plants
and sometimes causes serious damage to currants,
gooseberries, and some ornamental flowers. The apple
red bug, Lygidea mendax Reuter (Figure 22-28B), a red
and black bug about 6 mm long, was at one time a serious pest of apples in the Northeast, but has become
less important in recent years. The rapid plant bug,
Adelphocoris rapidus (Say) (Figure n-28F), is 7-8 mm
long and dark brown with yellowish margins on the
front wings. lt feeds chiefly on dock, but sometimes injures cotton and legumes. The garden fleahopper,
Halticus bractatus (Say) (Figure n-28A), is a cornmon
leaf bug that is often brachypterous. lt is a shining
black, jumping bug, 1.5-2.0 mm long, that feeds on
many cultivated plants but is often a pest of legumes.
The front wings of the female (the sex illustrated) lack
a membrane and resemble the elytra of a beetle.The
males have normal wings, but the membrane is short.
This family is divided into a number of subfamilies, one of which, the Isometopinae, is sometimes
given family rank. These mirids, commonly called
"jumping ground bugs," differ from other mirids in
having ocelli. They are found on bark and dead twigs,
and they jump quickly when disturbed. The group isa
small one, with less than a dozen North American
species, all relatively rare.
Famly Nabidae-Damsel Bugs: The nabids are
small bugs 0.5-11.0 mm long) that are relatively sIender with the front femora slightly enlarged (Figure 22-29), and the membrane of the hemelytra (when
developed) has a number of small cells around the
Figure 22-28
Plant or leaf
bugs (Miridae). A, garden fleahopper, Halticus bractatus (Say),
female, lOx; B, apple red bug,
Lygidea mendax Reuter, female,
5 X; e, tarnished plant bug, Lygus
lineolaris (Palisot de Beauvois),
4X; D, meadow plant bug,
Leptoptema dolobrata (L.), male
4x; E, four-lined plant bug, Poecilocapsus lineatus (Fabricius),
4 X; F, rapid plant bug, Adelphocoris rapidus (Say), 4X. (Redrawn fram the Illinois Natural
History Survey.)
295
..,
296
Figure 22-30 A, the eommon bed bug, Cimex lectularius (L.), 7X; B, the insidious flower bug, Orius insidiosus
(Say), 16X. (Courtesy of Froesehner and The American
Midland Naturalist.)
17-22 mm long,
Figure22-31 Assassin bugs (A-D), a thread-Iegged bug (E), and an ambush bug (F).
A, Narvesus carolinensisSt:1l,21/2X;B, the wheel bug, Arilus cristatus (L.) P/2X;
C, Melanolestespicipes (Herrick-Schiiffer), 2x; D, a blood-sucking conenose, Triatoma
sanguisuga (LeConte), 2X; E, Barceuhleri (Banks), 51/2X;F,Phymatafasciata georgiensis
Melin, 41f2X. (Courtesy of Froeschner and The American Midland Naturalist.)
297
298
Chapter22 OrderHemiptera
cealed by their greenish yellow color. They feed principally on large bees, wasps, and flies.
The thread-Iegged bugs (Emesinae) are very slender and long-Iegged and resemble walkingsticks (Figure 22-31E). They live in old barns, cellars, and
dwellings, and outdoors beneath loose bark and in
grass tufts, where they catch and feed on other insects.
One of the largest and most common of the threadlegged bugs is Emesaya brevipennis (Say), a widely distributed species that is 33-37 mm long. Most of the
thread-Iegged bugs are smaller (down to 4.5 mm long).
Barce uhleri (Banks) (Figure 22-31E) is 7-10 mm long.
Family Aradidae-Flat Bugs: Nearly a hundred
species in this group occur in North America. They are
3-11 mm long, usually dark brownish, very flat bugs
(Figure 22-32), with the body surface somewhat granular. The wings are well developed but small and do
not cover the entire abdomen. The antennae and beak
are four-segmented (sometimes only two to three segments of the beak are visible); the tarsi have two segments; and there are no ocell. These insects are usually
found under loose bark or in crevices of dead or decaying trees. They feed on fung.
Family Piesmatidae-Ash-Gray Leaf Bugs: These
small bugs (2.5-3.5 mm long) can usually be recognized by their reticulately sculptured corium and
clavus, the two-segmented tarsi, the ridges of the
pronotum, and the juga extending well beyond the
tylus (Figure 22-33). They are plant feeders and are
probably found most often on pigweed (Amaranthus), but also feed on other plants. The la North
American species in this group belong to the genus
Piesma.
Figure 22-32 Flat bugs (Aradidae). A, Aradus inomatus Uhler, 41/2X;B, Aradus acutus (Say), SI/2X. (Redrawn
from Froeschner and The American Midland Naturalist.)
Figure 22-34
and The
300
Figure22-36 The chinch bug, Blissus leucoptems (5ay). A, fourth instar nymph;
B, fifth instar nymph; C, adult; D, short-winged adulto (Courtesy of U5DA.)
Figure22-37 A, Arhaphe carolina (Herrick-Schaffer) (Largidae), 4x; B, Largus succinctus (L.) (Largidae), 3x; C, the cotton stainer, Dysdercussuturellus (Herrick-Schaffer)
(Pyrrhocoridae), 4X. (A and B, courtesy of Froeschner and The American Midland Naturalist; C, courtesy of Slater and Baranowski and the Wm. C Brown Co.)
301
302
blackish with red markings and 11-14 mm long (Figure 22-38F). lt often enters houses and other sheltered
places in the fall, sometimes in considerable numbers.
It feeds on box elder and occasionally other trees.
FamilyCydnidae-Burrower Bugs:These bugs are a
liule like stink bugs in general appearance and antennal structure, but they are a little more oval and have
the tibiae spiny (Figure 22-8A). They are black or reddish brown and less than 8 mm long (Figure 22-39B).
They are usually found beneath stones or boards, in
sand, or about the roots of grass tufts. They apparently
feed on the roots of plants. The general collector is
most likely to see them when they come to lights at
night.
These bugs are small (mostly
FamilyThyreocoridae:
3-6 mm long), broadly oval, strongly convex, shining
black bugs that are somewhat beetlelike in appearance
(Figure 22-39A). The scutellum is very large and covers most of the abdomen and wings. These insects are
common on grasses, weeds, berries, and flowers.
Family Scutelleridae-Shield-Backed Bugs: These
look much like stink bugs (Pentatomidae), but the
[
304
Chapter22 OrderHemiptera
B
A
Figure
22-41 Stinkbugs. A, Thyantacustator
Figure 22-42
Stink bugs (subfamily Pentatominae). A, Coenus
delius (Say), 31f2X; B, Brochymena arborea (Say), 3X; e, Debalus pugnax (Fabricius), 41/X.
(Courtesy of Froeschner and the
American Midland Naturalist.)
Elasmucha
lateralis (Say) is fairly common on birch
trees
in the northern states and southern Canada.
SUBORDER
Auchenorrhyncha:
The members of the
suborderAuchenorrhyncha (cicadas and hoppers) are
activeinsects, being good fliers or jumpers. Their tarsi
arethree-segmented, and their antennae are very short
andbristlelike. The cicadas are relatively large insects,
withmembranouswings and three ocelli. The hoppers
aresmall to minute insects, with the front wings usuallymore or less thickened, and they usually have two
ocelli(or none). The males of many Auchenorrhyncha
canproduce sound, but except for the cicadas these
soundsare nearly inaudible to humans.
Figure22-43
about natural
size. (Courtesy
noisNatuaral
History
~: 111111
S- . ! 11
432-
11
~ I
! I
1,
111
1 I
10.0
of Carl Mohr
Survey.)
0:5
TimeinSeconds
2.'0
306
Chapter 22
Order Hemiptera
Jable22-1
Characteristics
Bodylength 27-33
17 -Year Cycle
Linnaeus'
mm
of pronotum
reddish
brown
17 -year cicada,
M. septendecim
between
(L.)
or yellow
Song:"phaaaaaroah,"
a low buzz, 1-3 seconds in length,
with a drop in pitch at the end (Figure 22-44C)
Bodylength 20-28 mm
Propleura and lateral extensions of pronotum between
eyesand wing bases black
Abdominal sterna all black, or a few with a narrow band
of reddish brown
often constricted
or interrupted
Lasttarsal segement
medially
of pronotum
between
the phrases
shorter
and lacking
the
308
Chapter22 OrderHemiptera
o
Figure
22-46
figure22-47
Family Cercopidae-Froghoppers
or Spittlebugs:
Froghoppersare small, hopping insects, rarely over
13rnm long, so me species of which vaguely resemble
tioyfrogsin shape (Figure 22-47). They are very similarto the leafhoppers, but can be distinguished
by the
spioationof the hind tibiae (Figure 22-14A,B). They
Figure22-48
are usually brown or gray. Some species have a characteristic color pattern.
These insects feed on shrubs, trees, and herbaceous
plants, the different species feeding on different host
plants. The nymphs surround themselves with a frothy
mass (Figure 22-48) and are usually called "spittlebugs." These masses of foam are sometimes quite abundant in meadows. Each mass contains one or more
greenish or brownish spittlebugs. After the last molt the
insect leaves the foam and moves about actively.
The foam is made from fluid voided from the anus
and from a mucilaginous substance secreted by the epidermal glands on the seventh and eighth abdominal
segments. Air bubbles are introduced into the foam by
means of the caudal appendages of the insect. A spittlebug usually rests head downward on the plant, and
as the foam forms, it flows down over and covers the
insect. It lasts some time, even when exposed to heavy
rains, and provides the nymph with a moist habitat.
The adults do not produce foam.
The most important economic species of spittlebug in the eastern states is Philaenus spumarius (L.)
(Figure 22-47), a meadow species that causes serious
stunting, particularly to cIovers. This insect lays its
eggs in late summer in the stems or sheaths of grasses
and other plants, and the eggs hatch the following
spring. There is one generation ayear. There are several
color forms of this species. Most of the spittlebugs at-
310
Chapter22 OrderHemiptera
.
\
,.. "
v,
i'in \
"j
'
\.
I ';I! \\
JI \\: \
" : I
'(Jf
\\I;:f-J
\'D
W
e
T
D
Figure22-49 Leafhoppers,
A, the potato leafhopper, Empoascafabae (Harris)
(Typhlocy-
binae); B, Xerophloeamcyor
Baker (Ledrinae); C, Draecula-
......
311
Oassinae)-
Tinobregmus
Nioniinae-Nionia
Aphrodinae-Aphrodes
Xestocephalinae-Xestocephalus
Neocoelidiinae-Paracoelidia
Cicadellinae (Tettigellinae, Tettigoniellinae; including Evacanthinae)-Agrosoma,
Carneocephala, Cuerna, Draeculacephala, Friscanus,
Graphocephala, Helochara, Homalodisca, Hordnia, Keonolla, Neokolla, Oncometopia, Pagaronia, Sibovia, Tylozygus
Typhlocybinae (Cicadellinae)-Empoasca,
Erythroneura, Kunzeana, Typhlocyba
Deltocephalinae (Athysaninae, Hecalinae Euscelinae; including Balcluthinae)-Acinopterus,
Chlorotettix, Circulifer, Colladonus, Dalbulus,
Endria, Euscelidius, Euscelis, Excultanus,
Fieberiella, Graminella, Hecalus Macrosteles,
Norvellina, Paraphlepsius, Paratanus, Pseudotettix, Scaphoideus, Scaphytopius, Scleroracus, Texananus
[',
2(1').
2',
Typhlocybinae
p.315
UNIVERSIDAD
DECALDAS
BIBLIOTECA
312
Chapter22 OrderHemiptera
/ant
/
Figure22-50
3(2),
3',
4(2').
4'.
5(4').
5',
6(5).
6'.
7(6).
7'.
Ocelli on crown, remote from eyes and from anterior margin of crown
(Figure 22-50L); dorsum covered with rounded pits (Figure 22-49B)
ledrinae
p.314
Dorycephalinae
p.314
Cicadellinae
p.315
11
Lateral margins of pronotum short and not carinate, or only feebly so;
ledge above antennal pits, if present, oblique
Face in profile concave; front wings with appendix very large, first (nner)
apical celllarge (equal in area to second and third apical cells combined)
Penthimiinae
Face in profile not concave, usually distinctly convex; front wings with
appendix normal or small, first apical cell not enlarged
8
p.314
Macropsinae
p.314
10
Face with carinae replacing frontal sutures above antennal pits; western
United States
Megophthalminae
p.314
Agalliinae
p.314
Nioniinae
p.315
9(6').
10(9').
lO'.
p.314
Gyponinae
lassinae
8(7').
8',
9'.
p.314
11(5').
12
13
14
Coelidiinae
p.315
Idiocerinae
p.314
314
Chapter22 OrderHemiptera
14(12/).
Oeelli on face
Koebeliinae
14/.
15
15(14/).
Xestocephalinae
15/.
16
16(15/).
17
16'.
Deltocephalinae
p.315
17(16).
Ledge above each antennal pit oblique; faee strongly eonvex (viewed
from above)
Neocoelidiinae
p.315
Ledge above eaeh antennal pit transverse; faee broad and relatively flat
Aphrodinae
p.315
17/.
p.314
p.315
the pronotum do es not extend forward beyond the anterior margins of the eyes. These leafhoppers also [eed
on trees and shrubs.
Subfamily Gyponinae: This is a large group (more
than 140 North American species) of relatively robust
and somewhat flattened leafhoppers, which have their
ocelli on the crown remo te from their eyes and baek
from the anterior margin of the head. The crown is
variable in shape and may be produced and foliaeeous
or short and broadly rounded in front. Some species
feed on herbaceous plants, and others feed on trees and
shrubs. One species, Gyponana angulata (Spangberg),
acts as a vector of aster yellows, and another, G. lamina
DeLong, acts as a vector of peach X-disease.
Subfamily lassinae: These leafhoppers are relatively
robust and somewhat flattened, with a short head and the
ocelli on the anterior margin of the crown, about midway
between the eyes and the apex of the head. The group is
small (23 North American species), and its members live
chiefly in the West. Uttle is known about their [ood
plants; but some species are known to feed on shrubs.
Subfamily Penthimiinae: This group is represemed
in North America by only two species of Penthimia,
which OCCUTin the East. They are short, oval, and
somewhat flattened. The ocelli are located on the
crown about halfway between the eyes and the midline,
and the front wings are broad with a large appendix.
Their food plants are not known.
Subfamily Koebeliinae:This group is represented in
the United States by fOUTspecies of Koebelia, whieh oeCUTin the West and feed on pine. The head is wider
than the pronotum, and the crown is flat with a [olia.
ceous margin and a broad, shallow furrow in the midline. The ocelli are on the face.
are
verystrikingly colored. One of our largest and most
common
species is Graphocephala coccinea (Foerster),
which
is similar in size and shape to Draeculacephala
mollipes(Say)(Figure
ofCameocephala,
Cuerna, Draeculacephala, Friscanus,
Graphocephala,
Helochara, Homalodisca, Neoholla, Oncometopia,
and Pagaronia
315
316
Chapter22 OrderHemiptera
317
318
Chapter22 OrderHemiptera
<=
Q)
&
o
-;
>
Q)
o
-g
..
A.t\
~~
Q)
a:
~
~
o,
<>:;;;
0.- "
'<=0>
ou
Figure22-54
Pachypsylla
sp., 201/2X.
Figure22-55
"Pupae" of mulberry whiteflies, Tetraleu.
mori (Quaintance).
rodes
WINTER
LaYeggs~
apple twigs
,/
A
I
burst
Give birth to
WI"gl~rKspRING
Migrate to
apple
When buds
Mate
AUTUMN
Hatch to
wingless females
Give birth to
winged females
Winged males
Migrate to
narrowleaf
Winged females
" rI
plantain
Several generations
of wingless fe males
SUMMER
/
Figure22-56 Diagrarn of the lHe history of the rosy
apple aphid, Dysaphis plantaginea (Passerini).
319
320
Chapter22 OrderHemiptera
ants and stored in their nest for the winter. AlI during
the season, the aphids are tended by the ants, which
transfer them fram one food plant to another. The ants
feed on the honeydew produced by the aphids.
In the woolly and gall-making aphids (Eriosomatinae), the comicles are reduced or absent and wax glands
are abundant. The sexual forms lack mouthparts, and
the ovipositing female produces only one egg. Nearlyall
members of this family alterna te between host plants.
The primary host (on which the overwintering eggs are
laid) is usually a tree or shrub, and the secondary hostis
a herbaceous plant. These aphids may feed either on the
roots of the host plant or on the part of the plant above
the ground. Many species produce galls or malfonnations of the tissues of the primary host, but usually do
not produce galls on the secondary host.
The woolly apple aphid, Eriosoma lanigerum
(Hausmann) (Figure 22-58), is a common and important example of this group. This species feeds principally on the roots and bark and can be recognized by
the characteristic woolly masses of wax on its body.
These aphids usually overwinter on elm, and the first
generations of the season are spent on that hos!. In
early summer, winged forms appear and migrate to appie, hawthom, and related trees. Later in the season
some of these migrate back to elm, where the bisexual
generation is produced and the overwintering eggs are
laido Other individuals migrate fram the branches of
the apple tree to the roots, where they produce gall-like
growths. The raot-inhabiting forms may remain therea
year or more, passing through several generations. Ihis
aphid transmits perennial canker.
- --
2i
c:
u'"
c:
'"
E
Q.
o
Q;
. >
'"
'"
'C
c:
'"
-c
~ Figure22-57
~
A
A, a colonyof
Figure22-58
migrate
to alder in the summer and then back to maple
inthefall,where the sexual forms are produced. The
speciesmay overwinter in either the egg or the
nymphal stage.
321
322
Chapter22 OrderHemiptera
,
sc:
Q)
'-'
c:
Q)
E
c.
o
g
Q)
c:>
."c:
'"
.c:
:
'"
~
Q)
c::
~
B
O
<!
o
:E
o
323
c:
O)
E
c.
o
Q;
>
O)
<:>
2!
'"
-'=
:
'"
~
O)
a:
$c:
O)
u
c:
O)
~a,
.
o
Q;
>
O)
<:>
."c:
'"
<C(;
o~
c:
.-'=0)
OU
(;
eO)
u
c:
O)
E
c.
o
~
O)
<:>
."c:
'"
-'=
"
ffi
~
O)
a:
-'=
"
ffi
~
O)
a:
-;
Z
B
.~
<C
o
:;:
o
Figure22-60
abictus(L.).
~
~
a,
<C
o
:;:
Figure22-62 Galls of the hickory gall aphid, Phylloxera caryaecaulis (Fitch). A, gall on a hickory leaf; B, two
galls cut open lO show the insects inside.
c:
O)
u
c:
E
c.
o
Q;
>
O)
O)
<:>
."c:
'"
-'=
"
ffi
~
O)
a:
~
~
!
g
Figure22-61
324
Chapter22 OrderHemiptera
SUPERFAMILY
Coccoidea-Scale Insects: This is a
large group and contains forms that are minute and
highly specialized. Many are so modified that they look
very little like other Hemiptera. Therefore, some authors treat them as a suborder (Coccinea).
The females are wingless and usually legless and
sessile, and the males have only a single pair of wings
or, rarely, are wingless. The adult males lack mouthparts and do not feed; the abdomen terminates in one
(rarely two) long, stylelike process (Figure 22-63A);
and the hind wings are reduced to small, halterelike
processes that usually terminate in a hooked bristle.
The antennae of the female may be lacking or may have
up to 11 segments; the antennae of the male have
10-25 segments. Male scale insects look very much
like small gnats, but they can usually be recognized by
the absence of mouthparts and the presence of a stylelike process at the end of the abdomen.
pests of pines.
Figure22-64
Figure22-65
325
326
Chapter22 OrderHemiptera
species of Lecanodiaspis.Some of these are fairly cornmon and are occasionally pests of azalea, holly, and
other ornamentals. They often produce pits and
swellings on twigs.
Family Aclerdidae-Grass Seales: This is a small
family (14 North American species), most of whose
members feed on grasses. These scales usually live beneath the leaf sheaths or at the base of the plant, sornetimes on the roots. Two North American species feed
on Spanish moss, and some tropical species attack orchids.
Family Coecidae-soft seales, Including Wax Seales,
and Tortoise seales: The females in this group are
elongate-oval, usually convex but sometimes flattened, with a hard, smooth exoskeleton or a covering
of soft wax. Legs are usually present, and the antennae
are either absent or much reduced. The males may be
winged or wingless.
This is a large group, with about 105 North American species, a number of which are important pests.
The brown soft scale, Coccus hesperidium L., and the
black scale, Saissetia oleae (Olivier), are importan!
pests of citrus in the South. The hemispherical scale,
Saissetia coffeae (Walker), is a common pest of ferns
and other plants in homes and greenhouses. Several
species in this group attack shade and fruit trees. The
tulip-tree scale, Toumeyellaliriodendri (Gmelin), is one
of the largest scale insects in the United States, the
adult female being about 8 mm long. The cottony
maple scale, Pulvinaria innumerabilis (Rathvon), is a
relatively large species (about 6 mm long) whose eggs
are laid in a large, cottony mass that protrudes from the
end of the scale (Figure 22-66). Many soft scales (Figure 22-67) attack a variety of plants and are often pests
in greenhouses.
328
:;;
E
u'"
c:
'"
E
c.
o
ID
>
'"
C>
"O
c:
'"
-5
~
g
'"
a::
~
~
~
~
States. It attacks a number of different trees and shrubs,
including orchard trees, shade trees, and ornamental
shrubs, and when numerous it may kill the host planto
The scale cover is somewhat circular in shape. This
species gives birth to living young.
The oystershell scale, Lepidosaphes ulmi (L.), is another economically important species. It is so named
because of the shape of its scale (Figure 22-69). This
~'"
u
c:
'"
E
c.
o
ID
>
'"
C>
"O
c:
'"
.r=
"
~
g
'"
a::
~
a.~
<{
o
:E
C>
Figure 22-69
~ Qfii.., ft.. );X:
"""'>:~f
o.',
"
';f:'
ground-dwelling
bugs such as shore bugs. A hit with a
squin
ofalcohol will slow down the insect so that it
canbepicked up with forceps.
Themethods of collecting and preserving Auchenorrhynchaand Sternorrhyncha vary with the group
concerned.
The active species are collected and preserved
much like other insects, but special techniques
areusedfor such forms as the aphids and scale insects.
Mostof the active species are best collected by
sweeping.
Different species live on different types of
plants;
to secure a large number of species, collect from
asmanydifferent types of plants as possible. The
smaller
hoppingspecies can be removed from the net
withan aspirator, or the entire net contents can be
stunned
andsorted later. Forms that are not too active
canbe collected from foliage or twigs directly into a
killing
jar, without using a nel. Some of the cicadas,
which
spendmost of their time high in trees, can be
collected
with a long-handled nel. They can be dislodgedwitha long stick
within
netrange,or they can be shot down. Aslingshot
loaded
with sand or fine shot can be used to collect ci-
thatareout of reach.
cadas
Cellucotton.
iuidentification.
Most Heteroptera shorter than 10 mm
shouldbe rnounted on points. Mount specimens so
thatthebeak, legs, and ventral side of the body are not
embeddedin glue. The point should not extend beyond
the middle of the ventral side of the insecto
Cicadas, the various hoppers,
Udsare
whiteflies,
and psyl-
329
captured. A field catch can be stored in 70 or 75% alcohol until the specimens can be mounted, but alcohol
fades some colors. Preserve all nymphs in alcohol.
Scale insects can be preserved in two general
ways: The part of the plant containing the scales can
be collected, dried, and mounted (pinned or in a
Riker mount), or the insects can be specially treated
and mounted on a microscope slide. No special techniques are involved in the first method, which is satisfactory if one is interested only in the form of the
scale. The insects themselves must be mounted on
microscope slides for detailed study. The best way to
secure male scale insects is to rear them from colonies
found on the host plants. Very few are ever collected
with a nel.
In mounting a scale insect on a microscope slide,
the insect is removed, cleaned, stained, and mounted.
Some general suggestions for mounting insects on microscope slides are given in Chapter 35. The following
procedures are specifically recommended for mounting
scale insects:
I. Place the dry scale insect, or fresh specimens that
have been in 70% alcohol for at least 2 hours, in
10% potassium hydroxide and warm at low temperature until the body contents are soft.
2. While the specimen is still in the potassium hydroxide, remove the body contents by making a
small hole in the body (at the anterior end or at
the side where no taxonomically important characters will be damaged) and pressing the insect
with a flat spatula.
3. Transfer the specimen to acetic acid alcohol for
20 minutes or more. Acetic acid alcohol is made
by mixing 1 part of acetic acid, 1 part of distilled
water, and 4 parts of 95% alcohol by volume.
4. Stain in acid fuchsin for 10 minutes or more as
needed. Then transfer to 70% alcohol for 5 to
15 minutes to wash out excess stain.
5. Transfer the specimen to 95% alcohol for 5 to
10 minutes.
6. Transfer the specimen to 100% alcohol for 5 to
10 minutes.
7. Transfer the specimen to clove oil for 10 minutes
or more.
8. Mount in Canada balsam.
9. Dry slides for two weeks in a drying oven at 40C
before permanently labelling and studying.
Aphids shouId be preserved in 80% alcohol and
can often be collected from the plant directly into a vial
of alcohol. Winged forms are usually necessary for specific identification and should be mounted on microscope slides.
UNNERSIDAD
DECAUJAI
BIBLIOTECA
330
Chapter22 OrderHemiptera
References
Alexander, R. D., and T. E. Moore. 1962. The evolutionary relationships of 17-year and 13-year cicadas, and three new
species (Homoptera, Cicadidae, Magicicada). Misc. Publ.
Mus. Zool. Univ. Mich. No. 121,59.
Ben-Dov, Y. 1993. A Systematic Catalogue of the 50ft Scale Insects of the World (Homoptera: Coccoidea: Coccidae)
with Data on Geographical Distribution, Host Plants, Biology, and Economic Importance. Flora and Fauna Handbook No. 9.Gainesville, FL: Sandhill Crane Press, 536 pp.
Ben-Dov, Y. 1994. A Systematic Catalogue of the Mealybugs of
the World (Insecta: Homoptera: Coccoidea: Pseudococcidae, and Putoidae) with Data on Geographical Distribution, Host Plants, Biology, and Economic Importance.
Andover, UK: Intercept Limited, 686 pp.
Blatchley, W S. 1926. Heteroptera or True Bugs of Eastern
North America, with Special Reference 1.0the Faunas of
Indiana and Florida. Indianapolis: Nature, 1116 pp.
Bobb, M. L. 1974. The insects of Virginia. No. 7. The aquatic
and semi-aquatic Hemiptera of Virginia. Va. Polytech.
Inst. State Univ. Res. Div. Bul!. 87:1-196.
Deitz, L. L. 1975. Classification of the higher categories of the
New World treehoppers (Homoptera: Membracidae).
N.e. Agr. Expt. Sta. Bul!. 225:1-177.
DeLong, D. M. 1948. The leafhoppers, or Cicadellidae, of Illinois (Eurymelinae-Balcluthinae).
Ill. Nat. Hist. Surv.
Bul!. 24(2):91-376.
DeLong, D. M. 1971. The bionomics of leafhoppers. Annu.
Rev. Entorno!. 16:179-210.
DeLong, D. M., and P. H. Freytag. 1967. Studies of the world
Gyponinae (Homoptera, Cicadellidae): A synopsis of the
genus Panana. Contrib. Amer. Entorno!. Inst. 1(7):1-86.
Doering, K. 1930. Synopsis of North American Cercopidae. j.
Kan. Entorno!. Soc. 3:53-64, 81-108.
Drake, e. j., and N. T. Davis. 1960. The morphology, phylogeny, and higher classification of the family Tingidae,
including the descriptions of a new genus and species of
the subfamily Vianaidinae (Hemiptera-Heteroptera). Entorno!. Amer. 39:1-100.
Drake, e.j., and F.A. Ruhoff. 1960. Lace-bug genera ofthe world
(Hemiptera: Tingidae). Proc. u.s. Natl. Mus. 122:1-105.
Drake, e.]., and F.A. Ruhoff. 1965. Lacebugs of the world: A
catalogue (Hemiptera: Tingidae). Bul!. U.s. Nat!. Mus.
243:1-634.
Duffels, j. P., and P. A. van der Laan. 1985. Catalogue of the
Cicadoidea (Homoptera, Auchenorrhyncha), 1956-1980.
The Hague: Junk, 414 pp.
Dybas, H. S., and M. Lloyd. 1974. The habitats of 17-year periodical cicadas (Homoptera: Cicadidae: Magicicada
spp.). Eco!. Monogr. 44(3):279-324.
Eastop, V. E, and D. H. R. Lambers. 1976. Survey of the
World's Aphids. The Hague: Junk, 574 pp.
Emsley, M. G. 1969. The Schizopteridae (Hemiptera:Heteroptera) with the description of a new species from
Trinidad. Mem. Amer. Entorno!. Soco 25:154 pp.
Evans, j. W 1963. The phylogeny of the Homoptera. Annu.
Rev. Entorno!. 8:77-94.
..Ferris,'.G. F..1937-1955. Atlas of the Scale Insects of North
America. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 7 vols.
References
Herni-
of Illinois.
Ill.
M. 1996.
Scale
Insects
of Northeastern
North
America: Identification,
Biology, and Distribution.
Spec.
Pub\. No. 3. Martinsville:
Virginia Museurn of Natural
History, 650 pp.
5ztarab, M., and M. P. Kosztarab. 1988. A selected bibliography of the Coccoidea (Hornoptera).
Third supplernent
(1970-1985).
Blacksburg, VA: Virginia Polytechnic
Institute and Sta te University,
Agric. Expt. Sta. Bull. 881:1-252.
5ztarab, M., L. B. O'Brien,
M. B. Stoetzel,
L. L. Dietz, and P.
H. Freytag. 1990. Problerns and needs in the study ofHomoptera in North Arnerica In M. Kosztaraband
and C. W.
Shaefer (Eds) , Systernatics of the North American Insects
andArachnids:
Status and Needs, pp. 119-145. Va. Agric.
Expt. Sta. Inforrn. Ser. 90-1. Blacksburg: Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, 247 pp., illus.
Imer,J. P. 1983. Taxonornic study of the planthopper
farnily Cixiidae in the United States (Hornoptera:
Fulgoroidea). Trans. Arner. Entorno\. Soc.l09:1-58.
nbdin, P. L., and M. Kosztarab.
1997. Morphology
and sys-
Comstock (Hornoptera:
Coccoidea:
Cerococcidae).
Virginia Polytechnic
Institute and State University, Res. Div.
Bul\. 128; 252 pp.
nbers, D. H. R. 1966. Polyrnorphisrn
in Aphididae. Annu.
Rev. Entorno\. 11:47-78.
with description
of a new species,
neotredecim. Evolution 54:1313-1325.
13-year
characcicadas,
Magicicada
tsuda, R. 1977. The Aradidae of Canada (Herniptera: Aradidae). The Insects and Arachnids of Canada. Part 3. Ottawa: Canadian
Governrnent
Publishing
Centre,
116 pp.
331
332
Chapter22 OrderHemiptera
of California
Press, illus.
Usinger, R. L. 1966. Monograph of the Cirnicidae (HernipteraHeteroptera). Thornas Say Foundation Pub\. 7:1-585.
Usinger, R. L., and R. Matsuda. 1959. Classification of the
Aradidae (Herniptera: Heteroptera). London: British Museurn (Natural History), 410 pp.
Wade, V 1966. General catalogue of the Hornoptera: Species
index of the Mernbracoidea and fossil Hornoptera (Hornoptera: Auchenorrhyncha). A supplernent to fascicle 1,
Mernbracidae of the general catalogue of the Hornoptera.
N.e. Agr. Expt Sta. Papo No. 2160(2); 40 pp.
Way, M. J. 1963. Mutualisrn between ants and honeydewproducing Hornoptera. Annu. Rev. Entorno\. 8:307-344.
Wheeler, A. G., ]r. 2001. Biology of the Plant Bugs. Ithaca,
NY: Cornell University Press, 507 pp.
Wheeler, A. G., ]r., and T. J. Henry. 1992. A Synthesis of the
Holarctic Miridae (Heteroptera): Distribution, Biology,
and Origin, with Ernphasis on North Arnerica. Lanharn,
MD: The Thornas Say Foundation, Entornological Society
of Arnerica, 282 pp.
Wheeler, W e.. R. T. Schuh, and R. Bang. 1993. Cladistic relationships arnong higher groups of Heteroptera: Congruence between rnorphological and rnolecular data sets.
Entorno\. Scand. 24:121-137.
Williarns, M. L., and M. Kosztarab. 1972. Morphology and
systernatics of the Coccidae of Virginia, with notes on
their biology (Hornoptera: Coccoidea). Va. Polytech. Inst.
State Univ. Res. Div. Bull. 74, 215 pp.
Wygodzinsky, P. 1966. A rnonograph of the Ernesinae (Reduviidae: Herniptera). Bull. Arner. Mus. Nat. Hist.133, 614 pp.
Wygodzinsky, P., and K. Schrnidt. 1991. Revision of the New
World Enicocephalornorpha (Heteroptera). Bul\. American Mus. Nat. Hist. 200, 165 pp.
Young, D. A. 1952. A reclassification of western hernisphere
Typhlocybinae (Hornoptera, Cicadellidae). Univ. Kan.
Sci. Bull. 35:3-217.
Young, D. A. 1968. Taxonornic study of the Cicadellinae (Hornoptera: Cicadellidae). Part 1: Proconiini. Srnithson.
Inst. Bull. 261, 287 pp.
Young, D. A. 1977. Taxonornic study of the Cicadellinae (Hornoptera: Cicadellidae). Part 2: New World Cicadellini and
the genus Cicadella. N.e. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul\., Raleigh, N.
e. 235, 1135 pp.
--
23
Order Thysanoptera1.2
Thrips
333
334
Chapter23 OrderThysanoptera
----
--
-~~--
md------
~~/stY-~~~~~
e
Figure23-1 Mouthparts of a thrips. A, head, ventro-anterior view; B, head, lateral
view; C, mouthparts, posterior view; D, a maxilla. clp, clypeus; e, compound eye;
lbm, labium; lbr, labrum; md, left mandible; mn, mentum; mx, maxilla; mxp, maxillary
palp; phx, pharynx; smt, submentum; stp, stipes; sty, maxillary stylet. (Redrawn fram
Peterson, 1915.)
Classification
of the Thysanoptera
Thisorderis dividedinto two suborders, the Terebrantia
andthe Tubulifera. The Terebrantia currently consist of
sevenfamilies. They have the last abdominal segment
moreor less conical or rounded; the female has an
ovipositor; the fore wings have veins and setae, the
fringecilia arise from basal sockets, and the surface normallyhas numerous microtrichia. The Tubulifera currentlyconsists of two families. They have a tubular last
abdominalsegment; the females lack an ovipositor, and
theirdistal abdominal segments are shaped like those of
males;the fore wings lack veins and setae except on the
base,the fringe cilia lack basal sockets, and the surface
isbareof microtrichia.Sevenfamiliesof thrips occur in
NonhAmerica: one in the Tubulifera and six in the Tere-
1.
Phlaeothripidae
l'
2(1).
2'.
'"
A
"'ovp-------
p. 339
335
1
I
336
Chapter23 OrderThysanoptera
3(2).
Adiheterothripidae
p. 338
Thripidae
p.338
Heterothripidae
5
p.338
5(4/).
Merothripidae
p. 338
5/.
3/.
4(2/).
4/.
Figure23-6 Characters of
Thysanoptera. A, antenna of Parre/lathrips ullmanae Mound and Marullo
(Fauriellidae); B, antenna of Oligothrips
oreios Moulton (Adiheterothripidae);
e, tergite X of Merothrips(Merothripidae);
D, tergite X of Me/anthrips (Aeolothripidae). (A, courtesy of New York Entomological Society; B, courtesy of University
of California Press; e, D, courtesy of The
Linnean Society of London.)
337
338
Chapter23 OrderThysanoptera
6(5').
6'.
trichobothria;ovipositorcurveddownward
Aeolothripidae
p.338
Fauriellidae
p. 338
pronotum, the large fore and hind femora, and the frequent presence of a hooklike process on the inner apex
of the fore tibia. A common species, Merothrips morgani
Hood (Figure 23-4F), occurs in the eastern United
States under bark, in debris, and in fungi. Merothrips
floridensis Watson also occurs in similar habitats in the
eastern and southern states and in other countries.
Family Heterothripidae:This family is known only
from the Western Hemisphere, and only one genus,
Heterothrips, occurs in North America (Figure 23-4E).
The adults are usually dark, the abdomen has many microtrichia on the abdominal segments, the fore wing
has two complete rows of veinal setae, and the sensoria
on antennal segments 3 and 4 are small and arranged
in a row or band encireling the apex of the segment.
Several species of Heterothrips occur on trees (buckeye,
oak, and willow) and flowers (azalea, wild rose, and
jack-in-the-pulpit) and in the buds of wild grape.
Family Thripidae-Common Thrips: This family is
the largest in the Terebrantia in North America and
contains most of the species that are of economic importance. The wings are narrower than in the Aeolothripidae and are more pointed at the tipo The antennae are six- to nine-segmented, and segments 3 and
4 each have a protruding, simple or forked sense cone.
Most species are macropterous, but may also have
apterous or brachypterous forms. Several species are
predominantly
apterous or brachypterous.
Most
species feed primarily on plants. Members of the genus
Scolothrips are predaceous, and a few species in other
genera are occasionally predaceous.
The pear thrips, Taeniothrips inconsequens (Uzel)
(Figure 23-4B), attacks the buds, blossoms, young
leaves, and fruits of pears, plums, cherries, and other
plants. The adults are brown with pale wings, 1.2 to
1.3 mm long, and have a distinctive small elaw at the
tip of the fore tarsus. This species has a single generation ayear and overwinters as a pupa and adult in the
soil. The adults emerge in early spring, feed, then
oviposit on the petioles of leaves and fruits. The young
feed until about june, when they drop to the ground
and burrow into the soil to pupate. This species occurs
339
340
Chapter23 OrderThysanoptera
References
Bailey, S. E 1940. The distribution of injurious thrips in the
United States. J. Econ. Entornol. 33(1):133-136.
Bailey, S. E 1951. The genus Aeolothrips Haliday in North
Arnerica. Hilgardia 21(2):43-80.
Bailey, S. E 1957. The thrips of California. Part 1: Suborder
Terebrantia. Bull. Calif. Insect Surv. 4(5):143-220.
Bailey, S. E, and H. E. Cott. 1954. A review of the genus Heterothrips Hood (Thysanoptera: Heterothripidae) in North
Arnerica, with descriptions of two new species. Ann. Entornol. SocoArner. 47:614-635.
Cott, H. E. 1956. Systernatics of the Suborder Tubulifera
(Thysanoptera) in California. Berkeley: University of
California Press, 216 pp.
Herning, B. S. 1991. Order Thysanoptera. In E W Stehr (Ed.),
Irnrnature Insects, vol. 2, pp. 1-21. Dubuque, lA:
KendalVHunt.
Herning, B. S. 1993. Structure, function" ontogeny, and evolution of feeding in thrips (Thysanoptera). In E C. W
Schaefer and R. A. B. Leschen (Eds.), Functional rnorphology of insect feeding. Thornas Say Publications in
Entornology, Praceedings. Lanharn, MD: Entornological
Society of Arnerica, 162 pp.
Huntsinger, D. M., R. L. Post, and E. U. Balsbaugh, Jr. 1982.
North Dakota Terebrantia (Thysanoptera). North Dakota
Insects Schafer-Post Series, no. 14. Fargo, ND: Entornology Departrnent, North Dakota State University, 102 pp.
Kirk, W D. J. 1997. Feeding. In T. Lewis (Ed.), Thrips as
Crap Pests. New York: CAB International, 740 pp.
Lewis, T. 1973. Thrips, Their Biology, Ecology and Econornic
Irnportance. New York: Acadernic Press, 350 pp.
Mound, L. A., B. S. Herning, and J. M. Palrner. 1980. Phylogenetic relationships between the farnilies of recent
Thysanoptera. Zool. J. Linn. Soco London 69: 111-141.
Mound, L. A., and R. Marullo. 1996. The thrips of Central and
South Arnerica: an introduction (Insecta: Thysanoptera).
Mern. Entornol. Internat. 6:1-487.
Mound, L. A., and R. Marullo. 1998. Two new basal-clade
Thysanoptera frarn California with Old World affinities.
J. New York Entornol. SOCo106:81-94.
24
Order Psocoptera1,2
Psocids
341
342
Chapter24 OrderPsocoptera
~~
Ve
A
Figure
24-1
(EclOpsocidae). A, eggs; B, third instar; C, first instar; D, adult female; E, sixth instar.
(Courtesy of Sommerman.)
Suborder Troctomorpha
Liposcelididae
Pachytroctidae
Sphaeropsocidae (Pachytroctidae in part)*
Amphientomidae
Suborder Psocomorpha (Eupsocida)
Epipsocidae
Ptiloneuridae (Epipsocidae in part)*
Caeciliusidae (Caeciliidae, Polypsocidae)
Stenopsocidae (Caeciliusidae)
Amphipsocidae (Stenopsocidae, Polypsocidae)
Dasydemellidae (Amphipsocidae)
Asiopsocidae (Caeciliusidae) *
2(1).
/7!\
S gp
A
B
tvlv
J
G
~
'"
".
"
",
",
o,. _"
0,_ 00'
..,"
',"
en
en
~ePt
Figure24-2 Abdominal structures of Psocoptera. A, Psyllipsocus, female (Psyllipsocidae), terminal abdominal segments,ventral view; B, Echmepteryx, female (Lepidopsocidae), terminal abdominal segments, ventral view; e, subgenitalplate of female Mesopsocus(Mesopsocidae); D, subgenital plate of female Elipsocus (Elipsocidae); E, subgenital plate
andleft ovipositor valvulae of Archipsocus (Archipsocidae); F, lateral view of abdomen of nymph of Amphipsocidae;
G,ovipositor valvulae of Trichopsocus(Trichopsocidae); H, ovipositor valvulae of Peripsocus (Peripsocidae); 1, oviposilorvalvulae of Nepiomorpha (Elipsocidae); J, left ovipositor valvulae of Lachesilla (Lachesillidae); K, comb of 10th
abdominaltergum of Ectopsocusmale (Ectopsocidae); L, phallosome of Peripsocusmale (Peripsocidae); M, phallosome
ofEctopsocusmale (Ectopsocidae). en, endophallus; ept, epiproct; sgp, subgenital plate; tv, transverse vesic1e;vlv_J'
ovipositorvalvulae 1-3.
344
Chapter24 OrderPsocoptera
F
G
H
stp
9
J
2'.
Se
B
A
E
Figure24-4
Front wings of Trogiomorpha and Troetomorpha. A, Speleketor (Prionoglarididae);
B, Psyllipsocus (Psyllipsocidae); C, Echmepteryx, seales and marginal hairs removed
(Lepidopsocidae); D, Echmepteryx, eell R" enlarged, seales and marginal hairs intaet;
E, Embidopsocus(Liposeelididae); F, Nanopsocus (Paehytroetidae).
3(2).
3'
4(2').
Prionoglarididae*
p.351
tines (Figure24-3E)
Psyllipsocidae
p.351
Body and fore wings densely clothed in seales or long hairs or both
(Figure 24-4D); fore wings usually well developed, usually pointed
apieally (Figure 24-4C), never redueed to pads extending less than
one fourth length of abdomen
lepidopsocidae
p. 351
.....
346
Chapter24 OrderPsocoptera
4'.
5(4').
5'.
Body and wings never scaled; fore wings variably developed, frorn fully
developed to nearly absent
Psoquillidae
p.351
Fore wings reduced to tiny scales or buttons (Figure 24-5B), never with
veins
Trogiidae
p.351
6(1').
6'.
(suborderTroctornorpha)
Psocornorpha)
10
7(6).
Wings, when present, never scaled; either held fIat over back when at rest
with fore wing of one side largely covering that of other side, or fore
wings elytriform; wings frequently reduced or absent
7'.
Wings always present, not held fIat over back in repose; fore wings clothed
with scales, never elytriform
Amphientomidae
p. 353
8(7).
Pachytroctidae
p.352
8'
Fore wings, when present, with venation greatly reduced (Figure 24-4E);
in all apterous forms mesothorax and metathorax indistinguishably fused
In alate forms, both front and hind wings present, fIat and delicate; eyes
near vertex, hemispherical, compound; in apterous forms, eyes removed
from vertex, each consisting of 2 large elements alone or preceded by 8 or
fewer smaller ocelloids (Figure 24-31); thoracic sterna broad and bearing
setae (Figure 24-6A)
liposcelididae
p.351
In alate forms, fore wings convex, elytriform; in all forms, eyes removed
from vertex, composed of few ocelloids, none greatly enlarged; thoracic
sterna narrow, without setae
Sphaeropsocidae*
p. 353
11
9(8').
9'
10(6').
lO'.
Head short, wide; labrum internally on either side with only small
sclerotized tubercle, the two sometimes eonneeted by sclerotized areh;
below areh, or between the pair of tubercles lies a clear semicireular area
bordering anterior margin (Figure 24-3C); long-winged forms with Rs
and M of fore wing variable, joined together for short distanee, or at a
point, or by erossvein
12
pul
348
Chapter24 OrderPsocoptera
CUlo
R,
R, R
4+
M,
1A
M,
CU2
CUlo M3
R,
R2+3
-........
R4+ 5
F
E
R,
R2+3
R4+5
M,
M2
m-cu,.
Figure24-7
1A
CUlo
U(lO).
Epipsocidae
p.353
U'.
Ptiloneuridae*
p. 353
13(12).
13'.
13
17
14
Asiopsocidae
*
14(13). Setaeof fore wing veinsrelativelyshort, slantingdistally,mostlysingleranked (Figure 24-7C); pterostigma-rs crossvein present or not in fore wing
14'.
Setae of fore wing veins relatively long, upright, mostly in more than one
rank (Figure 24-7D), pterostigma-rs crossvein absent
15(14). Pterostigma-rs crossvein and m-cula crossvein present in fore wing; hind
wing with marginal setae restricted to cell R3
15'.
Pterostigma-rs and m-cula crossveins absent; hind wing with marginal
p. 353
15
16
Stenopsocidae
p.353
Caeciliusidae
p. 353
Dasydemellidae
p.353
2-branched (Polypsocus)
17(12'). Wings fully developed or only slightly reduced
17'.
Wings greatly reduced; venational characters not usable
18(17). Mesothoracic precoxal bridges narrow at point of junction with trochantin
(Figure 24-6D), trochantin broad basally, tapering distally
18'.
Mesothoracic precoxal bridges wide at point of junction with trochantin
Amphipsocidae
18
p. 353
32
19
21
20
Myopsocidae
p. 354
Psocidae
p.354
Hemipsocidae*
p.354
Margin of fore wing with "crossing hairs" between veins R..s and CUla
(Figure 24-7])
22
21'.
24
22(21).
Tarsi 3-segmented
Philotarsidae
22'.
Tarsi 2-segmented
23
23(22').
Archipsocidae
p. 354
Surface of fore wing with hairs largely confined lO veins and margin;
venation of both wings distinct; solitary forms living freely or under
sparse webbing
Pseudocaeciliidae
p. 354
20(19).
20'.
21(18').
23'.
p.353
..
350
Chapter24 OrderPsocoptera
24(21').
24'.
Tarsi 3-segmented
Tarsi 2-segmented
25(24).
Wings bare; subgenital plate with single central, posteriorly directed lobe
(Figure 24-lC)
25/.
26(24').
26/.
27(26).
27'.
28(27).
28/.
29(26').
29'.
30(29).
30/.
31(30').
31/.
32(17').
32/.
33(32/).
33'.
34(33').
34'.
25
26
Mesopsocidae
p. 354
p.353
Elipsocidae
27
29
28
Lachesillidae
p.353
Trichopsocidae
p.354
Elipsocidae
p.353
Wings with obvious hairs on veins and margins; subgenital plate never
with central, posteriorly directed lobe, usually with 2 lobes (Figure 24-20)
Vein Cu in fore wing branched (Cua present)
30
Ectopsocidae
p.354
Asiopsocidae*
p.353
31
Elipsocidae
p.353
Body without "gland hairs," forms not living under webs; third valvula of
ovipositor much smaller than second (Figure 24-2H)
Peripsocidae
p.353
Mesopsocidae
33
p.353
Elipsocidae
p.353
Tarsi 3-segmented; only females, all with single central posterior projection
on subgenital plate (Figure 24-2C); large, robust forms with wings reduced
to tiny knobs, length 4-5 mm
Tarsi 2-segmented; smaller forms, including males
Males and females both bearing a conspicuous white, crosslike mark
dorsally on abdomen (Figure 24-50) and body with numerous gland
hairs (Figure 24-50, see couplet 29) (Nepiomorpha)
Body not marked as in preceding entry; gland hairs, if present, very
restricted in distribution
34
Archipsocidae
35
p.354
SuborderTrogiomorpha
Themembers of suborder Trogiomorpha have more
than20 antennal segments, the labial palps are twosegmented,and the tarsi are three-segmented. Antennalflagellar segments are never seeondarily annulated,
although rings of microtrichia that resemble annulationsare sometimes present.
FamilyLepidopsocidae:
These psocids live on trees,
shrubs, and stone outerops. The wings are slender,
usuallypointed apically, and wings and body are usuallycovered with seales. The group is primarily tropical,with 15 species in the United States. Echmepteryx
hageni(Packard) is common on trees and stone outcropsthroughout the eastern states.
FamilyTrogiidae:Most members of this familyhave
tbewings reduced, but none are completely wingless.
Speciesof Cerobasis are common on shrubs and trees in
tbeSouthwest. A few species live in buildings: Lepinotusinquilinus Heyden is often found in granaries, and
pulsatorium(L.) livesin houses, barns, and graTrogium
nariesin the Northeast. Females of some trogiids producea sound by tapping the abdomen on the substrate.
Family Psoquillidae:Members of this family may be
fullywinged or have the wings in various stages of re-
36
40
lachesillidae
p. 353
37
Psocidae
p. 354
38
Peripsocidae
39
p. 353
Ectopsocidae
p. 354
Elipsocidae
p. 353
Ectopsocidae
p.354
Peripsocidae
p. 353
352 Chapter
24 OrderPsocoptera
~.,
.
el
1.
~~.
--.---
'.
~'..
F
Figure24-8 Psocids. A, Valenzuelamanteri (Sommerman), female, lateral view (Caeciliusidae); B, Anomopsocusamabilis (Walsh), female, lateral view (Lachesillidae);
C, Valenzuelamanteri, female, dorsal view; D, Liposcelis sp., dorsal view (Liposcelididae);
E, Anomopsocusamabilis, female, dorsal view; F, Psyllipsocus ramburii Selys, short-winged
female, dorsal view (Psyllipsocidae); G, Psocathropossp., lateral view (Psyllipsocidae), el,
clypeus; H, Archipsocusnomas Gurney, short-winged female, dorsal view (Archipsocidae).
(A-C, E, courtesy of Sommerman; F, courtesy of Gurney; D and G reprinted by permission of Pest Control Technology, National Pest Control Association; A, E, courtesy of the
Entomological Society of Washington; B, E, F, courtesy of the Entomological Society of
America; H, courtesy of the Washington Academy of Science.)
-;. .,;1, ,;ir'} "':~1 c$j t.l~~\ir" "t."
~.'~~;~~!.Ji~,~"
:.J ; .,;.P~k(~'~(~}~1" \
.:\ :,(f~t~f.Jn!'
:.):
j,~}:~
Family Asiopsocidae:These psocids appear to be inhabitants of twigs of small trees and shrubs. One
species of Asiopsocus, A. sonorensis Mockford and
Garcia-Aldrete, occurs in southern Arizona. The tropical genera Notiopsocus and Pronotipsocus each have a
representative in southern Florida.
Family Elipsocidae:This family includes forrns with
2- as well as 3-segmented tarsi. Fifteen species in six genera are known from the United States. Cuneopalpus
cyanops (Rostock) was introduced from Europe and has
become established in coastal regions of California and
New York. Four species of Elipsocus, probably introduced
from Europe, live on conifers and broad-Ieaf trees in the
Pacific Northwest. Native species of this genus, some still
undescribed, are found in the Rocky Mountains and
other upland areas, as well as in conifer forests in northern Wisconsin. Propsocus pulchripenis (Perkins), of unknown origin, is established in some coastal counties of
California. Reuterella helvimacula Enderlein, also known
from Europe, lives on stone outcrops and tree trunks in
several northern states. Species of Palmicola live on
palms, oaks, and conifers in the southeastern states.
Family Philotarsidae: This is one of several families
in which setae of the posterodistal margin of the fore
wing form a series of crossing pairs (Figure 24-7J).
North American species have three tarsal segments. AIthough only six species are known from the United
States, these insects may become abundant locally in
late summer. Philotarsus kwakiutl Mockford is common on conifers in the Pacific Northwest; Aaroniella
badonnedi (Danks) is often abundant on trunks and
branches of trees and on stone outcrops in the southern pan of the Midwest.
Fami/y Mesopsocidae: These are relatively large psocids found on branches of coniferous and broad-Ieaf
trees. Only three species of this primarily Old World
family occur in the United States. Mesopsocus unipunctatus (Mller) occurs across the northern United
States, and south in the Appalachians to Nonh Carolina and on the Pacific coast to southern California, as
well as in northern Europe, Africa, and Asia. lt is one
of the first psocids to mature in the spring. The female
has very shon wings, and the male is long-winged.
Fami/y lachesillidae: The members of this large
family are inhabitants of persistent dead leaves of a
great variety of plants. Some inhabit foliage of conifers,
and others inhabit grasses. Although 54 species are
now known in the United States, the number of species
in Latin America is much larger.
Family Peripsocidae: This is one of two families in
which there is no cubitalloop in the fore wing; that is,
vein Cu! is simple. The peripsocids are medium-sized
inhabitants of twigs, branches, and trunks of conifers
and broad-Ieaf trees. Some 14 species are now known
in the United States.
UNNERSIDAD
DECALDAS
IBUOTECA
lo.
354
References
Badonnel, A. 1951. Ordre des Psocopteres. In P. P. Grass
(Ed.), Trait de Zoologie, vo!. 10, fasc. 2:1301-1340.
Paris: Masson.
Chapman, P. J. 1930. Corrodentia of the United States of
Arnerica. I. Suborder Isotecnornera. J. N.Y. Entorno!. Soco
39:54-65.
Eertrnoed, G. E. 1966. The life history of Peripsocus quadrifasciatus (Psocoptera: Peripsocidae). J. Kan. Entorno!.
Soco39:54-65.
Eertrnoed, G. E. 1973. The phenetic relationships of the
Epipsocetae (Psocoptera): The higher taxa and the
species of two new farnilies. Trans. Arner. Entorno!. Soco
99:373-414.
..
Lachesil.
References
(Psocoptera).
Bull. Fla.
(Insecta:
Peripsocidae).
]. N.Y. Entorno\.
Soco
Mockford, E. L. 1998. Generic definitions and species assignments in the family Epipsocidae (Psocoptera). Insecta
Mundi 12:81-91.
Mockford, E. L. 2000. A classification of the psocopteran family Caeciliusidae (Caeciliidae Auct.). Trans. Amer. Entorno\. Soco 125:325-417.
Mockford, E. L., and A. B. Gurney. 1956. A review of the psocids, or book-lice and bark-lice, of Texas (Psocoptera). ].
Wash. Acad. Sci. 46:353-368.
Mockford, E. L., and D. M. Sullivan. 1986. Systematics of the
graphocaeciliine psocids with a proposed higher classification of the family Lachesillidae (Psocoptera). Trans.
Amer. Entorno\. Soco 112:1-80.
Mockford, E. L., and D. M. Sullivan. 1990. Kaestneriella
Roesler (Psocoptera: Peripsocidae): New and littleknown species from the southwestern United States
and Mexico and a revised key. Pan-Paco Entorno\.
66:281-291.
New, T. R. 1974. Psocoptera. Roy. Entorno\. Soco Lond. Handbooks Identif. Brit. Insects 1(7):1-102.
New, T. R. 1987. Biology of the Psocoptera. Oriental Insects
21:1-109.
Pearman,]. V. 1928. On sound production in the Psocoptera
and on a presumed stridulatory organ. Entorno\. Mon.
Mag.64:179-186.
Pearman,]. V. 1936. The taxonomy of the Psocoptera; preliminary sketch. Proc. Roy. Entorno\. Soco Lond. Ser. B,
5(3):58-62.
Roesler, R. 1944. Die Gattungen der Copeognathen. Sm. Entorno\. Ztg. 105:117-166.
Smithers, C. N. 1967. A catalog of the Psocoptera of the
world. Austra\. Zoo\. 14:1-145.
Smithers, C. N. 1972. The classification and phylogeny of the
Psocoptera. Austra\.]. Zoo\. 14:1-349.
Smithers, C. N., and C. Lienhard. 1992. A revised bibliography of the Psocoptera (Anhropoda: Insecta). Tech. Rept.
Australian Mus. No. 6:1-86.
Sommerman, K. M. 1943. Bionomics of Ectopsocus pumilis
(Banks) (Corrodentia: Caeciliidae). Psyche 50:55-63.
Sommerman, K. M. 1944. Bionomics of Amapsocus amabilis
(Walsh) (Corrodentia: Psocidae). Ann. Entorno\. Soco
Amer. 37:359-364.
Sommerman, K. M. 1946. A revision of the genus Lacheslla
nonh of Mexico (Corrodentia; Caeciliidae). Ann. Entorno\. Soco Amer. 39:627-661.
355
..
25
Order Phthiraptera1.2
Lice
T mammals.
'Phthiraptera:
356
'This
chapter
phthir,
!ice; a, without;
ptera, wings.
A. Hellenthal
phx
eso
stys
Figure25-1
Mouthparts of a sucking louse. A, sagittal
sectionof head; B, cross section through rostrum. eso,
esophagus; hyp, intermediate stylet (probably hypopharynx);lbm,ventralstylet (probablylabium);lbr,rostrum
(probablylabrum); mx, dorsal stylet (probably the fused
maxillae);phx, pharynx; sty, stylets; stys, stylet saco (Redrawnfram Snodgrass.)
..i
1.
Haematomyzidae
1'.
p. 361
358
Chapter25 OrderPhthiraptera
2(1').
2'
3(2).
10
Figure25-4 Philopteridae. A, the large turkey louse, Chelopistes meleagridis (L.), dorsal view; B, Anaticola crassicornis (Scopoli), a louse of the blue-winged teal, ventral view.
B
A
Figure25-5 A, the spined rat louse, Polyplax spinulosa (Burmeister), female, ventral
view (Polyplacidae); B, head of the hog louse, Haematopinus suis (L.), dorsal view
(Haematopinidae). opt, ocular point.
-,
360
Chapter25 OrderPhthiraptera
Figure25-6
3'.
Human liceoA, the body louse, female; B, the crab louse, female. 20 x.
4(3).
4'.
5(4').
5'.
9
Gyropidae
5
p.361
Trimenoponidae
6
p.361
6(5/).
Boopiidae
p.361
6/.
Menoponidae
Antennae in cavities that open ventrally; head not broadly triangular and
expanded behind eyes (Figure 25-3)
laemobothriidae
p.361
8'.
Ricinidae
p.361
9(3').
9'.
Philopteridae
p.362
Trichodectidae
p.362
Head with distinct eyes (Figure 25-6) or with subacute ocular points on
sides of head behind antennae (Figure 25-5B, opt)
11
7(6/).
7'.
8(7').
10(2/).
p.361
Keyto the
10'.
Head long and slender, much longer than thorax; southwestern United
States, on peccaries
12',
Head about as long as thorax (Figure 25-6); parasites of humans
13(12') Abdomen about as long as its basal width, and with prominent lateral
10bes (Figure 25-6B); middle and hind legs stouter than front legs
13',
Abdomen much longer than its basal width, and without laterallobes
(Figure 25-6A); middle and hind legs not stouter than front legs
14(10'), Body thickly covered with short, stout spines, abdomen with scales;
parasites of seals, walrus, and river otter
14'.
Body with only a few setae, abdomen without scales; parasites of
terrestrial mammals
15(14'), Front and middle legs similar in size and shape, both smaller, more
slender than hind legs; parasites of squirrels
15',
Front legs smallest of the three pairs, middle and hind legs similar in size
and shape (Figure 25-5A), or hind legs larger; parasites of ungulates,
canids, rodents, and insectivores
16(15'). Front coxae widely separated; parasites of even-toed ungulates and canids
16'.
Front coxae contiguous or nearly so; parasites of rodents and insectivores
1706'). Hind legs largest of the 3 pairs; sternite of second abdominal segment
extending laterally on each side to articulate with the tergite
17'.
Middle and hind legs similar in size and shape (Figure 25-5A); sternite
of second abdominal segment not extending laterally on each side and
not articulating with tergite
Families of Phthiraptera
14
12
Haematopinidae
p.362
Pecaroecidae
p. 362
13
Pthiridae
p. 363
Pediculidae
p. 362
Echinophthiriidae
p. 362
15
Enderleinellidae
p. 362
16
Linognathidae
17
p. 362
Hoplopleuridae
p. 362
Polyplacidae
p. 363
361
"""
362
Chapter25 OrderPhthiraptera
Family Philopteridae:
This is the largest family in
the order and contains species parasitizing a wide variety of birds. Two important pests of poultry in this
group are the chicken head louse, Cuclotogaster heterographus (Nitzsch), and the large turkey louse, Chelopistes meleagridis (L.) (Figure 25-4A).
Family Trichodectidae:
The trichodectids are parasites of mammals. Some important pest species in this
group are the catde-biting louse, Bovicola bovis (L.)
(Figure 25-2B); the horse-biting louse, Bovicola (Werneckiella) equi (Denny); and the dog-biting louse, Trichodectes canis (DeGeer).
The five North American
Family Echinophthiriidae:
species in this group attack aquatic mammals (seals,
and the sea lion, walrus, and the river otter). At least
some species burrow into the skin of their host.
Family Enderleinellidae:
This is a widely distributed
group, with 10 North American species, whose members are parasites of squirrels. They may be recognized
by the fact that the front and middle legs are similar in
size and more slender than the hind legs. Most North
American species belong to the genus Enderleinellus.
Microphthirus uncinatus (Ferris), a parasite of flying
squirrels, is shorter than 0.5 mm and is the smallest
louse in this order.
The lice in this group atFamily Haematopinidae:
tack pigs, catde, horses, and deer. They differ from
other sucking lice in having ocular points on the sides
of the head behind the eyes (Figure 25-5B, opt). This
family contains four North American species, including the hog louse, Haematopinus suis (L.); the horsesucking louse, H. asini (L.); and two species of
Haematopinus that attack catde.
The members of this group
Family Hoplopleuridae:
(17 North American species) attack rodents, hares,
moles, and shrews. These lice differ from other Anoplura
attacking these hosts (Polyplacidae) in the form of the
sternite of the second abdominal segment and the relative size of the different legs (see key, couplet 17).
Family Linognathidae:
This group includes 10 North
American species that are parasites of catde, sheep, goats,
deer, reindeer, dogs, coyotes, and foxes. It includes the
dog-sucking louse, Linognathus setosus (OUers); the goatsucking louse, L. stenopsis (Burmeister); and the longnosed catde louse, L. vituli (L.). The last species differs
from the haematopinids attacking catde in lacking ocular
points on the head.
Family Pecaroecidae:
This group includes a single
North American species, Pecaroecus jayvalii Babcock
and Ewing, which occurs in the Southwest on peccaries. This species is the largest North American anopluran, and can reach a length of 8 mm.
Family Pediculidae:
This group includes the head
and body lice of humans, Pediculushumanus capitis
References
References
Clay,1. 1970. The Arnblycera
(Phthiraptera:
Brit. Mus. (Nat. Hist.) Entorno\. 25:73-98.
Insecta).
Bull.
V. S. Srnith, R. J. Adarns, D.
analy-
sis of partial sequences of elongation factor 1 alpha identifies rnajor groups of \ice (Insecta: Phthiraptera).
Mo\.
Phylog. Evo\. 19:202-215.
Durden, L. A., and G. G. Musser. 1994a. The sucking lice (Insecta: Anoplura)
of the world: A taxonornic
check\ist
with records of rnarnrna\ian hosts and geographical
distribution. Bull. Arner. Mus. Nat. Hist. 218:1-90.
Durden, L. A., and G. G. Musser.
1994b.
The rnarnrna\ian
Kirn, K. e 1987. Order Anoplura. In F.W. Stehr (Ed.), lrnrnature lnsects, pp. 224-245. Dubuque, lA: Kendall/Hunt,
754 pp.
Kirn, K. e, and H. W. Ludwig. 1978a. The farnily classificatiqn of the Anoplura. Syst. Entorno\. 3:249-284.
Kirn, K. e, and H. W. Ludwig. 1978b. Phylogenetic relationships of parasitic Psocodea and taxonornic position of the
Anoplura. Ann. Entorno\. Soco Arner. 71:910-922.
Kirn, K. e, and H. W. Ludwig. 1982. Parallel evolution,
cladistics, and classification of parasitic Psocodea. Ann.
Entorno\. Soco Arner. 75:537-548.
Kirn, K. e, H. D. Pratt, and e]. Stojanovich. 1986. The sucking \ice of North Arnerica. University Park: Pennsylvania
State University Press, 241 pp.
Lyal, e H. e 1985. A cladistic analysis and classification of
trichodectid rnarnrnal \ice (Phthiraptera: lschnocera).
Bull. Brit. Mus. (Nat. Hist.) Entorno\. 51:187-346.
Price, M. A., and O. H. Graharn. 1997. Chewing and sucking
\ice as parasites of rnarnrnals and birds. U.s. Dept. Agric.
Tech. Bull. 1849. 309 pp.
363
364
Chapter25 OrderPhthiraptera
Price, R. D. 1987. Order Mallophaga. In F.W Stehr (Ed.), lmmature lnsects, pp. 215-223. Dubuque, lA: KendalV
Hunt, 754 pp.
Price, R. D., R. A. Hellenthal, R. L. Palma, K. P.Johnson, and
D. H. Clayton. 2003. The chewing \ice: World check\ist
and biological overview. Illinois Nat. Hist. Surv. Special
Pub!. 24. Champaign, lL: Illinois Natural History Survey,
458 pp.
Wemeck,
F. L. 1948-1950.
Os Malfagos
de Mamiferos.
Parte
26
Order Coleoptera1,2
Beetles
365
366
'. .1
...
1f ..
..
----
--
---
l!
.
118_11 l.
...
.
.
~.,
. ... .
'.
-.
------..--. ----. f
Time in Seconds
367
368
Chapter26 OrderColeoptera
or
an
be
of
Suborder Archostemata
Cupedidae (Cupesidae, Cupidae)-reticulated
beetles*
Micromalthidae-telephone-pole
beetles*
Suborder Myxophaga
Microsporidae (Sphaeriidae)-minute
bog
beetles*
Hydroscaphidae (Hydrophilidae, in part)-skiff
beetles *
Suborder Adephaga
Rhysodidae (Rhyssodidae)-wrinkled
bark
beetles
Carabidae (including Cicindelidae, Paussidae,
Tachypachidae, Omophronidae)-ground
beetles and tiger beetles
Gyrinidae-whirligig beetles
Haliplidae-crawling water beetles
Noteridae (Dytiscidae, in part)-burrowing
water
beetles*
Amphizoidae-trout-stream
beetles*
Dytiscidae-predaceous
diving beetles
Suborder Polyphaga
Series Staphyliniformia
Superfamily Hydrophiloidea
Hydrophilidae (including Hydrochidae,
Spercheidae, Sphaeridiidae, and
Georyssidae)-water
scavenger beetles
Sphaeritidae-false clown beetles*
Histeridae (Niponiidae)-clown
beetles
Superfamily Staphylinoidea
Hydraenidae (Limnebiidae; Hydrophilidae
in part)-minute
moss beetles*
Ptiliidae (Ptilidae, Trichopterigidae; including Limulodidae)-feather-winged
beetles and horseshoe crab beetles
Agyrtidae (Silphidae, in part)-primitive
carrion beetles
Leiodidae (Liodidae, Anisotomidae, Leptodiridae, Leptinidae, Platypsyllidae
Catopidae; Silphidae, in part)-round
fungus beetles, mammal-nest beetles,
and beaver parasites*
Scydmaenidae-antlike
stone beetles*
Silphidae (Necrophoridae)-carrion
beetles
Staphylinidae (including Micropeplidae,
Pselaphidae, Scaphidiidae, Dasyceridae,
Brathinidae)-rove
beetles
Series Scarabaeiformia
Superfamily Scarabaeoidea
Lucanidae-stag
beetles
Passalidae-bess beetles
Diphyllostomatidae *
Ceratocanthidae (= Acanthoceridae) *
Glaphyridae*
Pleocomidae-rain
beetles*
Geotrupidae-earth-boring
dung beetles
Ochouaeidae *
Hybosoridae *
Glaresidae*
Trogidae-skin beetles
Scarabaeidae-scarab
beetles
Series Elateriformia
Superfamily Scirtoidea
Eucinetidae (Dascillidae, in part)plate-thigh beetles*
Clambidae-minute
beetles
Scirtidae (Helodidae, Cyphonidae;
Dascillidae, in part)-marsh
beetles
Superfamily Dascilloidea
Dascillidae (Atopidae, Dascyllidae; including Karumiidae)-soft-bodied
plant
beetles
Rhipiceridae (Sandalidae, in part)-cicada
parasite beetles
Superfamily Buprestoidea
Buprestidae (including Schizopodidae)metallic wood-boring beetles
Superfamily Byrrhoidea
Byrrhidae-pill beetles
Elmidae (Limniidae, Helminthidae)-riffle
beetles
Dryopidae (Pamidae)-long-toed
water
beetles
Lutrochidae-travertine
beetle
Limnichidae (Dascillidae, in part)-minute
marsh-loving beetles*
Heteroceridae-variegated
mud-loving
beetles
Psephenidae (including Eubriidae)-water
penny beetles
Ptilodactylidae (Dascillidae, in part)
Chelonariidae*-turtle
beetles
Eulichadidae (Dascillidae, in part) *
Callirhipidae (Rhipiceridae, in part,
Sandalidae, in part)-cedar
beetles*
Superfamily Elateroidea
Artematopodidae (Eurypogonidae;
Dascillidae, in part) *
Brachypsectridae-the
Texas beetle*
Cerophytidae-rare
click beetles*
Eucnemidae (Melasidae, Perothopidae)false click beetles
Throscidae (Trixagidae)
Elateridae (including Plastoceridae and
Cebrionidae)-click
beetles
Lycidae-net-winged beetles
Telegeusidae-long-lipped
beetles*
Phengodidae-glowworm
beetles*
Lampyridae-fireflies, lightningbugs
Omethidae-false firefly beetles; false 501dier beetles
Cantharidae (Telephoridae,
Chauliognathidae)-soldier
beetles
Series Bostrichiformia
Jacobsoniidae-Jacobson's
beetles*
Superfamily Derodontoidea
Derodontidae-tooth-necked
fungus
beetles*
Superfamily Bostrichoidea
Nosodendridae-wounded
tree beetles*
Dermestidae (including Thorictidae)-skin
beetles
Bostrichidae (including Lyctidae, Psoidae,
Apatidae)-branch
and twig borers and
powderpost beetles
Anobiidae (including Ptinidae and
Gnostidae)-death
watch and spider
beetles
Series Cucujiformia
Superfamily Lymexyloidea
Lymexylidae-ship-timber
beetles
Superfamily Cleroidea
Trogossitidae (Ostomatidae, Ostomidae)bark-gnawing beetles
Cleridae (Corynetidae)-checkered
beetles
Melyridae (Malachiidae, Dasytidae)soft-winged flower beetles
Superfamily Cucujoidea
Sphindidae-dry-fungus
beetles*
Brachypteridae-short -winged flower
beetles
Nitidulidae-sap-feeding
beetles
Smicripidae-palmetto
beetles
Monotomidae (Rhizophagidae)root-eating beetles
Silvanidae
Passandridae-parasitic
flat bark beetles
Cucujidae-flat bark beetles
Laemophloeidae-lined
flat bark beetles
Phalacridae-shining
flower beetles
Cryptophagidae-silken
fungus beetles
Languriidae-lizard
beetles
Erotylidae-pleasing
fungus beetles
Byturidae-fruitworm
beetles
Biphyllidae-false skin beetles
Bothrideridae-dry
bark beetles
Cerylonidae-minute
bark beetles
Endomychidae-handsome
fungus beetles
Coccinellidae-ladybird
beetles
Corylophidae-minute
fungus beetles
Latridiidae-minute
brown scavenger
beetles
Superfamily Tenebrionoidea
Mycetophagidae-hairy
fungus beetles
Archeocrypticidae*
Ciidae (Cisidae, Cioidae)-minute
tree
fungus beetles
Tetratomidae-polypore
fungus beetles*
Melandryidae (including Synchroidae,
Anaspididae, and Serropalpidae)-false
darkling beetles
Mordellidae-tumbling
flower beetles
Ripiphoridae (Rhipiphoridae)-wedgeshaped beetles
Colydiidae (including Adimeridae, Merycidae, and Monoedidae)-cylindrical
bark
beetles
Zopheridae (including Monommatidae,
Monommidae)-ironclad
beetles
Tenebrionidae (including Alleculidae and
Lagriidae)-darkling
beetles
Prostomidae-jugular-horned
beetles*
Synchroidae
Oedemeridae-pollen-feeding
beetles
Stenotrachelidae (Cephaloidae)-false
long-horned beetles*
Meloidae-blister
beetles
Mycteridae (including Hemipeplidae)palm and flower beetles
Boridae-conifer bark beetles
Pythidae-dead
log bark beetles
Pyrochroidae (including Pedilidae and
Cononotidae)-fire-colored
beetles
Salpingidae-narrow-waisted
bark
beetles
Anthicidae-antlike
flower beetles
Aderidae (Euglenidae)-antlike
leaf
beetles*
Scraptiidae-false flower beetles
Polypriidae-the
red cross beetle
Superfamily Chrysomeloidea
Cerambycidae (including Disteniidae,
Parandridae, and Spondylidae)-longhorned beetles
Megalopodidae
Orsodacnidae
Chrysomelidae (including Bruchidae,
Cassididae, Cryptocephalidae, Hispidae,
and Sagridae)-leaf beetles
Superfamily Curculionoidea (Rhynchophora)
Nemonychidae (Cimberidae)-pine
flower
snout beetles
369
370
Chapter26 OrderColeoptera
Antennae
The antenna of the Coleoptera consists of only three
troe segments, that is, subdivisions characterized by intrinsic musculature. The basal segment is the scape,
followed by the pedicel and the flagellum. In most insects, the flagellum is then divided into unmusculated
subsegments, sometimes quite a loto Entomologists traditionally have recognized that these subsegments differ from the three troe segments of the antenna, but
nevertheless have called them all "antennal segments."
The subdivisions of the flagellum more properly
should be called flagellomeres. In this chapter we avoid
the term "antennal segment" and refer to them as antennomeres.
The antennae ofbeetles are subject to considerable
variation in different groups, and these differences are
used in identification. The term clubbed, as used in the
key, refers to any condition in which the terminal antennomeres are larger than those preceding them, including clavate ((he terminal antennomeres enlarging
gradually and only slightly, as in Figure 2-15D,E); capitate ((he terminal antennomeres abroptly enlarged, as
in Figure 26-5F-I); lamellate (the terminal antennomeres expanded on one side into rounded or oval
plates, as in Figure 26-6A,C-G); and flabellate (the
terminal antennomeres expanded on one side into
long, thin, parallel-sided, tonguelike processes, as in
Figure 26-6B). The distinction between some of these
Thorade Characters
Figure
26-4 Ventral view of a ground beetle (Omaseus
sp.).ant, antenna; ex, coxa; e, eompound eye; epm,
proepimeron;epm2'mesepimeron; epm], metepimeron;
eps"proepisternum; eps2'mesepisternum; eps], metepistemum;fm, femur; g, galea; gs, guIar suture; gu, gula;
Ig,ligula; Ip, labial palp; md, mandible; mn, mentum;
mx,maxilla;mxp, maxillary palp; n" pronotum; npls, notopleuralsuture; pg, postgena; smt, submentum; Sin"
prostemum;stn2,mesostemum; stn], metasternum; stns,
prostemalsuture; tb, tibia; tel, tarsal claws; tr, troehanter;
trs,transverse suture on metasternum; ts, tarsus; tsp, tibialspurs; 1-6, ventrites 1-6.
..
371
372
Figure 26-5
Antennae of
Coleoptera. A, Harpalus
(Carabidae); B, Rhysodes
(Rhysodidae); C, Trichodesma
(Anobiidae); D, Arthromacra
(Tenebrionidae); E, Dineutus
(Gyrinidae); F, Lobiopa
(Nitidulidae); G, Dermestes
(Dermestidae); H, Hylurgopinus (Curculionidae);
1, Hololepta (Histeridae).
(H, redrawn fram Kaston.)
B
A
n, /'
stn,
Figure26-7 Thoracic structure in Coleoptera. A and B, pros terna showing open (A)
and closed (B) coxal cavities; C and D, mesostema showing open (C) and closed (D)
coxal cavities; E-G, pronota with posterior margin convex (E), straight (F), or sinuate
(G). cxc, coxal cavity; epm" proepimeron; epm2,mesepimeron; eps2,mesepisternum; epsJ,
metepisternum; stn" prostemum; stn2,mesoternum; stnJ, metasternum.
374
B
A
r
CharactersUsedin IdentifyingBeetles 375
- fm- - -
/
376 Chapter26 OrderColeoptera
V
B
The Elytra
The elytra normally meet in a straight line down the
middle of the body. This line of union of the elytra is
called the suture. The suture may extend to the tips of
the elytra, or the tips may be slightly separated. The an-
The Abdomen
The structure of the first abdominal segment differentiates the two principal suborders of the Coleoptera. In
the Adephaga the hind coxae extend backward and bisect the first abdominal stemum so that, instead of extending completely across the body, this stemum is divided and consists of two lateral pieces separated by
the hind coxae (Figures 26-4 and 26-12A). In the
Polyphaga the hind coxae extend backward a different
distance in different groups, but the first abdominal
stemum is never completely divided, and its posterior
edge extends completely across the body.
The beetle abdomen often has one or two basal
segments highly reduced and visible only by dissection. Coleopterists call the remaining visible abdominal stema ventrites, and the numbering begins fram the
base, with ventrite 1 appearing adjacent to the
metathorax. The number of ventrites varies in different
Other Characters
Characters such as size, shape, or color should not
prove particularly difficult. The term base is used to distinguish the two ends of body parts. When speaking of
an appendage, the base is the end nearest the body. The
base of the head or pronotum is the posterior end, and
the base of the elytra or abdomen is the anterior end.
The subdivisions of the tarsi (tarsomeres) or antennae
(antennomeres) are numbered from the base distad.
1',
193
2(1),
2'.
12
3(2).
Hind coxa free, first ventrite extending entirely across venter behind them
(Figures 26-8, 26-12B)
10
3',
4(3).
4'
5(4').
S'
Haliplidae
Hind coxa greatly enlarged or not, if hind coxa greatly enlarged, then all
ventrites visible laterally, coxa not concealing trochanter, basal half of
femur or first 3 ventrites (Figures 26-4, 26-17)
Fore tibia with antenna cleaner on inner apical angle; head with
supraorbital setae
Fore tibia without antenna cleaner on inner apical angle; head lacking
supraorbital setae
p.40S
377
378
6(5).
Rhysodidae
p.401
6'.
Carabidae
p.401
Gyrinidae
p.403
Hind femur and tibia narrow and subcylindrical in cross section; hind
tarsus shorter than tibia and not tapered distally; body not streamlined,
outline of thorax and elytron discontinuous, base of pronotum distinctly
narrower than elytra; length 11-16 mm
Amphizoidae
Noteridae
p.405
Dytiscidae
p.405
p.401
7(5').
7'.
8(7').
8'.
9(8').
9'.
10(3')
p.405
lO'.
Cupedidae
11
11(10')
Microsporidae
p.401
11'.
Hydroscaphidae
p.401
12(2').
12'.
13(12).
13'.
13
24
14
15
Pleocomidae
p.411
Geotrupidae
p.412
Ceratocanthdae
p.411
16
Ochodaedae
p.412
17
18
20
Dphyllostomatidae
p.411
19
Passalidae
p.411
Lucanidae
p.411
Hybosordae
p.412
21
22
23
Trogdae
p.412
Glaresidae
p.412
Glaphyridae
p.411
Scarabaeidae
p.412
25
26
380
Chapter26 OrderColeoptera
Figure26-13 Heads of Coleoptera. A, ventral view, and B, lateral view, of Odontotaenius disjunctus (Illiger) (Passalidae); C, Derodontus (Derodontidae); D, Pseudolucanus
(Lucanidae). ant, base of antenna; gs, guIar suture; gu, gula; ho, horn; Ig, ligula; Ip, labial
palp; md, mandible; mn, mentum; mxp, maxillary palp; oc, ocelli; smt, submentum.
25(24).
25'.
26(24').
."
Palps very short, usually immovably fixed and not visible; either head
rostrate, prolonged into a beak (Figure 26-84A) or antenna geniculate
with compact club (Figure 26-94A-C)
27
Palps longer, flexible, and usually evident (for example, see Figure 26-4);
head usually not prolonged into a beak but if rostrate or antenna elbowed
and club compact, then palps longer and flexible
38
Hind coxa without exposed posterior face; antenna never straight and
clubbed; often with one of the following: antenna long and simple
(Figures 26-73, 26-74), antenna geniculate and clubbed, head rostrate
(Figures 26-87A,C), or hind femur enlarged
27
Either hind coxa with distinct posterior face (at least medially) set off
from ventral surface by a carina or flange, or antenna strongly or weakly
clubbed but not geniculate and head not at all rostrate
77
27
(25,26) .
27'.
28
32
28(27) .
Silvanidae
28'.
29(28').
Antenna usually longer than one half length of body, often inserted
on prominence, capable of being reflexed backward over body
(Figures 26-73, 26-74); tibiae with 2 obvious apical spurs; first
antennomere usually several times longer that second; pygidium never
29',
29
Cerambycidae
30
30(29'). All tibiae with 2 distinct apical spurs; front without X-shaped grooves;
mesonotum with or without stridulatory file; ligula large, membranous,
bilobed; aedeagus with median struts and tegmen bilobed
30'.
Either at least 1 tibia fewer than 2 apical spurs or front with deep
X-shaped grooves; mesonotum without stridulalOry file; ligula normal;
aedeagus without median struts
31(30).
31'.
p.441
31
Chrysomelidae
p. 445
Head with short but distinct temple behind eye, set off from narrowed
neck; apex of mandible bidentate; ligula with a single lobe; mesonotum
with stridulatory file
Megalopodidae
p.445
Head lacking temples, evenly narrowed from behind eyes to neck; apex
of mandible unidentate or bidentate; ligula bilobed; mesonotum without
stridulatory file
Orsodacnidae
p. 445
Curculionidae
p. 453
32(27'). Antenna geniculate (rarely appearing straight or nearly so), club compact
(Figures 26-87 A, 26-94); hind trochanter not cylindrical, femur
attached obliquely
32'.
p.431
33
33(32'). Labrum visible and free; second tarsomere not spongy beneath; maxillary
palpi normal
34
33'.
35
34(33).
UNIVERSIDADDECAUJAS
RIRLIO"""ECA
Anthribid';;'e
p.451
382
Chapter26 OrderColeoptera
34'.
35(33'). Either with antenna moniliform and body elongate (Figure 26-84A)
(Brentinae, Cyphagoginae, Trachelizinae); or antenna straight and
clubbed, body pear-shaped, hind trochanter cylindrical, squarely
joined to femur (Apioninae, Nanophyinae); or antenna geniculate,
body pear-shaped and hind trochanter cylindrical, squarely joined to
femur (Nanophyinae); or antenna with 9-10 antennomeres and
body elongate-cylindrical (Figure 26-86) (Cyladinae, Nanophyinae)
35'.
Antenna straight, not geniculate, with 11 antennomeres, club distinct
(Figures 26-85C-D); hind trochanter triangular or diamond-shaped,
obliquely joined to femur; body form variable
36(35'). Gena produced anteriorly on each side, visible in frontal view as large
tooth on each side of apex of rostrum, laterad of mandible; dorsal surface
with obvious, recumbent, scalelike setae; body surface lacking metallic
sheen; length 12 mm or more
36'.
Gena not produced anteriorly; upper surface glabrous or with fine,
hairlike setae; body surface often with distinct metallic sheen; length
variable, mostly <10 mm
37(36'). Antenna separated from eye by distance at least equal to width of first
antennomere, positioned laterally on long quadrate rostrum
(Figure 26-85H) or very close to eye at base of short, robust rostrum;
fore tibia with anterior face apically flat, simple, not distinct from rest of
surface; hind femur with dorsal margin slightly to moderately arched;
pygidium oblique to vertical; elytron often with a scutellary striole; body
surface often with distinct metallic sheen
Nemonychidae
p.451
Brentidae
p.453
36
Ithyceridae
p.453
37
Attelabidae
p.451
Belidae
p.451
Ptiliidae
p.408
39
39(38').
39'.
40
42
40(39).
Derodontidae
41
Hydraenidae
37'.
38(25').
38'.
40'.
41(40').
p.424
p.408
41'.
64
44
47
44'.
p.409
43
44(43).
48'.
Staphylinidae
Salpingidae
45
p.440
Ripiphoridae
46
p. 435
Meloidae
p.438
Staphylinidae
p.409
lymexylidae
p.428
48
Buprestidae
p.417
49
50
553
Staphylinidae
51
p.409
Silphidae4
p.408
'11a rnistake is made early in the key. the myxophagan family Hydroscaphidae wil\ key out here. These tiny (length 1.0 to 1.2 mm) beetles can
berecognized by the elongate, narrow last antennomere, which does not lit either the "distinct club" or "not clubbed" choice, as well as by the
presence01notopleural sutures,
'Thanatophilus(Silphidae) may key here for individuals with an extended abdomen; it lacks the stridulatory
8-14rnm long, but otherwise fits here because of the configuration 01 the antennae.
384
Chapter26 OrderColeoptera
51'.
52
Leiodidae
52'.
53
53(52').
53'.
Staphylinidae
54
p.409
54(53').
Lateral margins of pronotum complete, that is, with raised flange running
from anterior to posterior edge of pronotum; abdomen with 5 ventrites
Nitidulidae
p. 430
Trogossitidae
p.428
Staphylinidae
56
p. 409
Elateridae
p.422
57
52(51').
54'.
55(49'),
55'.
56(55').
56'.
57(56').
Phengodidae
58
p.423
Telegeusidae
59
p.423
Lampyridae
60
p.423
Dascillidae
p.417
57'.
58(57').
Last maxillary and labial palpomeres long, nearly as long as, or longer
than, antenna
58',
59(58').
59'.
60(59').
60'.
61(60').
61'.
62(61').
62'.
63(62').
63'.
64(42').
p. 408
61
Melyridae
62
p.429
Micromalthidae
p.401
Cantharidae
p.424
Elytra trunca te, meeting at suture apically; mandible often short and
broad
Staphylinidae
p.409
65
63
r
64'.
65(64).
66
p. 408
65'.
Agyrtidae
67
75
68
70
68(67).
Corylophidae
68'.
Fore coxal cavity open; head visible from above in front of pronotum;
size variable, up to 11 mm
69
69(68'). Frontoclypeal suture distinctly impressed; all ventrites free; first ventrite
without postcoxallines; pronotum often with sublaterallines
(Figure 26-59C)
69'.
Frontoclypeal suture absent; 2 basal ventrites connate, first ventrite with
postcoxallines; pronotum lacking sublaterallines
70(67'). Eyes absent (Anommatus)
70'.
Eyes present
71(70'). Head gradually narrowed behind eyes, without distinct temples or neck;
fore coxal cavity open; body oval or elongate oval with base of pronotum
subequal in width to elytral base
p. 408
p.434
Endomychidae
p. 433
Coccinellidae
p.433
Bothrideridae
p.433
71
72
'Threevery aberrant and ecologically restricted genera that lack distinctly clubbed antennae belong here. Glacicavicola is restricted to ice caves
in ldaho and Wyoming and characterized by elongate head, pronotum and elytra, each separately constricted; cuticle translucent, shining; eyes
ahsent.and with elongate. slender legs and antennae. Two genera of Platypsyllinae are associated with mammals and their nests and are characterizedby oval body. strongly flattened dorsoventrally. recumbent pubescence, an occipital crest overlapping anterior margin of pronotum and
eyesabsentor barely indicated.
386
Chapter26 OrderColeoptera
71'.
Head sharply narrowed behind eyes or temples, with distinct neck; fore
coxal cavity open or closed; body elongate or elongate oval, with base of
pronotum distinctly narrower than elytra
73
Antennal scape normal, shorter than club; funicle longer than entire club;
posterior edge of last ventrite crenulate (Ostomopsis)
Cerylonidae6
p.433
72'.
Endornychidae
p.433
73(71').
Staphylinidae
p.409
73'.
Abdomen with 5 ventrites; head behind eyes with distinct temples; fore
coxal cavity open or closed; lateral margin of pronotum simple to finely
dentate or absent; trochantin concealed; mid coxal cavity variable
74
Jacobsoniidae
p. 424
latridiidae
p.434
p.408
p.406
72(71).
74(73').
74'.
75(66').
75'.
Hydraenidae
76
76(75').
Hydrophilidae
76'.
77
77
Hind coxa with distinct posterior face (at least medially) set off from
(26',76'). ventral surface by carina or flange, posterior face often excavated; ventral
surface of hind coxa not continuous with first ventrite; hind femur
inserted on posterior face of coxa, held posterior to coxa when retracted;
fore coxal cavity open; mid and hind tarsi with equal number of
tarsomeres
77'.
Hind coxa without distinct posterior face; hind trochanter often inserted
on ventral surface or on small medial projection of coxa, never received
in coxal excavation and resting ventrad of coxa in retracted position;
ventral surface of hind coxa more or less continuous with first ventrite,
or, if not, then hind tarsus with 1 fewer tarsomere than mid tarsus; fore
coxal cavity open or closed
78
118
6The myxophagan family Microsporidae will key out here if a mistake is made in couplet 2. They match the antennal characters in this couplel
but lack the crenulation on the last ventrite. These tiny (length 0.5-1.2 mm) beetles can be easily recognized by having only three ventrites
(five in Ostomopsis).
79
Phengodidae
81
p. 423
Lycidae
p.422
81'.
Mid coxae contiguous or nearly so; elytra not reticulate; femur and tibia
seldom compressed; pronotum rarely with distinct longitudinal median
carina, groove, or cell
84
Dermestidae
p.424
80
82
Lampyridae
p.423
83
Cantharidae
p.424
Omethidae
p.424
85
87
Eucnemidae
p. 421
86
Throscidae
p.422
-,
388
Chapter26 OrderColeoptera
86'.
87(84').
87'.
88(87).
88'.
Elateridae
88
89(87'). Either anterior margin of scutellum with abrupt, carinate elevation that
fits against posterior margin of pronotum, or scutellum absent or not
visible
89'.
90(89).
p.422
89
Anobiidae
p.427
Bostrichidae
p.426
90
113
Fore coxa strongly and distinctly projecting below prosternum, one third
or more of dorsoventrallength below intercoxal process; fore coxa usually
conical or transversely conical
91
90'.
Fore coxa not or weakly projecting below prosternum; if fore coxa conical,
then lying longitudinally and not or weakly projecting ventrally below
98
intercoxal process
91(90).
Clambidae
Tarsi with 5 distinct tarsomeres; hind coxal plates distinct but not hiding
most of first ventrite; wing not fringed; size variable
92
93
95
Sphaeritidae
94
Upper surface of body glabrous; body contractile; fore tibia held anterior
to femur, covering antenna in hypomeral cavity when contracted
(Orphilinae)
Nosodendridae
p.424
Dermestidae
p.424
Ptilodactylidae
p.420
91'.
92(91').
92'.
93(92).
93'.
94(93').
94'.
p.417
p.407
95'.
96(95').
96'.
97(96').
96
Dascillidae
97
p.417
Rhipiceridae
p.417
97'.
Callirhipidae
p.421
98(90').
98'.
Dermestidae
99
p.424
99(98').
100
102
Heteroceridae
99'.
100(99).
100'.
101(100').
101'.
102(99').
102'.
103(102').
p.420
101
Lutrochidae
p.420
Dryopidae
p.420
Chelonariidae
p. 421
103
Head with subgenal ridges that fit against fore coxae when head
def1exed
Scirtidae
103'.
Head without subgenal ridges, genae not in contact with fore coxae
104
104(103').
Two basal ventrites connate, either with suture between them partially
obliterated medially or, if suture between ventrites 1 and 2 not
medially indistinct, sternopleural sutures at least moderately grooved
lO receive antennae
105
p.417
390
Chapter26 OrderColeoptera
104'.
105(04).
lOS'.
106004').
106'.
107(06).
107'.
106
Byrrhidae
p.417
p.417
107
108
Nosodendridae
p.424
Limnichidae
p.420
108006').
Artematopodidae
109
p.421
108'.
109008').
Brachypsectridae
p.421
109'.
110
111
112
Eulichadidae
1l0009').
1l0'.
1l1(1l0).
111'.
p.421
p.417
Elmidae
p.419
112'.
Psephenidae
p.420
113(89').
Head with subgenal ridges that fit against fore coxae when head
deflexed; prosternum in front of coxa narrow, shorter than intercoxal
process
Scirtidae
p.417
112010').
113'.
114(ll3').
114'.
115(ll4').
115'.
Head without subgenal ridges, genae usually not in contact with fore
coxae; prosternum in front of coxa nearly as long as or longer than
intercoxal process
114
Eucinetidae
115
Length of body
multilobate
Lymexylidae
p.416
116
Psephenidae
117
Agyrtidae
p. 408
117'.
Silphidae
p. 408
118(77').
119
118'.
121
119(ll8).
Hydrophilidae
119'.
Mid coxal cavity open or not, if open, then closure solely involving
mesepimeron
120
Histeridae
121
116(ll5').
116'.
117(116').
120(ll9').
120'.
121
Fore coxa with exposed trochantin
(ll8' ,120').
121'.
Trochantin concealed or absent
122(121).
122'.
123(122).
122
140
123
Hind coxa not reaching elytron; first ventrite and metathorax visibly
in contact laterad of coxa (Figures 26-8A,B)
Hind tarsus with 5 tarsomeres
128
124
p.420
p. 406
p.407
-,
392
Chapter26 OrderColeoptera
123'.
169
124(123).
Head with temples and occipital ridge distinct, occipital ridge close!y
fitting against pronotum, constricted behind to a distinct neck
(difficult to see when head is retracted with ridge and temples against
pronotum); e!ytra with strong characteristic sutural stria, no other
striae evident; 11 antennomeres, gradual club of 3-4 antennomeres;
abdomen with 4 (females) or 5 (males) ventrites (Colon, see
couplet 65)
leiodidae
Head without ridge and constricted neck that fits against pronotum;
e!ytra striate or not, but not as in preceding entry; antenna variable;
at least 5 ventrites
125
Cerambycidae
Prosternal process not e!evated between coxae nor with apex strongly
curved dorsad; cervical sclerites present; antenna clubbed or not;
e!ytra dense!y to sparse!y setose, subglabrous or glabrous; length
1-24 mm
126
Fore coxa not projecting distinctly be!ow intercoxal process, large and
transverse; antenna distinctly clubbed; prothorax with sharp lateral
margins; if fore coxa slightly projecting, then antenna distinctly
clubbed, tarsi not lobed beneath, not bright red
Trogossitidae
127
124'.
125(124').
125'.
126(125').
126'.
p. 408
p.441
p.428
127(126').
Tarsi not lobed beneath; fore coxal cavity strongly transverse; labrum
subtruncate to convex, rounded or acute; eye not emarginate; antenna
rare!y with distinct apical club, and if so, club of 5 or more
antennomeres; e!ytra usually confusedly punctate; pronotum and
abdomen sometimes with eversible glands
127'.
Tarsi with lobes on multiple tarsomeres; fore coxal cavity circular,
e!ongate or slightly transverse; labrum sub trunca te to concave or
deeply emarginate; eye often emarginate; antenna usually apically
clubbed, club of one or more antennomeres; e!ytra often punctatestriate; pronotum and abdomen never with eversible glands
128(122'). Elytra short, complete!y exposing 1 or more tergites
128'.
Elytra covering all of abdomen or exposing apex of 1 tergite
p.429
Cleridae
p.428
129
132
129(128).
Fore coxal cavity broadly open (by more than half width of coxa);
labium with 2 palpomeres; abdominal process truncate; pygidium and
last ventrite longer than preceding 4 combined
Smicripidae
129'.
Fore coxal cavity closed or narrowly open by less than half width of
coxa; labium with 3 palpomeres or nonarticulated; abdominal process
acute to broadly rounded or absent; pygidium variable
130
Brachypteridae
131
Monotomidae
130(129').
130'.
Melyridae
. .V:)'(H,qOJ
.:.
."
p.430
p.429
p.430
r
m'.
132(128').
132'.
133(132).
133'.
134(133').
134'.
135(132').
135'.
136(135').
136'.
Nitidulidae
133
135
Ciidae
134
Nitidulidae
p.430
Mycetophagidae
Monotomidae
p.434
139(138).
139'.
Cucujidae
137
p.430
Sphindidae
p.431
p.429
138
139
Hind tarsus with 1 tarsomere less than mid tarsus; antenna distinctly
clubbed or not
169
Nitidulidae
p.430
Byturidae
p.432
Tenebrionidae
p.436
p.434
136
137(136'). Dorsal face of mandible with tubercle that fi15into cavity on clypeus,
setose cavity at base, hidden when mandibles are closed (mycangium);
elytra with scutellary striole; antenna with 2 or 3 antennomeres
forming club; body oval to cylindrical
m'.
Mandible without dorsal mycangium; elytra without scutellary striole;
antenna and body shape variable
138(137'). Mid and hind tarsi with equal numbers of tarsomeres; antenna with
distinct club
138'.
p.430
141
142
143
UNNERSIOAD
DECALDAI
BIBLIOT'CCA
394
Chapter26 OrderColeoptera
142(141).
Cerophytidae
p.421
Zopheridae
p.435
Bostrichidae
p.426
144
145
156
146
147
152
148
147(146).
147'.
Eyes usually present; if eyes absent, then elytra with flat tUbercles
Eyesabsent,elytrasmoolh (Aglenus)
Colydiidae
p.435
Salpingidae
p.440
148(146').
Prostomidae
p.437
148'.
149(148').
149'.
150(149').
ISO'.
151(150').
151'.
149
Corylophidae
150
Endomychidae
151
Cerylonidae
p.434
p.433
p.433
p.433
154'.
155(154').
155'.
156(144').
156'.
153
154
Corylophidae
p.434
Endomychidae
p. 433
Bostrichidae
p.426
155
Ciidae1
157(156'). Pregular area on each side with a lateral-facing surface bearing setose
pit or cavity near end of distinct antennal groove; first ventrite with
postcoxallines
157'.
Pregulararea without lateral-facingsetosepit; antennal groovesand
postcoxallines variable
p.434
p.434
p.408
157
Biphyllidae
p.433
158
'Onespecies from California has relatively Ilat pronotum with crenulate margins directed laterally, antenna with 11 antennomeres
nomeresin club, but two basal sternites are connate.
and 3 anten-
'One rare genus (Iength <2 mm) somewhat cylindrical, with very convex pronotum in transverse section, with head abruptly constricted behindshort temples to fonn distinct neck.
396
Chapter26 OrderColeoptera
158(157').
158/.
159(158').
159/.
160(159).
160/.
161(160').
161/.
162(161/).
162/.
163(162).
First ventrite much longer than second, measured behind coxa; elytra
without punctate or impressed striae (traces of striae occasionally
visible through cuticle but not expressed on the surface); epipleuron
distinct in basal half, not reaching apex, usually narrowed at level of
third ventrite; gena carinate and projecting ventrally between eye and
mentum; apex of elytra with double suture or "subapical gap" caused
by wide flange of elytral coupling system; elytra complete, exposing at
most tip of last tergite
Not fitting this combination of characters, either with the first vcntrite
short, elytra striate, epipleuron complete to apex, gena flat between
eye and mentum, or elytra not covering most of pygidium
Hind trochanter transversely or obliquely attached to femur, but
distinctly separating femur from coxa (Figures 26-9A-E)
Cryptophagidae9
159
160
169
Anobiidae
161
Laemophloeidae
p.431
163
165
Monotomidae
163/.
164
164(163/).
Mid and hind tarsi with same number of tarsomeres; body elongate,
flattened (Figure 26-58B); head usually with distinct temples before
abruptly constricted neck; fore coxa either closed behind or open;
ir open (Brontinae), elytra transversely flat or slightly concave
between slightly to distinctly raised interstria between stria 6 and 7;
elytron with scutellary striole; base of mandible with dorsal setose pit
(mycangium) hidden beneath clypeus when closed; antenna filiform,
with scape more than 3X length of pedicel
Hind tarsus with 1 less tarsomere than mid tarsus; other characters
variable
p.427
162
164/.
p.431
Silvanidae
p.430
p.431
169
9Twogenera of tiny
1.3 mm) cryptophagids (Amydropa, Baja, California, and Hypocoprus,Rocky Mountain region) lack the subgenal carinae.
Hypocoprus has the first two ventrites subequal and the pygidium exposed, whereas Amydropa lacks the double suture on the elytra. The other
characters fit these two rare genera. Amydropa has greatly reduced eyes (lO facets or fewer), and Hypocoprus has distinct temples.
165(162').
165'.
166(165').
166'.
167(166).
Phalacridae
p.431
166
167
169
Passandridae
167'.
168
168(167').
Languriidae
p.431
168'.
Erotylidae
p.432
169(123',
138', 159',
164',166').
Mordellidae
p.434
169'.
170(169'). Pretarsal claw with a ventral blade or elongate lobe beneath (reduced
to a large, fused tooth ending about 2/3length of upper blade in
Phodaga,U.S.Southwest);head sharplyor graduallyconstricted
behind eyes to distinct neck
170'.
Pretarsal claw without ventral blade or elongate lobe beneath, if
171(170).
p.431
171
172
Stenotrachelidae
p. 438
397
398
171'.
172(170').
172'.
173(172').
173'.
174(173).
174'.
175(174').
175'.
176(173').
176'.
177(176').
177'.
178(177).
178'.
179(178).
p. 438
p. 440
Anthicidae
173
174
176
175
Pyrochroidae
Mycteridae
p.440
p.440
p.440
Ripiphoridae
p.435
Body usually not deep and wedge-shaped, if so, then antenna simple
and head coplanar with or slipping under front margin of pronotum;
tarsi variable; maxillary lobes not styletlike
Pronotum lacking lateral carina
178
182
179
181
177
Tarsiappearing4-4-3 (actually5-5-4,pseudotetramerous/
pseudotrimerous); eyes coarsely faceted, appearing hairy, setae
between facets as coarse, long and dense as those on front and sides
of head adjacentto eyes; 1-4 mm
Aderidae
p.440
179/.
Fore coxal cavity open behind; ventrites connate or free; body form
variable, often elongate
186(185'). Elytra with sutural and epipleural margins elevated, with strongly
elevated carina running from humeral angle nearly to apex resulting
in distinctly concave elytral disc; pronotum with median 10ngitudinal
elevated carina on basal third, deep transverse grooves with pits at
each end on either side of carina (Ischalia)
186'.
Elytra and pronotum without strongly elevated carinae, elytral disc
convex
180
Oedemeridae
p.438
Anthicidae
p.440
Pyrochroidae
p. 440
Pythidae
p.440
183
185
Scraptiidae
p.441
184
Synchroidae
p.437
Melandryidae
p.434
Archeocrypticidae
p.434
186
Anthicidae
p.440
187
188
187/.
189
188(187).
Melandryidae
p. 434
400
Chapter26 OrderColeoptera
188'.
189(187').
189'.
190(189).
190'.
191(190).
Pythidae
190
p.440
192
191
Tetratomidae
p.434
Boridae
p.440
Pythidae
p.440
Pyrochroidae
p.440
Polypriidae
194
p.441
191'.
195
Phengodidae
p.423
195(193').
195'.
larvalColeoptera
Dermestidae
196
p.424
196(195').
Lampyridae
p.423
Head hypognathous, not retractile into prothorax; body globularcylindrical; antenna with 11 antennomeres; not bioluminescent;
Florida or near ports-of-entry (female Ripidiinae, North American
females unknown)
Ripiphoridae
p.435
196'.
SUBORDERArchostemata:Coleopterists do not
agree
on the relationships of the two familieshere consideredas representing the suborder Archostemata.
Mostauthorities consider the Cupedidae a very primitivegroup meriting rank as a suborder, but some (for
example,Arnett 1968) would place the Micromalthidaein the suborder Polyphaga because they lack notopleuralsutures. The two families in this suborder are
small(only five North American species) and seldom
encountered.
Family Cupedidae-Reticulated Beetles: This is a
smalland little known group, with four genera, each
withone species, occurring in the United States. All are
denselyscaly, with the elytra reticulate and the tarsi
distinctlyfive-merous. The prosternum extends backwardas a narrow process that fits into a groove in the
mesosternum, much as in click beetles. The common
speciesin the eastern United States, Cupes capitatus
Fabricius,is 7-10 mm long and brownish gray. In the
RockyMountains and the Sierra Nevada, the most
commonspecies is Priacma serrata (LeConte), which is
graywith faint black bands across the elytra. These
beetlesare usually found under bark.
Family Micromalthidae: This family includes a singlerare species, Micromalthus debilis LeConte, which
has been taken in several localities in the eastern
UnitedStates and in British Columbia and New Mexico.The adults are 1.8-2.5 mm long, elongate and
parallel-sided,dark, and shiny, with yellowish legs and
an!ennae.The tarsi are five-merous. This insect has a
remarkablelife cycle, with paedogenetic larvae. The
larvaecan reproduce parthenogenetically (both oviparouslyand viviparously). These beetles have been
foundin decaying logs, principally oak and chestnut.
Myxophaga:The suborder contains two
SUBORDER
smallfamilies of tiny beetles that live in water or wet
placesand apparently feed on filamentous algae (to
whichthe suborder name refers). The Myxophaga are
distinguishedby the character of the wings and mouthpartsand by the presence of notopleural sutures. All
havethree-merous tarsi and clubbed antennae. The
twofamilies of Myxophaga are usually keyed out on
thebasisof their having notopleural sutures (from coupIe!2 in the key). The Microsporidaeare very tiny,and
thenotopleural sutures may be very difficult to see, so
wehavealso keyed out this family from couplet 2' (no!opleuralsu tures lacking).
Family Microsporidae-Minute Bog Beetles: The
microsporidsare tiny (0.5-0.75 mm long), oval, convex,shining, blackish beetles with a large, prominent
headand capitate antennae that are found in mud and
understones near water, among roots of plants, and in
moss
in boggyplaces. They differ from other similarly
shapedbeetles found in these situations in having
three-merous tarsi and in the character of the ab-
402
Chapter26 OrderColeoptera
Figure26-14 A wrinkled bark beetle, Clinidium sculptilis Newman, 14X. (Courtesy of Amett.)
B
Figure26-15 Ground beetles. A, Calosoma scrutator (Fabricius); B, Scaphinotus guyoti
(LeConte); C, Scarites subterraneus (Fabricius). All figures slightly enlarged. (C, courtesy
of the Illinois Natural History Survey.)
Figure26-16
Tiger beetles (subfamily Cicindelinae) are a favoriteof beetle collectors because of their bright colorsand the challenge of capturing them. Some workers regard them as a family separate from the
Carabidae. There are 111 species in four genera of
tigerbeetles in North America, most belonging to the
genusCicindela.
Adult tiger beetles are usually metallic or iridescentand often have a definite color pattern. They can
usually be recognized by their characteristic shape
(Figure26-16), and most are 10-20 mm long.
Most tiger beetles are active, usually brightly coloredinsectsfound in open, sunny situations. They are
oftencommon on sandy beaches. They can run or fly
rapidlyand are very wary and difficult to approach.
Theytake flight quickly, some times after running a few
feet,and usually alight some distance away facing the
pursuer. They are predaceous and feed on a variety
ofsmall insects, which they capture with their long,
sicklelikemandibles. When handled, they sometimes
administera painful bite.
The larvae are predaceous and live in vertical burrowsin the soil in dry paths or fields or in sandy
beaches.They prop themselves at the entrance of their
burrow,with the traplike jaws wide apart, waiting to
capturesome passing insect. The larva has hooks on
tbefifth abdominal tergum, with which it can anchor
tseUin its burrow and thus avoid being pulled out
whenit captures large prey. After subduing the prey,
thelarva drags it to the bottom of the burrow, often
0.3m underground, and eats it.
404
Chapter26 OrderColeoptera
Figure26-17
Figure
26-19
405
406
Chapter26 OrderColeoptera
Figure 26-21
Larvae of Dytiscidae.
A, Coptotomus; B, head of Dytiscus,
ventral view; C, same, dorsal view;
D, Hydroporus. ant, antenna;
Ip, labial palp; md, mandible;
mx, maxilla; oe, ocelli. (Courtesy or
Peterson. Reprinted by permission.)
407
This species, Sphaerites politus Mannerheim, is 3.55.5 mm long and black with a metallic bluish luster. lt
is very similar to so me of the hister beetles, but the antennae are not elbowed, the tibiae are less expanded
and lack teeth externally, and only the last abdominal
segment is exposed beyond the elytra.
Family Histeridae-Clown Beetles, Hister Beetles:
Hister beetles are small (0.5-10.0 mm long), broadly
oval beetles that are usually shining black. The elytra
are cut off square at the apex, exposing one or two apical abdominal segments (Figure 26-23A). The antennae (Figure 26-51) are elbowed and clubbed. The tib-
UNIVERSIDAD
DECALDAS
BIBLIOTECA
408
Chapter 26
Order Coleoptera
beetles, 1.5 to 6.5 mm long, and brown to black (figure 26-23B). Many species when disturbed tuck the
head and prothorax under the body and roll into a ball,
thus concealing all the appendages. These beetles live
in fungi, under bark, in decaying wood, and in similar
places. The Catopinae (formerly placed in the family
Leptodiridae) are elongate-oval, somewhat flattened,
brownish to black, pubescent, and 2-5 mm long. They
often have faint cross striations on the elytra and
pronotum, and most have the eighth antennomere
shorter and smaller in diameter than the seventh and
ninth antennomeres. Most of these beetles live in carrion, but some are found in fungi, some feed on slime
molds, and others live in ant nests. The highly modified Glaciacavicola bathyscoides Westcott is known only
from Idaho ice caves.
The mammal-nest beetles and beaver parasites
(formerly classified separately as the Leptinidae and
Platypsyllidae) are brownish, oblong-oval, louselike
beetles, 2-5 mm long, with the eyes reduced or absent.
The species of Leptinus (three in North America) livein
the nests and fur of mice, shrews, and moles and occasionally in the nests of ground-nesting Hymenoptera.
The species of Leptinillus (two in North America) live
in the nests and fur of beavers, one species on the common beaver (Castor) and the other on the mountain
beaver (Aplodontia). The single species of Platypsylla,
P. castoris Ritsema, is an ectoparasite of the common
beaver.
Family Scydmaenidae-Antlike Stone Beetles: The
members of this group are antlike in shape (Figure 26-24B), long-Iegged, brownish, somewhat hairy
beetles, 1-5 mm long. The antennae are slightly clavate,
and the femora are often clava te (Figure 26-24B). They
live under stones, in moss and leaf litter, and in ant
nests. These beetles are secretive in habit, but sometimes
fly about in numbers at twilight. There are 217 species
in North America.
Family Silphidae-Carrion Beetles: The common
species in this group are relatively large and often
brightly colored insects that live around the bodies of
dead animals. The body is soft and somewhat flattened,
the antennae are clubbed (clavate or capitate), and the
tarsi are five-merous. Silphids range in length from 3 10
35 mm, but most species are over 10 mm.
Two common genera in this group are Silpha and
Nicrophorus (=Necrophorus).ln Silpha (Figure 26-25A)
the body is broadly oval and flattened, 10-24 mm long,
and the elytra are rounded or acute at the apex and almost cover the abdomen. In some species (for example,
S. americana L.), the pronotum is yellowish with a black
spot in the center. In Nicrophorus (Figure 26-25B), the
body is more elongate, the elytra are short and truncate
apically, and most species are red and black. The beet/es
of the genus Nicrophorus are often known as "burying
Figure26-24
A, A short-winged mold beetle,
Trimiomelbadubia (LeConte) (Staphylinidae, Pselaphinae),3QX;B, an antlike stone beetle, Euconnus e/avipes
409
'1
410
Chapter26 OrderColeoptera
A
Figure26-26
losus (L.), 4X; C, Sepedophilusscriptus (Hom), 71(2x. (A, courtesy of Watrous; B, courtesy of Campbell.)
.E
C>
.:1:
D
412
lI
Chapter26 OrderColeoptera
and 6 subspecies are western in distribution and relatively rare. The larvae live in the soil and feed on the
roots of trees and grasses. The adults live in burrows in
the ground, usually coming out only at dusk or after
a rain. The members of the genus Pleocoma are stoutbodied, relatively large (about 25 mm long), and rather
pubescent. The burrows of P. fimbriata LeConte are
about 25 mm in diameter and up to 0.6 m in depth.
Family Geotrupidae-Earth-Boring
Dung Beetles:
These beetles are very similar to some of the other
dung-feeding scarabs, but have ll-merous antennae.
They are stout-bodied, convex, oval beetles that are
black or dark brown (Figure 26-29A). The elytra are
usually grooved or striate, the tarsi are long and slender, and the front tibiae are broadened and toothed or
scalloped on the outer edges. The elytra completely
cover the abdomen. These beetles vary in length from
5 to 25 mm and are found beneath cow dung, horse
manure, or carrion. Some live in logs or decaying
fung. The larvae live in or beneath dung or carrion.
They feed on this material and hence are of value as
scavengers. Twelve genera and 28 species of Geotrupidae occur in the Nearctic region.
Family Ochodaeidae: These beetles may be recognized from other scarabaeoids in having the longer apical spur of the hind tibia pectinate along one edge.
There are 35 species in four genera in North America,
and they range in length from 3 to 10 mm. Uttle is
known of the biology, except that large numbers are
sometimes attracted to light. One species, Ochodaeus
musculus (Say), a reddish-brown oval beetle, 5-6 mm
long, with striate elytra, occurs in the northern states.
Family Hybosoridae:These beetles may be distinguished from other scarabaeoids by the prominent
mandibles and labrum, the 10-merous antennae with a
3-merous club in which the basal antennomere of the
club is hollowed out to receive the two apical anten-
Figure26-29
1/.
2(1/).
2/.
3(2/).
3'.
4(3/).
4/.
5(4/).
5/.
Pygidium completely exposed; mostly larger species (longer than 5.0 mm)
Antennal insertion visible from above; clypeus with sides constricted
medially just before eyes
Antennal insertion not visible from above; clypeus with sides not
constricted
Aphodiinae
2
p.414
Cetoniinae
p.415
p.413
p.414
Claws of middle and hind tarsi simple; base of pronotum and elytra
subequal in width; apex of hind tibia always with 2 spurs; mandibles
often exposed in dorsal view
Dynastinae
p.415
Claws of middle and hind tarsi cleft; apex of hind tibia with 1 or 2 spurs.
or spurs absent; mandibles not visible in dorsal view
Melolonthinae
p.414
414
Chapter26 OrderColeoptera
g>
.3
Q)
C>
:::E
\.../
Figure26-32
Plam-feeding scarabs. A, the hermit
flowerbeetle, Osmodenna eremicola Knoch (Cetoniinae),
slightlyenlarged; B, the grape pelidnota, Pelidnota punctata (L.) (Rutelinae),
.'
. 1J
t:if
,
;;
" '
..
"..."
,
'\...
..
c:
..9
Q)
c:a
:::E
.E
.
C>
4 x.
416
Chapter26 OrderColeoptera
r
I
417
418
Chapter26 OrderColeoptera
,.
Figure26-39
Figure 26-42 A pill beetle, Amphicyrta dentipes Erichson, 5X. (Counesy of Amett.)
420
Chapter26 OrderColeoptera
Beetles: These
Family Artematopodidae:
This is a small family
(eight North American species) formerly placed in the
Dascillidae (subfamily Dascillinae),
which they
strongly resemble. They are elongate, pubescent beetles, 4.0 to 7.5 mm long, with the head deflexed and
with long, filiform antennae. The tarsi usually have a
small fourth tarsomere, and tarsomeres 2 to 4 are
lobed. Collectors frequently take individuals of Eurypogon species by sweeping vegetation.
Family BrachypsectridaeThe Texas Beetle: This
family is represented in the United States by a single,
very rare species, Brachypsectra fulva LeConte, a yellowish brown beetle 5-6 mm long, which is sometimes
called the Texas beetle. It resembles a click beetle in
general appearance, but do es not have the prosternal
spine and mesosternal fossa characteristic of the Elateridae. This insect is known from Texas, Utah, Colorado, New Mexico, and California.
This group includes two very
Family Cerophytidae:
rare species of Cerophytum, one occurring in the East
and the other in California and Oregon. These beetles
are elongate-oblong in shape, somewhat flattened, 7.5
to 8.5 mm long, and brownish to black. The hind
trochanters are very long, nearly as long as the femora.
Adults can "jump" in the same manner as click beetles.
These beetles live in rotten wood and under dead bark.
ClickBeetles:This family
Family Eucnemidae-False
(85 species in North America) is very closely related to
the Elateridae. Its members are relatively rare beetles
usually found in wood that has just begun to decay,
chiefly in beech and maple. Most are brownish and
421
422
Chapter26 OrderColeoptera
'rt:
about 10 mm long or less (Figure 26-45D). The pronotum is quite convex above; the antennae are inserted
rather close together on the front of the head; and there
is no distinct labrum. The pretarsal claws are serrate in
the genus Perothops, previously placed in a separate
family. These beetles quiver their antennae almost constantly, unlike the Elateridae. Some, like the click beetles, can click and jump.
This is a small group (20 North
Family Throscidae:
American species) of oblong-oval brownish to black beetles that are mostly 5 mm long or less. They are similar
to the elaterids, but more oval. Some (Aulonothroscus
and Trixagus) have clubbed antennae. The prosternum is
lobed anteriorIy and almost conceals the mouthparts.
The prothorax appears rather solidly fused to the
mesothorax, but at least some of these beetles can click
and jump like elaterids. The adults are found chiefly on
vegetation and in leaf litter. They are primarily in litter
in cool weather, but fly or climb onto nearby vegetation
in warm weather. They do not seem to have any preferences for particular species of plants.
Family Elateridae-ClickBeetles: The click beetles
constitute a large group (about 965 Nearctic species),
and many species are quite common. These beetles are
peculiar in being able to "click" and jump. In most related groups, the union of the prothorax and mesothorax is such that little or no movement at this point is
,?:sib~e. The clicking is made possible by the flexible
un'io'n .of the. pmthorax an<;l.mesothorax, and by a
I:l\0s~ernal spine tpat
423
UNNERSIDADDECALDAS
BIBLIOTECA
A
424
Chapter26 OrderColeoptera
The light emitted by these insects is unique in being cold. Nearly 100% of the energy given off appears
as light. In electric lights, only 10% of the energy is
light, and the other 90% is given off as heat. Firefly
light is produced by the oxidation of a substance called
luciferin, made in the cells of the light-producing organso These organs have a rich tracheal supply, and the
insect controls light emission by controlling air supply
to the organs. When air is admitted, the luciferin (in
the presence of an enzyme called luciferinase or luciferase) is almost instantly oxidized, releasing energy
as light. The flashing of fireflies serves primarily as a
means of getting the sexes together, and each species
has a characteristic flash rhythm. Females of some
predatory species imitate the flashes of other species
and thus lure amorous but hapless males of those
species to their doom.
During the day the lampyrids are usually found on
vegetation. The larva e are predaceous and feed on various smaller insects and on snails. The females of many
species are wingless and look very much like larvae.
These wingless females and most lampyrid larvae are
luminescent and are often called "glowworms." There
are about 125 species of fireflies in the United 5tates
and Canada, mostly in the East and the 50uth.
FamilyOmethidae-FalseFirefly Beetles, False501dier Beetles: The omethids are soft-bodied beetles resembling lampyrids or cantharids, with which they are
sometimes associated. There are 10 species in seven
genera in the United 5tates. Uttle is known about their
ecology or feeding habits. They have been collected on
foliage during the day, and some have been collected
from forest floor debris.
Family Cantharidae-50ldier Beetles: The cantharids are elongate, soft-bodied beetles, 1-15 mm
long, that are very similar to the lightningbugs
(Lampyridae), but the head protrudes forward beyond
the pronotum and is visible from above (not concealed
by the pronotum as in the Lampyridae). These beetles
do not have light-producing organs.
Adult soldier beetles are usually found on flowers.
The larvae are predaceous on other insects. One common species, Chauliognathus pennsylvanicus (DeGeer)
(Figure 26-47B), about 13 mm long, has each elytron
yellowish with a black spot or stripe. Members of other
genera are yelloWsh, black, or brown. There are 473
species of soldier beetles in North America.
Family Jacobsoniidae-Jacobson'sBeetles: These
tiny beetles (less than 1 mm long) may be recognized
by the.elongate form, lack of a scutellum, a metaster.num as long as or longer than all five ventrites combined, and a one- or two-merous antennal club. Their
relationships with other beetle families are unclear.
Two species of Derolathrus, recently reported from
southern Florida, were caught in flight intercept traps
Figure 26-49 Dermestid beetles. A, the carpet beetle, Anthrenus scrophulariae (L.), adult;
B, the black carpet beetle, Attagenus megatoma (Fabricius), adult;
C, the furniture carpet beetle,
Anthrenus flavipes LeConte, adult;
D, larva of A. scrophulariae (L.),
dorsal view; E, larva of A. megatoma
(Fabricius), lateral view; F, larva
of A.flavipes LeConte, dorsal
view. (E, courtesy of Peterson;
other figures, courtesy of the
Cornell University Agricultural
Experiment Station.)
426
Chapter26 OrderColeoptera
A
B
427
428
Figure26-54
71/2X.
FamilySphindidae-Dry-Fungus Beetles:The sphindids are broadly oval to oblong, convex, dark brown
to black beetles, 1.5 to 3.0 mm long. They have a
5-5-4 tarsal formula, and the lO-merous antennae terminate in a two- or three-merous club. The sphindids
live in slime molds on dead trees, logs, and stumps
and on dry fungi, such as the shelf fungi on tree
trunks. Nine relatively rare species occur in the
United States.
Family Brachypteridae-Short-winged Flower Beetles: This small family (11 species in United States and
Canada) was formerly treated as a subfamily of Nitidulidae, some members of which they resemble. The
pygidium is exposed, the labial palps are not articulated, and the three-merous antennal club is not well
defined. Larvae develop in seed capsules of various
429
430
Figure 26-57
Representative
Nitidulidae. A, Conotelus obscu1lls
Erichson, 15X; B, Carpophilus
lugubris (Murray), the dusky
sap beetle, 15X; C, Lobiopa sp.,
71/2X.
and the first and fifth abdominal stema are longer than
the others. Fifty-five species occur in North America.
Family Silvanidae:Members of this family resemble
cucujids and were previously placed in that family.
They have long, slender, sometimes capitate antennae,
and the head is constricted behind the eyes. The tarsal
formula is 5-5-5. Although the group is mainly tropical,there are 32 species in 14 genera in North America.
Mostspecies appear to be fungivorous, and several are
important pests of cereal products, including the sawtoothed grain beetles (Oryzaephilus, Figure 26-58B)
and the foreign grain beetle, Ahasverus advena (Waltl).
Family Passandridae-Parasitic Flat Bark Beetles:
This family was formerly regarded as a subfamily of
Cucujidae. They resemble cucujids, but the confluence
ofthe guIar sutures, expanded genae, and stout moniliform antennae will separate this small family from
other flat beetles. There are three widespread species in
twogenera in North America.
Family Cucujidae-Flat Bark Beetles: Most beetles
in this group (three North American species in two
genera), are extremely flat and are either reddish,
brownish, or yellowish. Cucujids are found under the
bark of freshly cut logs, chiefly maple, beech, elm, ash,
and poplar. The only North American species of Cucujus, C. clavipes Fabricius, is uniform red and about
13rnrn long (Figure 26-58A).
Family Laemophloeidae-LinedFlat Bark Beetles:
These beetles are very flat with distinctive sublateral
lineson the head pronotum, and elytra; and with long,
Figure26-58 A, a flat bark beetle, Cucujus clavipes Fabricius (Cucujidae), 4x; B, the
saw-toothed grain beetle, Oryzaephilus surinamensis (L.) (Silvanidae), 17X; C, a pleasing
fungusbeetle,Megalodacne
heros(Say)(Erotylidae),2'/2X;D, adult of the cloverstern
borer,LanguriamozardiLatreille(Languriidae),6X. (A,courtesy of Amett; B,and D,
courtesyof USDA;C, courtesy of DwightM. DeLong.)
431
432
Chapter 26
OrderColeoptera
Figure 26-60
A, a hairy fungus
beetle, Mycetophagus punctatus Say
(Mycetophagidae),
8X; B, a froitworm beetle, Byturus baker Barber
(Byturidae), 8X; C, a minute tree.
fungus beetle, Cis fuscipes Mellie
(Ciidae), 14X. (Courtesy of
Amett.)
433
434
Chapter26 OrderColeoptera
Figure26-63
ginataMelsheimer, I5X.
UNIVERSIDAD
DECALDAS
436
Chapter26 OrderColeoptera
Figure26-64 A, a rnonornrnatid beetle, Hypophagus opuntiae Horn, 31/2X; B, a cornbclawed beetle, Capnochroafuliginosa (Melsheirner) (Tenebrionidae, Alleculinae), 41(2X;
C, a narrow-waisted bark beetle, Pytho niger Kirby (Pythidae), 4X. (Courtesy of Arnett.)
Family Tenebrionidae-Darkling
Beetles: The tenebrionids are a large and varied group, but can be distinguished by the 5-5-4 tarsal fonnula; the front coxal cavities closed behind (Figure 26-7B); the eyes usually
notched; the antennae nearly always ll-merous and
either filifonn or moniliform; and five visible abdominal sterna. Most tenebrionids are black or brownish
(Figure 26-65), but a few, for example, Diaperis (Figure 26-65B), have red markings on the elytra. Many are
black and smooth and resemble ground beetles. Some of
the species that feed on the bracket fungi are brownish
and rough-bodied and resemble bits of bark. One such
species, Bolitotherus comutus (Panzer), has two hornlike
protuberances extending forward from the pronotum
(Figure 26-651). The fungus-inhibiting members of the
genus Diaperis are somewhat similar in general appearance to the ladybird beetles (Figure 26-65B). Some of
the tenebrionids are very hard-bodied.
Throughout the arid regions of the United States,
these beetles take over the ecological niche occupied
by the Carabidae in more verdant areas, being very
comrnon under stones and rubbish and beneath loose
bark, and even being attracted to lights at night.
The most distinctive habit of the members of the
extremely large genus Eleodes(Figure 26-65G) is the
ridiculous position they assume when running from
possible danger: The tip of the abdomen is elevated to
an angle of about 45 degrees from the ground, and the
beetles almost seem to be standing on their head as
they run. When disturbed or picked up, they emit a
reddish black fluid with a very disagreeable odor.
'.
F"
A
\
"
'-----'
-\!
"l-
"F
FamilyProstomidae-Jugular-HornedBeetles: Only
one species of this family, Prostomis mandibularis
(Fabricius) is found in North America. It had been
placed in Cucujidae and is separated largely by larval
characters. A distinguishing feature is its rather large
head with prominent, projecting, stout mandibles. The
larvaeand adults are associated with dead wood.
Family Synchroidae:These beetles superficially resemble click beetles (Elateridae) in shape, but are heteromerous and have open fore coxal cavities. They were
previously placed in Melandryidae. Adults and larvae are
found in decaying wood and under bark, where they
feed on fungi. There are two genera, Synchroa and Mallodrya, each with one species in eastern North America.
438
Chapter26 OrderColeoptera
Figure 26-66 A, a false blister beetle, Oxacis trimaculata Champion (Oedemeridae), 3x; B, a fire-colored beetle, DendrodescanadenssLeConte (Pyrochroidae), 3 X.
(Courtesy of Amett.)
Family Meloidae-Blister Beetles: The blister beetles (more than 400 North American species) are usually narrow and elongate; the elytra are soft and flexible; and the pronotum is narrower than either the head
or the elytra (Figure 26-67). These beetles are called
"blister beetles" because the body fluids of the commoner species contain cantharadin, a substance that
often causes blisters when applied to the skin.
Several species of blister beetles are important
pests, feeding on potatoes, tomatoes, and other plants.
Two of these are often called the "old-fashioned potato
beetles": Epcauta vittata (Fabricius) (with orange and
black longitudinal stripes) and Epcauta pestfera
Wemer (black, with the margins of the elytra and the
sutural stripe gray; Figure 26-67C). These beetles are
12-20 mm long. The black blister beetle, E. pennsylvanica (DeGeer), is a common black meloid, 7-13 mm
long, that is usually found on the flowers of goldenrod.
The larvae of many blister beetles are considered
beneficial, because they feed on grasshopper eggs. A
few live in bee nests in the larval stage, where they feed
on bee eggs and on the food stored in the cells with the
eggs.
The life history of the blister beetles in the genus
Epicauta is rather complex. These insects undergo hypermetamorphosis, with the different larval instars being quite different in form (Figure 26-68). The firstlar.
val instar, an active, long-Iegged form called a
triungulin, seeks out a grasshopper egg or a bee nest
and then molts. In the species that develop in bee
nests, the triungulin usually climbs on a flower and attaches itself to a bee that visits the flower. The bee carries the triungulin to the nest, whereupon the triungulin attacks the bee's eggs. The second instar is
somewhat similar to the triungulin, but the legs are
shorter. In the third, fourth, and fifth instars, the larva
be comes thicker and somewhat scarabaeiform. The
sixth instar has a darker and thicker exoskeleton and
lacks functional appendages. This instar is usually
known as the coarctate larva or pseudopupa, and it is
the instar that hibemates. The seventh instar is small,
white, and active Cthoughlegless) but apparentlydoes
not feed and soon transforms to the true pupa.
The members of the genus Meloe, some of which
are about 25 mm long, have very short elytra that overo
lap just behind the scutellum, and they lack hind wings.
These insects are dark blue or black (Figure 26-7A).
They are sometimes called "oil beetles," because they
often exude an oily substance from the joints of the legs
when disturbed.
The blister beetles in the genus Nemognatha are
unique in having the galeae prolonged into a sucking
tube as long as or longer than the body. These beetles
are usually brownish (so me times blackish, or brown
and black) and 8-15 mm long. They are widely distributed.
...
A
Figure26-67 Blister beetles. A, Meloe laevis Leach, 2X; B, the three-striped blister beetle, Epicauta lemniscata (Fabricius), 2X; C, Epicauta pestifera Werner, 2X; D, Cysteodemus
annatus LeCome, 21/2X; E, Tricraniastansburyi (Haldeman), 4X; F, Tegroderaerosaaloga
(Skinner), 2X. (B, and C, courtesy of Baerg and the Arkansas Agricultural Experiment
Station; others, courtesy of Noller and the Arizona Agricultural Experiment Station.)
~
A
..
"JiJ
e
..
.
...: ~...
. . .'..
..
. .
.. -.
439
440
FamilyPyrochroidae-Fire-ColoredBeetles: The pyrochroids are 6-20 mm long and are usually black,
with the pronotum reddish or yellowish. About 50
species occur in North America, with 30 in the genus
Pedilus (Figure 26-69B). The head and pronotum are
narrower than the elytra, and the elytra are somewhat
broader posteriorly. The antennae are serrate to pectinate (rarely filiform), and in some males almost
plumose (Figure 26-66B), with long, slender processes
on antennomeres 3-10. The eyes are often quite large.
The short-lived adults are found on foliage and flowers
and sometimes under bark. The larvae live under the
bark of dead trees.
Family Salpingidae-Narrow-Waisted Bark Beetles:
This is an extremely variable group and difficult 10
characterize. Most of the 20 North American species of
salpingids are black, elongate, and somewhat flattened.
The adults and larvae are predaceous. The adults live
under rocks and bark, in leaf litter, and on vegetation.
The species of Aegialites, which occur along the Pacific
Coast from California to Alaska, live in rock cracks below the high tidemark along the seacoast. These beetles
are elongate-oval, 3-4 mm long, and black with a
metallic luster. Five species of Elacatis (false tiger bee.
tles) occur in the United States. They were formerly
placed in a separate family and are now considered a
subfamily (Othniinae) of Salpingidae.
Family Anthicidae-Antlike Flower Beetles: These
beetles are 2-12 mm long and somewhat antlike in appearance, with the head deflexed and strongly con.
stricted behind the eyes, and with the pronotum oval.
The pronotum in many species (Notoxus, Figure 26--69A,
and Mycinotarsus) has an anterior hornlike process extending forward over the head. Anthicids generally live
on flowers and foliage; some live under stones and logs
and in debris; and a few live on sand dunes. There are
around 230 species in North America.
FamilyAderidae-Antlike Leaf Beetles: The aderids
(48 species in II genera in North America) are reddish
Figure 26-69 A, an antlike flower beetle, Notoxus monodon Fabricius (Anthicidae), 12x; B,a pyrochroidbeetle,Pedilus
lugubris Say,5x. (Courtesy of Amen.)
yellowto dark and 1.5 to 3.0 mm. long. They are very
similar to the anthicids, but may be separated by the
coarsely faceted, setose eyes and the head abruptly
constricted at the base.
Fam/y Scraptiidae-False Flower Beetles: Most
scraptiids may be recognized by their soft bodies,
deeplyemarginate eyes, and setose vestiture. They have
been placed variously in Melandryidae, Mordellidae,
andother families. Adults of some species are found on
flowers, and others live under bark. In the North
Americanfauna there are 46 species in 13 genera.
Family Polypriidae- The Red Cross Beetle: A single
species, Polypria cruxrufa Chevrolat, extends into
south Texas. It is a moderate-sized beetle with strongly
serrate antennae, deeply emarginate eyes, and brown
elytra with a reddish cross-shaped mark. Nothing is
known about the biology of this family, and the larva is
unknown.
Family Cerambycidae-Long-Horned Beetles: This
familyis a large one, with about 900 species in 300
generaoccurring in the United States and Canada, and
itsmembers are all phytophagous. Most long-horns are
elongate and cylindrical, with long antennae; the eyes
are usually strongly notched or even completely divided;and many of these beetles are brightly colored.
Theyvary from 3 to 60 mm long. The tarsi appear fourmerouswith the third tarsomere bilobed, but are actually five-merous. The fourth tarsomere is small and
concealed in the notch of the third, and is often very
difficultto see (Figure 26-lOA). Both the Cerambycidae and Chrysomelidae have this type of tarsal struc-
~
'"
ture, and these groups are sometimes difficult to separateo They can usually be separated by the characters
given in the key (couplet 29).
Most adult cerambycids, particularly the brightly
colored ones, feed on flowers. Many, usually not
brightly colored, are nocturnal in habit and during the
day may be found under bark or resting on trees or
logs. Many ceramycids make a squeaking sound when
picked up.
Most Cerambycidae are wood-boring in the larval
stage, and many species are very destructive to shade,
forest, and fruit trees and to freshly cut logs. The adults
lay their eggs in crevices in the bark, and the larva e
bore into the wood. The larval tunnels in the wood
(Figure 26-70) are circular in cross section (unlike
most buprestid tunnels, which are oval in cross section) and usualIy go straight in a short distance before
turning. Different species attack different types of trees
and shrubs. A few will attack living trees, but most
species appear to prefer freshly cut logs or weakened
and dying trees or branches. A few girdle twigs and
lay their eggs just above the girdled bando Some
bore into the stems of herbaceous plants. The larva e
(Figure 26-71) are elongate, cylindrical, whitish, and
almost legless and differ from the larvae of the
Buprestidae in that the anterior end of the body is not
broadened and flattened. They are often called "roundheaded borers," to distinguish them from the flatheaded borers (larva e of Buprestidae).
This family is divided into eight subfamilies,
which can generally be separated by the following key:
'-'
1:'
'"
E
c.
o
a;>
'"
C>
-o
c:
'"
'5
ro
~
'"
a::
~
B
.~
o
o:.c
Figure26-70
calcarata
Sayo
441
'""'r
I
I
442
Chapter26 OrderColeoptera
Disteniinae
Tarsi distincdy 5-5-5, without pubescent ventral pad; third tarsomere not
dilated, concealing small fourth tarsomere (Figure 26-lOJ); antennap
short, usually not attaining pronotal base
3(2).
3'.
Parandrinae
p.442
p.442
4(2').
4'.
Spondylidinae
Lamiinae
1'.
2(1').
2'.
5(4').
p.442
p.444
6(5').
6'.
Cerambycinae
7
p.445
7(6').
Head short, not narrowed behind eyes; second antennomere longer than
broad, nearly half as long as third antennomere
Head elongate, narrowed behind eyes; second antennomere not longer
than broad, much less than half as long as third antennomere
Aseminae
p.444
Lepturinae
p.445
S'.
7'.
Subfamily Disteniinae:
Distenia undata (Fabricius)
is the only representative of this subfamily in North
America; it occurs in the eastern states. The mandibles
are chisel-shaped and not serrate on the inner margin,
and the thorax is spined on the sides and the elytra on
the apex. It lives under bark of hickory and oak and on
foliage of wild grape.
SubfamiliesParandrinae
andSpondylidinae:
Thesebeedes differ from other cerambycids in having the fourth
tarsomere plainly visible and the tarsi obviously fivemerous (Figure 26-72E). The subfamily Parandrinae
contains three species, two in the genus Parandra. These
beedes are elongate-oval, somewhat flattened, bright reddish brown, and 9-18 mm long (Figure 26-73F). They
look a litde like smalllucanids. They live under the bark
of dead pine trees. The larvae burrow in dry, dead wood
of logs and stumps.
The
subfamily
Prioninae
Spondylidinae
p.442
contains
two
o
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
ant
\
\
U
E
o
B
Figure26-73 Long-homed
beetIes. A, Anoplodera
canadensis(Olivier) (Lepturinae); B, Typocerusdeceptus
Knull (Lepturinae); C, Desmocerus palliatus (Forster) (Lepturinae); D, Toxotuscylindricollis (Say) (Lepturinae);
E, Eudercespini (Olivier)
(Cerambycinae); F,Parandra
polita Say (Parandrinae);
G, Asemum striatum (L.)
(Aseminae); H, Rhagium
inquisitor (L.) (Lepturinae).
(Courtesy of Knull and the
Ohio BiologicalSurvey.)
1
444
Figure 26-74
Long-horned
'-
Figure 26-75 The northeastern sawyer beetle, Monochamus notatus (Drury), female at left, male at right.
About 1/2x,
tips. The adult lives on the flowers and foliage of elderberry, and the larva bores in the pith of this plant.
Several other species of Desmocerus live on elderberry
in the western states. They are similar in general coloration, with the males having brilliant scarlet elytra
and a black pronotum. The females have very dark
green elytra bordered narrowly with red along the
outer margino
This subfamily contains many species found on
flowers. In most the elytra are broadest at the base and
narrowed toward the apex (Figure 26-73A,B,D,H).
Some common genera are Stictopleptura, Typocerus,
Toxotus, and Stenocorus. Most of these beetles are
brightly colored, often with yellow and black bands or
stripes. In many cases the elytra do not cover the tip of
the abdomen. All are excellent fliers.
Subfamily Cerambycinae:This group is a large one,
and its members vary considerably in size and general
appearance. One of the most strikingly marked species
in this subfamily is the locust borer, Megacyllene
robiniae (Forster), the larva of which bores into the
trunks of black locust. The adult is black with bright
yellow markings and is relatively common on goldenrod in late summer. Another easily recognized species
in this group is Eburia quadrigeminata (Say), a brownish species 14-24 mm long, which has two pairs of
elevated ivory-colored swellings on each elytron (Figure 26-74B). The members of some genera in this
group (Smodicum and others) are somewhat flattened
and have relatively short antennae. Others (for exampie, Euderces, Figure 26-73E) are small, shorter than
9 mm, and somewhat antlike in appearance.
Family Megalopodidae: This small group, represented in the United States by nine species of Zeugophora, was formerly considered a subfamily of
Chrysomelidae. The adults are 3-4 mm long and live
chiefly on poplar, hickory, and oak.
Family Orsodacnidae: This small family contains
only four North American species in 3 genera. Orsodacne atra (Ahrens), a widely distributed beetle that is
extremely variable in coloration, 7-8 mm long, is
found chiefly on a wide variety of flowers, including
those of willow and dogwood.
Family Chrysomelidae-Leaf Beetles: The leaf beetles
are closely related to the Cerambycidae, both groups
having a similar tarsal structure (Figure 26-IOA) and
both being phytophagous. The leaf beetles usually have
much shorter antennae and are smaller and more oval in
shape than the cerambycids. The chrysomelids in the
United States are almost all shorter than 12 mm; most
cerambycids are larger. Many chrysomelids are brightly
colored.
Adult leaf beetles feed principally on flowers and
foliage. The larvae are phytophagous, but vary quite a
445
r
446
Chapter26 OrderColeoptera
bit in appearance and habits. Some larvae are free feeders on foliage, some are leaf miners, some feed on
roots, some feed within seeds, and some bore in stems.
Many members of this family are serious pests of cultivated plants. Most species overwinter as adults.
The family Chrysomelidae is a large one with approximately 1,720 North American species assigned to
195 genera. It is divided into a number of subfamilies,
and those occurring in North America may be separated by the following key.
1/.
2(1).
Hispinae
Lamprosomatinae
2/.
3(2/).
3/.
4(3/).
4/.
5(4/).
5'.
6(5/).
Elytral epipleuron not abruptly excavate near basal third (may be strongly
curved); prostemal grooves for reception of antennae usually absent
Abdomen with ventrites 2-4 usually greatly shortened medially; body
subcylindrical, compact; head deeply inserted into prothorax; pygidium
usually exposed, vertical
Abdomen with intermediate ventrites not abnormally shortened; head
usually not deeply inserted into prothorax body usually not subcylindrical
Antennal insertions narrowly separated, usually by a distance less than
length of basal antennomere
Antennal insertions widely separated, usually by distance much greater
than length of basal antennomere
Fore coxae transverse; ventrallobe of tarsomere 3 usually entire or weakly
emarginate apically
p.450
p.448
Cryptocephalinae
p.448
5
Galerucinae
p.449
6
Chrysomelinae
p.448
p.448
6'.
7(1').
7'.
Eumolpinae(in part)
8
8(7).
Eumolpinae
(in part)
p.448
Pretarsal claws simple; head usually with deep median groove between
antennae
Donaciinae
p.447
Pygidium broadly exposed; hind femur greatly enlarged, often with large
ventral teeth
Bruchinae
p.447
Pygidium usually not exposed; hind femur not much larger than fore and
mid femur
10
8/.
9(7/).
9/.
10(9').
10/.
Head with X-shaped groove between eyes; elytra usually not pubescent;
pygidium not exposed
Head without X-shaped groove between eyes; elytra pubescent; pygidium
exposed (but not broadly so)
Criocerinae
p.447
Eumolpinae
(in part)
p.448
..
447
448
Chapter26
Order Coleoptera
Figure 26-78 Criocerine leaf beetles. A, the striped asparagus beetle, Criocerisasparagi (L.); B, the cerealleaf
beetle, Oulema melanopus (L.). (A, courtesy of the Utah
State Agricultural College; B, courtesy of the Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center.)
450
Chapter26 OrderColeoptera
or bronzy, often with small black spots but without extensive black mottling. One of the largest members of
this subfamilyis the argus tortoise beetle, Chelymorpha
cassidea(Fabricius), which is 9.5-11.5 mm long and
shaped very much like a box turtle. It is red, usually
with six black spots on each elytron and one black
spot along the suture overlapping both elytra (Figure 26-83B).
The larvae oftortoise beetles are elongate-oval and
somewhat flattened. At the posterior end of the bodyis
a forked process that is usually bent upward and forward over the body. Cast skins and excrement are attached to this process, forming a parasol-like shield
over the body (Figure 26-83A). The larva e and adults
of tortoise beetles feed principally on morning glories
and related plants.
Curculionoidea:
The members ofthis
SUPERFAMILY
group are sometimes caBed "snout beetles," as most
have the head more or less prolonged anteriorly intoa
beak or snout. This term is less appropriate (and is seldom used) for the Platypodinae and Scolytinae, because the snout is scarcelydeveloped in these two subfamilies of the Curculionidae. The Curculionoidea
were formerly placed in a subdivision of the Coleoptera
caBed the Rhynchophora.
Certain other characters besides the development
of a snout distinguish the Curculionoidea from the beetles already described. The guiar sutures are nearlyalways confluent, or lacking, with no gula developed
(Figure 26-3C) (they are short but widely separated in
the Nemonychidae). Prosternal sutures are lacking
(except in the Anthribidae), and in most the palps
are rigid or invisible and the labrum is absent (Fig-
451
UNIVERSIDAD
DECALDAS
BIBLIOTECA
Chapter26 OrderColeoptera
452
live on oak, hickory, or walnut, but one speciesAttelabus nigripes LeConte, red and 3.5 to 4.5 rnm
long)-feeds on sumac, and another-Himatolabus pu.
bescens (Say), 4.5 to 5.5 mm long and dark reddish lO
black-feeds also on alder and hazelnut.
The thief weevil, Pterocolus ovatus (Fabricius), isa
brood parasite of its relatives, the leaf-rolling weevilsin
the Attelabinae. Adults of this small, metallic-blue wee.
vil enter leaf rolls of various attelabines, destroy the
egg, and lay their own egg. The larvae then eats the leaf
roll prepared by the host attelabine.
Rhynchitinae, the tooth-nosed weevils, are so
named because they have teeth on the edges of the
mandibles (Figure 26-851). They are 1.5 to 6.5 rnm
long and usually live on low vegetation. There are
/
tsp
E
md "
"
Figure 26-85 Characters of snout beetles. A-D, antennae; E-F, tibiae; G-H, heads;
I-J, tip of snout. A, Cylas, female (Brentidae, Cyladinae); B, same, male; C, Rhynchites
(Attelabidae, Rhynchitinae); D, Ithycems (Ithyceridae); E, Attelabus (Attelabidae, Attelabinae); F, Rhynchites (Attelabidae, Rhynchitinae); G, Arrhenodes, male (Brentidae,
Brentinae); H, same, female; 1, Rhynchites (Attelabidae, Rhynchitinae); J, Attelabus (Attelabidae, Attelabinae). ant, antenna; e, compound eye; md, mandible; tsp, tibial spur.
Figure26-86 The sweetpotato weevil, Cylas fonnicarius elegantulus (Summers), female. (Courtesy ofUSDA.)
Nebraska and Texas. This beetle is shiny black, clothed
with patches of gray and brown pubescence, and has
the scutellum yellowish. It is 12-18 mm long. The
adults of this beetle live principally on the limbs and
foliage of hickory, oak, and beech trees. The larvae develop on the roots of these same trees.
Family Curculionidae-Snout Beetles and True Weevils, including Bark and Ambrosia Beetles: The members
of this family are by far the most commonly encountered
Curculionoidea. They may be found almost everywhere,
and more than 3,000 species in almost 500 genera occur
in North America. They show considerable variation in
size, shape, and the form of the snout. The snout is fairly
well developed in most species, with the antennae arising about the middle of the snout (Figure 26-3B). In
some of the nut weevils (Figure 26-87C), the snout is
long and slender, as long as the body or longer. Scolytinae, Platypodinae, and some Cossoninae lack a snout.
All members of this family (except a few occurring
in ant nests) are plant feeders in both living and dead
plants, and many are serious pests. Almost every part of
a plant may be attacked, fram the roots upward. The larvae usually feed inside the tissues of the plant, and the
adults drill holes in fruits, nuts, arid other plant parts. .
Most snout beetles, when disturbed, will draw in
their legs and antennae, fall to the graund, and remain
motionless. Many are colored like bits of bark or dirt,
and when they remain motionless they are very difficult to see. Some snout beetles (for example, Conotrachelus, subfamily Molytinae) can stridulate by rubbing
hardened tubercles on the dorsum of the abdomen
against filelike ridges on the underside of the elytra.
These sounds in Conotrachelus (Figure 26-2) are ex-
454
Chapter26 OrderColeoptera
l'
2(1).
2'.
3(1').
4(3').
Platypodinae
p.464
Scolytinae
p.464
Raymondionyminae p. 459
p.459
IOInsmall specimens it may be difficult to see the states of the pretarsal claws and the mouthparts. Only two small-sized genera of Dryophthorinae are included here. Dryophthorus can be recognized by an antennal funicle of fOUTantennomeres in combination with the antennal club
character,whereas Sitophilus may be recognized by the form of the apex of the hind tibia, which has a small preapical tooth on the inner marginin addition to the larger, hooklike tooth at the inner apical angle (the tibiae appearing "pincer-like"), in combination with the antennal
clubcharacter.
455
456
Chapter26 OrderColeoptera
4'.
5(4').11
S'.
6(5').12
6'.
7(6).
7'.
8(7').
Tarsus with claws single, connate at base or separate, but with dorsal and
ventral surfaces at apex of tarsomere S not extended between bases of
pretarsal claws; mouthparts with prementum visible, not withdrawn, palpi
mostly visible; antenna inserted variously along length of rostrum, usually
some distance from base, with scape short or long, and fitting into antennal
scrobe, but at most only slightly projected beyond the hind margin of the
eye; antenna with club various, but mostly with 3 antennomeres, each
pilose to some extent, basal antennomere not or rareiy shining, subequal
in length to other antennomeres or rareiy variously longer than other
2 antennomeres combined, sutures evident between all antennomeres;
funicle with S, 6, or 7 antennomeres; body surface mostly with some
broad, flat scales or fine, hairlike scales; pygydium formed of tergite 8
in male
Male with aedeagus with tectum and pedon separate, tegmen as long as
or longer than aedeagus Cincludingthe apodemes); species associated
with freshwater aquatic habitats, many with dense, varnishlike coating
over scales or with dense water-repellent scales
Erirrhinae
Male with aedeagus with tectum and pedon fused, tegmen shorter than
aedeagus (including the apodemes); species associated with various
habitats, most with scales present, various in density, but lacking
varnishlike coating (exception: Bagous, recognized by presence of
prosternal channel) or with scales lacking entireiy
Legs with apex of front, middle and hind tibiae with tooth, if present,
small to moderateiy large (usually larger on front or middle tibiae),
usually smaller than pretarsal claw, arising from inner apical angle and
with outer curved face distinctly separated from, and not continuous
with, outer tibial margin or with carina traversing the apical face of the
tibia; apical comb of setae oriented transverseiy to length of tibia
18
Baridinae(majarpart) p.461
p.459
llUnfortunately, dissection of a male is necessary to see the state of the primary character used here.
llThis is often a difficult character to see clearly and to assess. Some groups (such as many Baridinae and some Curculioninae) are equivocal
and are Ihus considered in both halves of Ihis couplet. In general, laxa associated with woody plants lend lO develop a larger and curved apical
toolh, whereas those associated with herbaceous plants have a less developed toolh or apical spine, or none al alI.
8'.
9(8).
9'.
10(9').
10'.
14
Conoderinae
10
Rostrum very short, not much longer than wide, broad and fiat dorsally,
subquadrate in form; dorsal vestiture of pronotum and elytra in part bifid
Rostrum moderately long, many times longer than wide, elongate and
narrow; dorsal vestiture, if present, simple
12(11'). Hind tibia with outer face at apex lacking apical comb of setae lateral to
base of apical tooth; body with distinct and dense suberect or erect broad
scales, body of some specimens with cruslOse coating
12'.
Hind tibia with outer face at apex with apical comb of setae lateral to base
of apical tooth; body vestiture variable but surface not with crustose
coating
13(12'). Body lacking distinct vestiture, with smooth, varnishlike coating over
scales; elytra tuberculate or not; legs elongate, slender; commonly
associated with aquatic habitats
13'.
14(8').
14'.
p.462
lixinae
(part: Bangasternus)
p.463
11
Cryptorhynchinae
p.462
12
Cossoninae(part: Acamptini,
Acamptus)
p.462
13
Bagoinae
p. 461
Molytinae
p.463
lixinae
p. 463
15
16
17
Mesoptilinae
p. 463
458
Chapter26 OrderColeoptera
16/.
Curculioninae
(part: Otidocephalini)
p.459
Hind tibia with outer face at apex with apical comb of setae lateral to
base of apical lOoth, oriented either transversely, obliquely, or subparallel
to the length of the tibia
p. 463
17/.
Hind tibia with outer face at apex lacking apical comb of setae lateral lO
base of apical lOoth
18(6/).
19
20
Rostrum in repose not received into ventral channel, but may rest
between front, middle or hind coxae
23
Rostrum very broad, more or less triangular in dorsal view, fitting into
large, deep emargination in front of front coxae; emargination limited
posteriorly by small, triangular prosternum
21
Curculioninae (part:
Mecinini, Cleopomiarus)p.459
22
Ceutorhynchinae
(part) p.462
Ceutorhynchinae(part) p.462
17(15/).
18'.
19(18').
19/.
20(19).
20/.
21(20/).
21/.
22(21/).
22/.
23(19/).
23/.
p.462
24(23/).
Curculioninae (part)
25
p.459
24/.
25(24/).
Curculioninae (part)
p.459
24
25'.
26
Cyclominae
p. 462
26'.
27/.
27
Hyperinae
p.463
Entiminae(part)
p.462
460
Chapter26 OrderColeoptera
csp
\
agr
Figure26-88 Characters of snout beetles. A-G, heads, lateral view; H, tip of snout,
ventral view. A, Anthonomus (Curculioninae, Anthonomini); B, Magdalis (Mesoptiliinae);
C, Listronotus (Cyclominae); D, Pandeletelius(Enteminae); E, Rhodobaenus (Dryophthorinae); F, Eudiagogus (Entiminae); G and H, Pantomorus (Entiminae). acl, antennal club;
agr, scrobe; bk, beak of snout; esp, cusp of mandible; e, compound eye;jun, funiculus
(antennal segments between scape and club); md, mandible; poI, postocular lobe of prothorax; sep, scape, the basal antennal segment; ser, scar left on mandible where cusp has
broken off; te, teeth on prothorax.
D
Figure 26-90
Subfamily Bagoinae: Two genera make up this subfamily in North America, all but one species in the
genus Bagous. Adults are found in aquatic and semiaquatic habitats. They have a varnishlike coating on
the body and are very similar in appearance to the
aquatic Erirhininae.
Subfamily Baridinae:This is the largest subfamily of
the Curculionidae, with about 500 North American
species. These beetles are small and stout-bodied (Figure 16-90B) and can generally be recognized by the
upward-extending mesepimera, which are sometimes
visible from above (Figure 26-87 A). Most species feed
on various herbaceous plants; a few attack cultivated
plants. The potato stalk borer, Trichobaris trinotata
(Say), attacks potato, eggplant, and related plants. The
31/2X (Entiminae);
(line
= 1 mm)
(Baridinae);
462
Chapter26 OrderColeoptera
.. "
L.
lA<i~~;~~.t
~,',"".r:~!
It '';1.,
V.I.:..
I
L
Figure 26-91
(Molylinae), 5X (Courtesy
.a
ofUSDA.)
8-10 mm long (Figure 26-90F); they are also important pests of conifers. The larvae tunnel in the terminal
leader of a young tree and kill it, and one of the lateral
branches becomes the terminalleader, giving rise to a
tree with a bend partway up the trunk. Such a tree is of
little value as a source of lumber. The white pine weevil, Pissodesstrobi (Peck), is a common species attacking Eastern white pine.
One of the most important pest species in this
group is the plum curculio, Conotrachelus nenuphar
(Herbst) (Figure 26-92), which attacks plum, cherry,
peach, apple, and other fruits. The females lay their eggs
in little depressions they eat in the fruits and then cut a
crescent-shaped incision beside the depression containing the egg. The larvae develop in the fruits and pupate
in the soil. The adult is about 6 mm long, is darkcolored, and has two prominent tubercles on each elytron.
The genus Conotrachelus is a large one (63 North American species), and its members are widely distributed.
The larvae develop in various fruits and twigs. Larvae of
species in the genera Odontopus and Piazorhinus are leaf
miners in sassafras, tulip tree, and oak. The bean stalk
weevil, Sternechus paludatus (Casey) (Figure 26-90E) is
also a member of this subfamily.
U,.IVERSIDAD
DECUAS
BIBLIOn:I'A
463
464
Chapter26 OrderColeoptera
Subfamily Platypodinae-Pinhole Borers: The beetles in this group are elongate, slender, and cylindrical,
with the head slightly wider than the pronotum (Figure 26-93). They are brownish and 2-8 mm long. The
tarsi (which are 5-5-5) are very slender, with the first
tarsomere longer than the remaining tarsomeres combined (Figure 26-lOK). The antennae are short and
geniculate and have a large, unsegmented club. The
genus Platypus has recently be en subdivided into four
distinct genera. Only seven species occur in North
America.
These beetles are wood-boring and bore in living
trees, but seldom attack a healthy tree. They attack
both deciduous trees and conifers. The larvae feed on
fungi that are cultivated in their galleries.
Subfamily Scolytinae-Bark Beetles or Engravers,
and Ambrosia Beetles: The scolytines are small, cylindrical beetles, rarely more than 6 or 8 mm long, and
usually brownish or black (Figure 26-94). The antennae are short and geniculate and have a large, usually
annulated club. The subfamily contains two groups:
the bark beetles, which feed on the inner bark of trees,
and the ambrosia beetles, which bore into the wood of
trees and feed on an "ambrosial" form of a fungus,
which they cultiva te. Bark beetles differ from ambrosia
beetles in having a large spine or projection at the apex
of the front tibiae.
The bark beetles live within the bark of trees, usually right at the surface of the wood, and feed on the
succulent phloem tissue. Some species, especially in
.:.
e
Figure26-94 Bark beetles (Scolytinae). A, the pine engraver, Ips pini (Say); B, the Douglas fir beetle, DendroctonuspseudotsugaeHopkins;C, the fir engraver,Scolytus
ventralis (LeConte). (Courtesy of Rudinsky and Ryker,
Oregon State Agricultural Experimental Station.)
Ips and Seolytus, deeply score the sapwood and are often called "engravers." Although all bark beetles feed
in dying trees, some species may infest living trees, especially conifers, and kill them. Most economically important scolytids are in three genera: Dendroctonus, lps,
and Seolytus. The infested tree is killed by the fungi
(called "blue-stain" or "brown-stain") introduced by
the adult beetles and spread by the larvae. As adults
and larvae interrupt the flow of nutrients by feedingin
the phloem, the fungus spreads inward and clogs the
water transport vessels in the sapwood, suppressing
the flow of lethal pitch into the beetle galleries. The destructive bark beetles exhibit a remarkable coordination of their flying population in a tightly synchronized
mass attack, overwhelming the tree's defenses by sheer
numbers. Both males and females respond to a combination of odors from the resin of the host tree and
chemical signals (aggregation pheromones) from the
466
Chapter26 OrderColeoptera
suitably baited traps; (4) a number of species are attracted to lights at night and can be collected at lights
or in a light trap; (5) beetles of many groups are to be
found under bark, in rotting wood, under stones, and in
similar situations; (6) many species can be obtained by
sifting debris or leaf litter; and (7) many beetles are
aquatic and can be collected by the various aquatic
equipment and methods described in Chapter 35.
Most beetles are preserved pinned (through the
right elytron) or on points. When mounting a beetle on
a point, mount it so that the ventral side of the body and
the legs are visible. The tip of the point can be bent down
and the specimen attached to this bent-down tip by the
right side of the thorax. lt may sometimes be desirable to
mount two specimens on the same point (when you are
sure they are the same species), one dorsal side up and
the other ventral side up. Many of the more minute beetles must be preserved in alcohol (70-80%) and mounted
on a microscope slide for detailed study.
References
Alonso-Zarazaga, M. A., and C. H. C. Lya\. 1999. A world catalogue of families and genera of Curculionoidae (Insecta:
Coleoptera): excluding Scolytidae and Platypodidae.
Barcelona: Entomopraxis, 315 pp.
Amett, R. H., ]r. 1967. Recent and future systematics of the
Coleoptera in North America. Ann. Entorno\. Soco Amer.
60: 162-170.
Amett, R H., ]r. 1968. The Beetles of the United States (a
Manual for Identification). Ann Arbor, Mich.: American
Entornological Institute, 1112 pp.
Amett, R. H., ]r. (Ed.). 1978. Bibliography of Coleoptera of
North Arnerica North ofMexico, 1758-1948. Gainesville,
FL: Flora and Fauna Publications, 180 pp.
Amett, R H., ]r., and M. C. Thornas (Eds.). 200\. American
Beetles, vo\. 1. New York: CRC Press. 1443 pp.
Amett, R. H., ]r., M. C. Thomas, P.E. Skelley, and]. H. Frank
(Eds.). 2002. American Beetles, vo\. 2. New York: CRC
Press. 861 pp.
Arnol'di, L. V, V V Zherikhin, L. M. Nikritin, and A. G.
Ponornarenko
(Eds.). 1992. Mesozoic Coleoptera.
Washington, DC: Srnithsonian Institution Libraries.
Beutel, R 1997. ber Phylogenese und Evolution der
Coleoptera (Insecta), insbesondere der Adephaga. Abh.
Naturwiss. Ver. Harnburg, 31:1-164.
Beutel, R, and E Haas. 2000. Phylogenetic relationships of
the suborders of Coleoptera (Insecta). Cladistics
16: 103-141.
Blatchley, W S. 1910. An Illustrated and Descriptive Catalogue of the Coleoptera or Beetles (Exclusive of the
Rhynchophora) Known to Occur in Indiana. Indianapolis: Nature, 1385 pp.
Blatchley. W S., and C. W Leng. 1916. Rhynchophora or
Weevils of Northeastern North America. Indianapolis:
Nature, 682 pp.
References
Crowson, R. A. 1981.
Acadernic Press,
Dillon, E. S., and L.
mon Beetles of
and A. L. Halpern
Evolution,
Natural
of Western
Forests.
U.s. De-
Agriculture.
Misc. Pub\. 273. 280 pp.
1992. Evolution of rnode of life as the basis
of the beetles into groups of high taxonornic
Zunino, X. Bells, and M. BIas (Eds.), Ad-
vances in Coleopterology,
pp. 249-261. Barcelona: European Association of Coleopterology.
Kissinger, D. G. 1964. Curculionidae
of Arnerica North of
Mexico: A Key to the Genera. South Lancaster, MA: Taxonornic, 143 pp.
Klausnitzer, B. 1975. Problerne
der Abgrenzung
von Unterordnungen
bei den Coleoptera.
Entornologische
Abhandlungen
staatliches Museurn fr Tierkunde in Dresden 40:269-275.
Kukalov-Peck, J., and J. F. Lawrence.
1993. Evolution
of the
2000. Predaceous
Beetles.
467
468
Chapter26 OrderColeoptera
Pakaluk, J., and S. A. Slipinski (Eds.). 1995. Biology, Phylogeny, and Classification of Coleoptcra. Papers Celebrating the 80th Birthday of Roy A. Crowson. Warszawa
[Warsaw]: Muzeum i lnstytut loologii PAN.
Papp, C. S. 1983. lntroduction to North American beetles.
Sacramento, CA: Entomography Publications, 335 pp.
Peck, S. B., and M. C. Thomas. 1998. A distributional checklist of the beetles (Coleoptera) of Florida. Arthropods of
Florida and Neighboring Land Areas 16:1-180.
Reichert, H. 1973. A critical study of the suborder Myxophaga, with a taxonomic revision of the Brazilian Torridinicolidae and Hydroscaphidae (Coleoptera). Arq. lo o!.
(Sao Paulo), 24(2):73-162
Rudinsky, J. A., P. T. Oester, and L. C. Ryker. 1978. Gallery
initiation and male stridulation of the polygamous bark
beetle Polygraphus rufipennis. Ann. Entorno!. Soco Amer.
71:317-321.
Rudinsky, J. A., and L. C. Ryker. 1976. Sound production in
Scolytidae: Rivalry and premating stridulation of male
Douglas fir beetle. J. lnsect Physio!. 22:997-1003.
Ryker, L. c., and J. A. Rudinsky. 1976. Sound production in
Scolytidae: Aggressive and mating behavior in the mountain pine beetle. Ann. Entorno!. SocoAmer. 69:677-680.
27
he Neuroptera
are soft-bodied
Order Neuroptera1.2
Alderflies,Dobsonflies,
Fishflies,
Snakeflies,Lacewings,
Antlions,
andOwlflies
469
470
Chapter27 OrderNeuroptera
Chrysopidae-common
lacewings, green
lacewings
Dilaridae-pleasing lacewings*
Berothidae-beaded
lacewings*
Polystoechotidae-giant
lacewings*
Sisyridae-spongillaflies
Superfamily Myrmeleontoidea
Myrmeleontidae-antlions
Ascalaphidae-owlflies
Two slightly different interpretations of wing venation are encountered in this order, that of Comstock
and that of Carpenter and others. Most present workers, particularly those studying the Raphidioptera and
Planipennia-following
Martynov (1928), Carpenter
(1936, 1940), and others-believe
that an anterior
branch of the media Oabeled MA in our figures) persists in this order, branching from M near the base of
the wing and usually fusing with Rs for a short distance. The differences in these two interpretations can
be summarized as follows:
Comstock (1940)
R.
Rs
Basal r-m
M
M1+2
MP1+2
MP3+4
CuA
CuP
M3+4
Cu
CU2
We have followed Comstock's interpretation in labeling our figures of the Megaloptera and have followed the interpretation of Carpenter and others in labeling our figures of other wings in this order.
1'.
2(1).
Hind wings broader at base than front wings, with enlarged anal area
that is folded fanwise at rest (Figure 27-1A,B); longitudinal veins usually
forking near wing margin; larvae aquatic (suborder Megaloptera)
Front and hind wings similar in size and shape, hind wings without
enlarged anal area that is folded fanwise at rest (Figures 27-1C,D, 27-2,
27-3,27-4)
Corydalidae
p.475
Sialidae
p.474
p.476
2',
Ocelli absent; fourth tarsal segment dilated and deeply bilobed; body
3(1').
Coniopterygidae*
3'.
4(3').
4'.
5(4).
Front legs raptorial, arising from anterior end ofprothorax (Figure 27-8B);
mantid-like insects, widely distributed
Mantispidae
5'.
Raphidiidae
p.476
Inocelliidae
p.476
6(5').
6'.
p.477
~:t C\,b.and,
lAs~~~tkt~,asalm-cu oblique(Figure27-lD)
.lo,. -,
. ,
.;,."..-,1""-'.1
...
Rs Se
I
Se
R r-m
I
471
1 s
Se + R,
.',
,\
'/
:,.-:,.-
\
'Rs
I
;MI +2
,
2A:
M
CUI.M3
1ACU2CU1b
+4
MA + MP, + 2 Rs
I
Se R
I
I
1A~
Rs Rs + MA
1
IS
m-eu
CUI
M
I
MMP
A I
Rs + M MA
/ 1 A C'U2 /
CUI
MP3 + 4
MPI +2
',,\
MA
UNIVERSIDAD
DECALDAS
BIBLIOTECA
472
R,
,
MA
Se
~
,~;--.
MP 1.1\
I , . l.
I
MP lA Cu, ! MP3+4 MP, +2
CU2
MA Se
R4+ 5R2 +3 R,
M,A I!
C";
..
1"""~
Cu, I
MP 3 + 4
MA
l'
MP, + 2
R
R
Rs + MA ,'R2 + 3 4 + 5
I
I - i
/
e
Figure27-2 Wings of Neuroptera. A, Ameromicromus (Hemerobiidae); B, Climacia
(Sisyridae); C, Polystoechotes(Polystoechotidae). The venation is labeled with the in terpretation of Carpemer (1940) and others. hv, humeral or recurrent vein; MA, anterior
media; Mp,posterior media.
psm
R + MA
C IRS MAR"MA
CuP
CuP + 1A
MPm
bln
I Cut
CuA
1A
Cup
MA
R + ~A+ MAMP1+2
R,
CuA
CuP + 1A
D
7(4').
hel
'cut
7'.
8(7).
Myrmeleontidae
p.478
474
8'.
9(7/).
9/.
Ascalaphidae
10
All (or nearly all) costal crossveins simple (Figures 27-2B and 27-3B)
13
10(9).
Hemerobiidae
Front wings with only 1 radial sector, which has 2 or more branches
(Figure 27-2C, Rs)
11*
lO'.
11(10').
p.479
p.477
12*
11'.
Berothidae*
12(11).
Polystoechotidae
Sc and R in front wing not fused distally; Rs in front wing with only a
few branches, crossveins between them scattered and not forming a
distinct gradate vein; free basal part of MA in hind wing short and
oblique; southern California
Ithonidae*
p.476
Sc and R in front wing not fused near wing tip, Rs appearing unbranched
(Figure 27-3B); wings, at least in life, often greenish; very common insects
Chrysopidae
p.477
14
12'.
13(9').
13'.
SUBORDER
Megaloptera:The members of the suborder Megaloptera have the hind wings broader at the
base than the front wings, and this enlarged anal area is
folded fanwise at resto The longitudinal veins do not
have branches near the wing margin, as do those of
many of the other insects in this order. Ocelli may be
present or absent. The larvae are aquatic, with lateral
abdominal gills, and with normal jaws (not elongate
and sicklelike, as in the Planipennia). The pupae are
not in cocoons.
Family Sialidae-Alderflies: The alderflies (Figure 27-5) are dark-colored insects, about 25 mm long
or less, and are usually found near water. The adults
are generally similar to corydalids, but are smaller and
lack ocelli. The larvae are aquatic and are usually found
p.477
p. 478
Dilaridae*
p.477
Sisyridae
p.478
mx
Figure27-6
Larvae of aquatic
Neuroptera;A, Corydalus
(Corydalidae); B, Chauliodes
(Corydalidae); C, Sialis (Sialidae);
D, Climacia (Sisyridae). ant, antenna; md, mandible; mx, maxilla;
oe, ocelli; sp, spiracle. (Courtesy
of Peterson. Reprinted by
permission.)
476
477
478
Chapter27 OrderNeuroptera
Figure27-10
References
MP in the hind wing. Some species have a fairly distinet gradate vein called the banksian Hne, extending
lengthwiseof the wing in the distal half or third of the
wing(Figure 27-4A, bln).
The North American species of antlions are
arrangedin six tribes of the subfamily Myrmeleontinae:
Aeanthoclisini,Brachynemurini, Dendroleontini, Gnopholeontini, Myrmeleontini, and Nemoleontini. The
Aeanthoclisini and Gnopholeontini occur only in the
West,but the other four tribes are widely distributed.
Onlythe larvae of the Myrmeleontini construct pitfalls.
FamilyAscalaphidae-Owlflies: These large, dragonfly-likeinsects have long, clubbed antennae. They are
fairlycommon in the South and Southwest, but are
quiterare in the North. Most species lay their eggs on
twigs,and a week or so after hatching the larvae climb
downto the ground, where they live in litter. The larvaeof a few species may be arboreal. Some larvae cover
References
Adams, P. A. 1956. New antlions
United
States (Neuroptera:
Myrmeleontidae).
Psyehe 63:82-108.
Aspoek, U. 1975. The present state of knowledge
on the
Rhaphidioptera
of Ameriea (Inseeta:
Neuropteroidea).
Polskie Pismo Entorno!. 45:537-546.
Aspoek, H., U. Aspoek, and H. Rauseh. 1991. Die Raphidioptera der Erde. Eine monographisehe
Darstellung
der
Systematik, Taxonomie, Biologie, Oekologie und Coro 10-
479
480
Chapter27 OrderNeuroptera
28
Order Hymenoptera1
Sawflies,ParasiticWasps,Ants,
Wasps,and Bees
F the most beneficial in the entire insect class. It containsa great many species that are of value as parasites
or predators of insect pests, and it contains the most
important pollinators of plants, the bees. The Hymenoptera are a very interesting group in terms of their
biology,because they exhibit a great diversity of habits
and complexity of behavior culminating in the social
organization of the wasps, bees, and ants.
The winged members of this order have four membranous wings. The hind wings are smaller than the
frontwings and have a row of tiny hooks (hamuli) on
theiranterior margin, by which the hind wing attaches
to a fold on the posterior edge of the front wing. The
wings contain relatively few veins, and some minute
forms have no veins at all. The mouthparts are
mandibulate, but in many, especially the bees, the labiumand maxillae form a tonguelike structure through
which liquid food is taken (Figure 28-6). The antennae usually contain lOor more segments and are generallyfairly long. The tarsi usually have five segments.
The ovipositor is generally well developed. In some
casesit is modified into a sting, which functions as an
organ of offense and defense. Because the sting is derivedfrom an egg-Iaying organ, only females can sting.
Themetamorphosis is complete, and in most of the order,the larvae are grublike or maggotlike. The larvae of
mostsawflies and related forms are eruciform and differ from those of the Lepidoptera in that they have
morethan five pairs of prolegs, lack crochets on these
prolegs, and usually have only a single pair of ocelli.
Thepupae are exarate and may be formed in a cocoon,
lHymenoptera:
hymeno,
god of marriage;
ptera, wings
of hamuli).
(referring
to
481
I
482
Chapter28 OrderHymenoptera
I
groups marked with an asterisk (*) are relatively rare
or are unlikely to be taken by a general collector.
Superfamily Xyeloidea
Xyelidae*
Superfamily Megalodontoidea
Pamphiliidae (Lydidae)-leaf-rolling
spinning sawflies*
and web-
Superfamily Tenthredinoidea
Pergidae (Acorduleceridae) *
Argidae (Hylotomidae)
Cimbicidae (Clavellariidae)
Diprionidae (Lophyridae)-conifer
sawflies
Tenthredinidae-common
sawflies
Superfamily Cephoidea
Cephidae-stem sawflies
Superfamily Siricoidea
Anaxyelidae (Syntexidae, Syntectidae)incense-cedar wood wasps*
Siricidae (Uroceridae)-horntails
Xiphydriidae-wood wasps*
Superfamily Orussoidea
Orussidae (Oryssidae, Idiogastra)-parasitic
wood wasps*
Suborder Apocrita (Clistogastra, Petiolata)
Superfamily Stephanoidea
Stephanidae*
Superfamily Ceraphronoidea
Megaspilidae (Ceraphronidae in part,
Calliceratidae in part)
Ceraphronidae (Calliceratidae in part)
Superfamily Trigonalyoidea
Trigonalyidae (Trigonalidae) *
Superfamily Evanioidea
Evaniidae-ensign wasps
Gasteruptiidae (Gasteruptionidae)
Aulacidae (Gasteruptiidae in part)
Superfamily lchneumonoidea
Braconidae (including Aphidiidae)
lchneumonidae (including Paxylommatidae
Hybrizontidae)
Superfamily Mymarommatoidea
Mymarommatidae*
Superfamily Chalcidoidea
Mymaridae-fairyflies
Trichogrammatidae
Eulophidae (including Elasmidae)
Tetracampidae *
Aphelinidae (Eulophidae in part, Encyrtidae
in part)
Signiphoridae (Encyrtidae in part;
Thysanidae)*
Encyrtidae
Tanaostigmatidae (Encyrtidae in part)*
Eupelmidae
Torymidae (Callimomidae; including Podagrionidae in part)
Agaonidae (Agaontidae, Torymidae in part)fig wasps*
Ormyridae
Pteromalidae (including Cleonymidae in part,
Chalcedectidae, Eutrichosomatidae, and
Miscogastridae)
Eucharitidae (Eucharididae, Eucharidae)
perilampidae
Eurytomidae-seed
chalcids
Chalcididae (Chalcidae)
Leucospidae (Leucospididae)
Superfamily Cynipoidea
Ibaliidae*
Liopteridae*
Figitidae (Alloxystidae, Eucoilidae, Charipidae, Cynipidae in part)
Cynipidae-gall wasps
Superfamily Proctotrupoidea
Pelecinidae
Vanhorniidae (Proctotrupidae in part, Serphidae in part) *
Roproniidae*
Heloridae*
Proctotrupidae (Serphidae)
Diapriidae (including Ambositridae, Belytidae,
Cinetidae)
Superfamily Platygastroidea
Scelionidae
Platygastridae (Platygasteridae)
Superfamily Chrysidoidea (= Bethyloidea)
Chrysididae (including Cleptidae)-cuckoo
wasps
Bethylidae
Dryinidae
Embolemidae (Dryinidae in part)*
Sclerogibbidae*
Superfamily Apoidea
Sphecidae (including Ampulicidae, pemphredonidae, Astatidae, Crabronidae, Mellinae,
Nyssonidae, Philanthidae)-mud-daubers,
thread-waisted wasps
Melittidae*
Colletidae (incIuding Hylaeidae)-plasterer
and yellow-faced bees
Halictidae-sweat bees
Andrenidae (including Oxaeidae)
Megachilidae-Ieaf-cutting
bees
Apidae (including Anthophoridae, Nomadidae, Euceridae, Ceratinidae, Xylocopidae,
Bombidae)-honey
bees, bumble bees, orchid bees, cuckoo bees, digger bees, and
carpenter bees
I
I
Superfamily Vespoidea
Tiphiidae (including Thynnidae)
Sierolomorphidae *
Sapygidae*
Mutillidae Cincluding Myrmosinae)-velvet
ants
Bradynobaenidae (Mutillidae in part) *
Pompilidae (psammocharidae)-spider
wasps
Rhopalosomatidae (Rhopalosomidae) *
Scoliidae
Vespidae Cincluding Eumenidae, Masaridae)paper wasps, yellow jackets, hornets, mason wasps, potter wasps
Formicidae-ants
Characters
Usedin Identifying
Hymenoptera
WingVenation
Venationalcharacters are used a great deal to separa te
the various groups of Hymenoptera. There are not
manyveins or cells in the hymenopteran wings, but
homologizing this venation with that in other orders
has proved to be a problem. There are two basic terminologies in use for the venation of the Hymenoptera: a traditional system using terms specific
for the order (Figure 28-3) and one developed by
Ross (1936) that attempted to homologize the venation with that of other insects. In this chapter we generally will use the modification of Ross's system by
Richards (1977) to refer to veins (Figures 28-1,
28-2). In those groups with very reduced venation
(Chalcidoidea and Proctotrupoidea especially), it is
much simpler to refer to the veins by their relative positions (see Figure 28-19B). We also follow Michener's
(1944) suggestions regarding the names of some cells,
and use the positional terms marginal and submarginal
cclls (Figure 28-3, MC, SM).
Leg Characters
The leg characters used in identification are chiefly the
number of trochanter segments, the number and form
of the tibial spurs, and the form of the tarsal segments.
The sawflies and some superfamilies of the Apocrita
have two trochanter segments (Figure 28-32A). In
fact, the so-called second trochanter is actually a basal
subdivision of the femur and is never movably articulated distally. In the bees (Apoidea), the first segment
e
I
Se,
483
484
Chapter28 OrderHymenoptera
e,
CharactersUsed Identifying
ofthe hind tarsus is usually much enlarged and flattenedand may in some cases appear nearly as large as
thetibia (Figure 28-15B,C). In some superfamilies, the
sizeand shape of the hind coxae may help separate
families.
AntennalCharacters
Theantennae of Hymenoptera vary in form, number of
segments,and location on the face. In the Apocrita the
number of antennal segments and, in some cases, the
formof the antennae may differ in the two sexes. In
mostaculeates, the male has 13 antennal segments and
thefemale has 12. In the ants, the antennae are much
more distinctly elbowed in the queens and workers
than in the males. In the Chalcidoidea, the antennal
flagellummay be thought of as consisting of three sections(Figure 28-25B): an apical clava (eva), the ring
segmentsbasally (rg), and the funicle between the two
(!un).The clava is formed of one to three segments that
aredistinguished by their close association rather than
necessarilyby any expansion. The ring segments (or
anneli)are minute, reduced segments, sometimes only
nt
Hymenoptera
ThoracicCharacters
The thoracic characters used in identifying Hymenoptera
involve principally the forro of the pronotum and of certain mesothoracic sclerites and sulci. The shape of the
pronotum as seen from above (Figure 28-9A-D) separates some families of sawflies, and its shape as seen from
the side separates groups of superfamilies of Apocrita.
The pronotum in the Apocrita may appear in profile
more or less triangular and extending nearly or quite
close to the tegulae (Figure 28-4C: Stephanoidea, Ceraphronoidea, lchneumonoidea, Cynipoidea, Evanioidea,
Proctotrupoidea, Platygastroidea, and some Vespoidea),
somewhat quadrate and not quite reaching the tegulae
(Figure 28-4A,B: Trigonalyoidea, Chrysidoidea, Cha1ci-
t~
, ,,ax
Figure 28-4 Mesosomatic structures in Hymenoptera, lateral view. A, cha1cidoid (Torymidae); B, cuckoo wasp (Chrysididae); C, paper wasp (Vespidae); D, thread-waisted
wasp (Sphecidae). ax, axilla; ex, coxa; emp, epimeron; eps, episternum; n, notum;
n,l, pronotallobe; nt, notaulus; pl, pleuron; pp, prepectus; prd, propodeum; sea, scapula;
se!, scutellum; set, scutum; tg, tegula.
485
486
Chapter28 OrderHyrnenoptera
ovp
I
I
Abdominal Charaders
In the superfamilies Ichneumonoidea, Stephanoidea,
Cynipoidea, and Chalcidoidea, the ovipositor issues
from the metasoma anterior to the apex, on the ventral
side, and is not withdrawn into the body when not in
use (Figure 28-5A). In most of the remaining Apocrita,
the ovipositor issues from the apex of the metasoma
and is withdrawn into the body when not in use (Figure 28-5B). The shape of the metasoma or of the petiole may separa te related groups in some superfamilies.
Other Charaders
In some wasps, the shape of the compound eyes differs
in different families, with the inner or mesal margins
sometimes strongly emarginate. The mouthpart structures used to separate groups of Hymenoptera are
chiefly the form of the mandibles and the structure of
the tongue (see Figure 28-6). The tongue provides
some excellent characters for identifying bees and
should be extended when specimens are fresh and still
flexible. The head and thoracic characters that involve
the form of sclerites and sulci are usually easy to see
except when the specimen is very small or very hairy.
In the latter case, it may be necessary to separate or remove the hairs. Characters such as the size, shape, or
color of the insect provide easy means of identification
,
Ip
_--Ip
--91
--flb
e--hbr-
-91
--- flb
- - hbr
--po--_smt
'. mxp.-
487
488
Chapter28 OrderHymenoptera
<=
]o
--,
1'.
2(1).
Figure28-7
13
Antennae inserted under a broad frontal ridge below eyes, just above
Orussidae*
2'.
3(2').
3'
4
7
4(3).
Pronotum in dorsal view wider than long, shorter along midline than
laterally (Figure 28-9D); mesonotum with 2 diagonal fUITOWS
extending
anterolaterally from anterior margin of scutellum (Figure 28-9D);
4'.
5(4').
Siricidae
p.519
p.518
Xiphydriidae
p.519
5'.
6(5').
6'.
7(3').
Anaxyelidae*
p.518
Cephidae
p.518
Argidae
p.517
490
"
1/
7'
8(7/).
Xyelidae*
Cimbicidae
8'.
9(8/).
p.516
p.517
9'.
10(9').
10'.
11(10'). Veins Sc and usually Cu and crossvein cu-a present (Figure 28-1);
antennae with 13 or more segments
11'.
Veins Sc and Cu absent and crossvein cu-a present (Figure 28-8E,F);
antennae variable
12(11'). Antennae 7- to lO-segmented and usually filiform (Figure 28-10B); 1 or
2 marginal cells (Figure 28-8E,F)
12'.
Antennae with 13 or more segments and either serrate or pectinate
(Figure 28-10C); 1 marginal cell
13(1'). First metasomatic segment (sometimes first 2 metasomatic segments)
bearing a hump or node and strongly differentiated from rest of metasoma
(Figures 28-11, 28-83); antennae usually elbowed, at least in female,
with first segment long; pronotum more or less quadrate in lateral view,
usually not reaching tegulae (Figures 28-11, 28-83); often wingless
13'.
First metasomatic segment not as in preceding entry, or antennae not
elbowed; pronotum variable
14(13'). Wings well developed
14'.
Wings vestigial or lacking
15(14).
Pronotum with a rounded lobe on each side posteriorly that does not
reach the tegula (Figures 28-4D, 28-12); venation usually complete or
nearly so (Figures 28-13, 28-14) (Apoidea)
10
p.516
Pergidae
*
11
Pamphiliidae*
p.516
12
Tenthredinidae
p.517
Diprionidae
p.517
Formicidae
p. 552
14
15
106
16
491
492
Chapter28 OrderHyrnenoptera
SMD
SMD
jl..........
B
MC
Figure28-14 Wings of Apoidea. A, Xylocopa (Apidae, Xylocopinae); B, Bombus (Apidae, Apinae); e, Melissodes(Apidae, Apinae); D, Apis (Apidae, Apinae); E, Nomada (Apidae, Nomadinae); F, Ceratina (Apidae, Xylocopinae). jl, jugallobe; MC, marginal cell;
SM, second submarginal cel!.
493
494
Chapter28 OrderHymenoptera
15'.
22
16(15).
Body relatively bare, with all body hairs unbranched; first segment of hind
tarsus similar in width and thickness to the remaining segments and not
longer than the remaining segments combined (Figure 28-15A); metasoma
often petiolate; posterior margin of pronotum (in dorsal view) nearly
always straight
Sphecidae
16'.
Body usually relatively hairy, with at least some body hairs (especially on
mesosoma) branched or plumose (Figure 28-16); first segment of hind
tarsus usually wider than the remaining segments and generally as long
as or longer than the remaining segments combined (Figure 28-15B-D);
metasoma not petiolate; posterior margin of pronotum (in dorsal view)
usually more or less arcuate
17
Figure 28-15
18
20
Colletidae
p. 543
19
Halictidae
p.539
p.543
19',
20(17/). Galeae and glossa short ("tongue" relatively short); segments of labial
palpi similar and cylindrical (as in Figure 28-6D)
20',
21(20'). Fore wing with 2 submarginal cells (Figure 28-13F); labrum longer than
wide, but with broad articulation with clypeus; subantennal su\ci meeting
outer side of antennal sockets (Figure 28-17B); scopa, when present,
on metasoma (Figure 28-69)
Andrenidae
p. 543
Melittidae
p. 540
21
Megachilidae
p. 544
496
Chapter28 OrderHymenoptera
21'.
22(15').
22'.
23(22).
23'.
24(23).
24'.
25(24).
25'.
Apidae
p.545
23
83
24
46
25
84
Fore wing with well-developed marginal cell and costal vein absent basally,
without enlarged stigma (Figure 28-19A)
26
Fore wing either without marginal cell (as in Figure 28-19B--E, 28-20A,E)
or costal vein present basally (Figure 28-20B--D,F-H); stigma often
present
33
Figure28-18
Base of
the metasoma in parasitic
Hymenoptera. A, lchneumonidae; B, lchneumonidae;
e, Braconidae; D, Gasteruptiidae; E, Aulacidae;
F, Evaniidae. met" first
metasomatic segment; cx3,
hind coxa; prd, propodeum.
~ \\\\~~~~~
e
--
.........
G
H
Figure28-19 Wings of
Hymenoptera. A, Cynipidae;
B, Perilampidae; C, Mymaridae;
D, Diapriidae (Diapriinae);
E, Megaspilidae; F, Bethylidae;
G, Ceraphronidae; H, Platygastridae; 1, Ichneumonidae
(PaxyIlomatinae). jl. jugallobe;
mv, marginal vein; pm, postmarginal vein; sm. submarginal vein;
stostigma; sv. stigmal vein.
UNIVERSIDAD
DECALDAS
a'SLIOTlECA
498
Chapter28 OrderHymenoptera
26(25).
26'.
27(26').
27'.
First segment of hind tarsus twice as long as the other segments combined,
second segment with a long process on outer side extending to tip of fourth
segment (Figure 28-20B); metasoma compressed, longer than head and
mesosoma combined; antennae 13-segmented in female and 15-segmented
in male; 7-16 mm long
Ibaliidae*
First segment of hind tarsi much shorter, the second segment without a
long process on outer side; antennae variable, but usually 13-segmented
in female and 14-segmented in male; generally 8 mm long or less
27
28(27' ,
110).
28'.
29(27').
29'.
p.533
Liopteridae
28
p. 534
Figitidae
p. 534
29
Figitidae*
30
p.534
e
Figure 28-20
the Cynipoidea.
Characters al
A, metasoma 01
Diplolepis (Cynipidae); B, hind
30(29'). Petiole of metasoma elongate, in lateral view longer than wide; head
distinctly wider than mesosoma
30'.
Petiole short or hidden; head as wide as or narrower than mesosoma
31(30'). Pranotum dorsally with a differentiated medial plate; genal carina
well-developed; scutellum sometimes pralonged in spine
31'.
Upper surface of pronotum without separate medial plate; genal carina
weak or absent; scutellum without posterior spine
32(31'). Head smooth; mid and hind tibia often with 1 apical spur; tarsal claw
without basal tooth
32'.
Head with coarse sculpture; mid and hind tibia with 2 apical spurs;
tarsal claw often with basal tooth
33(25'). Costal vein present in basal portion of fore wing and costal cell absent
(Figure 28-191, 28-21E)
33'.
Either costal vein absent basally or costal cell well developed
34(33). Metasomatic tergites 2 and 3 fused together; Rs and M separated basad
of 2r (Figure 28-21E)
34'.
Metasomatic tergites 2 and 3 separated and overlapping; veins Rs and M
not separating until beyond 2r (Figure 28-191)
35(33', Fore tibia with 2 apical spurs; venation highly reduced: no closed cells
110').
in fore wing, stigmal vein distinctly arched toward costal margin, marginal
vein extending from base of wing, submarginal vein absent
(Figure 28-19E,G) (veins rarely absent entirely) (Ceraphronoidea)
35'.
Fore tibia with 1 apical spur; venation variable, submarginal vein usually
present; in forms with reduced venation the stigmal vein, if present,
either straight or curved away fram costal margin
36(35). Middle tibia with 2 apical spurs; large apical spur on fore tibia forked
apically; antennae ll-segmented in both sexes; stigma of fore wing
usually large, semicircular (Figure 28-19E) (rarely linear or wings
veinless in male Lagynodinae)
36'.
Middle tibia with 1 apical spur; large spur of fore tibia not forked apically;
female antennae 9- or lO-segmented, male antennae 10- or ll-segmented;
stigma of fore wing linear, appearing similar to marginal vein, but
separated fram it by a distinct break (Figure 28-19G) (stigma and stigmal
vein rarely absent)
37(35', Antennal sockets separated fram clypeal margin by distinctly more than
90).
1 diameter of socket (Figure 28-22C, 28-59)
37'.
Antennal sockets contiguous with dorsal margin of clypeus or separated
fram it by less than 1 diameter of socket (Figure 28-22A,B)
38(37). Antennae 10-segmented; hind wings with jugallobe
38'.
Antennae 11- to 16-segmented; hind wings without a jugallobe
(Figures 28-19D, 28-31G)
39(38'). Basitarsus of hind leg distinctly shorter than following segments; fore
wing with Rs forked apically (Figure 28-21A)
39'.
Basitarsus of hind leg distinctly longer than following segments; fore
wing with Rs not forked or absent entirely
40(39'). First antennal segment distinctly elongate, at least 2.5 times as long as
wide; antennae usually arising from a distinct shelf (Figure 28-59);
stigma absent or very small (Figures 28-19D, 28-31G)
40'.
First antennal segment short, at most 2.2 times as long as wide; antennal
shelf absent; stigma present (Figures 28-21D,F-H)
...
Figitidae
31
p. 534
Figitidae
p. 534
32
Figitidae
p. 534
Cynipidae
p. 534
34
35
Braconidae
p. 522
Ichneumonidae*
p.523
36
37
Megaspilidae
p. 520
Ceraphronidae
p. 520
38
43
Embolemidae*
p. 538
39
Pelecinidae
p. 535
40
Diapriidae
41
p. 536
500
~~
"'-
'"
~""
B
MC
,
':"',"'-"'>"""~~.__.
-----------
~ 0 ~ o
0
'1
}~
rJ\j)
"o
..
41(40'). Antenna 13-segmented; medial cell not defined; marginal cell very narrow
(Figure 28-2lD)
41'.
Antenna with 14 or 16 segments; medial cell defined (Figure 28-21F,H, M);
marginal cell elongate (Figure 28-21F,H)
42(41'). Antenna 16-segmented (including 1 minute ring segment following pedicel);
metasoma slightly wider than high, in lateral view tergites subequal in
height to sternites;medialcelltriangular(Figure28-21H, M)
42',
Antenna 14-segmented (without ring segment); metasoma strongly
compressed laterally, in lateral view tergites much higher than sternites;
medialcellpolygonal(Figure28-21F,M)
43(37'). First antennal segment short and stout, less than 2 times as long as wide;
antenna 13-segmented; mandibles with tips pointing outward, and widely
separated when closed (Figure 28-22D); fore wing with thick stigma,
marginal cell closed (Figure 28-21G)
43'.
First antennal segment long and slender, distinctly more than 2.5 times
as long as wide; antenna never with 13-segments; mandibles normal,
touching or crossing when closed; fore wing with stigma absent, marginal
cell never closed
44(43'). Second metasomatic tergite distinctly longer than all others, several times
longer than tergite 3
44'.
Tergite 2 not distinctly longer than others, at most subequal in length
to tergite 3
45(44). Fore wing with stigmal and usually postmarginal veins; antennae usually
11- or 12-segmented, rarely 10-segmented
45',
Fore wing without stigmal or postmarginal vein (Figure 28-19H), often
entirely veinless; antenna with 10 or fewer segments
46(23'). Venation greatly reduced (as in Figure 28-19B), the hind wings without
an incision setting off a jugal or vannallobe; antennae elbowed; mesosoma
usually with a distinct prepectus (Figure 28-4A, pp); trochanters generally
2-segmented (Chalcidoidea)
46'.
Wings with more veins, the hind wings usually with a lobe (jugal or
vannal) set off by a distinct incision (Figures 28-19F, 28-2IB); antennae
usually not elbowed; trochanters usually 1-segmented (Chrysidoidea)
47(46). Hind femora greatly swollen and usually toothed or denticulate beneath
(Figure 28-23E); hind tibiae usually arcuate
47',
Hind femora not swollen or only slightly swollen, and either not toothed
beneath or with only 1 or 2 teeth
Proctotrupidae
p. 536
42
Heloridae
p. 536
Roproniidae
p. 536
Vanhorniidae
p. 535
44
45
Scelionidae
p. 537
Scelionidae
p. 537
Platygastridae
p. 537
47
80
48
51
-,
I
502
48(47).
48'.
49(48).
49'.
50(48').
50'.
51(47',
112').
51'.
52(51').
52'.
53(52').
49
50
Leucospidae
p.533
Chalcididae
p.533
Pteromalidae
p.532
Torymidae
p.532
Trichogrammatidae p.530
52
Mymarommatidae
*
p.526
53
Mymaridae
p.526
Figure28-24
53',
Antennal insertions closer to each other than to eyes; frons without such
sulci; size variable
54
55
60
56
55'.
59
56(55). Hind coxa greatly enlarged and flattened; outer surface of hind tibiae with
short, dark bristles arranged in zigzag lines or otherwise forming a
distinctive pattern (Figure 28-26); fore wings narrow; male antennae
branched
Eulophidae
p. 531
;1
504
Chapter28 OrderHymenoptera
c:
s
..
o
--,
c:
'"
E
2;
z
Figure 28-26
56'.
Hind coxa subequal in size to middle coxa; outer surface of hind tibia
without bristles forming a pattem; fore wings and male antennae variable
57
57(56').
58
c:
s
..
o
--,
c:
'"
E
2;
z
Figure28-27
57'.
Eulophidae
p.531
Encyrtidae
*
p.531
Aphelinidae*
p. 531
Encyrtidae
p.531
*
Tetracampidae
p. 531
Agaonidae*
61
p.532
59(55'). Notauli usually absent; mesopleuron convex (Figure 28-27 A); midtibial
59'.
60(54'). Head long, oblong, with a deep longitudinal groove above (Figure 28-52A);
front and hind legs stout, tibiae much shorter than femora, middle legs
slender (females; Florida, California, Arizona)
60'.
Head and legs not as as in preceding entry
61(60'). Antennal funicle with 4 or fewer segments
61'.
Antennal funicle with 5 or more segments
62(61). Axillae not separated from scutellum, together forming a narrow transverse
band across mesosoma; propodeum with a median triangular area; middle
tibia with lateral spurs
62'.
Axillae distinctly separated from scutellum; propodeum without a distinct
triangular area; middle tibia with apical spurs only
63(62'). Axillae contiguous medially; notauli absent
63'.
Axillae widely separated medially; notauli present
64(61'). Mesopleura large and convex, usually without a femoral groove
(Figure 28-27 A); apical spur of middle tibia generally very large and stout
(Figure 28-27B)
64'.
Mesopleura with a groove for reception of the femora (Figures 28-28D,
28-29); apical spur of middle tibia not enlarged
65(64). Middle coxae inserted in front of midline of length of mesopleuron and
nearly contiguous with fore coxae; prepectus flat; axillae wider than long
and meeting medially
65'.
Middle coxae usually inserted distinctly behind midline of length of
mesopleuron and widely separated from fore coxae; rarely with middle
coxae inserted near midline of length of mesopleuron, in these cases
prepectus strongly protuberant, covering posterior margin of mesopleuron;
axillae either not meeting medially or longer than wide
66(65'). Prepectus inflated and covering posterior portion of pronotum (especially
apparent viewed from below); mesosoma compact; Florida, California,
Arizona
66'.
62
64
Signiphoridae
p.531
63
Encyrtidae
p. 531
Aphelinidae
p. 531
65
67
Encyrtidae
p. 535
66
Tanaostigmatidae*
p.531
Eupelmidae
p.531
*
Eucharitidae
p. 533
68
506
Chapter28 OrderHymenoptera
68(67').
68'.
69(68').
Ormyridae
69
Perilampidae
p.532
p.533
69'.
70(69').
70'.
70
Torymidae
71
71(70'). Females; ovipositor sheaths at least one-third length of hind tibiae, often
longer; cerci elongate, peglike; hind coxa much larger than fore coxae,
more or less triangular in cross section
71'.
Both males and females; ovipositor sheaths usually shorter; cerci very
short, barely raised above surface of metasoma; hind coxa subequal in
size to fore coxa, more or less circular in cross section
Torymidae
72
p. 532
p. 532
-......,
508
Chapter28 OrderHymenoptera
72(71').
72'.
Males; fore wing with postmarginal vein much shorter than marginal
vein, subequal in length to stigmal vein; hind coxae much larger than
fore coxae, more or less triangular in cross section; inner margins of eyes
parallel in frontal view
Torymidae
Males and females; fore wing venation not as as in preceding entry; hind
coxae variable, if large and triangular in cross -section, then inner
margins of eyes diverging ventrally
73
77'.
p.532
74
78
Torymidae
p.532
75
76
77
Eurytomidae
p.533
Pteromalidae
p.532
Eurytomidae
p.533
Pteromalidae
p.532
Tetracampidae*
p.531
78(73'). Fore tibial spur short, straight, about one-fourth length of basitarsus;
propodeum distinctly setose medially; pronotum as long as or longer
than mesoscutum
78'.
Fore tibial spur usually distinctly curved, if not, then more than one-fourth
length of basitarsus; propodeum bare; pronotum usually distinctly shorter
than mesoscutum
79
79(78').
Males; apical spur of middle tibiae long, slender; apex of fore tibia with
1 or more short, stout spines on side opposite tibial spur; femoral groove
on mesopleuron with minute, netlike sculpture; mesopleuron often with
light line extending anteriorly from middle coxa
Eupelmidae
p.531
79'.
Males and females; apical spur of middle tibia short and apex of fore tibia
without spines; if otherwise, then femoral groove of mesopleuron with
coarse, netlike sculpture or punctured and light lines absent
Pteromalidae
p.532
Sclerogibbidae*
81
p.538
Dryinidae*
82
p.538
Chrysididae
p.537
80(46'). Antennae with 22 or more segments and arising low on face; Arizona
(males)
80'.
Antennae with 10-13 segments
81(80'). Antennae lO-segmented; front tarsi of female usually pincerlike
(Figure 28-30)
81'.
Antennae 12- or 13-segmented; front tarsi not pincerlike
82(81').
Metasoma with 3-5 visible terga, the last one often dentate apically; head
not elongate; body usually metallic blue or green and coarsely sculptured
<=
.<:
o
-,
82'.
Figure28-30
dryinid.
Bethylidae
p. 537
84
87
Evaniidae
p.521
85
86
Liopteridae
p. 534
Gasteruptiidae
p. 522
Aulacidae
p.522
88
509
510
Chapter28 OrderHymenoptera
,..
cu-a'
87'.
88(87).
92
Stephanidae*
89
88'.
89(88').
89'.
90
91
37*
90(89),
p.520
1M+CUI
1M + CUI
~
jl
E
511
512
Chapter28 OrderHymenoptera
90/.
Trigonalyidae*
p.521
Ichneumonidae
p.523
Braconidae
p.522
92(87/).
1M celllong, much longer than 1M+Cu cell, and usually about half as
long as wing (Figure 28-33A); wings usually folded lengthwise at rest;
3 submarginal cells; posterior margin of pronotum (in dorsal view)
U-shaped
Vespidae
p.549
92'.
1M cell usually shorter than 1M+Cu cell and no more than one -third as
long as wing (Figure 28-33B-F); wings usually not folded longitudinally
at rest; 2 or 3 submarginal cells; posterior margin of pronotum (in dorsal
view) usually straight or slightly arcuate
93
Mesopleuron with a transverse sulcus (Figure 28-34, su); hind legs long,
the hind femora usually extending to or beyond apex of metasoma; body
bare
Pompilidae
94
Scoliidae
91(89/).
91/.
93(92').
93'.
94(93/).
Figure28-34 A spider wasp (Pompilidae), showing the transverse sulcus (su) across
the mesopleuron.
p.549
p.549
Figure 28-35
Mesosoma, ventral view.
A, Scolia (Scoliidae); B, Tiphia (Tiphiidae). ex, coxa; msl, mesostemallobe;
stn2, mesostemum; stnJ' metastemum.
94'.
95
p. 549
Vespidae
96
96(95'). Crossvein cu-a more than two-thirds its length distad of first free segment
of M (between M +Cu. and Rs, Figure 28-31H); hind tarsi very long;
flagellar segments of antennae long and slender, each with 2 apical spines;
light brown wasps, 14-20 mm long
~~
'jl
......
A
Rhopalosomatidae
p. 549
.~
B
514
Chapter28 OrderHymenoptera
96'.
97(96').
97'.
98(97').
p.547
98
Vespidae
*
99
p.549
98'.
99(98').
99'.
100*
104
100(99).
101
100'.
102*
101(100).
Tiphiidae
p.547
101'.
Mutillidae
p.548
p.548
102(100').
102'.
Body usually very hairy; color and eyes variable; western United States
Sapygidae*
103*
103(102').
Bradynobaenidae
*
p.549
Second metasomatic tergum without lateral felt lines; body and legs
clothed with long, erect hairs; males and females (Fedtschenkia,
California)
Sapygidae*
p.548
Sierolomorphidae
*
p.548
Not shining black, but very hairy and often brightly colored; size
variable but usually over 6 mm long; second metasomatic tergum
usually with lateral submarginal felt lines; usually with 1 or 2 spines
at apex of metasoma
105
Middle tibia with 1 apical spur; antennal sockets not produced into
tubercles (western United States)
Bradynobaenidae
*
p.549
Mutillidae
p.548
103'.
104(99').
104'.
105(104').
105'.
106(14').
106'.
107(106).
107
109
Sclerogibbidae
*
p.538
107'.
108*
*
Ichneumonidae
p. 523
Braconidae
*
p. 522
110
111
28
35
112
114
113
51
Agaonidae*
p. 532
113'.
Torymidae*
p. 532
114(111').
Second metasomatie segment with lateral felt lines (see eouplet 103);
body usually very pubescent; antennae usually 12-segmented, rarely
11- or 13-segmented; females
115
114'.
116*
115(1l4).
108(107').
108'.
109(106').
109'.
110(109).
liD'.
lll(109').
lll'.
112(1l1).
112'.
113(1l2).
liS'.
Mutillidae
p. 548
*
Bradynobaenidae
p. 549
ll(1l4').
li'.
Antennae lO-segmented
Dryinidae*
117*
p. 538
m(1l6').
Antennae arising in middle of faee; hind tarsi very long, nearly as long
as tibiae and femora eombined; first metasomatic segment long and
slender; wings present but very short (Olixon)
*
Rhopalosomatidae
p. 549
118
Bethylidae*
119
117'.
118(1l7').
118'.
iiI
p. 537
516
119(118').
Tiphiidae
119'.
120
120(119').
Tiphiidae
p.547
120'.
Mutillidae
p.548
from other sawflies in having three marginal cells (Figure 28-8C) and the third antennal segment very long
(longer than the remaining segments combined) (Figure 28-100). Unlike all other sawflies except the Pamphiliidae, the costal cell of xyelids is divided by a longitudinal vein, the subcosta. The larvae feed on various
trees. Xyela larvae feed on the staminate cones of pine;
those of Pleroneura and Xyelecia bore in the buds and
developing shoots of firs; and other species attack hickory and elm. In the early spring adults can be collected
feeding on the catkins of willows and birches. This
group is small (24 North American species), and none
of its members is of very great economic importance.
Family Pamphiliidae-Web-Spinning and LeafRolling Sawflies: These sawflies are stout-bodiedand
usually less than 15 mm long. About 75 species occur
in North America. Some larvae are gregarious, and
some feed singly. The gregarious ones live in silken
nests formed by tying several leaves together, and the
solitary ones live in a shelter formed by rolling up a
leaL Members of this group are uncommon, and onlya
few are of much economic importance. Some speciesaf
Acantholyda and Cephalcia are pests of conifers; Neurotoma inconspicua (Norton) (a web-spinning species)
feeds on plum; and Pamphilius persicum MacGiIlivray
(a leaf-rolling species) feeds on pea ch.
Family Pergidae: The sawflies in this group (4
North American species) are fairly small and occur
from the eastern states west to Arizona, but are uncommon. Their larvae feed on the foliage of oak and
B
Figure 28-37 Sawfly larvae. A, Neodiprion lecontei (Fitch) (Diprionidae); B, Allantus
cinctus (L.) (Tenthredinidae). (Courtesy ofUSDA.)
r.1r~.I~~ .,.t
.".t'fllJ..k.J .
.J '''',
-.,:'J~.''~,
p.547
Figure28-38
Sawflies. A, the
UNNERSlDAD
DECAUtAS
518
Figure 28-39
Common sawflies
(Tenthredinidae). A, the birch leafminer,
Fenusapusilla (Lepeletier), male; B, the
I
body (or the posterior part of it) coiled over the edge
of a leaf. There is usually a single generation ayear, and
the insect overwinters in a pupal cell or cocoon, either
in the ground or in a protected situation.
Sawfly larvae feed chiefly on various trees and
shrubs, and some are very destructive. The larch sawfly,
Pristiphora erichsoni (Hartig), is a very destructive pest
of larch and, when numerous, can cause extensive defoliation over large areas. The imported currant-worm,
Nematus ribesi (Scopoli), is a serious pest of currants
and gooseberries.
A few species in this group make galls, and a few
mine leaves. Species of the genus Euura form galls on
willow, one of the most common being a small oval gall
on the stem. The birch leaf miner (Figure 28-39A),
Fenusa pusilla (Lepeletier), which makes blotch mines
in birch, is a serious pest in the northeastern states. It
has two or three generations ayear and pupates in the
ground. The elm leaf miner, Fenusa ulmi Sundevall,
mines in elm leaves and frequently does quite a bit of
damage.
The family Tenthredinidae is divided into eight
subfamilies, separated chiefly on the basis of wing venation. The two sexes are differently colo red in many
species.
FamilyCephidae-StemSawflies: These are slender,
laterally compressed sawflies (Figure 28-40). The larvae bore in the stems of grasses, willows, and berry
plants. Cephuscinctus Norton bores in the stems of
wheat and is often called the "wheat stem sawfly" (Figure 28-40C). The adult is about 9 mm long, shining
black, and banded and spotted with yellow. Cephus
E
Q)
E
c.
o
-
>
Q)
o
-g
'"
.r=
:
'"
~
Q)
c::
(ij
~e,
~
0- Q)
.c:
.r=Q)
ou
Figure28-41
gallery.
520
Chapter28 OrderHymenoptera
easily,by theirdistinctivewingvenation(Figure28--19G).
The veins are highly reduced with a long marginalvein,a
linear stigma (separated from the marginal vein bya
break), and the curved stigmal vein. Wingless formsaJt
fairly common and can be distinguished from megaspilids
521
522
Chapter28 OrderHymenoptera
Fam/yBraconidae:
This is a large (more than 1,900
North American species) and beneficial group of parasitic Hymenoptera. The adults are usually relatively
small (Nearctic species are rarely over 15 mm long).
They resemble ichneumonids in lacking a costal cel!
but differ in that they have no more than one m-cu
crossvein (Figure 28-31C), and the second and third
metasomatic tergites are fused together. Braconid biology is very diverse (Figures 28-44, 28-45). The family
contains both ectoparasites and endoparasites, solitary
and gregarious species, primary and secondary parag sites, and alllife stages of host, from egg to adult, may
be attacked (in the case of species attacking eggs, the
~
~
Figure28-43
(Illiger), female.
Family Gasteruptiidae:
These insects resemble ichneumonids, but they have short antennae and a costal
cell in the front wings, and the head is set out on a slender neck. They have one submarginal cell or none and
one m-cu crossvein or none (Figure 28-31E). They are
generally dark with brown or orange markings. Adults
are fairly common and can be found on flowers, particularly wild parsnip, wild carrot, and related species.
The larvae are parasites of solitary wasps and bees, and
females are often found flying around nesting sites of
these hosts, such as dead logs.
Family Aulacidae:The aulacids resemble the
gasteruptiids, but they are usually black with a reddish
metasoma, the antennae are longer, and there are two
m-cu crossveins in the front wings (Figure 28-31F).
These insects are parasites of the larvae of wood-boring
beetles and xiphydriid wood wasps, and adults can be
found around logs in which the hosts occur.
The IchneumonoSUPERFAMILY
Ichneumonoidea:
idea is a very large and important group, and its members are parasites of other insects or other invertebrate
animals. These insects are wasplike in appearance, but
(with few exceptions) cannot sting humans. The ichneumonoids are very common insects and may be recognized by the following characters: (l) the antennae
are filiform, usually with 16 or more segments; (2) the
hind trochanters are 2-segmented; (3) the costal cell is
absent; (4) the ovipositor arises anterior to the tip
of the metasoma and is permanently exserted (Figure 28-5A; sometimes the ovipositor is very short and
do es not protrude far beyond the apex of the metasoma); and (5) the pronotum in lateral view is somewhat triangular.
..
524
Chapter28 OrderHymenoptera
A
B
Figure 28-45
Braconidae.
A, Microgaster tibia lis Nees,
female (Microgastrinae), a parasite of the European corn
borer; B, Chelonus tcxanus
Cresson (Cheloninae), a parasi te of various noctuid moth
larvae; C, Apanteles diatraeae
Muesebeck, mal e (Microgastrinae), a parasite of the southwestern corn borer, Diatraea
doptera, Hymenoptera, Diptera, Coleoptera, Neuroptera, and Mecoptera, as well as spiders and spider
egg sacs. The host range of individual species is, however, quite variable, some attacking a wide variety and
others being highly specialized to one or a few host
species. The adult female must locate the host and then
may oviposit on, in, or near it (the last in confined situations such as galleries within wood), and the larva
may feed on the host from the outside through its cutide (as an ectoparasite), or it may live within the hemocoel of the host (as an endoparasite). Most ichneumonids are solitary, a single individual developing from
a single host, although some are gregarious. Many
species are hyperparasitic; that is, they are parasitoids of
other parasitoids, usually, ichneumonids, braconids, or
tachinids.
The family Ichneumonidae is divided into 24 subfamilies. In the recent past some entomologists dis-
Figure28-46 Ichneumonidae.
A, Rhysella nitida (Cresson), female (Rhyssinae); B, Casinaria
ambigua (Townes), female
(Campopleginae) (insert shows
tip of metasoma in lateral view);
C, Phytodietus vulgaris Cresson,
female (Tryphoninae); D, Phobocampe unicincta (Gravenhorst),
female (Campopleginae);
E, Tersilochusconotracheli (Riley),
female (Tersilochinae). (A and
C, courtesy of Rohwer; B, courtesy of Walley; D and E, courtesy
of the U.S. National Museum.)
526
Figure28-48 Chalcidoidea.
A, Aphelinus jucundus Gahan,
female (Aphelinidae), a parasite of
aphids; B, Baryscapus bruchophagi
(Gahan) (Eulophidae), a parasite of
the clover seed chalcid, Bruchophagus platypterus (Walker); C, Centrodora speciosissima (Girault),
female (Aphelinidae), a parasite of
cecidomyiids and chalcidoids that
attack wheat; D, Hemiptarsenus
fulvicollis (Westwood), female
(Eulophidae), a parasite of leafmining sawOies; E, Zarhopalus
inquisitor (Howard), male
(Encyrtidae), a parasite of aphids
and mealybugs; F, Ooencyrtus
kuvanae (Howard), female
(Encyrtidae), an imported egg
parasite of the gypsy moth. (A and
E, courtesy of Griswold and the
Entomological Society of America;
others, courtesy of USDA.)
528
Chapter28 OrderHymenoptera
,
A
e
"
'/
D
-,
.. .
Figure28-51
Chalcidoidea.
A-C, Torymidae; D-G, Eurytomidae. A, Torymus varians
(Walker), the apple seed
chalcid, male (insert is a
lateral view of the metasoma);
B, same, female; C, Idiomacromerus perplexus
(Gahan), female, a parasite of
the clover seed chalcid (G in
this figure); D, Tetramesa
maderae (Walker), the wheat
strawworm, a wingless female; E, Tetramesatritici
(Fitch), female, the wheat
jointworm; F,Eurytoma
pachyneuron Girault, female, a
parasite of the Hessian fly and
the wheat jointworm (E in
this figure); G, Bruchophagus
platypterus (Walker), the
clover seed chalcid. (Courtesy
of USDA.)
e
D
UNIVERSIDAD
DECAI.DAS
BIBLIOTECA
B
530
Chapter28 OrderHymenoptera
elude species in the orders Odonata, Orthoptera, Psocoptera, Thysanoptera, Hemiptera, Coleoptera, Lepidoptera, and Diptera. They are distinguished from all
other chalcidoids by a series of unique sulci on the
head (Figure 28-24): a set parallel to the inner edges of
the compound eyes on the frons and vertex, and a distinctive transverse sulcus running between the eyes
above the antennal insertions. In addition, most
species are characterized by the stalked, parallel-sided
Ilind wings and the narrow base of the fore wings (Figure 28-19C). These insects are all minute, usually less
than l mm in size. Consequently, they are poorIy
known, but they are a common and diverse component
of most insect faunas.
Family Trichogrammatidae:The trichogrammatids
are also insect egg parasites. They are very small. For
example, adults of the genus Megaphragma, parasites of
532
Key to the
534
r
Keyto the Familiesof Hymenoptera 535
The inquiline species have somehow lost the ability to induce the host plant to produce galls. These
wasps oviposit into galls produced by other species,
and their larvae feed on the elaborated gall tissue. The
inquiline larvae do not normally seem to feed directly
on the original gall-making larva, but the latter often
doesnot survive to emerge.
SUPERFAMILY
Proctotrupoidea: All the members of
thissuperfamily are parasites, attacking the immature
stagesof other insects. Most are small or minute, and
black,and they may be confused with cynipoids, chalcidoids,or some of the aculeates. The smaller members
ofthis group have a much reduced wing venation, but
theymay be distinguished from chalcidoids by the
structure of the mesosoma and ovipositor. The pronotumin the proctotrupoids appears triangular in lateral
viewand extends to the tegulae, and the ovipositor issuesfrom the tip of the metasoma rather than from anteriorto the tipo
Family Pelecinidae: The only North American
speciesin this group is Pelecinus polyturator (Drury), a
largeand striking insect. The female is 50 mm or more
longand shining black, with a very long and slender
metasoma (Figure 28-56). The male, which is extremelyrare, is about 25 mm long and has a swollen
posteriorpart of the metasoma. Males in the southern
panof the distribution of this species, from Mexico to
Argentina,are quite common. When captured, the femaleswivels her metasomatic segments and thrusts
withthe ovipositor, but they rarely penetrate the skin.
536
wooded areas, because they attack fungus gnats (Mycetophilidae) and other fIies breeding in fung.
B
Figure 28-58 Helorus anomalipes Panzer female
(Heloridae). (Courtesy of Clancy and the University of
California.)
Figure 28-59
A
B
538
Figure 28-61 Platygastridae, illustrating some metasomatie modifieations to aeeomodate the elongate ovipositoroA, Synopeas;B, lnostemma.
and begin constructing another. The eusocial bees typically progressively provision the cells in their nest,
bringing more pollen to the larvae as they grow or providing them with honey (collected in the form of neclar from flowers and concentrated by evaporation).
The bees are elosely related to the Sphecidae, and
their elosest relatives are probably some subgroup of
Ihe sphecids. Together they form a distinctive group
within the Hymenoptera. Their pronotum terminates
laterallyin rounded lobes that do not reach the tegulae.
Thedistinctive features of the nonparasitic bees largely
concern the transport of pollen (Figures 28-15B,
28--62). Most bees are quite hairy, and as they visit
ftowers, a certain amount of pollen sticks to their
body hairs. This pollen is periodically combed off
with the legs and transported on brushes of hairs
calledscopae(located on the ventral side of the metasoma in Megachilidae) or on corbiculae (the broad,
shiny,slightly convex outer surfaces of the hind tibiae,
Figure 28-15B, cb, as in the social Apidae). A few
speciestransport pollen in their crop. The bees that are
kleptoparasites, that is, those that live as "cuckoos" in
thenests of other bees, are usually wasplike in appearance, with relatively little body hair and without a
pollen-transporting apparatus. These can be recog-
540
Chapter28 OrderHymenoptera
.~ .....
,~.
UNIVERSIDAD
DECALDAS
542
Chapter28 OrderHymenoptera
Figure
28-67
(Smith)
.
Family Halictidae:
The halictidsaresmall to moderatesized bees, often metallic in color, and can usually be
recognized by the strongly arched first free segment of
the medial vein (Figure 28-13C). Most nest in burrows
in the ground, either on level ground or in banks. The
main tunnel is usually vertical, with lateral tunnels
branching off from it and each terminating in a single
cell. Large numbers of these bees often nest close together, and many bees may use the same passageway to
the outside. More than 500 species of halictids occur in
North America.
Three subfamilies of halictids occur in the United
States: the Halictinae (the largest and most common of
the three subfamilies), the Nomiinae, and the Rophitinae. The Rophitinae differ from the other two subfamilies in that they have only two submarginal cells and
have a short clypeus, usually not longer than the
labrum, and in profile strongly convex and protruding.
The Nomiinae, represented by the genus Nomia, have
the first and third submarginal cells about the same
size. These bees are often of considerable importance
in pollinating plants.
In the Halictinae, the third submarginal cell is
shorter than the first. This group contains several genera
of fairly common bees. In Agapostemon (Figure 28-68B),
Augochloropsis, Augochlorella, and Augochlora, the head
and mesosoma are a brilliant metallic green. These bees
are small, 14 mm long or less, and some bees in the
genus Augochlora are only a few millimeters long. The
other fairly common genera are Lasioglossum and
Sphecodes. Usually their head and mesosoma are black
or dull green. Some members of the genus Lasioglossum
are frequently attracted to people who are perspiring,
and are called "sweat bees." The bees in the genus Sphecodes are rather wasplike in appearance, and the entire
metasoma is red. These are parasites (kleptoparasites) of
other bees.
Halictids are extremely diverse in terms of their
social biology, spanning the spectrum from solitary
species, either nesting alone or in congregations, to
primitively eusocial species. The level of social "development" seems to be intertwined with poorly understood environmental constraints: Some species show
great differences in social behavior in different parts of
their range or at different times of the year. Eusociality,
per se, is clearly not an evolutionary goal toward which
these bees are inevitably moving, but most likely represents an adaptive strategy for a particular time and
c:
~
place. Michener (1974), in fact, argues that it is quite
c:
.s=
o
likely that in addition to having evolved many times,
--,
c:
E\j eusociality may have been lost just as often by different
<;
z species.
Family Andrenidae: The andrenids are small to
medium-sized bees that can be recognized by the
two subantennal sulci below each antennal socket
(Figure 28-17 A). They nest in burrows in the ground,
544
Chapter28 OrderHymenoptera
---
- ---
<=
.<::
o
-,
<=
'"
E
5
z
of nonparasitic
genera
Stelis,
Coelioxys.
The bees in the genera Stelis and Coelioxysare parastic. One introduced species of Megachile is an impartant pollinator of alfalfa in the West.
Figure28-69
Sayo
Figure28-70
duplaSayo
FamilyApidae-Cuckoo Bees, Digger Bees, Carpenter Bees, Bumble Bees, Orchid Bees, Stingless Bees,
HoneyBees: Until recently, the cuckoo bees, digger
bees,and carpenter bees were placed in the family Anthophoridae. The North American species of these
long-tongued bees are divided into three subfamilies:
theNomadinae, the Xylocopinae, and the Apinae.
Subfamily Xylocopinae-Carpenter
Bees: These
beesdo not have a protuberant clypeus, the front coxae
aretransverse, and the last metasomatic segment lacks
atriangular, platelike area. These bees make their nests
inwood or plant stems. The two North American generain this group, Ceratina and Xylocopa, differ somewhatin habits and differ considerably in size. The
smallcarpenter bees (Ceratina) are dark bluish green
andabout 6 mm long. They are superficially similar to
someof the halictids, particularly because the first
freesegment of the medial vein is noticeably arched,
butthey can be distinguished from a halictid by the
muchsmaller jugallobe in the hind wings (compare
Figures28-13C and 28-14F). These bees excavate the
pithfram the stems of various bushes and nest in the
tunnelsso produced (Figure 28-70). The large carpenterbees (Xylocopa) are robust bees about 25 mm long,
similarin appearance to bumble bees, but the dorsum of
theirmetasoma is largely bare (Figure 28-71A), and the
secondsubmarginal cell is triangular (Figure 28-14A).
Thesebees excavate galleries in solid wood.
Subfamily Nomadinae-Cuckoo Bees: All the bees
inthis group are parasites in the nests of other bees.
Theyare usually wasplike in appearance and have relativelyfew hairs on the body. They lack a pollentransportingapparatus, the clypeus is somewhat protuberant,the front coxae are a little broader than long,
andthe last metasomatic tergite usually (at least in females)has a triangular, platelike area. Some of these
bees(for example, members of the large genus Nomuda)
are reddish and of medium or small size. Others
(forexample,Epeolusand Doeringiella,Figure 28-72)
B
Figure 28-71 A, a large carpenter bee, Xylocopa virginica (L.) (Xylocopinae); B, a bumble bee, Bombus pensylvanicus (DeGeer) (Apinae). P/2X.
-.-,,"'"
q' ~'
~
<=
..c::
-,o
<=
'"
E
2;
z
Figure 28-72
(Apidae).
546
~
Z
~
~
~
Figure28-73 A, a digger bee, Anthophora tenninalis
Cresson; B, a cuckoo bee, Nomada.
Figure28-74
548
Chapter28 OrderHymenoptera
Figure28-75
e
A
B
black wasps, in which the females are wingless and
generally much smaller than the males. Five species occur in the United States and Canada, and they are
widely distributed but uncommon. The Methochinae
are parasites of the larvae of tiger beetles.
The Sierolomorphidaeare
Family Sierolomorphidae:
a small (six North American species) but widely distributed group of shining, black wasps 4.5 to 6.0 mm
long. They are quite rare, and nothing is known of their
immature stages.
The Sapygidae are a small (17
Family Sapygidae:
North American species) and rare group. The adults
are of moderate size, usually black spotted or banded
with yellow, and with short legs. They are parasites of
leaf-cutting bees (Megachilidae) and wasps.
Family Mutillidae-Velvet Ants: These wasps are
called "velvet ants" because the females are wingless
and antlike and are covered with a dense pubescence
<=
~,
o
<=
'"
-Figure 28-76
wasps.
(Figure 28-76). In most mutillid females, the mesosomatic segments are completely fused to form an im.
movable boxlike structure (in the subfamily Mynnosi.
nae, the prono tal and mesonotal suture is movable).
The males are winged and usually larger than thefe.
males and are also densely pubescent. Most species
have "felt lines" laterally on the second metasomatic
tergum. Felt lines are narrow longitudinal bands ofrel.
atively dense, dosely appressed hairs. The females
have a very painful sting. Some species can stridulate,
and they produce a squeaking sound when disturbed.
Most mutillids whose life histories are known areex.
ternal parasites of the larvae and pupa e of various
wasps and bees. A few attack beetles and flies. Mutillids are generally found in open areas. This groupisa
large one (about 435 North American species), and
most species occur in the South and West, especially
in arid areas.
----
r- -
Tiphiid
E
2;
z
Figure28-77
(Say),
..
21/2 X .
550
?N)}r~rt~ and
I."t.. .;.'.~
.........
e
Figure 28-79
A, adult, and B, nest, of a potter wasp,
Eumenes fraternus Say; C, a mason wasp, Rygchum dorsale (Fabricius); this species nests in small colonies in
vertical burrows in the ground.
---
Figure28-82
at nest.
U~UVERSIDAD
DECALDAS
~-r",=CA.
S'Bl'
552
Chapter28 OrderHymenoptera
554
References
References
Aguiar, A. P, and N. F.johnson.
2003. Stephanidae
of Arnerica north of Mexico (Hymenoptera).
Proc. Entorno\. Soco
Wash. 105:467-483.
Ananthakrishnan,
T. N. 1984. The Biology of Gall Insects.
London: Edward Amold, 362 pp.
Andrews, F. G. 1978. Taxonorny and host specificity of Nearctic Alloxystinae with a catalog of the world species (Hymenoptera: Cynipidae).
Occasional Papers on Entornology, California
Departrnent
of Food and Agriculture,
Sacramento, CA, No. 25, 128 pp.
Austin, A. D., and M. Dowton (Eds). 2000. Hymenoptera.
Evolution, Biodiversity and Biological Contro\. Collingwaod, Victoria, Australia: CSIRO Publishing, 468 pp.
Bahart, R. M., and A. S. Menke. 1976. Sphecid Wasps of the
Warld: A Generic Revision. Berkeley: University of California Press, 695 pp.
Baltan, B. 1994. Identification
of the
of the Chrysidoidea
(Hy-
menoptera).].
N.Y. Entorno\. Soco 94:303-330.
Carpenter,]. M. 1987. Phylogenetic
relationships
and classification of the Vespinae (Hyrnenoptera:
Vespidae). Syst.
Entorno\. 12:413-431.
Dessart, P, and P Cancerni.
1987. Tableau
dichotornique
genres de Ceraphronoidea
(Hyrnenoptera)
taires et nouvelles
especes.
FrustUla
7-8:307-372.
des
avec cornrnenEntornologica
Evans, H. E. 1978. The Bethylidae of Arnerica north of Mexica. Mern. Arner. Entorno\. Inst. No. 27,332 pp.
Evans, H. E. 1987. Order Hyrnenoptera.
In F. Stehr (Ed.), Irnmature Insects, pp. 597-710.
Dubuque,
lA: KendalV
Hunt, 754 pp.
Felt, E. P 1940. Plant galls and gall rnakers. lthaca, N.Y.:
Cornstock. 364 pp.
Fittan, M. G., and 1. D. Gauld. 1976. The farnily-group narnes
af the Ichneurnonidae
(excluding
Ichneurnoniae).
Syst.
Entorno\. 1:247-258.
Fittan, M. G., and 1. D. Gauld.
1978. Further
notes on farnily-
(Hyrnenoptera).
Syst.
555
556
Chapter28 OrderHymenoptera
of the Hymenoptera
Scr. 28:3-11.
(Insecta):
201 pp.
Sharkey, M. J. 1993. Family Braconidae. In H. Goulet andj. 1.
Huber (Eds.), Hymenoptera of the World: A Guideto
Families, pp. 362-395. Ottawa: Agriculture Canada.
Smith, D. R. 1969. Key to Genera of Nearctic Argidae (Hymenoptera) with revisions of the genera AtomaceraSay
and Sterictiphora Billberg. Trans. Amer. Entomol. Soc.
95:439-457
Smith, D. R. 1969. Nearctic sawfIies. Part 1: Blennocampinae:
Adults and larvae. USDA Tech. Bul!. No. 1397, 179 pp.
Smith, D. R. 1969. Nearctic sawfIies. Part 2: Selandriinae:
Adults. USDA Tech. Bul!. No. 1398, 48 pp.
Smith, D. R. 1971. Nearctic sawfIies. Part 3: Heterarthrinae:
Adults and larvae. USDA Tech. Bul!. No. 1429,84 pp.
Smith, D. R. 1974. Conifer sawfIies, Diprionidae: Key to
North American genera, checklist of world species, and
new species from Mexico. Proc. Entorno!. Soco Wash.
76:409-418.
Smith, D. R. 1976. The xiphydriid woodwasps of North
America. Trans. Entorno!. Soco Amer. 102:101-13l.
Smith, D. R. 1979. Nearctic sawfIies. Part 4: Al!antinae:
Adults and larvae. USDA Tech. Bul!. No. 1595, 172 pp.
Townes, H. 1948. The serphoid Hymenoptera of the family
Roproniidae. Proc. U.5. Nat!. Mus. 98:85-89.
Townes, H. 1949. The Nearctic species of the family Stephanidae
(Hymenoptera). Proc. U.5. Nat!. Mus. 99:361-370.
Townes, H. 1949. The Nearctic species of Evaniidae (Hymenoptera). Proc. U.S. Nat!. Mus. 99:525-539.
Townes, H. 1950. The Nearctic species of Gasteruptiidae (Hymenoptera). Proc. U.5. Nad. Mus. 100:85-145.
Townes, H. 1956. The Nearctic species of trigonalid wasps.
Proc. U.5. Nat!. Mus. 106:295-304.
Townes, H. 1969-1971. The genera of Ichneumonidae. PartI
(1969), Mem. Amer. Entorno!. Inst. No. 11,300 pp. Pan
2 (1969), Mem. Amer. Entorno!. Inst. No. 12, 537 pp.
Part 3 (1969), Mem. Amer. Entorno!. Inst. No. 13,307
pp. Part 4 (1971), Mem. Amer. Entorno!. Inst. No. 17,
372 pp.
Townes, H. 1977. A revision of the Rhopalosomatidae (Hymenoptera). Contrib. Amer. Entorno!. Inst. 15(1),34 pp.
Townes, H. 1977. A revision of the Heloridae (Hymenoptera).
Contrib. Amer. Entorno!. Inst. 15(2), 12 pp.
References
1981. A revision
of the Serphidae
(Hymenoptera).
Mem. Amer. Entorno!. Inst. No. 32, 541
pp. [Includes both Proetotrupidae
and Vanhomiidae.]
van Aehterberg,
C. 1984. Essay on the phylogeny
of Braeonidae (Hymenoptera:
Iehneumonoidea).
Entorno!. Tidskr. 105:41-58.
557
29
Order Trichoptera1,2
Caddisflies
T somewhat
spun from modified salivary glands and may be trompetshaped, finger-shaped, or cup-shaped, with the open
end facing upstream. They are often attached to the
side of a rock or other object over which the water
flows. The larvae spend their time near these nets (ina
retreat of some sort) and feed on the materials caught
in the nets. The free-living caddisfly larvae, which construct neither cases nor nets, are generally predaceous.
The larvae fasten their cases to some object in the
water when they have completed their growth, seal the
opening (or openings) in the case, and pupate in the
case. When the pupa is fully developed, it cuts its way
out of the case with its mandibles (which are well developed in this stage), swims to the surface, then
crawls out of the water onto a stone, stick, or similar
object, and the adult emerges.
The wing venation of caddisflies (Figures 29-2A,
29-3) is rather generalized, and there are few crossveins.
The subcosta is usually two-branched, the radius fivebranched, the media four-branched in the front wing
and three-branched in the hind wing, and the cubitus
three-branched. The anal veins in the front wing usually
form two Y-shaped veins near the base of the wing. Most
species have a characteristic wing spot in the fork of R..s.
CU2in the hind wing usually fuses basally with lA fora
short distance. In naming the cubital and anal veins in
this order, we follow the interpretation of Ross (1944)
and others rather than that of Comstock (1940). The
veins we call CUloand CUbare called CUt and Cu2,respectively, by Comstock, who considers the remaining
veins to be anal veins. In some groups (for example, figure 29-2A), the basal part of CUt in the front wing appears like a crossvein.
The majority of the caddisflies are rather weak
fliers. The wings are vestigial in winter in the females
Order Trichoptera
.
. -~.
..
'.
As
.l/MI
ab
--9
cla---
-10
-- aed
559
560
Chapter29 OrderTrichoptera
Figure29-3 Wings of Triehoptera. A, Dibusa angata (Ross) (Hydroptilidae); B, Homoplectra doringa (Milne) (Hydropsyehidae); C, front wing of Dolophilodesdistinctus
(Walker) (Philopotamidae); D, Psychomyia nomada (Ross) (Psyehomyiidae); E, front
wing of Agarodes crassicornis(Walker) (Serieostomatidae); F, front wing of Phanocelia
canadensis (Banks) (Limnephilidae); G, hind wing of Helicopsycheborealis (Hagen)
(Helieopsyehidae). (Courtesy of Ross and the Illinois Natural History Survey.)
of one species, Dolophilodes distinctus (Walker). The
eggs are laid in masses or strings of several hundred, either in the water or on objeets near the water. The
adult in many species enters the water and attaehes its
eggs to stones or other objeets. The eggs usually hatch
in a few days, and in most species the larva requires
nearly ayear to develop. The adults usually live about
a month. Adult caddisflies are frequently attracted to
lights.
The ehief biologieal importanee of this group lies
in the faet that the larvae are an important part of the
food of many fish and other aquatic animals. Their
eommunities are often used as an indication of the
amount of pollution in streams.
Psyehomyiidae-tube-making
caddisflies
Xiphoeentronidae*
Superfamily Philopotamoidea
Philopotamidae-finger-net
silken-tube spinners
and trumpet-net
caddisflies or
Superfamily Hydroptiloidea
Glossosomatidae (Rhyacophilidae in part)saddle-case makers
Hydroptilidae-microeaddisflies
Superfamily Rhyacophiloidea
Hydrobiosidae (Rhyacophilidae in part)*
Rhyacophilidae-primitive
eaddisflies
Superfamily Limnephiloidea
Apataniidae (Limnephilidae in part)
Goeridae (Limnephilidae in part)*
Limnephilidae-northern
eaddisflies
Rossianidae (Limnephilidae in part)
Uenoidae (Limnephilidae in part)*
Brachycentridae
Lepidostomatidae *
Superfamily Phryganeoidea
Phryganeidae-Iarge
caddisflies
Superfamily Leptoceroidea
Odontoceridae
Calamoceratidae
Leptoceridae-Iong-horned
Molannidae
Superfamily Serieostomatoidea
Beraeidae*
Helieopsychidae-snail-case
Serieostomatidae*
eaddisflies
caddisflies
size, number, and arrangement, and some of these variations are shown in Figure 29-4. These warts are very
difficult to interpret in pinned specimens, beca use they
are often destroyed or distorted by the pino For this and
other reasons, caddisflies should be preserved in alcohol rather than on pins.
The maxillary palps are nearly always five-segmented
in females, but they may contain fewer segments in the
males of some groups. The size and form of particular segments may differ in different families (Figure 29-5). Some
variation in the spination of the legs is shown in Figure 29-6. The most important variations are in the number of tibial spurs, which may vary up to a maximum of
four-two apical and two preapical spurs near the middle
of the tibia. Wing venation is not a very important character in separating the families of caddisflies.
Characters
Usedin Identifying
Trichoptera
Thecharacters used in separating families of adult caddisfliesare principally those of the head and thoracic
warts, the ocelli, the maxillary palps, the spurs and
spineson the legs, and the wing venation.
The head and thoracic warts, which are of considerable value in separating families, are well-defined
wartlike or tubercle-like structures on the dorsum of
thethorax. They usually bear many larger bristles, dis!inctfrom the fine, short clothing hairs elsewhere on
the notum. These bristles are sometimes not confined
towarts, but may be distributed in linear or diffuse setal areas (e.g., Figures 29-4C, 29-4H). They vary in
B
A
G
i'::":"
,." t'~'::':'
..
fJt}
t;E
~
,
J
562
Chapter29 OrderTrichoptera
~~
~D
C2i-,,~~~~
,,
,,
B
A
1'.
Hydroptilidae
p. 567
2(1').
2'.
Ocelli present
Ocelli absent
3(2).
Philopotamidae
Hydrobiosidae*
p. 567
3'.
4(3').
4'.
5(4).
S'.
12
p. 566
6(5).
6'.
Rhyacophilidae
7
p. 567
7(6').
7'.
Glossosomatidae
p. 567
Prono tal warts close together but not actually in contact (Palaeagapetus)
Hydroptilidae*
p. 567
8(4').
8'.
9(8').
9'.
10(9').
lO'.
Phryganeidae
9
p. 569
Uenoidae*
p.569
10
Small black or dark gray insects (length of fore wing 3-8 mm), without
color pattern; labrum short, its basal part almost equal to or only slightly
shorter than distal part (Figure 29-7C); anal area of hind wing weakly
deve10ped (Figures 29-7F-J)
11
Medium to large insects (length of fore wing 12-35 mm), with various
colors and patterns; labrum long, its basal part conspicuously shorter
than its distal part (Figure 29-7B); anal area of hind wing usually broader
(Figure 29-7E)
Limnephilidae
p. 567
564
Chapter29 OrderTrichoptera
11(10). Hind wing fork of R2and R3sessile, arising at or basal of the level of one
or more crossveins (Figures 29-7F,G); hind wing fork of R, and R, distal,
arising well beyond any other wing forks or crossveins (Figures 29-7F,G)
11'.
Hind wing fork of R2and R3absent (Figure 29-7H) or petiolate
(Figures 29-7IJ), arising beyond all crossveins; hind wing fork of R,
and R, more nearly basal, arising at level of other wing forks and
crossveins (Figures 29-7H-J)
12(2'). Maxillary palps with 5 or more segments
12'.
Maxillary palps with fewer than 5 segments
13(12). Terminal segment of maxillary palps much longer than preceding segment,
with numerous cross striae that the other segments do not have
(Figure 29-5G)
13'.
Terminal segment of maxillary palps without such cross striae, similar in
structure and length to preceding segment, or some segments with long
hair brushes (Figure 29-5A)
14(13). Mesoscutum with a pair of warts
14'.
Mesoscutum without warts (Figure 29-4A)
15(14), Mesoscutum with a pair of small, rounded warts that are sometimes
touching at midline (Figure 29-4B); widely distributed
15',
Mesoscutal warts large, somewhat quadrate, continuous along entire
midline of mesoscutum; southern Texas
16(15).
16',
17(16).
17'.
18'.
19(12',
13').
19',
Fork of R2and R3in front wing originating well beyond radial sector
crossvein (Figure 29-7M); widely distributed
21'.
p. 568
Apataniidae
13
p. 568
19
14
19
15
Hydropsychidae
p. 566
16
Xiphocentronidae*
p. 566
17
Psychomyiidae
Ecnomidae*
p. 566
p. 566
18
Dipseudopsidae
p. 566
Polycentropodidae
p. 566
Tarsal segments, except basal one, with spines only around apex
(Figure 29-6A); mesoscutum lacking warts and setae
Beraeidae*
p. 569
20
20(19'). Mesoscutal setae arising in area extending over almost the entire length
of mesoscutum (Figure 29-4C,H)
20'.
Mesoscutal setae usually confined to a pair ofwarts (Figure 29-4F,G,IJ,K)
21(20).
Rossianidae
21
23
Calamoceratidae
22
22(21'), Antennae much longer than body; middle tibiae without preapical spurs
22',
Antennae liule if any longer than body; middle tibiae with 2 preapical spurs
Leptoceridae
Molannidae
p. 569
p. 569
p. 569
566
Chapter29 OrderTrichoptera
Helicopsychidae
p.569
24
(Figure 29-4GJ)
25
26
25(24).
Odontoceridae
p.569
25'.
Goeridae*
p.567
26(24').
Sericostomatidae*
p.567
26'.
24'.
27(26').
27'.
Middle tibiae without spines, and middle tarsi with only a scattered few
in addition to apical ones (Figure 29-6C); middle tibiae with 2 preapical
spurs arising from about midlength of the tibia
27
Brachycentridae
p.569
Lepidostomatidae
*
p.569
F
E
568
Chapter29 OrderTrichoptera
e
B
E
D
~t\ <' \ .
,oJ'.i.'...:;, he
",
..(, an.dfive-segmented in the females. The larvae live prin..cipally in ponds and slow-moving streams. The cases
are made of a variety of materials, and in some species
the cases made by the young larvae are quite different
from those made by older larvae. The larval stages of
one species in this family, Philocasea demita Ross, which
occur in Oregon, live in moist leaf liuer.
FamilyApataniidae:This familywas recently segregated from the family Limnephilidae and includes 24
western species; 7 eastern species; and 3 transcontinental, northern-boreal species. Larvae of Apatania are
scrapers that browse on algae and other organic material attached on the surface of stones. They graze while
protected in sand cases that are tapered and curved
posteriorly.
FamilyRossianidae:This is another family that was
recently segregated from the family Limnephilidae. It
includes two western species, each in its own genus.
Larvae eat fine bits of organic debris in springs and may
UNIVERSIDAD
DECALDAS
BIBLIOTECA
Collecting and Preserving Trichoptera
Caddisfly adults are usually found near water. The
habitat preferences of species differ, so to get a large
number of species visit a variety of habitats. The adults
can be collected by sweeping in the vegetation along
the margins of and near ponds and streams, by check-
r
570
Chapter29 OrderTrichoptera
References
Betten, C. 1934. The caddis flies or Trichoptera
Sta te. N.Y. State Mus. Bull. 292:1-570.
Cornstock,].
H. 1940. An introducion
edition. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornstock
Inc. 1064 pp.
of New York
to entornology. Ninth
Publishing
Cornpany,
.,
30
Order Lepidoptera1,2
Butterfliesand Moths
.'
Figure30-1 A butterfly with a section of the wing enlarged to show the scales.
571
572
Chapter30 OrderLepidoptera
r
Classification of the lepidoptera
silk
sp
sp
573
574
Chapter30 OrderLepidoptera
Superfamily Incurvarioidea
Heliozelidae *
Adelidae
Prodoxidae (Incurvariidae, in part)
Incurvariidae
Superfamily Sesiodea
Sesiidae (Aegeriidae)
Superfamily Tischerioidea
Tischeriidae *
Superfamily Cossoidea
Cossidae Cincluding Zeuzeridae and Hypoptidae)
Superfamily Gracillarioidea
Douglasiidae *
Bucculatricidae (Bucculatrigidae)
Gracillariidae (Lithocolletidae, Phyllocnistidae)
Superfamily Yponomeutoidea
Yponomeutidae (Hyponomeutidae, including
Attevidae, Prayidae, Scythropiidae, and
Argyresthiidae)
Superfamily Gelechioidea
Elachistidae (Stenomatidae, Ethmiidae, Azinidae,
Depressariidae [Epigraphiidae, Cryptolechiidae, Haemilidae, Thalamarchellidae], Elachistidae [Cycnodiidae, Aphelosetiidae], Agonoxenidae [Blastodacnidae, Parametriotidae])
Xyloryctidae (Scythrididae)
Glyphidoceridae
Oecophoridae ([Dasyceridae], Stathmopodidae,
[Tinaegeriidae, Ashinagidae])
Batrachedridae *
Deoclonidae *
Coleophoridae ([Haploptilidae, Eupistidae],
Momphidae [Lavemidae], Blastobasidae,
Pterolonchidae)
Autostichidae (Symmocidae)*
Peleopodidae *
Amphisbatidae (Oecophoridae, in part)
Cosmopterigidae (Cosmopterygidae, including
Walshiidae)
Gelechiidae (Anacampsidae, Litidae, Anomologidae, Anarsiidae)
Superfamily Zygaenoidea
Epipyropidae*
Megalopygidae (Lagoidae) *
Limacodidae (Cochliidae, Eucleidae)
Dalceridae (Acragidae)*
Lacturidae *
Zygaenidae
Superfamily Tineoidea
Tineidae (Tinaeidae, including Hieroxestidae
Oinophilidae)
Acrolophidae
Psychidae Cincluding Talaeporiidae)
Superfamily Tortricoidea
Tortricidae Cincluding Cochylidae [Phaloniidae],
Sparganothidae, Olethreutidae, and
Eucosmidae)
Superfamily Galacticoidea
Galacticidae *
Superfamily Choreutoidea
Choreutidae
Superfamily Urodoidea
Urodidae*
Superfamily Schreckensteinioidea
Schreckensteiniidae
SuperfamilyEpermenioidea
Epermeniidae*
SuperfamilyAlueitoidea
Alueitidae (Omeodidae)
SuperfamilyPterophoroidea
Pterophoridae (including Agdistidae)
Superfamily Copromorphoidea
Copromorphidae *
Carposinidae *
SuperfamilyHyblaeoidea
Hyblaeidae (Noctuidae, in pan)*
The prineipal characters used in identifying adult Lepidoptera are those of the wings (venation, method of
wing union, wing shape, and scaling). Other characters
used include the character of the antennae, mouthparts
(principally the palps and proboseis), ocelli (whether
present or absent), legs, male and female genitalia, and
abdomen, and frequently such general features as size
and color.
SuperfamilyThyridoidea
Thyrididae (Pyralidae, in pan)*
Superfamily Pyraloidea
Pyralidae (including Galleriidae, Chrysaugidae,
Epipaschiidae, and Phyeitidae)
Crambidae (including Schoenobiidae, Nymphulidae, and Pyraustidae)
SuperfamilyHesperioidea
Hesperiidae (including Megathymidae)
Superfamily Papilionoidea
Papilionidae (including Pamassiidae)
Pieridae (Aseiidae)
Lycaenidae (Cupidinidae, Ruralidae, including
Riodinidae = Nemeobiidae = Eryeinidae)
Nymphalidae (Argyreidae, including Heliconiidae, Ithomiidae, Libytheidae, Morphidae,
Brassolidae, Danaidae, and Satyridae)
Superfamily Drepanoidea
Drepanidae (including Thyatiridae)*
Superfamily Geometroidea
Sematuridae*
Uraniidae (including Epiplemidae)*
Geometridae
Superfamily Mimallonoidea
Mimallonidae (Lacosomidae, Perophoridae)*
Superfamily Lasiocampoidea
Lasiocampidae
Superfamily Bombycoidea
Bombyeidae (including Apatelodidae
Zanolidae) *
Satumiidae (Attaeidae, including
Ceratocampidae = Citheroniidae)
Sphingidae (Smerinthidae)
Superfamily Noctuoidea
Doidae *
Notodontidae (including Heterocampidae, and
Dioptidae)
Noctuidae (Phalaenidae, including Plusiidae,
Agaristidae, and Cuculliidae)
Pantheidae (Noctuidae, in pan)
Lymantriidae (Liparidae, Orgyidae)
Wing Venation3
The wing venation in this order is relatively simple, because there are few crossveins and rarely extra
branches of the longitudinal veins, and the venation is
reduced in some groups. Entomologists differ regarding the interpretation of cenain veins in the lepidopteran wing. Here we follow Comstock's interpretation (Comstock 1940).
Two general types of wing venation occur in this
order, homoneurous and heteroneurous. In homoneurous venation, the venation of the front and hind wings
is similar; there are as many branches of R in the hind
wing as in the front wing. In heteroneurous venation,
the venation in the hind wing is reduced, and Rs is always unbranched.
Homoneurous venation occurs in the superfamilies
Micropterigoidea, Eriocranioidea, Acanthopteroctetoidea,
and Hepialioidea. These groups have a simple or twobranched subcosta, the radius has five branches (occasionally six), the media has three branches, and there are
usually three anal veins (Figure 30-5).
The remaining superfamilies have a heteroneurous
venation. The radius in the front wing usually has five
branches (occasionally fewer), but in the hind wing the
radial sector is unbranched and R usually fuses with
the subcosta. The basal portion of the media is atrophied in many cases, so that a large cell, commonly
called the discal cel!, is formed in the central pan of the
wing. The first anal vein is often atrophied or fused
with A2. A somewhat generalized heteroneurous venation is shown in Figure 30-6.
'Some auhorities callhe mediocubiJal crossvein of the Comstock
(1940) terminology M,. The three branches of the media, according
to Comstock, are M" M" and M,. According to these other authorities, Comstock's CUl and Cu, are CuAl and CuA" his lA is CuPohis
2A is lA, and his 3A is 2A.
576
Chapter30 OrderLepidoptera
Se
R,
Se
CUA2 CuA,
Figure30-5
The veins may fuse in various ways in the heteroneuraus graups, and this fusing or stalking is used
in the key. The sub costa in the frant wing is nearly always free of the discal cell and les between it and the
costa. The branches of the radius arise fram the anterior side of the discal cell or from its outer anterior
comer. Two or more branches of the radius are frequently stalked, that is, fused for a distance beyond
the discal cell. Certain radial branches occasionally
fuse again beyond their point of separation, thus
forming accessory cells (for example, Figure 30-17 A,
aee). The three branches of the media usually arise
fram the apex of the discal cell in both wings, although MI may be stalked with a branch of the radius
for a distance beyond the apex of the discal cell (Figure 30-13). The point of origin of M2 fram the apex
of the discal cell is an important character used in
separating different groups: When it arises from
the middle of the apex of the discal cell, as in Figure 30-20, or anterior to the middle, the vein (Cu)
forming the posterior side of this cell appears threebranched; when M2 arises nearer to M3 than to MI
(Figures 30-23 through 30-28), then the cubitus appears four-branched.
Variations in the venation of the hind wing of the
heteroneurous graups involve principally the nature of
the fusion of Sc+ RI and the number of anal veins. In
so me cases R is separa te fram Se at the base of the
wing, and R appears as a crassvein between Rs and Se
somewhere along the anterior side of the distal cel!
(Figure 30-l7B). R also fuses with Se eventually, and
judging fram the pupal tracheation, the vein reaching
the wing margin is Sc (the R trachea is always small);
however, this vein at the margin is usually called
Sc+ R. In many cases Se and R are fused basally, or
they may be separate at the base and fuse for a short
distance along the anterior side of the discal cell (Figures 30-26, 30-27). In the heteroneurous families,
most authorities call the lA of Comstock (1940) CuP;
his 2A as A+2;and his 3A as A3'
"f:?~,,::~~~::"M_;---
Cu'
/~~~"h_"_""_",_,_"__,,,_,,,,,
A2/
~.......-..._--.._.
Se + R,
Rs
A1 +2
CuP
Figure 30-6 Generalized heteroneurous venation. The veins shown by dotted lines are
atrophied or lost in some groups. D, discal cell;J, frenulum.
OtherWing Characters
Thewings on each side are made to operate together
byfour general mechanisms: a fibula, a jugum, a frenulum,and an expanded humeral angle of the hind wing.
Afibula is a small, more-or-Iess triangular lobe at the
baseof the front wing on the posterior side (Figure 30-34B, fib), which overlaps the base of the hind
wing.This mechanism occurs in the Micropterigoidea,
Eriocranioidea, and Acanthopteroctetoidea. A jugum is
a small, fingerlike lobe at the base of the front wing
(Figure30-5, j), which overlaps the base of the anterioredge of the hind wing. This structure occurs in the
Hepialoidea.A frenulum is a large bristle (acanthus) in
malesor a group ofbristles (most females) arising from
hehumeral angle of the hind wing and fitting under a
groupof scales (female) or a sclerotized hook (males),
heretinaculum near the costal margin (on the lower
surface)of the front wing (Figure 30-6,1). A frenulum
578
HeadCharacters
The antennae of butterflies (Figure 30-7 A,B) are
slender and knobbed at the tip; those of moths (Figure 30-7C-E) are usually filiform, setaceous, or plumose. The basal segment of the antennae in some of the
microlepidoptera is enlarged, and when the antenna is
bent down and back this segment fits over the eye. Such
an enlarged basal antennal segment is called an eye cap
(Figure 30-29B). Most moths have a pair of ocelli 10cated on the upper surface of the head close to the compound eyes (Figure 30-2A, oc). These ocelli often can
be seen only by separating the hairs and scales. The
mouthpart characters most often used in keys are the
nature of the labial and maxillary palps and the proboscis. Certain exotic families do not conform to these
distinctions between moths and butterflies.
Leg Characters
The leg characters of value in identification include the
form of the tibial spurs and the tarsal claws, the presence
or absence of spines on the legs, and occasionally the
--Key to the
the
Familiesof lepidoptera
1'.
116
2(1).
Front and hind wings similar in venation and usually also in shape; Rs in
hind wing 3- or 4-branched (Figures 30-5, 30-34B); front and hind wings
usually united by jugum or fibula; no coiled proboseis
3*
2'.
Front and hind wings dissimilar in venation and usually also in shape;
Rs in hind wing unbranched; no jugum or fibula, front and hind wings
united by frenulum or by expanded humeral angle of hind wing;
mouthparts usually in form of a coiled probo seis
579
580
Chapter 30
3(2).
3'.
Hepialidae*
4*
p.604
Wingspread 12 mm or less
Funetional mandibles present; middle tibiae without spurs; Se in front
wing forked near its middle (Figure 30-34B)
Micropterigidae*
p.603
5*
Oeelli present; MI in both wings not stalked with R.+5;anal veins in front
wing fused distally; widely distributed
Eriocraniidae*
5'.
Oeelli absent; MI in both wings stalked with R.+5;anal veins in front wing
separate; western United States
Acanthopteroctetidae* p.603
6(2').
15
7(6).
Radius in front wing 5-branehed, with all branehes simple and arising
from diseal eell (Figure 30-8); antennae widely separated at base and
usually hooked at tip (Figure 30-7B); hind tibiae usually with a middle
spur; stout-bodied inseets (skippers)
Hesperiidae
7'.
4(3').
4'.
5(4').
6'.
,' " .
W~
.;
Order lepidoptera
Wingspread 25 mm or more
p.603
p,619
~.
. ,~,
4 ,
')l'
aJNNERSlDAD
DECMDAS
BIBLIOTECA
582
Figure 30-11
Wings of
Nymphalidae.A, Speyeria
(Heliconiinae) (discal cell in
hind wing closed by a vestigial vein); B, Limenitis
(Limenitinae) (discal cell in
hind wing open). D, discal
cel!; hv, humeral vein.
M,
.'
Figure30-13 Wings of
Pieridae. A, an orange-tip
(Euchloe); B, a sulphur (Colias).
hv, humeral vein.
.'
584
8(7').
8'.
9(8').
Cubitus in front wing apparently 4-branched, hind wing with single anal
vein (Figure 30-9); hind wing often with 1 or more tail-like prolongations
on posterior margin
Papilionidae
Cubitus in front wing apparently 3-branched, hind wing with 2 anal veins
(Figures 30-10 through 30-14); hind wing usually without tail-like
prolongations on posterior margin
p.620
9'.
Nymphalidae
(Libytheinae)*
10
10(9').
11
14
Nymphalidae
(Danainae)
12
Nymphalidae
(Satyrinae)
Generally with no veins in front wing greatly swollen at base (Sc in front
wing slightly swollen in some Nymphalidae); wing color and shape, and
antennae, usually not as in preceding entry
13
Pieridae
p.621
M in front wing not stalked with R beyond discal cell; front legs much
reduced, without tarsal claws, not used in walking; usually medium-sized
to large butterflies, and not colored as in preceding entry
Nymphalidae
(Nymphalinae)
p.623
Pieridae
p.621
Lycaenidae
p.622
lO'.
11(10).
11'.
12(11').
12'.
13(12').
13'.
Labial palps very long, longer than thorax, and thickly hairy
(Figure 30-61C)
14(10'). M in front wing stalked with R beyond discal cell (Figure 30-13B); small
to medium-sized butterflies, with white, yellow, or orange coloration,
usually marked with black (Figure 30-59)
14'.
M in front wing usually not stalked with R beyond discal cell
(Figure 30-14); usually not colored as in preceding entry
15(6').
Wings, especially hind wings, deeply cleft or divided into plumelike lobes
(Figure 30-52); legs long and slender, with long tibial spurs
15'.
Wings entire, or front wings only slightly cleft
16(15). Each wing divided into 6 plumelike lobes
16'.
Front wings divided into 2-4 lobes, hind wings divided into 3 lobes
17(15').
17'.
p.623
p.623
p.6L3
16
17
Alucitidae*
p.616
Pterophoridae
p.616
A part of the wings, especially hind wings, devoid of scales (Figure 30-46);
front wings long and narrow, at least 4 times as long as wide
(Figure 30-47); hind margin of front wings and costal margin of hind
wings with a series of recurved and interlocking spines and wing folds;
wasplike day-flying moths
Sesiidae
p.612
Wings scaled throughout, or if with clear areas, then front wings are more
triangular; wings without such interlocking spines
18
...
18(17/).
Hind wings much broader than their fringe, usually wider than front
wings, never lanceolate; tibial spurs variable, often short or absent
19
Hind wings with fringe as wide as wings or wider, hind wings usually
no wider than front wings, often lanceolate (Figure 30-42); tibial spurs
long, more than twice as long as width of tibia
63
19(18).
20
19'.
31
20(19).
Hind wing with Sc and Rs fused for a varying distance beyond discal cell
or separa te but very closely parallel (Figure 30-15); Sc and R in hind
wing separate along front of discal cell, or base of R atrophied
Pyralidae,Crambidae
20'.
Hind wing with Sc and Rs widely separate beyond discal cell, base of R
usually well developed
21
Sc and Rs in hind wing fused to near end of discal cell or at least fused
beyond middle of cell (Figure 30-16)
22*
Sc and Rs in hind wing separate from base or fused for a short distance
along basal half of cell (Figures 30-17, 30-18)
23
22(21).
Zygaenidae*
p.612
22'.
Wings largely yellowish or white, densely clothed with 50ft scales and
hair; Rs in front wing stalked beyond discal cell (Figure 30-16B)
p.611
18/.
21(20').
21'.
23(21/).
Megalopygidae*
24
23'.
27
24(23).
Tibial spurs short, no longer than width of tibia; mouthparts often vestigial
25
24'.
Tibial spurs long, more than twice as long as width of tibia; mouthparts
usually well developed
63
R3
.
_ R4
R5
MI
M2
M3
CUI
CU2
'"
A'+2
Rs
A'+2
p.617
585
586
Rs
,
M,
M2
M3
.- CU,
CU2
Figure 30-16
A3
A1+2 CuP
gidae). f, frenulum.
R, R2 R3
~R4
Rs
M,
M2
M3
Cu,
CU2
CuP
A'+2
I
I
I
R2
R3
R4
Rs
M,
M2
M3
Cu,
Se
CU2
CuP
Se + R,
Rs
M,
M2
M,
M2
,
, M3
Cu,
M3
f
CU2
CuP
A3~
Cu,
AH 2 CUpCU2
A
A'+2
e
Figure30-18 A, wings of Euc/ea (Limaeodidae); B, wings of Cicinnus (Mimallonidae);
C, wings of Urania (Uraniidae). J, frenulum.
25(24).
26
25',
Epipyropidae
26(25).
Front wings sub triangular, about one half longer than wide; wings
densely clothed with 50ft seales and hair; Arizona
Dalceridae
*
p.612
Front wings more elongate, at least twiee as long as wide; wings more
thinly sealed; widely distributed
Cossidae*
p.613
26'.
27(23'). M2in front wing arising about midway between M and M3' or closer
to M, eubitus appearing 3-branehed (Figures 30-17B, 30-188); frenulum
present or absent
27'.
M2in front wing arising closer to M3than to M, eubitus appearing
4-branehed; frenulum well developed (Figure 30-18A)
28(27). M3and Cu in front wing stalked for a short distanee beyond diseal eell;
frenulum well developed; California and Texas
28'.
M3and Cu in front wing not stalked beyond diseal eell; frenulum small
or absent; widely distributed
29(28'). Front wing with R2+3and R.+, stalked independendy of R; Se and Rs in
hind wing not eonneeted by a erossvein (Figure 30-188)
29'.
Front wing with R2'R3,R., and R, united on a eommon stalk; Se and Rs
in hind wing eonneeted basally by a erossvein (R) (Figure 30-178)
p.611
28*
30
Notodontidae
(Dioptinae*)
p. 635
29*
Mimallonidae*
p. 629
Bombycidae
p. 631
588
Chapter30 OrderLepidoptera
Copromorphidae
*
p.616
Tortricidae
p.613
p.612
Limacodidae
32*
Front wing with single complete anal vein (Figures 30-19B, 30-20
through 30-28) or with A and A2fusing near tip or connected by a
crossvein (Figure 30-19A)
33
Zygaenidae*
p.612
Hyblaeidae*
p.616
32(31).
32'.
33(31').
Front wing with a single complete vein behind discal cell (A+2),CuP
at most represented by a fold, A3absent or meeting A+2basally so that
Al+2appears forked at base (Figures 30-19B, 30-20 through 30-28)
34
33'.
Front wing with A and A2fusing near tip (Figure 30-19A) or connected
by a crossvein
Psychidae
p.606
34(33).
Sphingidae
p.634
35
36
34'.
35(34').
-'
CU2
A1+2
Se+ RI
Rs
M,
Se + R1
Rs
MI
M2
M3
Cu,
CU2
M3
Figure30-19
J, frenulum.
A1+2
35'.
36(35).
36'.
49
Arctiidae(Lithosiinae) p. 640
Se and Rs in hind wing not fused at base, although they may be fused
farther distad or eonneeted by a erossvein
37
*
Sematuridae
Geometridae
p. 628
39
40
45
Uraniidae
(Epipleminae)*
41
Se
Figure30-20
p. 628
38
p. 628
589
590
41(40/).
41'.
Drepanidae
(Thyatirinae)*
M2in hind wing absent or arising midway between MI and M), or nearer
to MI>cubitus appearing 3-branched; MI in hind wing stalked with Rs for
a short distance beyond discal cell (Figure 30-21)
M) and CUIin both front and hind wings stalked for a short distance
beyond discal cell; slender, butterfly-like moths; California and Texas
p.627
42
42/.
Notodontidae
(Dioptinae)*
43
43(42').
Geometridae
*
43/.
44
44(43/).
Sc and Rs in hind wing close together and parallel along almost entire
length of discal cell (Figure 30-218); proboseis usually present; front
wings fully scaled; tarsal claws with blunt tooth at base
Notodontidae
p.635
Bombycidae
(Apatelodinae)*
p.631
Bombycidae*
p.631
46
42(41').
44'.
45(39/).
45/.
R4
Rs
M,
M2
M3
Cu,
f
CU2
A1+2
Se + R,
,Rs
M,
M2
MJ
Cu,
CU2
A1+2
p.635
p.628
46(45'). Se and Rs in hind wing separating near middle of diseal eell, at the end
of a long, narrow, basal areole; Rs and MI in hind wing stalked beyond
diseal eell (Figure 30-21A)
46'.
Se and Rs in hind wing separating at base of wing; Rs and MI in hind
wing not stalked beyond diseal eell (Figures 30-18B,C, 30-22)
47(46'). M2in hind wing arising closer to MI than to M3 (Figure 30-22);
wingspread25-150 mm
47'.
M2in hind wing arising about midway between MI and M3
(Figure 30-18B,C); size variable
48(47'). Hind wing with 1 anal vein (Figure 30-18C); large moths resembling a
swallowtail butterfly; Texas
48',
Hind wing with 2 anal veins (Figure 30-18B); not swallowtail-like
(Figure 30-70); widely distributed
49(35'). All branehes of R and M in front wing arising separately from the usually
open diseal eell (Figure 30-23A); wings generally with clear spots
49'.
Front wing with some branehes of R or M fused beyond diseal eell
(Figures 30-23B, 30-24 through 30-28)
50(49'). Hind wing with humeral veins, without frenulum; CU2in front wing
arising in basal half or third of diseal eell (Figure 30-238)
50'.
Hind wing without humeral veins, usually with frenulum; CU2in front
wing arising in distal half of diseal eell
51(50'). Frenulum absent or vestigial; Se and Rs in hind wing approximated,
usually parallel along diseal eell or fusing beyond middle of eell
(Figure 30-24A); apex of front wings usually sickle-shaped
Bombycidae
(Apatelodinae)*
p.631
47
Saturniidae
p.631
48*
Uraniidae*
p.628
Mimallonidae*
p. 629
Thyrididae
*
p.617
50
Lasiocampidae
p.630
51
Drepanidae
p.627
591
592
Chapter30 OrderLepidoptera
51'.
52(51/).
52'.
52
Antennae swollen apically; Se in hind wing fused with Rs for only a short
distanee at base of diseal eell (Figure 30-24B); oeelli present; moths with
a wingspread of about 25 mm, usually blaek with white or yellow spots
in wings (Figure 30-81)
Noctuidae
(Agaristinae)
53
p. 636
53'.
Arctiidae
(Ctenuchinae)
54
54(53/).
Se and Rs in hind wing fused for a varying distanee beyond diseal eell or
separa te but very closely parallel (Figure 30-15); Se and Rs in hind wing
separate along front of diseal eell, or base of Rs atrophied
55*
Hind wing with Se and Rs widely separate beyond diseal eell, base of Rs
usually well developed
56
Front wings at least twiee as long as wide, costal margin often irregular
or lobed (if straight, M2and M3usually stalked); separation of Se and Rs
in hind wing generally well beyond diseal eell; proboseis sealed; color
variable, rarely white
Pyralidae
(Chrysauginae)*
p.617
Front wings less than twice as long as wide, costal margin straight; M2
and M3not stalked; separation of Se and Rs in hind wing about opposite
end of diseal eell; proboseis naked; white moths
Drepanidae
(Eudeilnea)
*
p.627
53(52/).
54'.
55(54).
55/.
Figure30-23 A, wings of Thyris (Thyrididae); B, wings of Malacosoma (Lasioeampidae).j, frenulum; hv, humeral veins.
p.640
Drepanidae
(Drepana)*
p.627
57
58
60
Doidae*,Arctiidae
(Arctiinae*)
pp.635,
640
58/.
59
Pantheidae
p.639
Rs
MI
M2
M3
CUI
CU2
,/
A1+2
,/
CU2
'A1+2
MI
M2
M3
'CUI
593
594
Chapter30 OrderLepidoptera
59'.
Hind wing with Se and Rs usually fused (beyond a small basal areole) to
middle of diseal eell, or if not, then Se swollen at base; eubitus in hind
wing appearing 4-branehed (Figure 30-26); labial palps not exeeeding
middleof front;usuallylight-eoloredmoths
Arctiidae
p.640
60(57').
Front wings with tufts of raised seales; Se and Rs in hind wing fused
(beyond a small basal areole) to near middle of diseal eell; small moths
Nolidae
p.640
60/.
61
61(60/).
Hind wing with a relatively large basal areole, Se and Rs fused for only
lymantriidae
p.639
Figure30-25
Se
R4
Rs
M,
M2
M3
CU1
CU2
'AI+2
BA
61',
Hind wing with very small basal areole or none, Se and Rs fused for
varying distance along discal cell, at most to middle of cell
Arctiidae
62'.
Noctuidae
63
Basal segment of antennae enlarged, concave beneath, forming an eye cap
08',24/). (Figure 30-29B)
595
62
62(61/). Labial palps short, usually not exceeding middle of face; size variable,
wingspread up to about 40 mm; often brightly colored, reddish,
yellowish, or white
Labial palps longer, extending to middle of face or beyond; wingspread
20 mm or less; dull-colored moths.
of Lepidoptera
p. 640
(Lithosiinae)
(Strepsimaninae)
p. 636
64
RJ
R4
Rs
MI
M2
MJ
CU1
CU2
A'+2
A, +2
RJ
R4
Rs
R4
Rs
M,
M2
MJ
CU1
M,
M2
MJ
CUI
CU2
CuP
A'+2
I
CU2
A'+2
Se + R,
,Rs
M,
M2
MJ
CUI
CU2
Rs
A1+2
UNIVERSIDAD
DECALDAS
BIBUOTECA
Figure30-28 Wings of Lymantriidae.
A, Orgyia;B, Lymantria. BA, basal areole;
D, discal cell;!, frenulum.
596
Chapter30 OrderLepidoptera
--ant-_
-- ---
--- - - - "mxt--- _ _
-----prb--E
Figure30-29 Head structure in microlepidoptera. A, Pectinophora (Ge1echiidae), lateral view; B, Zenodoehium (Coleophoridae, Blastobasinae), anterior view; C, Acrolophus
(Acrolophidae), lateral view; D, lateral, and E, anterior views of Tegeticula(Prodoxidae).
ant, antenna; e, compound eye; ee, eye cap; Ip, labial palp; mxp, maxillary palp;
mxt, maxillary tentacle; prb, proboseis. (A, redrawn from Busck; B, redrawn from Dietz.)
63/.
Basal segment of antennae not forming an eye cap (Figure 30-29A)
64(63). Maxillary palps well developed, conspicuous; wing membrane aculeate
64/.
65(64).
65/.
66(64/).
.
66/.
67(66/).
68
65*
66
Opostegidae*
p.604
Nepticulidae
*
Bedellidae*,
Bucculatricidae,
Lyonetiidae*
p.604
pp.608,
606,
608
67
Wings pointed at apex; hind wing without discal cell; veins beyond discal
cell in front wing diverging; no stigmalike thickening in front wing
Gracillariidae
p.606
67'.
68(63').
68'.
69(68).
69'.
Wings more or less rounded at apex; hind wing usually with a closed
cell; veins beyond discal cell in front wing nearly parallel; front wing
with stigmalike thickening between C and R (as in Figure 30-30B);
proboscis scaled
Coleophoridae
(Blastobasinae:
Calosima)*
69
73
Tineidae
70
(Hieroxestinae) *
p. 609
p. 605
71
*
Acrolepiidae
p.608
72
Tineidae
p. 605
Incurvariidae*
p. 605
72'.
Folded part of maxillary palps about two thirds as long as width of head;
mostly whitish moths
73(68'). First segmem of labial palps as large as second or larger, palps recurved
back over head and thorax (Figure 30-29C); ocelli absent; proboseis vestigial or absem; moderate-sized, stout, noctuid-like moths with eyes hairy
73'.
Without the combination of characters in preceding entry
prodoxidae
p. 604
Acrolophidae
74
p. 605
74(73'). Distal margin of hind wings concave, apex produced (Figure 30-31C);
proboseis scaled
Gelechiidae
p.610
598
Se
Rs
M,
M2
M3
CUI
CU2
CuP
A'+2
M2
,
M3
C cu,
A1+2
CupU2
Se
R,
74'.
Hind wings with distal margin rounded or trapezoidal, anal region well
developed, venation complete or nearly so (Figures 30-31A,B,D, 30-32);
proboseis scaled or naked (see also 74")
75
74".
90
75(74').
76*
75'.
78
76(75).
Third segment of labial palps short and blunt, palps beaklike; Rs rarely
stalked with R." usually extending to outer margin of wing (Cochylinae)
Tortricidae
Third segment of labial palps long and slender, usually tapering, palps
generally upturned to middle of front or beyond; Rs in front wing usually
stalked with R." extending to costal margin of wing
77*
76'.
p.613
R4
Rs
MI
M2
, M3
C UI
CU2
A'+2CuP
A1+ 2 CUP
Sc+ R,
Rs
I
MI
M2
M3
CUI
CuP
CU2
Figure 30-32 Wings of microlepidoptera. A, Depressaria(Elachistidae, Depressariinae); B, Atteva (Yponomeutidae). acc, accessory cell;J, frenulum.
~"
~cUPCU
A1+2
'M2+ 3
J, frenulum.
(Redrawn
599
600
Chapter30 OrderLepidoptera
77(76').
77'.
78(75').
78'.
Copromorphidae
*
p.616
Carposinidae*
p.616
Ypsolophidae
(Ochsenheimeriinae)*
p.607
Tortricidae
80
80(79').
80'.
81
Psychidae*
82
83
p.606
81(80).
81'.
82(81).
Wing membrane aculeate (see couplet 64); antennae longer than wings
in male; female with piereing ovipositor; day-flying
Adelidae*
p.604
Tineidae
p.604
84*
79(78').
79'.
82'.
83(81').
83'.
84(83).
84'.
85(83').
85'.
86(85).
86'.
87(85').
87'.
Rs and MI in hind wing well separated at their origin, at least half as far
apart as at wing margin (Figure 30-32)
Front wings narrowly rounded or pointed apically (Cerostoma)
Front wings broadly rounded or blunt apically (Figure 30-31D)
Ocelli very large and conspicuous
Ocelli small or absent
Costa strongly arched; hind wings rounded, only slightly longer than
wide; proboseis scaled basally
Costa not strongly arched; hind wings usually more or less elongate,
distinctly longer than wide; proboseis naked
R, and Rs in front wing stalked; proboseis scaled
R, and Rs in front wing not stalked; proboseis naked
79
p.613
85
Ypsolophidae
*
Elachistidae
p.607
p.608
86*
87
Choreutidae*
p.615
Glyphipterigidae
*
88*
89
p.608
88(87).
88'.
92'.
Hind wing without discal cell, with R stem near middle of wing (well
separated from Sc) and with a branch extending to C at about three fifths
the wing length (Figure 30-33B); Rs in front wing free from R.but stalked
with M; labial palps stout and drooping
Not exactly fitting the description in preceding entry
93(92'). Discal cell in front wing somewhat oblique, its apex closer to hind margin
of wing than to front margin, branches of Cu very short (Figure 30-33C)
93'.
Discal cell in front wing not oblique, its apex not much closer to hind
margin of wing than to front margin, branches of Cu longer
(Figures 30-30B, 30-33D,F, 30-34A)
94(93). Front wing with stigmalike thickening between C and R (Figure 30-30B);
scape of antenna with a row of long hairs
94'.
Front wing without such a stigmalike thickening; scape of antenna variable
95(94'). Front tibiae slender, epiphysis apical or absent; antennae turned forward
at rest
95'.
Coleophoridae
(Blastobasinae)
Elachistidae
(Depressariinae),
Amphisbatidae,
Peleopodidae*
110*
p. 609
p.608,
610,
610
Urodidae*,
Yponomeutidae
p.615,
607
Tineidae
p. 605
91
92
115*
*
Douglasiidae
93
p.606
94
96*
Coleophoridae
(Blastobasinae)
95
p. 609
Coleophoridae
p. 609
Batrachedridae *,
Cosmopterigidae *,
Coleophoridae
(Momphinae)
p.609,
610,
609
96(93').
96'.
97*
107*
97(96).
Tischeriidae
*
p. 605
Accessory cell in front wing smaller, less than half as long as discal cell,
or absent; vertex usually not as in preceding entry
Vertexmore or less tufted,or with rough, bristlyhair (Paromix)
Vertex smooth-scaled
98*
Gracillariidae*
p. 606
100*
102*
97'.
98(97').
98'.
99(98').
99'.
100(99). Front wing with stigmalike thickening between C and R (Figure 30-30B);
R. and Rs stalked
100'.
Front wing without such a stigmalike thickening, R. and Rs usually not
stalked (Figure 30-33D)
99*
Coleophoridae
(Blastobasinae)
101*
p. 609
602
Chapter30 OrderLepidoptera
101(100').
101'.
Cosmopterigidae
(Limnaecia,
Stagmatophora,
Anoncia) *
p.610
Gracillariidae*
p.606
Gracillariidae*
p.606
103*
Hind tarsi with more or less distinct groups of bristles near ends of
segments; labial palps usually short, sometimes drooping; proboseis
naked
Schreckensteiniidae
103'.
Hind tarsi without such bristles; labial palps long, upcurved, third
segment long and tapering; proboseis scaled
104*
104(103').
105*
104'.
106*
105(104).
Oecophoridae *
p.609
105'.
Cosmopterigidae *
p.610
106(104').
Elachistidae
(Agonoxeninae)*
p.608
106'.
Gelechiidae
102(99').
102'.
103(102').
107(96').
107'.
108(107).
108*
109*
Vertex rough-scaled
Gracillariidae
p.616
(He/ice,
Theisoa, etc.) *
p.610
( Cremastobombycia,
108'.
109(107').
Phy/lonorycter =
Lithoco/letis) *
p.606
Heliozelidae*
p.604
110*
109'.
Vertex smooth; usually no branches of M in hind wing stalked
110(89,109). Ocelli present
111 *
Galacticidae *,
Plutellidae *
110'.
Ocelli absent
111(109').
R in front wing arising at about two thirds the length of discal cell;
9 veins in front wing reaching margin from discal cell
111'.
112*
113*
114*
Yponomeutidae
(Argyresthiinae)*
112(111').
112'.
p.615,
608
p.607
Xyloryctidae
(Scythridinae)*
p.609
113(112).
113'.
114(112').
114'.
115(91').
115'.
116(1').
Hind tibiae stiffly bristled, usually in tufts at the spurs; ocelli absent;
proboseis naked
Hind tibiae without such bristles; ocelli present or absent; proboseis
scaled
Epermeniidae*
p.616
Elachistidae
(Agonoxeninae*),
Coleophoridae
(Momphinae*),
Cosmopterigidae*
p.608,
610
Front wing with only 1 or 2 veins arising from apex of discal cell;
hind wing with forked vein at apex (Figure 30-34A); proboseis scaled
Elachistidae*
p.608
Front wing with at least 3 veins arising from apex of discal cell; hind
wing without forked vein at apex; proboseis naked
Heliodinidae*
p.608
Heliodinidae
p. 608
(Cycloplasis)*
Heliozelidae
(Coptodisca)*
p. 604
Psychidae
117
p.606
116'.
117(116').
117'.
Ocelli present
Ocelli absent
118(117).
Tortricidae*
118'.
Crambidae(Nymphulinae,
Acentria)*
p.617
119(117').
Lymantriidae
p. 639
Geometridae
p. 628
119'.
Micropterigoidea:
These moths differ
SUPERFAMILY
fromother Lepidoptera in having mandibulate mouthparts, with the mandibles well developed and the
galeaeshort and not forming a proboseis. The venation
of the front and hind wings is similar, and a fibula is
present (Figure 30-34B). The larvae have eight pairs of
short, conical prolegs, each bearing a single claw.
Family Micropterigidae-Mandibulate Moths: This
is a small group, with only two North American
speeies, and its members are seldom encountered. One
speeies Epimartyria auricrinella (Walsingham), which
has a wingspread of about 8 mm, occurs in the East.
The larvae feed on mosses and liverworts, and the
adults feed on pollen.
Eriocranioidea:
These moths resemble
SUPERFAMILY
the Micropterigidae in having the venation of the front
and hind wings similar. The middle tibiae bear a single
spur (none in Micropterigidae). The females have a
horny, piercing ovipositor. There is a single genital
opening in the female, behind the ninth sternum. Pu-
118*
119
p.613
604
~
c:>
l
Figure 30-35 A hepialid moth, Sthenopis argenteomaculatus Harris, .9x.
SUPERFAMILY
Hepialoidea:These moths have similar venation in the front and hind wings, and have a
well-developed jugum (Figure 30-5). The female has
two genital openings, but that of the corpus bursae is
very close to the egg pore on segment 9. The larvae are
root borers.
FamilyHepialidae-Ghost Moths and Swifts:These
are medium-sized to large moths, with wingspreads of
25-75 mm. Most are brown or gray with silvery spots in
the wings (Figure 30-35). The name "swift" refers to the
fact that some of these moths have an extremely rapid
flight. They superficially resemble some of the Sphingidae. The smaller moths in this family, with wingspreads
of 25-50 mm, belong to the genera Gazoryctria and
Korscheltellus. Most of their larvae bore in the roots of
herbaceous plants. The larger hepialids belong to
the genus Sthenopis. The larva of S. argenteomaculatus
(Harris) (Figure 30-35) bores in the roots of alder, and
that of S. thule Strecker bares in the roots of willows.
GROUPMonotrysia:Sometimesconsidered a suborder, this group comprises the three superfamilies Nepticuloidea, Incurvarioidea, and Tischerioidea. Females
have a single genital opening, located on segment 9.
The venation of the front and hind wings is different
(RS is branched in the front wing, but not in the hind
wing); a frenulum is present, and the wings are aculeate (except in the Heliozelidae).
SUPERFAMILY
Nepticuloidea:In the adults of this
group, the antennal scape is expanded and covers the
eye. The cell of the fore wing is open.
Family Nepticulidae:The Nepticulidae are minute
moths, some species of which have a wingspread of
only 3 mm. More than 80 species are known for North
America. The wing venation is somewhat reduced, and
the surface of the wings bears spinelike hairs or aculeae. The basal segment of the antenna is enlarged to
form an eye cap; the maxillary palps are long; and the
labial palps are short. The male has a well-developed
frenulum, but the frenulum of the female consists of
only a few small bristles. Most species in this group are
leaf miners in trees or shrubs. The mines are linear
and cubitus
In this group,
the fore
"C
c:
'"
.<:
Q)
~~
Figure 30-36
The case-
~c;! makingclothesmoth,
~ ~ Tineapellionella(L.).
~i
605
606
c::
'"
E
oc.
a;>
'"
o
"'"
iij
-5
10
~
'"
a:
2i
c::
u'"
c::
'"
E
c.
o
a;>
o'"
-g
'"
-5
10
~
'"
a:
~C,
<1:'"
,2
c:
.c:",
ou
~C,
<1:
o
:E
o
.c:
O>
; Figure30-39
tidae),
21/2X.
608
609
610
Figure 30-41 Larvae (in their cases) of the cigar casebearer, Coleophoraserratella (L.), on an apple leaf.
Figure30-43
moth.
Figure 30-44 Gall of the goldenrod gall moth, Gnorimoschema sp. (Gelechiidae). A, exterior view; B, a gall
cut open. o, opening; cut by the larva before pupating,
through which the emerging adult escapes.
612
Figure 30-45 Adult (A) and larva (B) of the saddleback caterpillar, Sibine stimu/ea
(Clemens). A, 3X. (A, courtesy of Dwight M. DeLong; B, courtesy of Peterson.
Reprinted by permission.)
Family Limacodidae-Slug Caterpillars: These insects are called "slug caterpillars" because the larva e
are short, fleshy, and sluglike. The thoracic legs are
small, there are no prolegs, and the larvae move with a
creeping motion. Many of the larvae are curiously
shaped or conspicuously marked. The cocoons are
dense, brownish, and oval and have a lid at one end
that is pushed out by the emerging adult. The adult
moths (Figure 30-45A) are small to medium-sized, robust, and hairy and are usually brownish and marked
with a large, irregular spot of green, silver, or some
other color.
One of the most common species in this group is
the saddleback caterpillar, Sibine stimulea (Clemens).
The larva (Figure 30-45B) is green with a saddlelike
brown mark on the back. These larva e have stinging
hairs and can cause severe irritation to the skin. They
feed principally on various trees.
Family Dalceridae:This is a Neotropical group, one
species of which has been reported from Arizona:
Dalcerides ingenita (Edwards). This moth is rather
woolly and resembles a flannel moth. lt has dark yellow or orange front wings, orange hind wings, and a
wingspread of 18-24 mm.
Family Lacturidae: The six species of Lactura were
formerly placed in Yponomeutidae. They are mainly
southern. Lactura pupula (Hbner) of the Southeast
has cream-colored fore wings that have black lines anteriorly and distally and black spots posteriorly. The
hind wings are uniformly orange.
FamilyZygaenidae-SmokyMoths and Burnets:The
smoky moths are small, gray or black moths, usually
with a reddish prothorax and often with other bright
markings. Some exotic species, such as the European
~'"
u
c:
'"
E
c.
o
a
>
'"
D
~
.<::
2A
;:
'"
~'"
c::
~en
Figure 30-47
J, frenulum.
o
:E
O
Figure30-46 The peach tree borer, Synanthedon exi[jasa (Say) (Sesiidae), P/2X. A, male; B, female.
Family Cossidae-Carpenter
Moths and Leopard
Moths: The cossids bore and feed in wood in the larval
stage, and this habit defines the family within the
higher Lepidoptera. The adults are medium-sized and
heavy-bodied, and the wings are usually spotted or
motded. The carpenterworm, Prionoxystus robiniae
(Peck), is a common species that attacks various trees.
The adult (Figure 30-48A) is a motded gray and has a
wingspread of about 50 mm. These insects may sometimes seriously damage trees. The leopard moth, Zeuzera
pyrina (L.), a slighdy smaller moth with the wings pale
and marked with large black dots (Figure 30-48B), has
similar habits. These moths require two or three years
to complete their life cycle. About 45 species occur in
North America.
SUPERFAMILY
Tortricoidea: All females in members
of the single family Tortricidae have large, flattened
ovipositor lobes. Vein CuA2 arising well before the end
of the fore wing cell is characteristic of adults.
FamilyTortricidae:This is one of the largest families
of the microlepidoptera, with about 1,200 North American species, and many of its members are common
moths. This group contains a number of important pest
species. These moths are small, usually gray, tan, or
brown, and often have dark bands or motded areas in
the wings, or occasionally colorful with metallic spots.
The front wings are usually rather square-tipped. The
wings at rest are held rooflike over the body. The larvae
vary in habits, but many species roll or tie leaves, usuaUy feeding on perennial plants. Many bore into various parts of the planto
A tortricid that is an important pest of apples and
other fruits is the codling moth, Cydia pomonella (L.)
(Figure 30-49). The adults appear in late spring and
lay their eggs, which are flattened and transparent, on
614
Chapter30 OrderLepidoptera
fruits much
as the codling
moth
E
O>
E
c.
o
~O>
'"
"C
c:
't:>
c:
'"
.<:
~
'"
a>~
c::S
_C:
",a>
a~
:;55
.g
'" E
c.
O
.9~
.<: a>
e::>e::>
Figure30-49
3X.
"44' ~ t. "
'-44C1t:f
r
~o,
._
.e c:
O>
<{~ O>
o~
ou
'"
-5
:;;
g
O>
o:
-;
C>
e
oS
Q)
C>
C>
e
oS
Q)
C>
:.:
C>
:.:
C>
.:
C>
C>
UNNERSIDAD
DECAUJAS
616
Chapter 30
Order Lepidoptera
mopodines in wing shape and the adult habit of holding the hind legs upward when at rest. They differ in
lacking a scaled proboseis and ocelli.
Family Schreckensteiniidae:
Three speeies of this
family occur in North America. Larvae feed on sumac
and Rubus.
SUPERFAMILY
Epermenioidea:
This superfamily has
a single cosmopolitan family.
Family Epermeniidae:This is a small group (ll
North American speeies) of moths formerly placed in
the Scythrididae. The posterior margin of the fore wing
usually has one or more triangular groups of scales.
The larvae of Epennenia pimpinella Murtfeldt form
puffy mines in parsley. The pupa is enclosed in a rather
frail cocoon on the underside of a leaf or in an angle of
a leaf stalk.
SUPERFAMILYAlucitoidea: Superfamily Alueitoidea, a small, worldwide group has one family in
North America.
Family Alucitidae-Many-Plume Moths: The alueitids resemble the pterophorids, but have the wings split
into six plumelike divisions. Only one named speeies
in this family, Alucita hexadactyla L., occurs in the
United States. The adults have a wingspread of about
13 mm. This insect, which was introduced, occurs in
the northeastern states. Several undescribed speeies of
Alueitidae are in North America.
SUPERFAMILY
Pterophoroidea:The single family in
Pterophoroidea occurs almost worldwide.
Family Pterophoridae-Plume Moths: These moths
are small, slender, and usually gray or brownish and
have the wings split into two or three featherlike divisions (Figure 30-52). The genus Agdistis is unusual in
having no wing splits. The front wing usually has two
divisions, and the hind wing three. The legs are relativeiy long. When at rest, the front and hind wings are
folded close together and are heid horizontally, at right
angles to the body. The larvae of plume moths are leaf
rollers and stem borers, and some occasionally do serious damage. The grape plume moth, Geina periscelidactylus (Fitch), is common on grape vines. The larvae
Figure 30-52
Plume moths (Pterophoridae). A, Stenoptilodes baueri (Lange), female;
B, S. grandis (Walsingham), female; 2X. (Courtesy of Lange and Hilgardia.)
Family Thyrididae-Window-Winged
Moths: The
thyrididsare often small and dark-colored and have
clear spaces in the wings (Figure 30-40F). All
branchesof the radius are present, and they arise from
theusually open discal cell (Figure 30-23A). Some larvaeburrow in twigs and stems and cause gall-like
swellings.Others feed on flowers and seeds. The most
commoneastern species is probably Dysodia ocultana
Clemens,which occurs in the Ohio Valley. Dysodia larvaeform leaf rolls with a faint but noticeable foul
smell.Some tropical species are more colorful, and a
fewof these may occur in the Florida Keys.
SUPERFAMILY
Pyraloidea-Snout and GrassMoths:
Thesuperfamily Pyraloidea is the third largest in the
order,with more than 1,375 species occurring in the
UnitedStates and Canada. Most pyraloids are small
andrather delicate moths, and all have abdominal tympanalorgans and a scaled proboscis. The front wings
areelongate or triangular, with the cubitus appearing
four-branchedand the hind wings usually broad. Veins
Seand R in the hind wing are usually close together
andparallel opposite the discal cell (the base of R is
usuallyatrophied), and are fused or closely parallel for
ashort distance beyond the discal cell (Figure 30-15).
Beeausethe labial palps are often projecting, these
mothsare sometimes called "snout moths."
The members of this superfamily vary greatly in
appearance, venation, and habits. The superfamily
consistsof two families, which are divided into a numberof subfamilies, only a few of which can be me ntionedhere.
FamilyPyralidae:In this family the praecinctorium
isabsent and the tympanal case is closed medially. RepresentativeNorth American subfamilies are Galleriinae,
Chrysauginae,Pyralinae, Epipaschiinae, and Phycitinae.
Subfamily Galleriinae:The best-known member of
thissubfamilyis the bee moth or wax moth, Gallera
(L.). The larva occurs in beehives, where it
mellonella
feedson wax. It often does considerable damage. The
adulthas brownish front wings and a wingspread of
about25 mm.
Subfamily Pyralinae: This subfamily (27 North
Americanspecies) is a group of small moths. The larvaeof most species feed on dried vegetable matter. One
ofthe most important species in this subfamily is the
mealmoth, Pyralis farinalis L. The larva feeds on cereals,flour, and meal and makes silken tubes in these materials.The larvae of the clover hayworm, Hypsopygia
costa
lis (Fabricius), live in old stacks of clover hay.
Subfamily Phycitinae:The subfamily is a large one
(about400 North American species), and most of the
members have long, narrow front wings and broad
hindwings. The larvae vary considerably in habits. The
best-knownspecies in this subfamily are those that attaekstored grain: the Indian meal moth, Plodia inter-
617
618
Chapter30 OrderLepidoptera
Figure30-54 The sugarcane borer, Datraea saccharalis (Fabricius) (Crambidae, Crambinae), 2X. (Courtesy
of U5DA.)
>Q)
2:
=>
'"
c:-
>"
2:
=>
CI)
c:-
:;:
:;:
'"
<t
z
'15
'o
I!
I~
'"
15
1"'
z
~
~
Figure30-55 The European com borer, Ostrinia nubilalis (Hbner). A, egg masses on
com; B, larva; C, adults (male at left, female at right); 2X.
O>
c:
..3
Q)
<:)
O>
c:
..3
Q)
<:)
..c:
.O>
<:)
O>
c:
..3
Q)
<:)
..c:
O>
<:)
<:)
.
<:)
..c:
Figure
<:)
A,
.O>
30-56
Skippers
(Hesperiidae).
the silverspottedskipper,Epargyreus
..3
Q)
I1::;;
I
:
O>
O>
c:
..3
Q)
<:)
lo>
c:
<:)
E, checkered
skipper,
Pyrgus
communis
619
620
C>
I
aj .
Cl
"'"
C>
.
Cl
:t
C>
c:
.3
Q)
Cl
"'"
C>
Cl
Figure 30-57
Cl
C>
c:
.3
Q)
claros (Cramer). lt is dark brown with a large yellowish spot in the front wing and a silvery spot on the underside of the hind wing (Figure 30-56A). The larva
feeds on black locust and related plants. The species
overwinters as a pupa.
Subfamily Heteropterinae: This group is represented in North America by only five species (one in
the genus Carterocephalus and four in the genus
Pirona), and they are seldom encountered.
Subfamily Hesperiinae-Tawny Skippers. Giant Skippers: In these skippers the discal cell in the front wings is
less than two thirds as long as the wing. M2 in the front
wings is usually curved at the base and arises nearer to
M3 than to MI (Figure 30-8B). The middle tibiae are often spined. The tawny skippers (Figure 30- 56B-D) are
usually brownish, with an oblique dark band (often
called the stigma or brand) across the wing of the males.
This dark band consists of scales that serve as outlets for
the scent glands. Giant skippers have a wingspread of
40 mm or more, and the antennal club is not recurved as
in most other skippers. Giant skippers are stout-bodied
and fast-flying. When at rest, they hold the wings vertically above the body. The larvae bore in the stems and
roots of yucca and related plants. Maguey worms are the
larvae of a giant skipper.
SUPERFAMILYPapilionoidea-Butterflies: Characters of the thorax unite the four families that have
about 560 species in North America. Their large size,
often conspicuous color patterns, and diurnal habits
make butterflies a prominent element North American
insect fauna.
Family Papilionidae-Swallowtails and Parnassians:
Two subfamilies of papilionids occur in North America, the Papilioninae and the Parnassiinae. These are
sometimes given family rank. The Papilioninae (swal-
Swallowtail butterflies.
A, the zebraswallowtail,Euryditesmarcellus
(Cramer);B, the tigerswallowtail,Papilio
glaucusL.; C, the blackswallowtail,Papilio
About one third natural size.
..
~.~...
'..~
'
...
,.
__
Figure 30-58
. . .<~.:
..
.~
,
/I~
~..
. 11
.
..
iIiII
~__
...
:.,.
'i
i..
~
~
~ B, slightly reduced.
622
Figure 30-60
front legs are normal in the female, but are shorter and
lack tarsal claws in the maleo Lycaenid larvae are flattened and sluglike; many secrete honeydew, which attracts ants, and some live in ant nests. The chrysalids
are fairly smooth and are attached by the cremaster,
with a silken girdle about the middle of the body The
adults are rapid fliers.
The approximately 160 North American speciesof
Lycaenidae are arranged in three subfamilies, Riodininae, Miletinae (Gerydinae, Liphyrinae), and Lycaeninae (Polyommatinae, Theclinae).
Subfamily Riodininae-Metalmarks:
The metalmarks are small, dark-colored butterflies that differ
from other lycaenids in having the costa of the hind
wing thickened out to the humeral angle and in
having a short humeral vein in the hind wing (Figure 30-I4A). Most species in this group are tropicalor
western, and only three occur in the East. The linle
metalmark, Calephelis virginiensis (Gurin-Mneville),
with a wingspread of about 20 mm, occurs in he
southern states, and the northern metalmark, Calephelis borea/is (Grote and Robinson) (Figure 30-610),
with a wingspread of 25-30 mm, occurs as far north as
New York and Ohio. The little metalmark is fairly
common in the 50uth, but the northern metalmark is
quite rare. The larvae feed on ragwort, thistle, and
other plants.
:~
'
l,
..
,. f"
..
: .
'
. ...
.
11
40.
C>
<=
.3
o'"
::;
...,-
.E
C>
.
o
::;
..c::
.C>
Figure30-61
A, the Americancopper,
C>
<=
.3
'"
o
..c::
C>
.~
~
o
624
Chapter 30
Order Lepidoptera
C>
e
C>
e
.,g
'"
.,g
'"
:?!
:?!
.<:
.C>
.<:
.C>
resemblance ofthe viceroy to the monarch is a good example of protective (or Batesian) mimicry. The monarch
is "protected" by distasteful body fluids and is seldom
attacked by predators, and the viceroy's resemblance to
the monarch is believed to provide it with at least some
protection from predators. The larva of the viceroy, a
rather grotesque-Iooking caterpillar, feeds on willow,
poplar, and related trees. It overwinters in a leaf shelter
formed by tying a few leaves together with silk. The redspotted purple, L. arthemis astyanax (Fabricius), another common species in this group, is a blackish butterfly with pale bluish or greenish spots and with
reddish spots on the underside of the wings. The larva,
which is similar to that of the viceroy, feeds on willow,
cherry, and other trees, and it overwinters in a leaf shelter. A similar butterfly, the banded purple, L. arthemis
arthemis (Drury), occurs in the northern states. lt has a
broad white band across the wings.
Subfamily Charaxinae-Goatweed Butterflies: Four
species of Anaea occur in the central and southwestern
parts of the United States. The larva e feed on Croton
(Euphorbiaceae).
Subfamily Apaturinae-Hackberry Butterflies and
Emperors: These butterflies are somewhat similar to
625
626
Chapter 30
Order lepidoptera
the painted lady, but the dark areas in the front wings
are brownish rather than black, and the eyes are bare.
The larvae feed on hackberry, and adults are generally
found around these trees.
Subfamily Satyrinae-Satyrs, Wood Nymphs, and
Arctics: These butterflies are small to medium-sized,
usually grayish or brown, and they generally have eyelike spots in the wings. The radius of the front wings is
five-branched, and some of the veins in the front wings
(particularly Se) are considerably swollen at the base
(Figure 30-10B). The larvae feed on grasses. The
chrysalis is usually attached by the cremaster to leaves
and other objects.
One of the most common species in this group is
the wood nymph, Cercyonis pegala (Fabricius), a dark
brown, medium-sized butterfly with a broad, yellowish
band across the apical part of the front wing. This band
contains two black-and-white eyespots (Figure 30-MA).
Another common species is the little wood satyr,
Megisto cymela (Cramer), a brownish-gray butterfly
with prominent eyespots in the wings and with a wingspread of about 25 mm (Figure 30-MC). The pearly
eye, Enodia portlandia (Fabricius) (Figure 30-64D), a
brownish butterfly with a row of black eyespots along
the border of the hind wings, is a woodland species
with a quick flight and a habit of alighting on tree
trunks. Among the most interesting species in this
group are the arctics or mountain butterflies (Oeneis),
which are restricted to the arctic region and the tops of
high mountains. A race of the melissa arctic, O. melissa
semidea (Say), is restricted to the summits of the White
Mountains in New Hampshire, and a race of the polix-
,..,,"
O
.t::
C>
"i:
C>
Figure30-64
Satyrid butter-
C>
c:
..3
Q)
C>
:?:
.E
C>
i:
C>
~:
C>
.
Slze.
Figure 30-65 The monarch, Danaus plexippus (L.). A, adult male; B, larva. About one
half natural size.
628
A
3mm.
Figure 30-67 Larvae of Geometridae. A, Pero morrisonarius (H. Edwards); B, Nepyta canosaria (Walker);
C, Protoboanna porcelara ndcatoria Walker. (Courtesyof
McGuffin and MacKay, and The Canadan Entomologist.)
r
Keyto the Familiesof Lepidoptera 629
-o
c:
m
..::
:
m
~
O>~
::~
mO>
a'=
:i3
.g
'" E
c.
E
00>>
...:: O>
00
Figure 30-68 The fall cankerworm, Alsophila pometaria (Harris). A, adult female laying eggs; B, adult maleoNatural size.
......
....
e
Figure 30-69 Geometer moths. A, the notch-wing geometer, Ennomos magnarius
Guene; B, the chickweed geometer, Haematopis grataria (Fabricius); e, the crocus
geometer, Xanthotype sospeta Drury; D, the bad-wing, Dyspteris abortivaria HerrickSchiiffer.A, slightly reduced; B, and D, slightly enlarged; e, about natural size.
630
Chapter 30
Order lepidoptera
:;;
e
u
e
E
'"
c:
..3
Q)
O
WI
-'=
'"
a
'
<!
o
:c
o
right,
Figure 30-70
Sackbearer moths (Mimallonidae).
A, Lacosoma chiridota Grote, 21/2x; B, Cicinnus
melsheimeri Harris, 11(2X.
adult
female.
1/2X.
Figure 30-72
631
632
Chapter30 OrderLepidoptera
L = 60 :!: mm
L = 70 :!: mm
green
I
L = 55 :!:mm
o
Figure30-74 Larvae of Satumiidae. A, cecropia, Hyalophoracecropia(L.); B, promethea,
Callosamiapromethea (Drury); C, luna, Actias luna (L.); D, io, Automeris io (Fabricius);
E, polyphemus, Antheraea polyphemus (Cramer). plg, proleg. (Counesy of Peterson;
reprinted by permission.)
C>
c:
.sQ)
D
::E
::E
.<=
C>
'
D
.E
C>
'
D
Figure30-75 Saturniid moths. A, adult, and B, larva of the regal moth, Citheronia regalis (Fabricius), !j2X; C, the imperial moth, Eacles imperialis (Drury), P/2X; D, the rosy
maple moth, Dryocampa rubicunda (Fabricius), slightly enlarged; E, the io moth,
Automeris io (Fabricius), male, slightly reduced; F, the buck moth, Hemileuca maia
(Drury), about natural size. A-D, Ceratocampinae; E-F, Hemileucinae.
633
634
Chapter30 OrderLepidoptera
.3
'"
<=>
j:;
C>
.'1:
<=>
Figure 30-76
~
~
~
Most individuals have a wingspread of 130-150 mm.
The wings are reddish brown, erossed a little distad of
the middle by a white baI1d. In the middle of each wing
is a ereseent-shaped white spot bordered with red (Figure 30-76D). The larva (Figure 30-74A) is a greenish
caterpillar that reaches a length of about 100 mm. It
has two rows of yellow tubercles down the baek and
two pairs of large red tubercles on the thoraeie segments. The eocoons are formed on twigs. Three related
and very similar speeies of Hyalophora oeeur in the
West.
The promethea moth, Callosamia promethea
(Drury), is sometimes ealled the "spieebush silk moth"
beeause its larva feeds on spicebush, sassafras, and related plan15. This moth is eonsiderably smaller than the
cecropia. The female is patterned a little like the eeeropia, but the male (Figure 30-76B) is much darker,
with a narrow, yellowish, marginal band of on the
wings. Males fly during the afternoon and night and,
when on the wing, look a little like a large mourning
cloak butterfly. The eoeoon is formed in a leaf. The
larva prevents the leaf from falling off by seeurely fastening the petiole of the leaf to the twig with silk.
One of the most beautiful moths in this group is
the luna moth, Actias luna (L.), a light green moth with
long tails on the hind wings and with the costal border
of the front wings narrowly bordered by dark brown
(Figure 30-76C). The greenish larva (Figure 30-74C)
feeds on walnut, hickory, and other trees, and forms its
eoeoon in a leaf on the ground.
Another eommon moth in this group is the
polyphemus moth, Antheraea polyphemus (Cramer), a
Giant silkworm
moths
g>
.s
Q)
CI
l:'"
CI
B
Figure 30-77 Sphinx or hawk
moths (Sphingidae). A, the whitelinedsphinx,Hyleslineata(Fabricius);
B, a clear-winged sphinx, Hemaris
g>diffinis (Boisduval); C, adult of the
'"
<=
.sQ)
~ tobacco
l:'"
CI
spinelikeprocess on the dorsal surface of the eighth abdominalsegment (Figure 30-78A). The name "sphinx"
probably refers to the sphinxlike position that some of
hese larvae assume when disturbed. The larva e of
mostspeeies pupa te in the ground, in some cases formingpitcherlike pupae (probo seis of the pupa looks like
a handle). Some speeies form a sort of cocoon among
leaveson the surface of the ground.
One of the most common speeies in this group is
he tomato hornworrn, Manduca quinquemaeulata
(Haworth). The larva (Figure 30-78A) is a large, green
caterpillar that feeds on tomato, tobacco, and potato.
Thelarva of a similar speeies, M. sexta (L.), feeds on tobaccoand other plants. The adults of these two speeies
arelargegray moths with a wingspread of about 100 mm.
Thehind wings are banded, and there are five (quinquemaculata)or six (sexta) orange-yellow spots along
each side of the abdomen (Figure 30-77C). These
hornworrns often do considerable damage to the plants
onwhich they feed. Hornworms are often attacked by
homworrn,
Manduca sexta
~ Smerinthus
~
jamaicensis (Drury). A, C,
and D, 1/2X; B, about natural size.
braconid parasites, which form small, white, silken cocoons on the outside of the caterpillar (Figure 30-78B).
The largest North American sphingids (in terms of
wing surface area) are females of the southwestern
Pachysphinx oecidentalis (Hy. Edwards), with a wingspread of up to 160 mm. A tropical speeies, Cocytius
antaeus (Drury), which barely enters North America in
southern Texas and Florida, can be even larger than
p. occidentalis. The smallest North American sphingid
is probably Cautethia grotei Hy. Edwards, which has a
wingspread of just over 30 mm.
SUPERFAMllYNoctuoidea: All noctuoids have thoracic tympanal organs, which separate them from all
other Lepidoptera.
Family Doidae: Two southwestern speeies, Doa ampla (Grote) and Leuculodes leeteolaria (Hulst) represent
this recently recognized family. The larvae of D. ampla
feed on Euphorbiaceae.
Family Notodontidae {including Dioptidae. Heterocampidae)-Prominents
and Oakworms: The pro mi-
636
Chapter30 OrderLepidoptera
0>1
f~_a
Figure 30-79
Notodontidae.
A, Datana ministra (Drury);
B, the redhumpedcaterpillar,Schizura
concinna Q. E. 5mith). Natural size.
'"
e
..::
Q)
O
-'=
'"
.:
O
'"
e
'"
e
..::
Q)
'"
:
-'=
O
,lit.
'IV
..::
Q)
O
:c
'"
:
distinguished by their naked proboseis. Nigetia formosalis Walker (Strepsimaninae) is a rather pretty, mottled
moth that is fairly common in the eastern United
States.
Subfamily Catocalinae:This group includes the underwings, relatively large and strikingly colored moths
of the genus Catoeala. They are forest or woodland
637
638
Chapter30 Orderlepidoptera
<=
<P
E
c..
o
a;
>
<P
C)
Figure30-83
zea (Boddie).
<P
U
c..
IJ
UNIVERSIDAD
DECALDAS
BIBl.IOTECA
I '"
I
<P
a:
"
R.
A
o
639
640
..,
A
'"
c:
.3
Q)
e
Figure 30-86 Arctiid moths. A, the yellow-collared
scape moth, Cissepsfulvicollis (Hbner), P/2 x; B, the
Virginia ctenucha, Ctenucha virginica (Charpentier), natural size;e, the lichen moth, Lycomorphapholus
(Drury), P/2x.
Subfamily Arctiinae-Tiger Moths: This group containsthe majority of the species in the family, and many
arevery common insects. A few are occasionally rather
destructive to trees and shrubs. Many are very colorful
and thus popular with collectors. They are broadly distributed in temperate and tropical regions.
Most tiger moths are of small to medium size, and
brightly spotted or banded. Some are white or rather
uniformly brownish. The wing venation is very similar
to that in the Noctuidae, but Sc and Rs in the hind
wingare usually fused to about the middle of the discal cell (Figure 30-26). These moths are principally
nocturnal and, when at rest, hold the wings rooflike
overthe body. The larvae are usually hairy, sometimes
very.The so-called woollybear caterpillars belong to
this group. The cocooo5 are made largely from the
bodyhairs of the larvae.
The tiger moths in the genera Apantesis and Grammiahave black front wings with red or yellow stripes,
and the hind wings are usually pinkish with black
spots. One of the largest and most common species in
the genus is G. virgo (L.), which has a wingspread of
about50 mm (Figure 30-87 A). The larva feeds on pigweedand other weeds, and winters in the larval stage.
Estigmene acrea (Drury) is another common tiger
moth.The adults are white, with numerous small, black
spots on the wings, and the abdomen is pinkish with
blackspots (Figure 30-87B). The male's hind wings are
yellowish. The larva feeds on numerous grasses and is
sometimes called the "salt-marsh caterpillar."
Figure30-87
Tiger moths (Arctiinae). A, the virgin
tigermoth, Grammia virgo (L.), 3(.X ; B, adult of the saltmarshcaterpillar, Estigmene acrea (Drury), 11/2X.
642
Chapter30 OrderLepidoptera
References
the field and to spread them later. Moths with a wingspread of less than 10 mm should generally be pinned
with a minuten pin and double-mounted as shown in
Figure35-13D.
All Lepidoptera that are pinned or mounted under
glassshould be spread. The beginning student or the
personinterested principally in displaying his or her collectionis advised to spread the specimens in an upsidedownposition (Figure 35-12). The advanced student or
theperson making a large collection should pin them or
keep them in envelopes. Methods of spreading and
mounting Lepidoptera are described in Chapter 35. It
takesa lttle practice to become proficient in spreading
theseinsects,and someof the smallerspecimenswill tax
References
Adamski, D., and R. L. Brown. 1989. Morphology and systematics of North American Blastobasidae (Lepidoptera:
Gelechioidea). Mississippi Agric. and Forestry Exp. Sta.
Tech. Bul!. 165, 170 pp.
Allen,J. T. 1997. The Butterflies of West Virginia and Their
Caterpillars. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press,
224 pp.
Anonymous. 1972. An amateur's guide to the study of the
genitalia of Lepidoptera. Hanworth: The Amateur Entomologist's Society. 16 p.
Bordelon, c., and E. Knudson. 1998. Checklist of Lepidoptera of the Audubon Palm Grove Sanctuary, Texas.
Texas Lepidoptera Survey, Pub!. 1. Houston: Knudson
and Bordelon, 32 pp.
Bordelon, c., and E. Knudson. 1998. Checklist of Lepidoptera of the Big Thicket National Preserve, Texas.
Texas Lepidoptera Survey, Pub!. 2. Houston: Knudson
and Bordelon, 42 pp.
Bordelon,c., and E. Knudson. 2002. Checklist of Butterflies
of the Lower Rio Grande Valley,Texas. Texas Lepidoptera
Survey,Pub!. 9A. Houston: Knudson and Bordelon, 52 pp.
Braun,A. F. 1948. Elachistidae of North America (Microlepidoptera). Mem. Amer. Entorno!. Soco 13:1-110.
Braun,A. F. 1963. The genus Bucculatrix in America north of
Mexico (Microlepidoptera). Mem. Amer. Entorno!. Soco
18:1-208.
Braun,A. F. 1972. Tischeriidae of America north of Mexico
(Microlepidoptera). Mem. Amer. Entorno!. Soco 28:1-148.
Brewer,J. 1976. Butterflies. New York: Abrams, 176 pp.
Brown,F. M., D. Eff, and B. Rotger. 1957. Colorado Butterfijes. Denver: Denver Museum of Natural History, 368 pp.
Bucheli, S., j.-F. Landry, and j. Wenze!. 2002. Larval case
architecture and implications of host-plant associations
for North American Coleophora (Lepidoptera: Coleophoridae). Cladistics 18:71-93.
Burns,J. M. 1964. Evolution in skipper butterflies of the
genus Erynnis. Univ. Calif. Pub!. Entorno!. 37, 216 pp.
Capinera,J. L., and R. A. Schaefer. 1983. Field identification
of adult cutworms, armyworms, and similar crop pests
collected from light traps in Colorado. Fort Collins, Co:
643
644
Chapter30 OrderLepidoptera
References
Longivesica, Chorizagrotis, Pleonoctopoda, and Crassivesica. Mem. Entomol. Soco Canada 67:1-177.
Hardwick, D. F. 1996. A monograph to the North American
Heliothentinae (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae). Ottawa: D. F.
Hardwick, 281 pp.
Harris, L.,Jl. 1972. Butterflies of Georgia. Norman: University
of Oklahoma Press, 326 pp.
Hasbrouck, F. F. 1964. Moths of the family Acrolophidae in
America north of Mexico (Microlepidoptera). Proc. US.
Natl. Mus. 114:487-706.
Heinrich, C. 1923. Revision of the North American moths of
the subfamily Eucosminae of the family Olethreutidae.
Bull. US. Natl. Mus. 123:1-298.
Heinrich, C. 1926. Revision of the North American moths of
the subfamilies Laspyresiinae and Olethreutinae. Bull.
U.S. Natl. Mus. Bull. 132:1-261.
Heinrich, C. 1956. American moths of the subfamily Phycitinae. Bull. US. Natl. Mus. 207:1-581.
Heppner,J. B. 1985. The Sedge Moths ofNorth America (Lepidoptera: Glyphipterigidae). Gainesville, FL: Flora and
Fauna, 254 pp.
Heppner,J. B. 1991. Faunal regions and the diversity of Lepidoptera. Tropical Lepidoptera 2 (Suppl. 1), 85 pp.
Heppner,J. B. 1998. Classification of Lepidoptera. Part 1: Introduction. Holarctic Lepidoptera, 5 (Suppl. 1), 1148 pp.
Heppner, J. B., and W D. Duckworth. 1981. Classification of
the superfamily Sesioidea (Lepidoptera: Ditrysia). Smithson. Contrib. lool. 314:1-144.
Hodges, R. W 1962. A revision of the Cosmopterigidae of
America north of Mexico, with a definition of the Momphidae and Walshiidae (Lepidoptera). Entomol. Amer.
42:1-171.
Hodges, R. W 1964. A review of the North American moths
in the family Walshiidae (Lepidoptera: Gelechioidea).
Proc. US. Natl. Mus. 115:289-330.
Hodges,R. W 1966. Revision of the nearctic Gelechiidae. Part
1: The Lita group (Lepidoptera: Gelechioidea). Proc. US.
Natl. Mus. 119:1-66.
Hodges, R. W 1971. Sphingoidea: Sphingidae. In R. B.
Dominick (Ed.), The Moths of America North of Mexico.
Washington, DC: Wedge Entomological Research Foundation. Fasc. 21. 158 pp.
Hodges, R. W 1974. Gelechioidea, Oecophoridae. In R. B.
Dominick (Ed.), The Moths of America North of Mexico.
Washington, DC: Wedge Entomological Research Foundation. Fasc. 6.2. 142 pp.
Hodges, R. W 1978. Gelechioidea, Cosmopterigidae. In R. B.
Dominick (Ed.), The Moths of America North of Mexico.
Washington, DC: Wedge Entomological Research Foundation. Fasc. 6.1. 166 pp.
Hodges, R. W 1986. Gelechioidea: Gelechiidae (part), Dichomeridinae. In R. B. Dominick (Ed.), The Moths of
America North of Mexico. Washington, DC: Wedge Entomological Research Foundation. Fasc. 7.1. 178 pp.
Hodges, R. W 1999. Gelechioidea: Gelechiidae (part Chionodes). In R. B. Dominick (Ed.), The Moths of America
North of Mexico. Washington, DC: Wedge Entomological Research Found;.tion. Fasc. 7.6. 348 pp.
Hodges, R. W, et al. 1983. Check List of the Lepidoptera of
America North of Mexico. London: E. W Classey and
Wedge Entomolological Research Foundation, 284 pp.
645
646
Chapter30 OrderLepidoptera
Lafontaine,]. D. 1998. Noetuoidea: Noetuidae, (part Noetuinae). In R. B. Dominiek (Ed.), The Moths of America
north of Mexico. Washington, DC: Wedge EntomoIogicaI
Researeh Foundation. Fase. 27.3, 348 pp.
Lafontaine,]. D., and R. W. PooIe. 1991. Noetuoidea: Noetuidae, (part Plusiini). In R. B. Dominiek (Ed.), The Moths
of America north of Mexico. Washington, DC: Wedge Entomological Researeh Foundation. Fase. 25.1, 182 pp.
Landry, B. 1995. A phylogenetie analysis of the major lineages
of the Crambinae and of the genera of Crambini of North
America (Lepidoptera:Pyralidae). Mem. Entomo1.:242.
Landry, ].-F. 1991. Systematics of nearetie Seythrididae (Lepidoptera:Geleehioidea): phylogeny and classifieation of
supraspecifie taxa, with a review of deseribed species.
Mem. Entorno!. Soe. Can. 160:1-341.
Layberry, R. L., P. W. Hall, and]. D. Lafontaine. 1998. The
Butterflies of Canada. Toronto: University of Toronto
Press, 280 pp.
MaeKay, M. R. 1959. Larvae of North American Olethreutidae
(Lepidoptera). Can. Entorno!. Supp!. 10, 338 pp.
MaeKay, M. R. 1968. The North American Aegeriidae (Lepidoptera): A revision based on late-instar larvae. Mem.
Entorno!. Soe. Can. 58:1-ll2.
MaeKay, M. R. 1977. Larvae of the North American Tortricinae (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae). Can. Entorno!. Supp!. 28,
182 pp.
MaeNeill, C. D. 1964. The skippers of the genus Hespera in
western North America, with special referenee to California (Lepidoptera: Hesperiidae). Univ. Calif. Pub!. Entorno!. 35:1-230.
MeCabe, T. L. 1991. Atlas of Adirondaek eaterpillars with a host
list, rearing notes and a seleeted bibliography of works depicting eaterpillars. N.Y.State Mus. Bul!. 470. 113 pp.
MeDunnough,]. 1938-1939. Check list of the Lepidoptera of
Canada and the United States of America. So. Calif. Aead.
Sei. Mem. Part 1: Maerolepidoptera, 274 pp. (1938). Part
2: Mierolepidoptera, 171 pp. (1939).
MeGuffin, W. C. 1967-1981. Guide to the Geometridae of
Canada (Lepidoptera).
Mem. Entorno!. Soe. Can.
50:1-67 (1967), 86:1-159 (1970), 101:1-191 (1977),
ll7:1-153 (1981).
Miller, ]. c., and P. C. Hammond. 2000. Maeromoths of
northwest forests and woodlands. (USDA, Forest Serviee), Forest Health Teehnology Enterprise Team
(FHTET)-98-18. Morgantown, WV, 133 pp.
Miller, L. D., and F.M. Brown. 1981. A eatalogueJeheeklist of
the butterflies of America north of Mexico. Mem. Lepidop. Soe. 2:1-280.
Miller, W. E. 1987. Guide to the olethreutine moths of midland North America (Tortricidae). USDA For. Serv. Agr.
Handbook 660. Washington, DC, 104 pp.
Morris, R. F. 1980. Butterflies and moths of Newfoundland
and Labrador: The Maerolepidoptera. Sto Johns: Agric.
Can. Pub!. 1691. 407 pp.
Mosher, E. 1916. A classifieation of the Lepidoptera based on
eharaeters of the pupa. Bul!. lll. State Lab. Nat. Hist.
12(2):17-159.
Munroe, E. G. 1972a. Pyralidae: Seopariinae and Nymphulinae. In R. B. Dominiek (Ed.), The Moths of America
North of Mexico. Washington, DC: Wedge Entomological Researeh Foundation. Fase. 13, Part lA, 134 pp.
Munroe, E. G. 1972b. Pyralidae: Odontiinae and Glaphyriinae. In R. B. Dominick (Ed.), The Moths of America
North of Mexico. Washington, DC: Wedge Entomological Researeh Foundation. Fase. 13, Part lB, 125 pp.
Munroe, E. G. 1973. Pyralidae: The subfamily Evergestinae.
In R. B. Dominick (Ed.), The Moths of Ameriea North01
Mexico. Washington, DC: Wedge Entomological Researeh Foundation. Fase. 13, Part lC, 51 pp.
Munroe, E. G. 1976a. Pyralidae: Pyraustinae. In R. B. Dominick
(Ed.), The Moths of America North of Mexico. Washington, DC: Wedge Entomologieal Researeh Foundation.
Fase. 13, Part 2A, 78 pp.
Munroe, E. G. 1976b. Pyralidae: Pyraustinae, Tribe Pyraus.
tini. In R. B. Dominiek (Ed.), The Moths of America
North of Mexico. Washington, DC: Wedge Entomologi.
cal Researeh Foundation. Fase. 13, Part 2B, 69 pp.
Neunzig, H. H. 1986. Pyraloidea: Pyralidae (part), Phycitinae
(part-Acrobasis and allies). In R. B. Dominick (Ed.), The
Moths of America North of Mexico. Washington, DC:
Wedge Entomologieal Researeh Foundation. Fase. 15.2,
82 pp.
Neunzig, H. H. 1990. Pyraloidea: Pyralidae, Phycitinae (part).
In R. B. Dominick (Ed.), The Moths of America north 01
Mexico. Washington, DC: Wedge Entomological Re.
seareh Foundation. Fase. 15.3, 165 pp.
Neunzig, H. H. 1997. Pyraloidea: Pyralidae, Phycitinae (part).
In R. B. Dominiek (Ed.), The Moths of America north 01
Mexico. Washington, DC: Wedge Entomological Re.
seareh Foundation. Fase. 15.4, 157 pp.
Newton, P.]., and C. Wilkinson. 1982. A taxonomic revision
of the North American species of Stigmella (Lepidoptera:
Neptieulidae). Syst. Entorno!. 7:367-463.
Nielsen, M. C. 1999. Michigan Butterflies and Skippers. East
Lansing, MI: Michigan State Univ. Ext. Bull., 248 pp.
Nye, I. W. B. 1975. The Generic Names of the Moths of the
World. Vo!. 1: Noetuoidea (part). London: British Museum (Natural History), 568 pp.
Nye, I. W. B., and D. S. Fleteher. 1986. The Generic Names 01
the Moths of the World. Vo!. 6: Microlepidoptera. Lon.
don: British Museum (Natural History), 368 pp.
Opler, P. A. 1992. A Field Guide to Eastern Butterflies.
Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 396 pp.
Opler, P. A. 1999. A Field Guide to Western Butterflies, 2nd
ed. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 540 pp.
Opler, P. A., and G. O. Krizek. 1984. Butterflies East of the
Great Plains: An lllustrated Natural History. Baltimore:
Johns Hopkins University Press, 294 pp.
Parenti, U. 2000. A guide to the Microlepidoptera of Europe.
Torino: Museo Regionale di Scienze Naturali. 426 p.
Peterson, A. 1948. Larvae of Inseets. Part 1: Lepidoptera and
Plant-Infesting Hymenoptera. Ann Arbor, MI:]. E. Edwards,
315 pp.
Pogue, M. G. 2002. A world revision of the genus Spodoptera
Guene (Lepidoptera: Noetuidae). Mem Amer. Entorno!.
Soe.43:1-202.
Poole, R. W. 1989. Noetuidae. In]. B. Heppner (Ed.), Lepidopterorum Catalogus (new series). New York: E.]. BrilV
Flora and Fauna Publieations. Fase. ll8, 1314 pp.
Poole, R. W. 1995. Noetuoidea: Noetuidae, Cueullinae, Stirinae, Psaphidinae (part). In R. B. Dominick (Ed.), The
Moths of Ameriea north of Mexico. Washington, DC:
References
siocarnpidae): Systernatics, biology, irnrnatures, and parasites. Bul\. U.5. Nat\. Mus. 276:1-321.
Tietz, H. M. 1973. An Index to the Described Life Histories,
Early Stages and Hosts of the Macrolepidoptera of the
Continental United States and Canada, 2 vols. Sarasota,
FL: A.e. Allyn, 1042 pp.
Tilden, J. W. 1965. Butterflies of the San Francisco Bay Region. Berkeley: University of California Press, 88 pp.
Tilden, J. W, and A. e. Srnith. 1986. A Field Guide to Western Butterflies. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 370 pp.
Tuskes, P. M., J. P. Tuttle, and M. e. Collins. 1996. The wild
silk rnoths of North Arnerica: A natural history of the Saturniidae of the United States and Canada. lthaca, NY:
Cornell University Press, 250 pp.
Tyler, H. A. 1975. The Swallowtail Butterflies of North Arnerica. Healdsburg, CA: Naturegraph, 192 pp.
Urquhart, F. A. 1960. The Monarch Butterfly. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 361 pp.
Villiard, P. 1969. Moths and How to Rear Thern. New York:
Funk and Wagnalls. 242 pp. (Reprinted by Dover.)
Wagner, D. L., D. C. Ferguson, T. L. McCabe, and R. C.
Reardon. 2001. Geornetroid caterpillars of Northestern
and Appalachian forests. (USDA Forest Service) Forest
Health Technology Enterprise Tearn (FHTET)-2001-10:
1-239.
Wagner, D. L., V. Giles, R. e. Reardon, and M. L. McManus.
1998. Caterpillars of eastern forests. USFS Technology
Transfer Bull. FHTET-96-34:I-1l3.
Watson, A., D. S. Fletcher, and I. W B. Nye. 1980. The
Generic Narnes of the Moths of the World. Vo\. 2: Noctuoidea (part). London: British Museurn (Natural History), 228 pp.
Watson, A., and P.E. S. Walley. 1975. The Dictionary of Butterflies and Moths in Color. New York: McGraw-Hill, 296 pp.
Wilkinson, e. 1979. A taxonornic study of the rnicrolepidopteran genera Microcalyptris Braun and Fomoria Beirne
occurring in the United States of Arnerica (Lepidoptera:
Nepticulidae). Tijds. Entorno\. 122:59-90.
Wilkinson, e., and P. J. Newton. 1981. The rnicrolepidopteran genus Ectoedemia Busck (Nepticulidae) in
North Arnerica. Tijds. Entorno\. 124:27-92.
Wilkinson, e., and M. J. Scobie. 1979. The Nepticulidae
(Lepidoptera) of Canada. Mern. Entorno\. Soco Can.
107:1-129.
Winter, W D., Jr. 2000. Basic techniques for observing and
studying rnoths &:butterflies. Mern. Lepidop. Soco5:1-444.
Zirnrnerrnan, E. e. 1958a. Insects of Hawaii. Vo\. 7:
Macrolepidoptera. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press,
542 pp.
Zirnrnerrnan, E. e. I958b. Insects of Hawaii. Vo\. 8:
Pyraloidea. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 456 pp.
Zirnrnerrnan, E. e. 1978. Insects of Hawaii. Vo\. 9: Microlepidoptera (2 parts). Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press,
1903 pp.
647
31
Order Siphonaptera1,2
Fleas
F With
'Siphonaptera:
siphon,
648
this chapter.
to Dr. Robert
.....
I~'(~~;' ,,'~'...J
'. --:~"...
~
in
cipital setae cephalad of the occipital row. The amennae consist of a basal scape, a pedicel, and a ninesegmented flagellum, or clavus. Some of the segments
may be at least partIy fused, especially in the femalesof
some species. In males, the mesal surface of the clavus
usually bears a number of T-shaped holding organs
that the male uses to engage with the female's basalabdominal sternite during copulation. The feeding apparatus includes a vestigial clypeus and mandibles and
paired, usually four-segmented maxillary palpi arising
on a triangular maxillary lobe. The labium usually has
a 2- to 5-segmented labial palpus, although as many as
la segments are known from species of Chaetopsylla
(Arctopsylla), and as many as 20 in an extralimital
genus belonging to the same family. The feeding fascicle consists of an unpaired epipharyngeal stylet and a
pair of maxillary stylets derived from the laciniae, held
together by the labial palpi. According to Snodgrass
(1946), this condition is unique to the order, because
other insects with piercing-sucking mouthparts have
maxillary stylets derived from the galeae.
The thorax (Figure 31-2) consists of three distincI
and somewhat separa te segments. The pronotum is
well demarcated and may have one to three rows of setae and frequentIy a distinct comb along its caudal margin. The propleurites and prosternum have 1051their
individual identities and form a composite, L-shaped
structure, called the prostemosome, that is devoid of setae. The mesonotum and mesopleurites are well developed, but beca use of the lateral compression of Ihe
body, the mesosternum is much narrowed and reduced.
The mesonotum may bear a number of regular or irregular rows of setae and there may be a number of
pseudosetae along the internal caudal margin of the
mesonotal collar (Figure 31-2). The pleural sclerites
Order
Siphonaptera 649
Figure31-1 An adult cat (lea, Ctenocephalidesfelis (Bouch) (Pulicidae, ArchaeopsyIlinae). (Figure prepared by Roben E. Lewis.)
aredivided into an anterior mesepisternum and a posterior mesepimeron by a subvertical pleural rod. The
caudal margin of the latter is articulated with the followingsegment by a lateral link plate arising above the
spirade. The metathorax also is well developed, with a
distinctmetanotum and large, shield-shaped metapleurites. The metanotum bears a smaller ventral, lobeshaped lateral metano tal area and the upper portion
mayhave a variable number of regular or irregular setal rows and a few small spinelets on the caudal margin. The metapleurites usually are divided by a large,
subvertical pleural rod, the dorsal end expanded to
form a cup-shaped "ball and socket" joint with the
metanotum that usually is lined with resilin, a colorless,rubberlike, elastic protein best developed in those
species that are good jumpers. The anterior metepistemum usually is relatively devoid of setae, but the
posterior metepimeron bears a spirade and a number
oflong setae, the arrangement of which is sometimes
usefulin identification.
The legs of most adult fleas are similar in form and
function,allowing the individual to progress by walking
or jumping. Exceptions indude species that attach
themselvesmore or less permanently to their hosts and
thosethat are restricted to the nest or lair of their hosts.
In the former instance, all or part of a leg may be permanently lost, whereas in the latter the individual moves
by simply crawling. In typical adults the leg consists of
a large, flattened coxa, a small trochanter, flattened femur and tibia, and a 5-segmented tarsus, the terminal
segment of which bears three to five pairs of lateral plantar setae and an apical pair of claws called ungues (Figure 31-1). The configuration of the ungues is evidently
determined by the nature of the host's pelage.
The abdomen of adult fleas consists of eight distinct segments plus a compound terminal area in
which segmentation is indistinct. Tergum 1 is small
and unmodified, but may bear a few small spinelets on
its caudal margino Abdominal sternite 1 is vestigial in
both sexes. As a result, the first visible sternite is number 2. Tergites and sternites 2 to 7 are unmodified. The
tergites may have a variable number of se tal rows and
at least the anteriormost segments also may bear marginal spinelets. The sternites usually only have a single
row of setae, situated in the ventral half of each segment. The remaining abdominal segments are variously modified to form the internal and external genitalia. The caudal margin of tergum 7 in both sexes
usually has a variable number of antesensilial setae.
Tergum 8 bears a large, spiracular fossa cephalad of the
UNIVERSIDAD
DECAllAS
650
Chapter31 OrderSiphonaptera
Occipital row
Trabecula centralis
A
Pseudosetae
Mesopleural
rod
Taxonomic Characters
As indicated elsewhere, identification of adult fleasat
the species level usually involves analysis of genitalia,
especially those of the males (Figure 31-3A,B). In many
genera the identity of females can only be inferred from
the identification of accompanying males. However,a
number of nongenitalic characters are useful for identification at the generic level. Most are mentioned in the
introductory section and need not be discussed further.
However, the genitalic structures are much more complicated and require further explanation.
TaxonomicCharacters 651
Antesensilial
Sensilium
setae
Sensilium
652
Chapter31 OrderSiphonaptera
Leptopsyllidae
Leptopsyllinae (9): Leptopsylla (l), Peromyscopsylla (8)
Amphipsyllinae (9): Amphipsylla (3),
Ctenophyllus (l), Dolichopsyllus (1),
Geusibia (1), Odontopsyllus (2),
Omithophaga (1)
Superfamily Hystrichopsylloidea
Ctenophthalmidae
Anomiopsyllinae (9): Anomiopsyllus (9),
Callistopsyllus (l), Conorhinopsylla (2),
jordanopsylla (2), Megarthroglossus (12),
Stenistomera (3)
Ctenophthalminae (3): Carteretta (2),
Ctenophthalmus (l)
Doratopsyllinae (4): Corrodopsylla (3),
Doratopsylla (1)
Neopsyllinae (46): Catallagia (13), Delotelis
(2), Epitedia (7), Meringis (17), Neopsylla
(l), Phalacropsylla (5), Tamiophila (1)
Rhadinopsyllinae (28): Corypsylla(3), Nearctopsylla (12), Paratyphloceras (1),
Rhadinopsylla (1l), Trichopsylloides (1)
Stenoponiinae (2): Stenoponia (2)
Hystrichopsyllidae
Hystrichopsyllinae (7): Atyphloceras (3),
Hystrichopsylla (4)
Superfamily Malacopsylloidea
Rhopalopsyllidae
Rhopalopsyllinae (4): Polygenis (3), Rhopalopsyllus (l)
Superfamily Pulicoidea
Pulicidae
Archaeopsyllinae (2): Ctenocephalides (2)
Hectopsyllinae (2): Hectopsylla (2)
Pulicinae (4): Echidnophaga (l), Pulex (3)
Spilopsyllinae (5): Actenopsylla (1), Euhoplopsyllus (l), Hoplopsyllus (1), Spilopsyllus (2)
Tunginae (2): Tunga (2)
Xenopsyllinae (1): Xenopsylla (1)
Superfamily Vermipsylloidea
Vermipsyllidae
Vermipsyllinae (6): Chaetopsylla (6)
1.
l'
Middle coxa without an outer internal ridge (Figures 31-1, 31-7); hind
tibia without an apical tooth; sensilium with 8 or 14 pits per side
(family Pulicidae )
15
Middle coxa with outer internal ridge (Figures 31-4 - 31-6); hind tibia
usually with an apical tooth; sensilium usually with more than 16 pits
per side
Keyto
Families
0.50mm
2(1').
2'.
Anterior tentorial arm present in front of eye; genal and prono tal combs
absent; mesopleural rod not forked dorsally; ventral margin of pronotum
not bilobed; fifth tarsal segment with 4 pairs of plantar bristles; frontal
tubercle arising in a groove, its apex directed forward and upward
(Figure 31-4B)
Not with the preceding combination of characters
Rhopalopsyllidae
3
p.658
653
3(2/).
3'.
Vermipsyllidae
4
4(3/).
4/.
Ischnopsyllidae
5(4).
5/.
6(5/).
p.659
p.659
Ceratophyllinae
p.658
Dactylopsyllinae
p.658
7(4/).
Interantennal suture and genal comb present; eye present, often sinuate;
pronotal comb always present; occipital tuber absent; marginal or
submarginal spinelets present (except in Omithophaga) (Figure 31-5A,B)
(family LeptopsyIlidae)
7/.
8(7/)
8/.
Leptopsyllinae
p.658
Amphipsyllinae
p. 658
9(7')
Hystrichopsyllidae
p. 658
9/.
10
6/.
A
B
0.50 mm
10(9')
10'.
....
Labial palpi with at most 2 distinct segments; genal comb well developed,
with at least 9 spines, tergite 1 of abdomen with a well-deveioped comb
(Figure 31-6F) (parasites mainly of small rodents)
Stenoponiinae
11
p. 658
655
656
Chapter31 OrderSiphonaptera
11(10').
Rhadinopsyllinae
12
12(11').
Genal comb absent; pronotum and tergites 2-7 each with only 1 row of
bristles, the anterior row vestigial (Figure 31-6C) (on small rodems)
Anomiopsyllinae
12'.
Either genal comb well developed or tergites 2-7 each with at least
2 well-developed rows of bristles, or both
13
Neopsyllinae
14
p.658
Doratopsyllinae
p.658
Ctenophthalminae
p.658
lnner side of hind coxae without spiniform bristles; sensilium with 8 pits
per side; small fleas with heavily barbed mouthparts
16
lnner side of hind coxae with spiniform bristles; sensilium with 14 pits
per side; larger fleas with mouthparts less barbed
17
16(15).
Tunginae
p.659
16'.
Anterior angle of hind coxa without apical tooth; hind femur with
large basal tooth; male genitalia with body of clasper short, posteriorly
with 3 processes, 1 large and trapeziform, the others forming a pair of
pincers; female spiracles on abdominal segments 2-7 of equal size
(Figure 31-7E)
Hectopsyllinae
p.659
18
11'.
13(12').
13'.
14(13').
14'.
15(1).
15'.
17(15').
p.658
p.658
17'.
18(17).
18'.
19
19(18').
Archaeopsyllinae
p.659
Falx absent or feebly sclerotized; neither genal nor prono tal comb present
(Figure 31-7B)
Xenopsyllinae
p.659
19'.
Spilopsyllinae
Pulicinae
p.659
p.659
e
D
0.30 mm
0.30 mm
658
Family Ceratophyllidae:
This is the largest family of
fleas in North America, with 125 species belonging to
28 genera. Given that only 45 genera are recognized in
the world fauna as a whole, this seems to be a relatively
young family, geologically, that is rapidly evolving
(Traub et al. 1983). Using geological evidence, including zoogeography, these authors posited that ceratophyllids have arisen from leptopsyllid ancestors, that
they coevolved on sciurid hosts during the Oligocene,
and that this took place in what is now the Nearctic region. The Leptopsyllidae, a more ancient family, are
thought to have arisen and evolved in the Palearctic region, perhaps from some hystrichopsylloid ancestor.
Subfamily Ceratophyllinae:The 112 species belonging to this subfamily are distributed in 25 genera. A
number are monotypic or with only two or three
species. Many show fairly high degrees of host specificity, for example, Thrassis species on burrow-dwelling
sciurids, Ceratophyllus species on various birds, and a
number of genera associated with small microtine and
cricetid rodents. Most species are distributed in western North America, but a few show a true Holarctic distribution.
Subfamily Dactylopsyllinae: This small subfamily
consists of three genera and 15 species, all restricted to
the Nearctic Region, and specific parasites of pocket
gophers (Geomys and Thomomys species). One species,
Foxella ignota (Baker), has the broadest distribution of
any in the subfamily. It has been divided into a number
of subspecies, most of which are not valid taxa.
Fam/y Ischnopsyllidae:This is an unique group of
fleas consisting of 11 species in four genera. All are exclusively parasites of bats, mostly vespertilionids,
roosting in mines and natural caverns in the rocks. Evidence suggests that the reproductive cycle in this family is mainly influenced by seasonal changes, at least in
temperate climates.
Fam/y Leptopsyllidae: Of the 240 species in the
world fauna assigned to this family, only 18 (7%) are
found in North America. Most are in the Palearctic
Region, and the North American species are mainly
restricted to the western part of the continent. One
European species, Leptopsylla segnis (Schnherr) is
cosmopolitan on Mus musculus, the house mouse.
Dolichopsyllus stylosus is a parasite of the mountain
beaver. The majority of other species are associated
with small rodents, especially microtines. Evolutionary affinities are discussed briefly under the Ceratophyllidae.
Subfamily Leptopsyllinae: Only nine taxa belong to
this subfamily, and one, Leptopsylla segnis Schnherr, is
not native. The remaining eight species belong to Peromyscopsylla, parasites of small rodents.
Subfamily Amphipsyllinae:The six genera and nine
species in North America belonging to this subfamily
659
660
Chapter31 OrderSiphonaptera
References
Adams, N. E, and R. E. Lewis. 1995. An annotated catalogue
of prirnary types of Siphonaptera in the National
Museurn of Natural History, Srnithsonian Institution.
Srnithson. Contrib. loo!. 560:1-86.
Cheetharn, T. B. 1988. Male genitalia and the phylogeny of
the Pulicoidea (Siphonaptera). Theses loo!. 8:1-221.
Elbel, R. E 1991. Order Siphonaptera. In F. Stehr (Ed.), Irnrnature Insects, vo!. 2, pp. 674-689. Dubuque, lA:
KendalllHunt.
Ewing, H. E, and I. Fox. 1943. The !leas of North Arnerica.
Classification, identification, and geographic distribution
of these injurious and disease-spreading insects. U.S.
Dept. Agric. Misc. Pub!. 500:1-143.
Fox, I. 1940. Fleas of Eastern United States. Ames: Iowa State
College Press. 191 pp.
Hastriter, M. W 1997. Establishment of the tungid !lea, Tunga
monositus (Siphonaptera: Pulicidae) in the United States.
Great Basin Nat. 53:281-283.
Holland, G. P. 1985. The !leas of Canada, Alaska and Greenland. Mern. Entorno!. Soco Can. 130:1-631.
Hopkins, G. H. E, and M. Rothschild. 1953-1971. An IIIustrated Catalogue of the Rothschild Collection of Fleas
(Siphonaptera) in the British Museurn (Natural History).
Vo!. 1 (1953): Tungidae and Pulicidae. Vol 2 (1956): CoptopsyIlidae, VerrnipsyIlidae, Stephanocircidae, IschnopsyIlidae, Hypsophthalrnidae and XipiopsyIlidae [and
Macropsyllidae]. Vo!. 3 (1962): HystrichopsyIlidae
(Acedestinae, . . . ). Vo!. 4 (1966): HystrichopsyIlidae
(Ctentophthalrninae,. . .). Vo!. 5 (1971): (LeptopsyIlidae
and AncistropsyIlidae). London: British Museurn (Natural History).
Hubbard, C. A. 1947. Fleas ofWestern North Arnerica. Ames:
Iowa State College Press, 533 pp.
Lewis, R. E 1972-1974. Notes on the geographical distribution and host preferences in the order Siphonaptera.
1972. Pan 1: Pulicidae. 1973. J. Med. Entorno!.
9:511-520. Pan 2: RhopalopsyIlidae, MalacopsyIlidae
and VerrnipsyIlidae. 1974. J. Med. Entorno!. 10:255-260.
Pan 3: HystrichopsyIlidae. J. Med. Entorno!. 11: 147-167.
Pan 4: Coptopsyllidae, PygiopsyIlidae, Stephanocircidae
and Xiphiopsyllidae. J. Med. Entorno!. 11:403-413. Pan
5: Ancistropsyllidae, Chirnaeropsyllidae, Ischnopsyllidae,
Leptopsyllidae and Macropsyllidae. J. Med. Entorno!.
11:525-540. Pan 6: Ceratophyllidae. J. Med. Entorno!. J.
Med. Entorno!. 11:658-676.
References
661
32
Order Mecoptera1,2
Scorpionfliesand Hangingflies
S (about
'This
chapter
by George W. Byers.
664
Chapter32 OrderMecoptera
CU1
+ M-, 3A
Cu, + M
Cu-Cu/
1
3A
1A
1A
Rs
I
Rs
T
I
I
I
/
....
y"
,.
/'
/'M
",,"'"
E
Figure32-3 Wings of Mecoptera. A, Panorpa (Panorpidae); B, Bittacus (Bittacidae);
e, base of hind wing of Panorpa;D, base of hind wing of Bittacus; E, front wing of
Merope(Meropeidae).
Tarsi each with one large claw (Figure 32-4B); tarsi raptoral, fifth tarsal
segment folding back against founh
Bittacidae
Tarsi each with 2 small claws (Figure 32-4A); fifth tarsal segment not
folding back against founh
p.666
2(1').
2'.
3(2').
Boreidae
Wings narrow, 3.5 or more times as long as their greatest width (if wings
reduced, rostrum very short); costal cell without crossveins beyond h
(rarely, 1); M with 4 branches (Figures 32-1A, 32-3A, 32-5B); genital
claspersof malewith bulbousbasalsegment,cheliforrnapicalsegment;
ocelli conspicuous, on raised tubercle
gt
Cu
p. 667
666
Chapter32 OrderMecoptera
3'.
4(3).
4'.
Wings broad, about 2.4 times as long as their greatest width; costal cell
with 10 or more crossveins beyond h; M with 5 or more branches,
venation reticulate (Figure 32-3E); genital claspers of male with long,
slender basal and apical segments (Figure 32-4C); ocelli absent
Meropeidae
p.666
Rostrum elongate, more than twice as long as width at base (Figure 32-2);
wings well developed in both sexes, usually pattemed with transverse
bandsor spots;R2 branched
Panorpidae
p.666
Rostrum short, only slightly longer than width at base (Figure 32-5A);
wings well developed in males, slightly to greatly reduced in females,
uniformly yellowish brown or paler along crossveins; R2not branched
Panorpodidae
p.666
References 667
Figure32-6
References
Byers,G. W 1954. Notes on North American Mecoptera.
Ann. Entorno\. SocoArner. 47:484-510.
Byers,G. W 1963. The life history of Panorpa nuptialis
(Mecoptera: Panorpidae). Ann. Entorno\. Soco Arner.
56:142-149.
Byers,G. W 1965. Farnilies and genera of Mecoptera. Proc.
12th lnt. Congr. Entorno\. London (1964), p. 123.
Byers, G. W 1973. Zoogeography of the Meropeidae
(Mecoptera).]. Kan. Entorno\. Soco46:511-516.
Byers.G. W 1987. Order Mecoptera. In E W Stehr (Ed.), lrnmature lnsects, pp. 246-252. Dubuque, lA: KendalVHunt,
754 pp.
Byers.G. W, and R. Thornhill. 1983. Biology of the Mecoptera. Annu. Rev. Entorno\. 28:203-228.
Carpenter,E M. 1931. Revision of Nearctic Mecoptera. Bull.
Mus. Comp. Zoo\. Harvard 72:205-277.
Carpenter,E M. 1931. The biology of the Mecoptera. Psyche
38:41-55.
Cooper, K. W 1972. A southern California Boreus, B. notoperates, n. sp. 1: Cornparative rnorphology and systernatics
(Mecoptera: Boreidae). Psyche 79:269-283.
Cooper, K. W 1974. Sexual biology, chrornosornes, developrnent, life histories and parasites of Boreus, especially of
B. notoperates, a southern California Boreus (Mecoptera:
Boreidae), n. Psyche 81:84-120.
Ferris, G. E, and B. E. Rees. 1939. The rnorphology of
Panorpa nuptialis Gerstaecker (Mecoptera: Panorpidae).
Microentornology 4:79-108.
Hinton, H. E. 1958. The phylogeny of the panorpoid orders.
Annu. Rev. Entorno\. 3:181-206.
Kaltenbach, A. 1978. Mecoptera (Schnabelhafte, Schnabelfliegen), Handbuch der Zoologie 4(2) 2/28:1-111. Berlin:
de Gruyter.
Penny, N. D. 1977. A systernatic study of the farnily Boreidae
(Mecoptera). Univ. Kan. Sci. Bull. 51:141-217.
668
Chapter32 OrderMecoptera
.,~.~., ;~,
It -,
1:~:t
systern
of the Meco-
33
Order Strepsiptera1
Twisted-WingParasites
T parasitic
IStrepsiptera:
slrepsi,
twisted;
plera, wings.
669
UNl~ERSIDAD
DECAlDAS
....
RIAIIOTECA
670
Chapter 33
Order Strepsiptera
e
o
Figure 33-1 Strepsiptera. A, Iriozocera mexicana Pierce (Corioxenidae), male; B, Neostylops shannoni
Pierce (Stylopidae), male; C, Halictophagus oncometopiae (Pierce) (Halictophagidae), male; D, Halictophagus
serratus Bohart (Halictophagidae);
E, Eoxenos laboulbeneiPeyerimhoff
(Mengenillidae), female; F,Stylops
califomica Pierce (Stylopidae), triungulin, ventral view; G, Halictophagus
oncometopiae, female, ventral view.
(A-C, F, and G, courtesy of Pierce;
D, courtesy of Bohart; E, courtesy of
Parker and Smith; A-C, F-G, courtesy
of the U.S. National Museum;
D-E, courtesy of the Entomological
Society of America.)
Elenchidae
Halictophagidae
3
3(2').
3'.
4(3').
4'.
p.671
p.671
Corioxenidae
p.671
Stylopidae
p.671
Myrmecolacidae
p.671
References 671
FamilyCorioxenidae:
This familyis representedin the
United States by three species. Triozoceramexicana Pierce
occurs in the southern states south into Brazil. It is a parasiteof the cydnid Pangaeusbilineatus (Say). Floridaxenos
monroensis Kathirithamby and Peck was recently described fram Monroe County, Florida. Loania canadensis
Kinzelbach, fram Canada and the United States, parasitizesbugs in the family Cymidae (Kleidocerys).
Family Elenchidae:
This graup is represented by the
widely distributed species Elenchus koebelei (Pierce),
found in the southern United States. These insects are
parasites of planthoppers (Delphacidae).
Family Halictophagidae:
This is the second-Iargest
family in the order, with about 14 North American
species.Its members are parasites of leafhoppers, planthoppers, treehoppers, and pygmy mole crickets;
species in other parts of the world parasitize cockroaches and fIies.
Family Myrmecolacidae:This family is unique in
that the two sexes attack different insect hosts: The
males parasitize ants and the females develop in Orthoptera and Mantodea. Two species in the family have
beenrecorded in the United States, Caenocholax:fenyesi
Pierce fram the southern states (Florida west to Arizona), and Stichotrema beckeri (Oliveira and Kogan)
from south Florida. Caenocholax:fenyesi males parasitizethe imported fire ant, Solenopsis invicta Buren.
References
Bohart, R. M. 1941. A revision of the Strepsiptera
reference to the species of North Arnerica.
Pub!. Entorno!. 7(6):91-160.
with special
Calif. Univ.
of the
Coleoptera.
Mengeidae).
Ann.
EntornoI.
Soco Arner.
Syst.
of south
of a new
EntornoI.
Kinzelbach, R. K. 1971. Morphologische Befunde an Facherfluglern und ihre phylogenetische Bedeutung (Insecta:
Strepsiptera). Zoologica 119(1,2):1-256.
Kinzelbach, R. K. 1990. The systernatic position of Strepsiptera (Insecta). Arner. EntornoI. 36:292-303.
MacSwain, J. W 1949. A rnethod for collecting rnale Stylops.
Pan-Paco EntornoI. 25:89-90.
Pierce, W D. 1964. The Strepsiptera are a troe order, unrelated
to the Coleoptera. Ann. EntornoI. SOCoArner. 57:603-605.
Wheeler, W c., M. Whiting, Q. D. Wheeler, and J. M.
Carpenter. 2001. The phylogeny of the extant hexapod
orders. Cladistics 71:113-169.
Whiting, M. F. 1998. Phylogenetic position of the Strepsiptera: Review of rnolecular and rnorphological evidence. Int. J. Insect Morpho!. ErnbryoI. 27:53-60.
Whiting, M. F., and W C. Wheeler. 1994. Insect horneotic
transformation. Nature 368:696.
Whiting, M. F., J. M. Carpenter, Q. D. Wheeler, and W C.
Wheeler. 1997. The Strepsiptera problern: Phylogeny of
the holornetabolous insect orders inferred frorn 185 and
285 ribosornal DNA sequences and rnorphology. Syst.
BioI. 46:1-68.
34
Order Diptera1
Flies
Classification
of the Diptera
lnvestigation of the phylogenetic relationships within
the order Diptera is a particularly active and dynamic
area. Entomological understanding of interrelationships is rapidly improving and, as a result, the formal
classification is also quite dynamic. A recent summary
of the state of knowledge can be found in Yeates and
Wiegmann (1999). We now have strong evidence that
a number of the groups traditionally recognized (such
asNematocera), are paraphyletic. Within the Brachycera,some monophyletic taxa are well established, but
manyquestions remain. At this point, it is not possible
to consistently apply formal taxonomic ranks within
theorder and still reasonably represent what consensus
doesexist among specialists. Therefore, we present the
classification as an indented listing of families, but
largely omit indication of the formal rank that each
grouping occupies in a Linnaean hierarchy. Groups
marked with an asterisk (*) are relatively rare or are
unlikely to be taken by a general collector.
Suborder Nematocera (Nemocera; Orthorrhapha in
part)-long-horned
flies
Tipulomorpha
Tipulidae (including Limoniidae,
Cylindrotomidae)-crane
flies
Trichoceridae (Trichoceratidae,
Petauristidae)-winter
crane flies*
Psychodomorpha
Psychodidae-moth
flies and sand flies
Ptychopteromorpha
Ptychopteridae (Liriopeidae)-phantom
crane
flies
Tanyderidae-primitive
crane flies*
Culicomorpha
Ceratopogonidae (Heleidae)-biting
midges,
punkies, no-see-ums
Chaoboridae (Culicidae in part)-phantom
midges
Corethrellidae (Corethridae)
Chironomidae (Tendipedidae)-midges
Culicidae-mosquitoes
Dixidae (Culicidae in part)
Simuliidae (Melusinidae)-black
flies or buffalo gnats
Thaumaleidae (Orphnephilidae)-solitary
midges*
Blephariceromorpha
Blephariceridae (Blepharoceridae,
Blepharoceratidae)-net-winged
midges*
Deuterophlebiidae-mountain
midges*
Nymphomyiidae *
Bibionomorpha
Anisopodidae (Rhyphidae, Silvicolidae,
Phryneidae; including Mycetobiidae)wood gnats
Axymyiidae (Pachyneuridae in part)
Bibionidae (including Hesperinidae)-march
flies
Canthyloscelididae (Synneuridae, Hyperoscelididae)*
Cecidomyiidae (Cecidomyidae, Itonididae)gall midges or gall gnats
Mycetophilidae (Fungivoridae in part, including Ditomyiidae, Diadociddidae, Keroplatidae, Lygistorrhinidae)-fungus
gnats
Pachyneuridae (Cramptonomyiidae)*
Scatopsidae-minute
black scavenger flies
Sciaridae (Fungivoridae in part)dark-winged fungus gnats, root gnats
Suborder Brachycera (including Cyclorrhapha and Orthorrhapha in part)-short-horned
flies
Xylophagomorpha
Xylophagidae (Erinnidae; Rhagionidae in part)
Stratiomyomorpha
Stratiomyidae (Stratiomyiidae; including
Chiromyzidae)-soldier
flies
Xylomyidae (Xylomyiidae; Xylophagidae in
part)
Tabanomorpha (Orthorrhapha in part)
Athericidae (Rhagionidae in part)
Pelecorhynchidae (Tabanidae in part,
Xylophagidae in part)*
Rhagionidae (Leptidae)-snipe
flies
Tabanidae-horse
flies and deer flies
Vermileonidae (Rhagionidae in part)-worm
lions*
Muscomorpha
Nemestrinioidea
Acroceridae (Acroceratidae, Cyrtidae,
Henopidae,Oncodidae)-small-headed
flies*
Nemestrinidae-tangle-veined
flies*
Asiloidea
Apioceridae (Apioceratidae)-flower-Ioving
flies*
Asilidae (including Leptogastridae)robber flies and grass flies
Bombyliidae-bee flies
Hilarimorphidae CRhagionidae in part)*
673
674
Chapter34 OrderDiptera
= Gymnosomatidae,
and
Dexiidae)
Acalyptratae-acalyptrate
muscoid flies
Superfamily Nerioidea
Micropezidae (including Tylidae and
Calobatidae
Trepidariidae)-
stilt-Iegged flies
Neriidae-cactus
flies*
Pseudopomyzidae *
Superfamily Diopsoidea
Diopsidae-stalked-eyed
flies*
Psilidae-rust flies
Tanypezidae (Micropezidae in part,
Psilidae in part, including
Strongylophthalmyiidae)
Superfamily Conopoidea
Conopidae-thick-headed
flies
Superfamily Tephritoidea
Lonchaeidae (Sapromyzidae in pan)
Pallopteridae (Sapromyzidae in pan)flutter flies
Piophilidae (including Neottiophilidae)skipper flies
Pyrgotidae*
Richardiidae (Otitidae in part, including
Thyreophoridae)*
Tephritidae (Trypetidae, Trupaneidae,
Trypaneidae, Euribiidae)fruit flies
Ulidiidae (Otitidae, Ortalidae, Ortalididae)-picture-winged
flies
Platystomatidae (Otitidae in part)picture-winged flies
Superfamily Lauxanioidea
Chamaemyiidae (Chamaemyidae,
Ochthiphilidae)-aphid
flies
Lauxaniidae (Sapromyzidae)
Superfamily Sciomyzoidea
Coelopidae (Phycodromidae)-seaweed
flies
Dryomyzidae Cincluding Helcomyzidae)*
Ropalomeridae (Rhopalomeridae) *
Sciomyzidae (Tetanoceridae,
Tetanoceratidae)-marsh
flies
Sepsidae-black scavenger flies
Superfamily Opomyzoidea
Acartophthalmidae (Clusiidae in pan)
Agromyzidae (Phytomyzidae)leaf-miner flies
Anthomyzidae (Opomyzidae in pan)
Asteiidae (Astiidae)
Aulacigastridae (Aulacigasteridae; Anthomyzidae in part; Drosophilidae in
part) *
Clusiidae (Clusiodidae, Heteroneuridae)
Odiniidae (Odinidae, Agromyzidae in
part)
Opomyzidae (Geomyzidae) *
Periscelididae (Periscelidae)*
Superfamily Carnoidea
Braulidae (Pupipara in part)-bee lice
Canacidae (Canaceidae)-beach
flies*
Carnidae (Milichiidae in part) *
Chloropidae (Oscinidae, Titaniidae)grass flies
Cryptochetidae (Chamaemyiidae in pan,
Agromyzidae in part) *
Milichiidae (Phyllomyzidae)
Tethinidae (Opomyzidae in part) *
Superfamily Sphaeroceroidea
Chyromyidae (Chyromyiidae)
Antennae
Legs
e
A
E
Figure34-1 Antennae of
Diptera. A, Mycetophilidae
(Mycomyia); B, Bibionidae
(Bibio); C, Stratiornyidae
(Stratiomys); D, Tabanidae
(Tabanus); E, Asilidae (Asilus);
F,Stratiomyidae (Ptecticus);
G, Calliphoridae (Calliphora);
H, Tachinidae (Epalpus).
ar, arista; sty, style.
675
676
Chapter34 OrderDiptera
Figure 34-3 Generalized dipteran venation (ComstockNeedham terminology for the veins), with a comparison
of the major interpretations of the veins behind M2.
A, anal cell; B, basal cells; D, discal cell; MC, marginal
cells; P, posterior cells; SM, submarginal cells.
Interpretations of the Veins behind
Vein Number
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8d
9
10
Comstocka
M3
M3
m-cu
Cu
Cu
Cu
CU2
lA
2A
3A
M2
Tillyardb
McAlpine'
M3..
M3
M.
Cu
M.
M.
Cu
CU2
lA
2A
M3
M3
m-cu
CuA
CuAl
CuAl
CuA,
CuP
Al
A,
H., 1940).
Jable34-1
Comstock
Veins
C
Se
R,
R,.,
R..,
MI.,
m-eu
Cu
baseof CUt
CUt
Cu,
lAb
lA
H
r-m
M
Tillyard(1926)
Old System
C
Se
R
R2+'
R..,
M.,
base of Mi
Cu
m-eu
C
Se
R
R,.,
R..,
M1+,or Ma
m-eu
CuA
Auxiliary
First longitudinal
Seeond longitudinal
Third longitudinal
Fourth longitudinal
Diseal eross vein
Costal
Fifth
Fifth
Fifth
Fifth
longitudinal
longitudinal
longitudinal
longitudinal
M3
Mi
CUt
Cu,
lA
h
r-m
m
M3.i and M,
base of CuAl
CuAl
CuA,
CuP
A
h
r-m
m-m
M,
Cells
C
Se
R
M
C
Se
R
M
e
se
br'
bmd
Costal
Subeostal
First basal
Seeond basal
R, R,
R,
R.
lb r2
,
r3, r2+3
ri
r
rs, r4+5
m
d (diseal)
Marginal
First submarginal
Seeond submarginal
First posterior
Seeond posterior
Diseal
m,
M,
Third posterior
Fourth posterior
Fifth posterior
Anal
R"R,
R3
R.
R,
M,
1stM,
2ndM,
M3
Cu,
lA
2A
R,
M
1st M,
2nd M,
M,
Mi
Cu,
lA
eua
eup
a
Sixth longitudinal
Humeral eross vein
Anterior eross vein
Posterior eross vein
Fifth longitudinal
Axillary
677
678
Chapter34 OrderDiptera
av , ,Se
CuP
\
1st
br
C
al
Al +CUA2
Figure34-4 Wings of a horse fly (A and B) and a calyptrate muscoid fly (C), showing
venational terminologies. A, ComslOck-Needham system; B, an older system, in which
the longitudinal veins are numbered; C, the terminology used by McAlpine et aL (1981).
For a key lO the lettering in A and the longitudinal veins in C, see Chapter 2. Labeling in
B: A, anal cell; aev, anterior cross vein; alu, alula; ay, auxiliary vein; axe, axillary cell;
B, basal cells (first and second); C, costal cell; e, costal vein; eal, calypteres or squamae;
D, discal cell; dev, discal crossvein; h, humeral crossvein; MC, marginal cell; P, posterior
cells; pev, posterior crossvein; Se, subcostal cell; SM, submarginal or apical cells (first
and second). Labe1ingin C: al, anallobe; alu, alula; bm, basal medial cell; bm-eu, basal
mediocubital crossvein; br, basal radial cell; cua" anterior cubital cell; eup, posterior
cubital cell; dm, discal medial cell; dm-eu, discal mediocubital crossvein.
ivb
--fa
/'
/
/
/
/
/
-- ---
av
Figure34-5 Areas and chaetotaxy of the head of a drosophilid fly.A, anterior view;
B, lateral view. af, antennal fossa; ant, antenna; ar, arista; bue, bucea; e, compound eye;
fa, face;fob, fronto-orbital bristles;fr, frons; frl, frontallunule; fs, frontal suture;
fv, frontal vitta; ge, gena; gvp, genovertical or orbital plate; ivb, inner vertical bristle;
ob, ocellar bristle; oe, ocellus; ot, ocellar triangle; ov, oral vibrissae; ovb, outer vertical
bristle; pv, postvertical bristles.
psb
hb-t--..
he---
V.
pl,
ppb.- /
spr.
mpb/
A
Figure34-6 Areas and chaetotaxy of the thorax of a blow fly.A, lateral view; B, dorsal
view. acr, acrostichal bristles; ex, coxa; de, dorsocentral bristles; epm2,mesepimeron; hal,
haltere; hb, humeral bristles; he, humeral callus; hyb, hypopleural bristles; hypl, hypopleuron; iab, intra-alar bristles; mpb, mesopleural bristles; n2,mesonotum; nb, notopleural bristles; npl, notopleuron; pab, postalar bristles; pb, posthumeral bristles; pe,
postalar callus; pl, propleuron; pl2' mesopleuron; p13'metapleuron; ppb, propleural bristle; psb, presutural bristles; pscl, postscutellum; pt, pteropleuron; ptb, pteropleural bristles; seb, scutellar bristles; scl2,mesoscutellum; spb, supra-alar bristles; spr, spiracle; stb,
stemopleural bristles; stpl, stemopleuron; trs, transverse suture; wb, base of wing.
680
Chapter34 OrderDiptera
Jable 34-2
Comparison of Terminologies
of Thoracic Areas
This Book
Symbol
Nameof Area
Symbol
Nameof Area
hc
humeral callus
npl
pscl
pl
pl2
pt
stpl
hypl
epm2
notopleuron
postscutellum
propleuron
mesopleuron
pteropleuron
sternopleuron
hypopleuron
mesepimeron
pprn
npl
sbsctl
postpronotum
notopleuron
subscutellum
prepm
anepst
anepm
kepst
mr
proepimeron
anepisternum
anepimeron
katepisternum
meron
ktg
katatergite
frontallunule (ir!). The presence of a frontal suture distinguishes the museo id flies from others. In cases
where the complete suture is difficult to see, flieshaving it can be recognized by the presence of a frontal
lunule above the bases of the antennae.
A transverse suture across the anterior pan of the
mesonotum (Figure 34-6, trs) separates most of the ealyptrate from the acalyptrate muscoids. The calyptrate
muscoids usually have sutures in the lateroposterior
ponions of the mesonotum, which separa te the postalar calli (Figure 34-6, pc). The acalyptrate muscoids
lack these sutures.
The terms used by McAlpine et al. (1981) for the
various thoradc areas are for the most pan different
from the terms we use. Hence their terms for most of
the thoradc bristles are a little different from ours. A
comparison of these two terminologies is given in
Table 34-2.
Size
In the keys and descriptions in this cbapter, "mediumsized" means about the size of a house fly or a blue-bottle
fly. "Small" means smaller, and "large" means larger than
this size. "Very small" or "minute" means less tban 3 rnm
long, and "very large" means 25 mm or more.
1'.
141*
2(1).
2'.
Nymphomyiidae*
3
3(2').
p.715
3'
31
4'
S(4).
4(3).
S'.
6(S').
Trichoceridae
*
p. 707
Tanyderidae*
6'.
7(6').
Only 1 anal vein (2A) reaching wing margin (3A absent), and no closed
discal cell (Figure 34-7 A); halteres with small process at base
Ptychopteridae
p. 708
p. 708
B
Se
R,
R2+3
Se
D
3A
2A
CU2 Cu,
M3
Se
Figure34-7 Wings of crane flies. A, Bittacomorpha (Ptychopteridae); B, Tipula (Tipulidae, Tipulinae); C, Cylindrotominae (Tipulidae); D, Limoniinae (Tipulidae); E, Protoplasa
(Tanyderidae).
682
7'.
8(4').
p.715
Deuterophlebiidae*
9
9(8').
9'.
Ocelli present
Ocelli absent
22
10(9).
lO'.
11
13
11(10).
11'.
12
Xylophagidae *
p.719
12(11).
Pachyneuridae
*
p. 718
12'.
Anisopodidae
(Anisopodinae)
p.715
14
18
Sciaridae
15
Antennae relatively short and thick, only a liule longer than head;
C ending before wing tip
16
15'.
17
16(15).
Scatopsidae
p.718
Canthyloscelididae*
p.716
Cecidomyiidae
(Lestremiinae)
p.716
Ceratopogonidae
p.708
Legs long and slender, insect resembling a crane fly; anal angle of wing
projecting (Figure 34-8]); wings sometimes with a network of fine lines
between veins
Blephariceridae
*
p.714
..:.,.
19
18'f
13'.
14(13).
14'.
15(14').
16'.
17(15').
17'.
18(13').
'.
-"
p. 707
8'.
13(10').
..
,,"
Tipulidae
"':")"
.....'1" ",
-.'
10
of characters
20
p.718
Ir
..
Keyto theFamilies
of Diptera 683
RI
==
Rs
Se
RI
Cu
A
h
---'--
RI
Se
2A
CU2
,RI
Se
RI
Rs
Rs
Se
Se
RI
R2
. R3
.
2A CU2 CUI
M\R4+5
3MI+2
UNNERSIDAD
DECMDAI
BIBUOTECA
684
Chapter34 OrderDiptera
Se
R,
M'+2
\ \
R,
I I
Rs
R, + 2
Se
-"'"'-
_M'+2
CU2
2A
"""'--
'\."
Cu,
---
"
R2
--P<
T- R4+5
R,
2A CU2
r-m
R,
~
...f.....
".
....
Figure 34-10 Wings ofMycetophilidae (A, B) and Sciaridae (C, D). A, Sciophilinae;
B, Keroplatinae; C, Sciara;D, Pnyxia, maleo
19/.
20(19).
Axymyiidae*
p.715
Antennae usually shorter than thorax, rather stout, arising low on face,
below compound eyes; second basal cell (M) present (Figure 34-8C);
anal angle of wing usually well developed
Bibionidae
p.715
20'.
21(20').
21'.
22(9').
22'.
23(22) .
23'.
24(23').
24'.
25(22').
25'.
Antennae variable, but usually longer than thorax, arising about middle
of eompound eyes or higher; seeond basal eell and wing shape variable
Basal eells eonfluent, closed distally by r-m and m-cu; Rs forked
opposite r-m; Sc complete, ending in C; 2A reaehing wing margin
(Figure 34-9C)
21
Anisopodidae
(Mycetobia)*
p.715
Basal cells variable; Rs simple or forked, if forked the fork is distad of r-m,
or r-m is obliterated by the fusion of Rs and M; Se and 2A variable;
a large and widespread group
Mycetophilidae2
p.718
23
25
Simuliidae
24
Ceratopogonidae
p. 708
Chironomidae
p.709
First tarsal segment mueh shorter than seeond, tarsi sometimes appearing
4-segmented; small, fragile midges with weakly veined wings, the wings
usually with fewer than 7 longitudinal veins (Figure 34-8A)
Cecidomyiidae
p.716
First tarsal segment longer than seeond, tarsi clearly 5-segmented; other
characters variable
26
26(25'). Antennae short, about as long as head, 2 basal segments thiek, globose;
wings with 6-7 veins reaehing wing margin
26'.
Antennae at least twice as long as head, 2 basal segments not as in the
preceding entry; wings with 9-11 veins reaching wing margin
27(26'). Wings broad, pointed apically, usually densely hairy, and often held
rooflike over body at rest; Rs usually 4-branched, M 3-branched
(Figure 34-8G)
27'.
Wings usually long and narrow, or if broad not pointed apically,
and not densely hairy although scales may le along the wing veins
or wing margin; Rs with 3 or fewer branches, M 2-branched
(Figure 34-8H,l)
28(27'). Proboseis long, extending far beyond clypeus (Figure 34-36); scales
present on wing veins and wing margin, usually also on body
28'.
Proboseis short, barely extending beyond clypeus; no scales on wing
veins or body
29(28'). R2+3somewhat arched at base (Figure 34-8H); wing veins with short,
inconspicuous hairs; antennae with short sparse hairs
Thaumaleidae*
p.714
p.714
27
Psychodidae
p. 708
28
Culicidae
p.710
29
Dixidae
p.714
'Hesperodes
johnsoni Coquillett (Keroplatinae), reponed from Massachusetts and New Jersey, lacks ocelli. It is 12 mm long, is a member of the
subfamilyKeroplatinae, and has a wing venation similar to that shown in Figure 34-10B.
686
Chapter34 OrderDiptera
29'.
30(29').
30'.
31(3').
31'.
32(31).
32'.
33(32').
33'.
34(33').
30
Clypeus with numerous setae; R meeting costal margin near wing apex,
c10ser to R2than to Sc
Chaoboridae
p.709
than to R2
Corethrellidae
p.709
32
44
Head unusually small, rare1y more than half as wide as thorax, placed
low down, consisting almost entire1y of eyes (both males and females
are holoptic); body appearing humpbacked (Figure 34-50); calypteres very
large
Acroceridae
Head more than half as wide as thorax; eyes never holoptic in female;
calypteres usually small
33
Nemestrinidae
*
34
Clypeus with very few setae; R meeting costal margin near to apex of Sc
34'.
Stratiomyidae
35
35(34').
36
42
37
38
35'.
36(35).
36'.
37(36).
37'.
Both upper and lower calypteres large; first abdominal tergite with notch
in middle of posterior margin and with median suture; anal cell c10sed
(Figure 34-4A,B); antennae usually arising be10w middle of head
Upper calypter large, but lower calypter scarce1ydeve1oped;first abdominal
tergite without median notch or suture; anal cell open; antennae arising
above middle ofli:eaa----
p.721
p.722
p.719
Tabanidae
p.720
Pelecorhynchidae
*
p.720
39
40*
Xylophagidae
p.719
Xylomyidae
p.719
Rhagionidae
(Bolbomyia)*
p.720
Se R, R2+ 3
R4
Se
R, R2 +3
R. Rs
./
M Rs
M M2 '
CU2+ 2A Cu, 3
B
h
Se
R,
I
Se
,R2 +3
R4
R,
,R4
L:
Rs
R4
,
CU2+ 2A M3 + Cu,
e
h
R,
R2+3
M..
_____
M2 M, S
CU2+ 2A M3 + Cu,
Se R..
--'
Se
R,
R2+3
--
R4
(/
M,+ 2
CU2+ 2A
M3 +
Rs
Cu,
M2M,
2A + CU2M3 + Cu,
Se
R,
CU2+ 2A
H
G
Se
'/R2+3
I/R"
Se
:'+2
+cu,
,Ri+2+3
R4
:_,
2A CU2
J
688
Chapter34 OrderDiptera
Rs
M,
!
M2
CU2 + 2A M3 + Cu,
40'.
41*
41(40').
41'.
Rhagionidae*
p.720
42(35').
Athericidae*
43
p.719
42'.
43(42').
Vermileonidae*
p.721
43'.
Rhagionidae
p.720
44(31').
Hippoboscidae
p.731
45
Phoridae
44'.
45(44').
p.727
45'.
46
46(45').
Lonchopteridae
p.727
46'.
47
48
55
49
50
Mydidae
p.724
Apioceridae.
p.722
Asilidae
p.723
690
Chapter 34
Order Diptera
Se
Rt
R~..
Rs
LA
Se
h
M3
CUt
Se
Rt
R4+S
Mt +2
~t
h Se
':::::.-
R2 + 3
2A
M3 + CUt
Rt
'
~2
~-_r_m
+3
\
A~
I R~+ 5
I
M3
h ,Se R,
Se R,
+ CUt
Mt + 2
R2 +3
D
h~C
M3
+ CUt
R,
R2+3
Rs
CU2
+ 2A
Figure 34-14
Wings of Brachycera. A-C, Empididae; D-F, Dolichopodidae; G, Phoridae; H, Lonchopteridae, female; 1, Platypezidae; J, Pipunculidae. A, anal (lA) cell.
50'.
51(50').
51'.
52(51').
M)
51
52
Scenopinidae
p.725
p.725
r
Key to the Familiesof Diptera
52'.
53(52').
53/.
MI (or MI.2)
53
54
Anal cell closed far from wing margin (Figure 34-14A) or absent, or if
closed near wing margin apex is not acute; body rarely hairy, usually not
robust
Discal cell present; or if absent then R.., and Ml+2are not similarly forked,
wings hyaline or patterned; usually over 5 mm long
54/.
Discal cell absent; R.., and M1+2similarly forked, each fork shorter than
its stem; wings hyaline to pale brown; small flies, usually less than 5 mm
long
55(47/). Second antennal segment longer than third, third segment with a dorsal
arista
Empididae
p.725
Bombyliidae
p.724
Hilarimorphidae*
p.724
54(53).
Sciomyzidae(Sepedon) p. 739
55'.
Second antennal segment not or scarcely longer than third, arista variable
56(55/). Hind tarsi, at least in male, nearly always with 1 or more segments
expanded or flattened; wings relatively broad basally, anal angle well
developed; anal cell closed some distance from wing margin, pointed
apically(Figure34-141);M'.2 often forkedapically;no frontalsuture;
arista terminal; small, usually black flies, less than 10 mm long
56
56'.
57
57(56'). Anal cell elongate, longer than second basal cell, usually pointed apically,
and narrowed or closed near wing margin (Figures 34-14J, 34-15);
no frontal suture; head bristles usually lacking
57'.
58(57).
Platypezidae
62
Proboseis usually very long and slender, often twice as long as head or
longer, often folding; face broad, with grooves below antennae; abdomen
clavate, bent downward at apex (Figure 34-73); R, cell closed, pointed
apically (Figure 34-15D)
Conopidae
SJ?V Se
"
./
2A + CU2
-...::,
'.
M3 + Cu,
spv r-m
Se
.'
R4 + 5
;M'+2
i 2A + CU2
CU2
+ Cu,
2A
M3
p.728
58
Anal cell usually shorter, closed some distance from wing margin, or
lacking; if anal cell is elongate and pointed apically (Figure 34-22C),
then a frontal suture is present and head bristles are usually present
+ Cu,
p.735
691
692
Chapter34 OrderDiptera
58'.
Figure 34-16
Heads of
Diptera, anterior view. A, Syrphidae (Metasyrphus); B, Pipunculidae (Pipunculus); C, Dolichopodidae (Dolichopus). e, compound
eye.
and R5 cellvariable
59
59(58').
Rs cell closed; usually a spurious vein crossing r-m between R..s and M.2
(Figure 34-15A-C)
Syrphidae
59'.
60
60(59').
Head very large, hemispherical, face very narrow (Figures 34-16B, 34-60);
probo seis small and soft
p.728
60'.
Head not unusually large, face normal; proboseis slender and rigid
Pipunculidae
61
p.727
61(60').
Bombyliidae (Cyrtosiinae
and Mythicomyiinae)
p. 724
61'.
62(57').
Empididae(Hybotinae) p.725
63
62'.
65
63(62).
63'.
Head very large, hemispherical, face very narrow (Figures 34-16B, 34-60)
Head not unusually large; face variable
Pipunculidae
(Chalarus)p.727
64
64(63').
Dolichopodidae
p.726
64'.
The r-m crossvein located beyond basal fourth of wing, fork of Rs usually
not swollen (Figure 34-14B,C); male genitalia terminal, not folded
forward under abdomen (Figure 34-57); body not metallic
Empididae
p.725
65(62').
Mouth opening small, mouthparts vestigial (Figure 34-17 A); body hairy
but not bristly,insect beelike in appearance, 9-25 mm long; Rs, sometimes
also M.2,ending before wing tip (Figure 34-18E,F); bot and warble flies
Oestridae*
p.732-
66
67
76
68
65'.
66(65').
66'.
67(66).
M
I
Se R
R2 + 3 ,~4 + 5
.-MI
I"U2'"
Se
I"U2
Se
RI
___..R2 + 3
RI
---
+2
R2i
"'\
R4 + 5
MI+2
3A
.L ... r"L
-t\U1+2
CU2 + 2A
Se
Rs eel!
R,
R2+3
694
Chapter34 OrderDiptera
67'.
68(67).
68'.
69(68').
71
Postscutellumstronglydeveloped(Figure34-13B,pse!);aristausuallybare
Tachinidae
69
Rhinophoridae*
p.734
p.733
69'.
70(69/).
Calliphoridae
p.729
70'.
Sarcophagidae
p.733
Psilidae(Loxocera)
p.735
71(67'). Third antennal segment longer than arista (Figure 34-21); oral vibrissae
absent; mesonotum without bristles except above wings
71'.
Third antennal segment not lengthened as in preceding entry; oral
vibrissae present; mesonotum with bristles
72(71'). Sixth vein (Cu2+ 2A) usually reaching wing margin, at least as a fold
(Figure 34-18C), or if not (some Scathophagidae) then lower calypter
linear and Rs cell not narrowed apically
72
75
Figure 34-20 Anterior pan of mesonotum of A, a blow fly (Calliphora), and B, a flesh
fly (Sarcophaga).aer, acrostichal bristles; de, dorsocentral bristles; hb, humeral bristles;
he, humeral callus; nz, mesonotum; nb, notopleural bristles; npl, notopleuron; pb,
posthumeral bristles; psb, presutural bristles; trs, transverse suture.
Figure34-21
72',
Sixth vein never reaching wing margin, even as a fold (Figure 34-18B,D);
Rs cell variable, but often narrowed apically (Figure 34-18B)
73(72'). Dorsal surface of hind tibia with both preapical bristle and submedian
bristle near its midlength; Cu2+2A,if extended, meeting 3A before margin
of wing (Figure 34-18D)
73'.
Dorsal surface of hind tibia with only preapical bristle, usually near apex
but sometimes near two thirds length of tibia; Cu2+2A,if extended, not
meeting 3A
74(73'). Hind coxa with row of setae on posterior surface; CUz+2Ashort, ending
less than halfway between its basal origin and wing margin
74'.
Hind coxa either without setae on posterior surface, or if present, then
Cu2+2Aextending more than halfway lOwing margin
75(72). Scutellum with fine, erect hairs on ventral surface (Figure 34-17D), or if
such hairs absent (Fucelliinae) then crueiate frontal bristles present;
usually 2-4 sternopleural bristles
75'.
Scutellum without fine hairs on ventral surface; crueiate frontal bristles
absent; usually only 1 sternopleural bristle
76(66'). Proboseis very long and slender, often 2 or more times as long as head,
elbowed; second antennal segment longer than first; abdomen often
clavate (Figure 34-73); anal cell usually long and pointed, longer than
second basal cell (except in Dalmannia and Stylogaster; in Stylogaster the
oviposilOr is slender and as long as rest of body)
73
Fanniidae
p.731
74
Fanniidae
p.731
Muscidae
p.731
Anthomyiidae
p.729
Scathophagidae
p. 733
Conopidae
p.735
695
696
Chapter 34
76'.
77(76').
OrderDiptera
Proboseis usually short and stout, rarely longer than head; second
antennal segment usually shorter than first (if longer, then anal cell is
shorter than second basal cel!); anal cell usually very short, or absent
Sc complete or nearly so, ending in C or just short of it, and free from
R distally (Figures 34-22, 34-23F); anal cell present
"';,$ . ....u1
R2 + 3
R,
77
78
A.
M3 + Cu,
Se R,
+
------- ,..-.--..
E--\
M3+ Cu,
R4 +5
A/
-m
' +2
M, +2
M3 + Cu,
D
Se
R,
Se
Se
A,
ebr
L
A,
ivb
fob
ar
....
ar
,
,I
ov
ovbl'"
'"
\ ov/ e
ivb
/,
,
pv'
D
fob
ivb
ovb
Figure 34-23 Heads of acalyptrate muscoid flies. A-F, anterior view; G-I, lateral view;
], dorsal view.A, Clusiidae (Clusia); B, Piophilidae (Piophila); C, Heleomyzidae
(Heleomyza); D, Lauxaniidae (Camptoprosopella);E, Chamaemyiidae (Chamaemyia);
F, G, Sciomyzidae (Tetanoeera);H, Lonchaeidae (Lonehaea);1, Neriidae (Odontoloxozus);
], Diopsidae (Sphyraeephala). ar, arista;fob, fronto-orbital bristles; ivb, inner vertical bristles; ob, ocellar bristles; oe, ocellus; orp, orbital plate; ov, oral vibrissae; ovb, outer vertical
bristles; pv, postvertical bristles.
77'.
109
78(77).
79
78'.
Pyrgotidae*
p. 736
Diopsidae*
p. 735
79(78). Head more or less produced laterally, with antennae widely separated
(Figure 34-23]); scutellum bituberculate; front femora much swollen
697
698
Chapter34 OrderDiptera
cbr
1, R1
E
R,
M3 + Cu,
79'.
80(79').
80'.
81(80').
80
Sepsidae
81
Coelopidae
p.739
p.738
81'.
82(81').
82'.
83(82).
83'.
Dorsum of thorax convex, if rather flattened then legs are not bristly;
widely distributed
82
83*
Eyes not prominently bulging and vertex not sunken; femora, size, color
variable, but usually not as in preceding entry; widely distributed
84
Ulidiidae*
p.738
Ropalomeridae *
p. 739
84(82').
85
84'.
92
85(84).
86
700
Chapter34 OrderDiptera
85'.
88
86(85).
Second basal and discal cells confluent (Figure 34-22A, B+D); arista
plumose
Curtonotidae*
Second basal and discal cells separated (Figure 34-22B, B and D); arista
usually not plumose
87
Piophilidae
(Actenoptera)*
p.736
87/.
88(85/).
Heleomyzidae
p.741
Aulacigastridae*
p.740
88'.
Second basal and discal cells separated (Figure 34-22B, B and D);
postverticals present
89
Clusiidae
90
86'.
87(86/).
89(88/).
89'.
p.741
p.740
90(89/).
90'.
91(90').
Heleomyzidae(Borboropsisand
Oldenbergiella,westernCanada
and Alaska)*
p.741
91'.
Chyromyidae*
p.741
92(84').
Tephritidae
p.737
92'.
93(92').
93'.
94(93').
94'.
"'>,
f.\.:...
97(94/).
p.736
93
Acartophthalmidae*
C entire, broken only near end of Se, or broken both near humeral
erossvein and end of Se; postverticals variable
94
95
R, eell open, usually not narrowed apically; body shape and legs variable,
but usually not as in preeeding entry
97
95
Arista apical (Figure 34-231), southwestern United States
(94,116).
95'.
Arista dorsal; widely distributed
96(95/). Head in profile higher than long, eyes large, distinctly higher than long;
anal eell rounded apically; no sternopleural bristles
~k96/.
~"
Piophilidae
91*
Neriidae*
p.739
p.735
96
Tanypezidae*
p.735
Head in profile as long as or longer than high, eyes smaller, not mueh
higher than long; anal eell square or pointed apically; 1 sternopleural
bristle or none
Micropezidae
p.734
Some or all tibiae with 1 or more preapical dorsal bristles (Figure 34-26B);
C entire (Figure 34-22D,G,I); body usually light-eolored, at least in part
98
97'.
98(97) .
98'.
99(98').
99'.
100(97').
100
lauxaniidae
99
Sciomyzidae
*
p. 739
Dryomyzidae*
p.739
Ulidiidae
p. 738
p. 738
100'.
103'.
104(103').
101
102
106
Richardiidae
*
p. 737
103
Canacidae*
p.740
U'A'VERSIDADDE CALDAS
BIBLIOTECA
lonchaeidae
p. 736
702
Chapter34 OrderDiptera
104'.
105*
*
Richardiidae
p.737
105/.
Costa not spinose; eyes round; southern United States and Canada
*
Pallopteridae
p.736
106(101/).
Chamaemyiidae
p.738
106'.
107
105(104').
107(106').
Eyes horizontally oval, about twice as long as high; length 1.5-2.5 mm;
grayish fIieswith yellowish markings on sides of thorax and abdomen,
and on front; recorded from New Mexico, Oregon, New Brunswick,
and Newfoundland
107'.
Chamaemyiidae
(Cremifania)
*
108
108(107').
Anal cell relatively long, its anterior side more than one fourth as long
as posterior side of discal cell (Figure 34-22E); sternopleural bristles
lacking; R setulose above
Platystomatidae
p.738
Ulidiidae
p.738
Tephritidae
110
p.737
Sphaeroceridae
p.741
108/.
p.738
Anterior side of anal cellless than one fourth as long as posterior side
above
109(77').
109/.
110(109').
110/.
Basal segment of hind tarsi normal, not swollen, longer than second
segment
111(110').
111'.
112(111/).
112'.
113(112/).
lB'.
114(113).
114'.
111
Cryptochetidae
*
112
p.741
Asteiidae*
p.740
114
118
115
Aulacigastridae
(Stenomicra)
*
116
115(114).
115'.
116(115).
113
117*
95
p.740
116'.
R5cell not narrowed apically; legs usually not long and slender
Chamaemyiidae
117(115').
Asteiidae(Leiomyza)* p. 740
Periscelididae*
117'.
p. 738
p. 740
119
119(118).
119'.
120
Anal cell absent (Figure 34-24C); ocellar triangle large (Figure 34-27 A)
Chloropidae
p.741
120(119).
Ulidiidae*
p. 738
120'.
121
121(120').
121'.
122
122(121).
Ocellar triangle large (as in Figure 34-27 A); 3-5 pairs of lateroclinate
fronto-orbitals; postverticals diverging; fiies living along the seashore
118(113').
118'.
130
128
Canacidae
*
ovb
Figure34-27 Heads of acalyptrate muscoid flies, anterior view. A, Chloropidae (Diplotoxa); B, Tethinidae (Tethina); C, Opomyzidae (Opomyza); D, Agromyzidae (Agromyza);
E, Ephydridae (Ephydra); F, Milichiidae (Milichia). ar, arista;./b, frontal bristles; fob,
fronto-orbital bristles; ivb, inner vertical bristles; ob, ocellar bristles; ot, ocellar triangle;
ov, oral vibrissae; ovb, outer vertical bristles; pv, postvertical bristles.
p. 740
704
Chapter34 OrderDiptera
122'.
123
123(122').
123'.
Opomyzidae
(Geomyza)*
p.740
124
124(123').
124'.
125(124).
125
126
Odiniidae*
p.740
Agromyzidae
Tethinidae*
p.741
125'.
126(124').
126'.
127(126').
127'.
Mesopleura bare
Anthomyzidae3
p.740
Mesopleura setulose
Chyromyidae*
p.741
128(121').
Opomyzidae*
129
p.740
128'.
129(128').
Tanypezidae*
Psilidae
p.735
p.739
127
129'.
130(118').
131
130'.
139
131(130).
132
131'.
Oeellar bristles absent or very weak; frons with bright orange band
near anterior margin; arista plumose
Aulacigastridae
(Aulacigaster)
*
p.740
132(131).
Middle tibiae with preapical dorsal bristle; faee tubereulate; arista bare
or pubeseent, not plumose
Heleomyzidae
(Cinderella)
*
p.741
133
133(132').
Pseudopomyzidae
*
133'.
134
132'.
134(133').
p.735
p.735
135
134'.
136
135(134).
135'.
Genae broad, with a row of bristles in middle; proboseis short and stout
Carnidae*
p.741
Milichiidae
p.741
Curtonotidae*
p.741
137
Diastatidae
*
136(134').
136'.
137(136').
3The Pseudopomyzidae will key out here if one cannot see the costal break near the humeral crossvein.
p.741
137/.
138(137/).
138/.
139(130/).
139/.
140(139/).
140'.
141(1/).
141/.
142(141/).
142'.
138
Drosophilidae
p. 741
Camillidae*
p.741
Ephydridae
140*
p. 742
Camillidae*
p. 741
Carnidae*
p.741
Nymphomyiidae
143*
150*
143'.
144(143').
144/.
145(144/).
145'.
p.715
142*
143(142).
Tipulidae
144*
Cecidomyiidae
(Baeonotus)*
p. 707
p.716
145*
146*
Chironomidae (C/unio,
Florida; Eretmoptera,
California)*
p.709
147*
146(145).
146'.
148*
Scatopsidae
(Coboldia)*
p.718
Cecidomyiidae*
p. 716
Eyesmeetingabovebases of antennae
147(146).
147'.
148(146/).
Epitapus)*
148'.
149*
149(148') .
Sciaridae (females of
pnyxia)*
149'.
p. 718
p.718
Mycetophilidae (females
of Baeopterogyna, Yukon
Territory and Alaska; and
so me Boletina, widely
distributed)*
p.718
705
706
Chapter34 OrderDiptera
150(142').
150'.
151(150').
151'.
Thorax very short, in dorsal view less than half as long as head,
resembling abdominal segments; scutellum absent; parasitic on
honey bee
Braulidae
*
151*
Hippoboscidae
*
152(151').
152'.
153(152).
First segment of hind tarsi short and swollen, shorter than second
segment (Figure 34-26A)
p.740
p.731
152*
153*
160*
153'.
First segment of hind tarsi not swollen, longer than second segment
Sphaeroceridae
*
154*
154(153').
Chloropidae
(some
154'.
155*
155(154').
155'.
Face concave
Ephydridae
(some
femalesof Hyadina
andNastima)*
156*
156(155').
156'.
157(156).
157'.
Conioscinella)
*
p.741
p.741
p.742
157*
Opomyzidae
(some
Geomyza)
*
p.740
Carnidae(Carnus)*
p.741
158*
Some or all tibiae with a preapical dorsal bristle; frons without strong
fronto-orbitals on lower half
159*
158'.
Anthomyzidae
(some
Anthomyza)*
p.740
159(158).
Drosophilidae
(mutant
Drosophila)*
p.741
159'.
Heleomyzidae
*
p.741
Phoridae
*
p.727
161*
158(157').
160(152').
160'.
161(160').
Empididae
(Chersodromia)
*
161'.
Dolichopodidae
(females
p.725
of someCampsicnemus)*
p.726
SUBORDERNematocera-Long-HornedFlies: This
suborder contains a little less than one third of the North
American species of flies (nearly 5300), in 24 of the 108
families. lts members can be recognized by their manysegmented antennae, which are usually long. Most nematocerans are small, slender, and long-Iegged and are
mosquito-like or midgelike in appearance. The wing venation varies from very complete (Tanyderidae) to
greatly reduced (for example, the Cecidomyiidae). This
suborder contains the only Diptera that have a 5branched radius. The larvae, except in the Cecidomyiidae, have a well-developed head, with toothed or
brushlike mandibles that move laterally. Most live in water or in moist habitats. The pupae are obtect.
The Nematocera are generally recognized to be a
paraphyletic group, out of which the Brachycera arose.
We continue to use the term Nematocera here beca use
it remains commonly used in entomology.
This group contains many fiies of considerable
economic importance. Many are bloodsucking and serious pests of humans and animals (mosquitoes,
punkies, black flies, and sand flies), and some of these
serve as disease vectors. A few fiies in this suborder
(some Cecidomyiidae) are important pests of cultivated plants. The aquatic larvae of the Nematocera are
an important food of many freshwater fishes.
Family Tipulidae-Crane Flies: This family is the
largest in the order, with approximately 1600 known
species in North America. Many crane flies are common and locally abundant insects. They may be mistaken for large mosquitoes, but even those with elongatemouthparts cannot bite. A few are smaller than the
smallest mosquitoes. The legs are usually long and
slender (Figure 34-28) and are easily broken off. The
body is usually elongate and slender, and the wings are
long and narrow. Some crane flies are quite large:
Holorusia grandis (Bergroth) of the western states, has
a body length sometimes exceeding 35 mm and a
wingspan of nearly 70 mm. Many species have clouded
or patterned wings. Tipulids differ from Trichoceridae
in lacking ocelli, from Tanyderidae in having four or
fewerbranches of the radius, and from Ptychopteridae
in having two anal veins (Figure 34-7).
Crane fiies live chiefiy in damp habitats with
abundant vegetation. There are, however, grassland
species and even a few in deserts. Larvae of many
speciesare aquatic or semiaquatic. Others live in the
soilor in fungi, mosses, and decaying wood. Most eat
decomposing plant matter, but certain aquatic groups
arepredaceous. Larvae of a few species feed on roots of
youngplants and if abundant may damage rangelands
andseedling crops. Adult crane fiies usually live only a
fewdays, and probably most do not feed.
British and American taxonomists have traditionallygrouped the two subfamilies Cylindrotominae and
Limoniinae together with this family. Most large crane
B
A
Figure34-28 A crane fly (Tipula sp., familyTipulidae). A, adult; B, larva. (B, courtesy ofJohannsen and
the Comell University Agricultural Experiment Station.)
708
Chapter34 OrderDiptera
days in winter. Adults can be found outdoors, sometimes in large swarms, or in caves, cellars, or similar
dark places. The larvae live in decaying vegetable matter.
Family Psychodidae-Moth Flies and Sand Flies:
The psychodids are small to minute, usually very hairy,
mothlike flies. The most common speeies (Psychodinae) hold the wings rooflike over the body. The adults
live in moist, shady places, and they are sometimes
abundant in drains or sewers. The larvae live in decaying vegetable matter, mud, moss, or water. The larvae
of Maruina (Psychodinae), which occur in the West,
live in fast-flowing streams.
This family is represented in the United States by
112 species, arranged in four subfamilies: Psychodinae,
Trichomyiinae, Phlebotominae, and Bruchomyiinae. In
the Psychodinae the eyes have a median extension extending above the base of the antennae. The other three
subfamilies have the eyes oval, without a median extension. The Trichomyiinae differ fram the Phlebotominae and Bruchomyiinae in Rs having three branches,
with only one longitudinal vein between the two
forked veins in the wing. In the Phlebotominae and
Bruchomyiinae Rs has four branches, with two veins
between the two forked veins in the wing (as in Figure 34-8G). The Phlebotominae differ from the Bruchomyiinae in having a long proboseis. Most North
American psychodids (95 speeies) are in the subfamily
Psychodinae. The Trichomyiinae contains only 3
speeies, the Phlebotominae 13, and the Bruchomyiinae
only 1 (which occurs in Florida).
Most psychodids are harmless to humans, but
those in the subfamily Phlebotominae, often called
"sand flies," are bloodsucking. These occur in the
southem states and in the tropics. Sand flies act as vectors of several diseases in various parts of the world:
pappataei fever (caused by a virus) in the Mediterranean regio n and in southem Asia; kala-azar and oriental sore (caused by leishmania organisms), which oc-
A
Figure34-30 Larvae of phantom (A-B)
and (C) dixid midges. A, Chaoborus
JIavicans(Meigen); B, Mochlonyx cinctipes
(Coquillet); e, Dixa aliciaeJohannsen.
(Courtesy ofJohannsen and the Comell
University Agricultural Experiment
Station.)
Most punkies that attack people belong to the genera
Culicodesand Leptoconops.These insects apparently
do not travel far from the place where the larvae live,
and one can often avoid punkie attacks by simply moving a few yards away.
Punkies are very similar to the midges (Chironomidae), but are generally stouter in build, with the
wings broader and held fiat over the abdomen (usually
held more or less roofiike in the Chironomidae), and
the wings are often strongly patterned (usually clear in
Chironomidae). This large group has about 580 North
American speeies.
The larvae of punkies are aquatic or semiaquatic,
living in sand, mud, decaying vegetation, and the water in tree holes. Those living along the seashore apparently breed in the intertidal zone. The feeding
habits of the larvae are not well known, but they are
probably scavengers.
Family Chaoboridae-Phantom Midges: These insects are very similar to mosquitoes, but differ in having
a short proboscis and fewer scales on the wings. They do
not bite. The larvae (Figure 34-30A,B) are aquatic and
predaceous, and their antennae are modified into prehensile organs. The larvae of Chaoborus (Figure 34-30A)
710
Chapter34 OrderDiptera
Figure34-35
Common mosquitoes.
A, the saltmarsh mosquito, Aedes sollicitans (Walker); B, a woodland mosquito,
Aedes stimulans (Walker); C, the house
mosquito, Culex pipiens L.; D, Anopheles
punctipennis (Say). (Courtesy of Headlee
and the New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station.)
712
Chapter34 OrderDiptera
prb
-___ -------
mxp--------
o
are active during the twilight hours or at night, or in
dense shade. Many spend the day in hollow trees, under culverts, or in similar resting places. Some adults
overwinter in such places. Only the female mosquitoes
are bloodsucking. The males (and occasionally also the
females) feed on nectar and other plant juices.
The sexes of most mosquitoes can be easily de termined by the form of the antennae (Figure 34-36).
The antennae of the males are very plumose, whereas
those of the females have only a few short hairs.
In most mosquito es other than Anopheles (see later),
the maxillary palps are very short in the female (Figure 34-36A) but in the male are longer than the proboseis (Figure 34-36B).
Most of the mosquitoes discussed here (139 of the
166 speeies recorded from North America) belong to
Figure34-38
of U5DA.)
714
Chapter34 OrderDiptera
is lacking
716
Chapter34 OrderDiptera
become spattered with these flies, which can clog radiator fans and cause the car to overheat, or spatter the
windshield and obscure the driver's vision. If they are
not soon cleaned off, they may damage the car's finish.
Because pairs are often seen in copulo, these insects are
commonly called "lovebugs." They are a particular
problem in the northern part of peninsular Florida and
in other Gulf states.
The subfamily Hesperininae is represented in
North America by only a single species, Hesperinus brevifrons Walker. It is recorded from Alaska, Canada, and
the western and northeastern United States. Some entomologists recognize the subfamily as a separate family, and it can be distinguished by the elongate antennae and the branched Rs.
Family Canthyloscelididae:
These rare fliesaresimilar to the Scatopsidae. They differ in having the foursegmented palps (one-segmented in the Scatopsidae).
The larvae live in decaying wood. Two species occurin
North America. They have been collected from Quebec
to California and north to Alaska.
Family Cecidomyiidae-GallMidges or Gall Gnats:
The gall midges are small (mostly 1-5 mm long),delicate flies with long legs and usually long antennaeand
with a reduced wing venation (Figures 34-8A, 34--42,
34-43A). This group is a large one, with some 1,200
North American species, about two thirds of whichare
gall makers. Larvae of the others feed on plant (without
producing galls) or livein decayingvegetationor wood,
or in fungi. A few are predaceous on other small insects.
Figure34-43 A, a cecidomyiid,
Aphidolestes meridiona/is Felt (which
is predaceous on aphids); B, a darkwinged fungus gnat, Sciara sp.,
15X. (A, courtesy ofUSDA.)
718
The recognition of the Sciaridae as a separate family renders the Mycetophilidae a paraphyletic group.As
such, the current subfamilies-Ditomyiinae
(6 species
in two genera), Diadocidiinae (4 species in one genus),
Bolitophilinae (20 species in one genus), Lygistorrhininae (1 species), Manotinae (l species) and Keroplatinae (82 species in twelve genera)-should
probablybe
recognized at the level of family.
Family Pachyneuridae: This group includes a single
North American species, Cramptonomyia spenceri
Alexander, which occurs in the Northwest (Oregon,
Washington, and British Columbia). This is a mediurnsized, long-Iegged, slender, tipulid-like fly. The wings
have a crossvein between the branches of Rs, a closed
discal cell, and a dark spot near the end of R,and Ihe
antennae are slender and about as long as the headand
thorax combined. This is a rare fly, and its immature
stages are unknown. The larvae of other genera in the
family live in rotten wood.
FamilyScatopsidae-Minute BlackScavengerFlies:
These flies are black or brownish, usually 3 mm longor
less, and have short antennae. The veins near the costal
margin of the wing (C, R, and Rs) are heavy, whereas
the remaining veins are quite weak, and Rs ends
at about one half to three fourths the wing length(Figure 34-9B). The larvae breed in decaying materialand
excremento The group is a small one (76 North American species), but its members are sometimes fairly
abundant.
Family Sciaridae-Dark-Winged Fungus Gnats,
Root Gnats: These gnats are closely related and similar
to the Mycetophilidae (Figure 34-43B), but have
the eyes meeting above the bases of the antennae(Figure 34-9A) (except in Pnyxia), and the r-m crossveinis
in line with and appears as a basal extension of Rs(Figure 34-lOC,D). The sciarids are usually blackishinsects and generally live in moist, shady places. Thelar.
719
720
Figure 34-46 Soldier fIies. A, Stratiomys laticeps Loew; B, Hermatia illucens (L.).
(B, courtesy of USDA.)
721
722
l'
Figure 34-49
tened larvae called planda. The planidia eventually attach to and enter the body of a passing spider. Pupation
occurs outside the host, often in the host's web.
Family Nemestrinidae-Tangle-Veined Flies: These
are medium-sized, rather stout-bodied flies, with a
somewhat aberrant wing venation (Figure 34-111).
Some are hairy and beelike in appearance. They live in
open fields of fairly high vegetation. They hover persistently, and are very fast fliers. Some species live on flowers. The group is a small one (6 North American
species), and its members are relatively rare. Most
Figure34-50
723
;
I
724
Chapter 34
OrderDiptera
r
Keyto the Familiesof Diptera 725
726
Chapter34 OrderDiptera
, .' .
ifJ .~oI,
~'"
. Figure34-57
.
O
~(.
,.
'0'
If
Figure34-58
maleo
along the Pacific Coast, have the labellar lobes of the labium modified into mandible-like structures.
This group is a large one (more than 1,275 North
American species), and its members are abundant in
many places, particularly near swamps and streams, in
woodlands, and in meadows. Many species live only
in a particular type of habitat. The adults are predaceous
on smaller insects. The adults of many species engage
in rather unusual mating dances. The larvae live in water or mud, in decaying wood, in grass stems, and under bark. Not much is known of their feeding habits,
but at least some are predaceous. The larvae of the
genus Medetera live under bark and are predaceous on
bark beetles (Coleoptera: Curculionidae, Scolytinae).
Family Lonchopteridae-Spear-Winged
Flies: The
members of this group are slender, yellowish or brownish flies less than 5 mm long, with wings somewhat
pointed at the apex and with a characteristic venation
(Figure 34-14H). They are usually fairly common in
moist, shady, or grassy places. The larvae live in decaying vegetation. Males differ from females in venation:
The M3 cell is closed in the female (Figure 34-14H)
and open in the maleo Males are extremely rare, and
these flies are probably parthenogenetic. This family
contains only four North American species, in the
genus Lonchoptera.
Family Phoridae-Hump-Backed Flies: The phorids
are small or minute flies that are easily recognized by
the humpbacked appearance (Figure 34-59), the characteristic venation (Figure 34-14G), the laterally flattened hind femora, and erratic manner in which they
ron. The adults are fairly common in many habitats but
most abundant about decaying vegetation. The habits
Figure34-59
ExperimentaNNERSIDAD
DECALDAS
BIBLIOTECA
728
Chapter34 OrderDiptera
Figure 34-61
Syrphid flies.
A, Didea fasciata Macquart;
B, Syrphus torvus Osten Sacken;
C, Allograpta obliqua (Say);
D, Eristalis tenax (L.). (A, B, cour.
tesy of Metcalf and the Maine
Agricultural Experiment Station;
C, D, courtesy of USDA.)
csp
A
3. Somewhat similar to a house fiy in general appearance, usually with no hypopleural or pteropleural
bristles, and the R5 cell usually parallel-sided:
Scathophagidae, Anthomyiidae, Fanniidae, and
Muscidae
4. Similar to group 3, but with hypopleural and
pteropleural bristles, and the R5 cell narrowed or
closed distally: Calliphoridae, Sarcophagidae,
Rhinophoridae, and Tachinidae
Fami/y Anthomyiidae: This is a large group (more
than 600 North American species), and most are blackish and about the size of a house fiy or smaller. They
differ from the Muscidae in having the anal vein
(Cu2+2A) reaching the wing margin, at least as a fold.
Most Anthomyiidae have fine hairs on the underside
of the scutellum (Figure 34-17D). Those Anthomyiidae that lack these hairs (Fucelliinae) have cruciate
frontal bristles and usually four sternopleural bristles,
and they have the costa spinose. Most of the Anthomyiidae are plant feeders in the larval stage, and
many of these feed on the roots of the host plant; some
(Figure 34-63) are serious pests of garden or field
crops. The larvae of the Fucelliinae, a small group occurring chiefiy in the West and in Canada, are aquatic
and predaceous.
Family Calliphoridae-Blow Fijes: Blow fiies are to
be found practically everywhere, and many species are
of considerable economic importance. Most blow fiies
are about the size of a house fiy or a liule larger, and
many are metallic blue or green (Figure 34-64). Blow
729
730
:;;
E
u'"
<=
'"
.
o
Q;
>
'"
c:>
-g
'"
.r=
<->
<;;
'"
a:
ro
5,
o
E
c:>
Figure 34-64
Figure 34-66 The sheep ked, or sheep-tick, Melophagus ovinus (L.). (Courtesy of Knowlton, Madsen, and the
Utah Agricultural Experiment Station.)
W*
a;
<:
uO)
<:
O)
.-
"
... '"
..
,
..
S.'"
: ..
..-1'
... \r....
Figure 34-67
a cow.
""..
E
c.
o
Qj
>
O)
'"
"O
c:
'"
-5
O)
a::
a
6,
o
:.c:
'"
731
732
Chapter34 OrderDiptera
~
5'
~
~
:~
== in Figure 34-18A).
Gasterophilus, the horse bot flies, are very similar
to honey bees in appearance (Figure 34-70A). The larFigure 34-68 The stable fly,Stomoxys calcitrans (L.).
vae infest the alimentary tract of horses and are often
serious pests. Three species occur commonly in the
United States, Gasterophilus intestinalis (DeGeer),
G. nasalis (L.), and G. haemorrhoidalis (L.). A fourth
species, G. inermis (Brauer), is very rare. In G. intestinalis the eggs are laid on the legs or shoulders of the
horse and are taken into the mouth when the animal
licks these parts. In G. nasalis the eggs are usually laid
on the underside of the jaw, and the larva e are believed
to make their way through the skin into the mouth.In
Figure 34-69 Two common museids, showing the difG. haemorrhoidalisthe eggs are laid on the lips ofthe
ference in the shape of the proboseis. Left, stable fly;
horse. The larvae develop in the stomach (jntestinalis),
right, house fly.(Courtesy of the Illinois Natural History
duodenum (nasalis), or rectum (haemorrhoidalis).
Survey.)
When ready to pupate, they pass out of the alimentary
tract in the feces and pupate in the ground.
Speciesof Cuterebra,the robust bot flies,arelarge,
stout-bodied, rather hairy flies that resemble bees. The
quitoes, horse flies, and others, both sexes bite. The stalarvae are parasites of rabbits and rodents. One tropical
ble fly, Stomoxys calcitrans (L.) (Figure 34-68), is very
species in this subfamily,Dermatobiahominis (L.) (Figsimilar to the house fly in appearance (Figure 34-69). lt
ure 34-70D), attacks livestock and occasionally peobreeds chiefly in piles of decaying straw. The horn fly,
pie. This species lays its eggs on mosquitoes (princiHaematobia irritans (L.), which is similar to the house fly
pally mosquitoes in the genus Psorophora).The eggs
in appearance but smaller, is a serious pest of catde that
hatch, and the larvae penetrate the skin when themosbreeds in fresh cow dung.
FamilyOestridae-Bot Flies and WarbleFlies:The
quito feeds on livestock or humans. Stable flies and
other muscids may also serve as carriers of D. hominis
members of this group are robust, hairy, and somewhat
eggs to humans.
beelike. The mouth opening is small, and the mouthThe ox warble flies, Hypoderma bovis (L.) and
parts are vestigial or lacking (Figure 34-17 A). The larH. lineatum (de Villers), are serious pests of caule.A
vae are endoparasites of mammals, and some are imthird species of Hypodermais a parasite of caribou.The
portant pests of livestock.
eggs of these flies are usually laid on the legs of cattle,
The 41 North American species in this family are
and the larvae penetrate the skin and migrate, oftenby
arranged in six genera: Cuterebra (26 species), Gasway of the esophagus, to the back, where they develop
terophilus (4 species), Hypoderma (3 species), Oestrus
in swellings or "warbles" just under the skin. When
(1 species), Cephenemyia (6 species), and Suioestrus
full grown, they escape through the skin and pupatein
(1 species).
the ground. Adult ox warble flies are very fast fiiers,
Gasterophilus differs from the other oestrids in
and although they do not bite or injure the cattle when
having M1+2straight and reaching the wing margin bethey oviposit, they are very annoying to cattle. Oxwarhind the apex of the wing, and m is about opposite r-m
ble can seriously affect the health of catde, andthe
(Figure 34-18E). In the other oestrids Ml+2 bends
e
holes made in the skin by the escaping larvae reduce
!he value of the hide when it is made into leather.
The only Nearctic species of Oestrus is the sheep
bot fly,Oestrus ovis L. (Figure 34-70C). The sheep bot
fiyis viviparous and deposits its larvae in the nostrils of
sheep (rarely, also in humans). The larvae feed in the
frontal sinuses of the sheep. The genus Cephenemyia
inc\udes six species that are parasites of cervids (deer,
moose, elk, and so forth). Finally, Suioestrus cookii
Townsend is a parasite of pigs.
Family Rhinophoridae:These flies are similar to the
tachinids (with which they were formerly classified)
bu! differ in having a weakly developed postscutellum
and narrow calypteres. The eyes are sometimes hairy.
Thegroup is a small one, with only four North Americanspecies. Melanophoraroralis (L.), which occurs in
!heEast, is probably the most common species. lt is a
parasiteof isopods.
Family Sarcophagidae-Flesh Flies: Flesh flies are
verysimilar to some blow flies, but are generally blackish with gray thoracic stripes (never metallic) (Figure34-65A). The adults are common insects and feed
on various sugar-containing materials such as nectar,
sap,fmit juices, and honeydew. The larvae vary con-
733
734
Chapter34 OrderDiptera
Figure 34-71
Tachinid mes.
A, Euphoroccra claripcnnis
(Macquart); B, Winthcmia quadripustulata (Fabricius); C, Archytas
marmoratus (Townsend); D, Dailla vcntralis (Aldrich). (Courtesy
of USDA.)
r
Keyto the Familiesof Diptera 735
but the group is abundant in the tropics, where the larvaelive in excremento
Family Neriidae-Cactus Flies: This group is represented in the United States by two species occurring in
the Southwest. The most common species, Odontoloxoro longicornis (Coquillett), ranges from southern
Texas to southern California. It is slender, mediumsized,and grayish with brown markings, and it has long,
slenderlegs and long, porrect antennae (Figure 34-231).
The larvae breed in decaying cacti, and the adults are
usuallyfound only on such cacti.
Family Pseudopomyzidae: The flies in this group
that occur in the United States, Latheticomyia tricolor
Wheelerand L. lineata Wheeler, are 2.5 to 3.5 mm long
and black with yellow areas on the head, thorax, and
legs.The front coxae are long and slender, nearly as
longas the tibiae. The front femora have a few strong
bristlesventrally in the distal half, and the hind femora
havea single bristle at about three fourths their length.
Thewings are hyaline, the anal cell is well developed,
2Adoes not reach the wing margin, and the second
basaland discal cells are confluent. They have been
taken during late twilight, at banana-baited traps, in
Arizonaand Utah.
Family Diopsidae-Stalk-Eyed Flies: This group is
largelytropical, and only two species, Sphyracephala
brevicornis(Say) and S. subbifasciata Fitch, occur in
736
fieially resemble small thread-waisted wasps (Figure 34-73). The abdomen is usually elongate and slender basally, the head is slightly broader than the thorax,
and the antennae are long. All species have a very long
and slender proboseis. In some speeies the proboseis is
elbowed. The wing venation (Figure 34-15D) is similar
lo that in the Syrphidae (Figure 34-15A-C), but there is
no spurious vein. Conopids can be distinguished from
syrphids lacking a spurious vein by their long, slender
proboseis. In one genus (Stylogaster), the abdomen is
slender and, in the female, terminates in a very long
ovipositor that is as long as the rest of the body. The
adults are usually found on flowers. The larvae are endoparasites, chiefly of adult bumble bees and wasps, and
the flies usually oviposit on their hosts during flight.
Family Lonchaeidae:The lonchaeids are small, shining, blackish flies, with the abdomen in dorsal view
oval and somewhat pointed apically. They live chiefly
in moist or shady places. The larvae are mostly secondary invaders of diseased or injured plant tissues. A
few feed on pine cones, fruits, or vegetables. The group
contains about 120 North American speeies, and the
adults are not very common.
FamilyPallopteridae-Flutter Flies:The nine North
American speeies in this group are rare and poorIy
known. They are medium-sized flies that usually have
pictured wings and live in moist, shady places. The larvae of North American speeies are unknown, but the
larvae of European speeies are plant feeders in flower
buds and stems or live under the bark of fallen trees,
where they prey on wood-boring beetle larvae.
FamilyPiophilidae-Skipper Flies:The skipper flies
are usually less than 5 mm long and are rather metallic
black or bluish (Figure 34-74A). The larvae are mostly
scavengers, and some live in cheese and preserved
meats. The larva e of the cheese skipper, Pophila case
(L.), are often serious pests in cheese and meats. The
Figure 34-75
(Pyrgotidae).
and its members are not very common. The adults are
mostly nocturnal and are often attracted to lights, and
the larvae are parasites of adult june beetles.
This is a smallgroup (lO North
FamilyRichardiidae:
American species) of uncommon to rare flies about
which little is known. Most species have be en taken at
fruit-baited traps, and one species of Omomyia has
been taken on yucca. In Omomyia the costa is spinose
and the males are very hairy. These flies are known
from Arizona and New Mexico. Most species in this
family have patterned wings.
738
Figure 34-80
lIf
seaweeds have washed up. The larvae breed in the seaweed (chiefly kelp) in tremendous numbers, mainly
just above the high tidemark in seaweed that has begun
to rol. The adults swarming over the seaweed often attract large numbers of shore birds, which feed on them.
Seaweed flies feed on flowers and sometimes cluster so
thickly on the flowers near the shore that a single
sweep of a net can yield a hundred or more individuals. Four of the five North American species occur
along the Pacific Coasl. The other, Coe/opa frgida
(Fabricius), occurs along the Atlantic Coast from
Rhode Island north.
FamilyDryomyzidae:
This is a small group (ll North
American species) of relatively rare flies that are similar
to the Sciomyzidae. Three species in two genera (He/comyza and Heterocheila, formerly placed in the family
Helcomyzidae) occur along the Pacific coast from Oregon to Alaska. Their larvae live in rotting seaweed. The
remaining species in the family are widely distributed
and are usually found in moist woods. Their larvae live
in decaying organic matter.
Family Ropalomeridae:This is a small group of
about 30 species, most occurring in Central and South
America. They are of medium size and usually brownish or grayish, with the first posterior (Rs) cell narrowed
apically, the femora thickened, and the hind tibiae often
dilated. The only North American species, Rhytidops
flordensis (Aldrich), occurs in Florida, where adults are
usually found around fresh palm exudates.
Family Sciomyzidae-Marsh Flies:The marsh flies
are small to medium-sized flies that are usually yellowish or brownish and have the antennae extending forward (Figure 34-81). Many species have spotted or
pattemed wings and a characteristic bristle near the
middle of the anterior face of the middle femur. This is
Figure 34-82
-740
Chapter34 OrderDiptera
Figure 34-83
Leafmines of agromyzidfijes.
leaf-miner, Phyto-
Family Carnidae:This small group (16 North American species) was formerly considered a subfamily of
the Milichiidae. These fiies can be separated from the
Milichiidae by the characters in the key (couplet 135).
One species, Carnus hemapterus Nitzsch, is a bloodsucking ectoparasite of birds.
Family Chloropidae-Grass Flies: The chloropids are
small, rather bare flies, and so me species are bright yellow and black. They are very common in meadows and
other grassy places, although they can be found in a variety of habitats. The larva e of most species feed in
grass stems, and some are serious pests of cereals. A
few are scavengers, and a few are parasitic or predaeeous. Some of the chloropids (for example, Hippelates), which breed in decaying vegetation and excrement, are attracted to animal secretions and feed on
pus, blood, and similar materials. They are particularly
attracted to the eyes and are some times called "eye
gnats." These fiies can act as vectors of yaws and pinkeye. This is a fairly large group, with 290 North American species.
Family Cryptochetidae: The flies in this group are
somewhat similar to black fiies (Simuliidae) and have
habits similar to those of eye gnats (Hippelates, family
Chloropidae: see preceding paragraph). They can usually be recognized by the enlarged third antennal segment, which reaches nearly to the lower edge of the
head and which lacks an arista but bears at its apex a
short spine or tubercle. As far as known, the larvae are
parasites of scale insects in the family Margarodidae.
This is principally an Old World group of fiies, and
only one species, Cryptochetum iceryae (Williston), occurs in the United States. It was introduced into California from Australia in the 1880s to control the cottony cushion scale, Icerya purchasi. This fiy is about
1.5 mm long and stout-bodied, with dark, metallic
blue head and thorax and shiny green abdomen. The
introduction was successful. This fiy is probably a
more important natural enemy of the cottony cushion
seale than the ladybird beetle, Rodolia cardinalis,
whieh was also introduced from Australia to control
this scale insecto
Family Milichiidae: The milichiids are small flies,
usuallyblack or silvery, and are sometimes fairly common in open areas. The larva e generally live in decayingplant or animal materials. Many have a slender proboseis. This group is small, with 43 North American
speeies.
Family Tethinidae: Most tethinids are seashore
speeies, living in beach grass, in salt marshes, and
around seaweed washed up on the shore. The majority
are found along the Pacific Coast. The inland species
livemainly in alkaline areas. This is a small group (27
NorthAmerican species), and its members are uncommonfiies.
.Al
742
Chapter34 OrderDiptera
Figure34-84
References
the wings together above the body and lying along the
point, and the body at right angles to the point (Figure 35-13). If a specimen lo be mounted on a point
dies with its wings bent down, the wings can often be
snapped into the vertical position by gently squeezing
the thorax with forceps. Do this as soon as possible after the insect dies. Some of the more minute specimens (especially Nematocera) should be preserved in
fluids and must be mounted on microscope slides for
detailed study.
References
Alexander, C. P. 1967. The crane flies of California. Bull.
Calif. Insect Surv. 8:1-269.
Amaud, P.H.,]r. 1978. A Host-Parasite Catalog ofNorth American Tachinidae (Diptera). USDA Misc. Pub\. 1319,860 pp.
Ashe, P. 1983. A catalogue of chironornid genera and subgenera of the world including synonyrns (Diptera: Chironornidae). Entorno\. Scand. Supp\. 20,68 pp.
Bickel, D.j. 1982. Diptera. In S. B. Parker (Ed.), Synopsis and
Classification of Living Organisrns, pp. 563-599. New
York: McGraw-Hil\.
Blanton, F. S., and W W Wirth. 1979. The sand flies (Culicoides) of Florida (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae). Arthropods of Florida and Neighboring land Areas 10:1-204.
Borkent, A. 1993. A world catalogue of fossil and extant
Crethrellidae and Chaoboridae (Diptera), with a listing of
references to keys, bionornic inforrnation and descriptions of each known life stage. Entorno\. Scand. 24:1-24.
Borkent, A., and W W Wirth. 1997. World species of biting
rnidges (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae). Bull. Arner. Mus.
Nat. Hist. 233:1-257.
Brown, B. V. 1992. Generic revision of Phoridae of the Nearctic region and phylogenetic classification of Phoridae,
Sciadoceridae, and Ironornyiidae (Diptera: Phoridae).
Mern. Entorno\. Soco Can. 164:1-144.
Carpenter, S. j., and W j. la Casse. 1955. Mosquitoes of
North Arnerica (North of Mexico). Berkeley: University
of California Press, 360 pp.
Cole, F.R. 1969. The Flies of Western North Arnerica. Berkeley: University of California Press, 693 pp.
Courtney, G. W 1991. Phylogenetic analysis of the Blepharicerornorpha, with special reference to rnountain rnidges
(Diptera: Deuterophlebiidae). Syst. Entorno\. 16:137-172.
Courtney, G. W 1994. Biosysternatics of the Nyrnphornyiidae
(Insecta: Diptera): Life history, rnorphology, and phylogenetic relationships. Srnithson. Contrib. Zoo\. 550, 41 pp.
Crosskey,R. W, and T. M. Howard. 1997. A New Taxonornic
and Geographical Inventory of World Blackflies (Diptera:
Sirnuliidae). london: Natural History Museurn, 144 pp.
Curnrning, j. M., B. j. Sinclair, and D. M. Wood. 1995. Hornology and phylogenetic irnplications of rnale genitalia
in Diptera, Erernoneura. Entorno\. Scand. 26:120-151.
Curran, C. H. 1934. The Farnilies and Genera of North American Diptera. New York: Author, 512 pp. (Reprinted by
Henry Tripp, Mount Vernon, NY, 1965)
de Meyer, M. 1996. World catalogue of Pipunculidae
(Diptera). Brussels Studiedocurnenten van het Koninklijk Belgisch Instituut voor Natuurwetenschappen. 86,
172 pp.
DeSalle,R., and D. Grirnaldi. 1992. Characters and the systernatics of Drosophilidae. j. Heredity 83:182-188.
743
744
Chapter34 OrderDiptera
and Alaska.
(Diptera:
Anthornyiidae).
Proc.
of Maryland.
Trans. Amer.
Thornpson,
E C. 2004. The BioSysternatic
Database ofWorld
Diptera. http://www.sel.barc.usda.gov/Diptera/biosys.htm.
Accessed 25 March, 2004.
Tillyard,
R. J. 1926. The Insects
of Australia
and New
lealand.
Sydney: Angus and Robertson.
Vockeroth, J. R. 1969. A revision of the genera of the Syrphini
(Diptera:
Syrphidae).
Mern.
Entorno\.
Soco Can.
62:1-176.
Wiegrnann, B. M., C. Mitter, and E C. Thornpson.
1993. Evolutionary origin of the Cyclorrhapa
(Diptera): Tests of alternative rnorphological
hypotheses.
Cladistics 9:41-81.
Wiegrnann, B. M., S. C. Tsaur, D. W Webb, D. K. Yeates, and
B. K. Casse\. 2000. Monophyly
and relationships of the
Tabanornorpha
(Diptera: Brachycera)
based on 285 ribosornal gene sequences.
Ann.
Entorno\.
Soco Amer.
93:1031-1038.
Wirth, W W,
Usinger
372-482.
Yeates, D. K.
Bornbyliidae (Diptera,
Hist. 219:1-191.
Asiloidea).
35
Collecting, Preserving,
and Studying Insects
sDEeA1W5
BIBLIOTECA
746
Chapter 35
Collecting,Preserving,and StudyingInsects
some species are most easily collected in such situations. Other insects found in buildings feed on clothing, furniture, grain, food, and other materials. Insects
that attack animals are usually found around those animals, and a person interested in collecting species that
attack humans can often get them with little effortsimply by letting the insects come to the collector.
On warm evenings, insects from various sources
are attracted to lights and can be collected at street or
porch lights, on windows or screens of lighted rooms,
or at lights put up especially to attract them. This
is one of the easiest ways of collecting many types of
insects.
Many nocturnal insects, however, are not attracted
to lights. You must search for them at night and capture
them by hand. Examining tree trunks, leaves and other
vegetation, fallen logs, rock faces, and other habitats at
night will reveal a sizable arthropod fauna, unsuspected by those who only collect in daylight. Flashlights and lanterns of various sorts are use fuI for night
collecting, but the best sort of light is a headlamp. Not
only does it leave both hands free (you'll often wish
that you had three or four extra arms and hands), but
its beam also focuses your attention on smaller arcas
and sharpens your perception: The lamp illuminates
only the arca where you are looking. Get a headlamp
with an elastic headband and operated by a 6-volt battery attached to the belt, available at almost any big
outdoor gear store.
A great many insects-only the immature stages in
some cases, and all stages in others-are
found in
aquatic situations. Different types of aquatic habitats
harbor different species, and different insects can be
found in different parts of any particular pond or
stream. Some are found on the surface, others live on
aquatic vegetation, others are attached to or are under
stones or other objects in the water, and still others
burrow in the sand or muck of the bottom. Many
aquatic insects can be collected by hand or with forceps. Others are most easily collected with various
types of aquatic collecting equipment.
The adults of many species are best obtained by
collecting the immature stages and rearing them. This
process involves collecting cocoons, larvae, or nymphs
and maintaining them in some sort of container until
the adults appear. lt is often possible to get better specimens by this method than by collecting adults in the
field.
Although many people view insects simply as
pests to be removed or killed, remember that many
statutes classify them as wildlife. Further, a number of
species are formally designated as endangered or
threatened and, as such, are protected not only from
collecting but also habitat disturbance. It is usually
necessary to procure permits from authorities to col-
Collecting Equipment
The minimum equipment necessary to collect insectsis
your hands and some sort of container for the specimens collected. However, you can do much better with
a net and killing jar, or better yet with a backpack or
Collecting Equipment
Insect net
Killing jars
Pillboxes containing cleansing tissue
Envelopes, or paper for making envelopes
Vials filled with preservative
Forceps
10 x hand lens
Sheet of plain white paper
Insed Net
Insect nets can be purchased fram a supply house or
can be homemade. Homemade nets are fairly easy to
make and are much less expensive. However, a good
cornrnercial net generally survives physical abuse
much better. Handles made of aluminum are both light
and strong. The length of the handle is generally about
3 feet, but some modular designs let the user increase
the length up to 10 feet (or more). Collapsible heads allow the entire net to be stored very compactly. However, the flexibility in the rim may make such nets less
suitable for sweeping through heavy vegetation. A net
ror general collecting should have mesh open enough
747
748
Chapter35 Collecting,Preserving,
andStudyingInsects
move by hand the larger pieces of vegetation or other debris, and dump the remainder into the killing jaro Once
you have emptied the results of sweeping onto the sheet
of paper, you can pick out the specimens (in the field)
that you want to save, but it is better to save the entire
catch and do the sorting after retuming fram the field. If
you examine the results of sweeping under a binocular
micrascope, you may find (and save) many interesting
insects that would otherwise be overlooked.
Another way to get the results of sweeping (or an
individual insect) fram the net to the killingjar is to insert the killing jar into the net. This pracedure may
save time compared with the method just described,
but it seldom gets al! the material taken in sweeping,
and sometimes individual insects may escape. Work
the insects into the bottom of the net with a few
swings, and pinch off the net just above them. Then
hold the tip of the net up (many insects tend to move
upward to escape), insert the killing jar into the net
(with the lid removed), quickly move it past the
pinched-off point, and work the specimens into the jaro
The jar may be capped fram the outside long enough to
stun the insects, or you can work it to the open end of
the net (with the lid over the jar outside the net), then
remove the lid fram the outside and cap the jar. Some
insects may escape with this method, but a little experience minimizes the losses.
Sweeping is often the only practical method of
capturing small or minute insects. Because of their size,
however, these specimens tend to dry out very rapidly,
and the appendages, particularly the antennae, are subject to extensive breakage. One way to avoid this prablem is to dump the entire contents of the net into a
plastic bag (a l-gallon food storage bag works well)
filled about a quarter to a third full of water and with
one or two draps of liquid detergent (or any other surfactant) added. The detergent reduces the surface tension of the water so that the insects are quickly wetted
and drawn. Specimens may be kept in the water for periods up to several hours. As soon as possible, however,
thoroughly wash them in fresh water and then transfer
them to 70% alcohol. This transfer can be made as the
specimens are sorted (the same day they are caught). If
you don't have enough time right away, you can pour
the catch fram the plastic bag into small mesh bags
(made of the same fine material as the sweeping net).
Then close the mesh bag with a twist tie, and place it
in a container of alcohol. After 24 hours, drain the bag
and place it in fresh alcohol. You can then sort specimens at your leisure. This method works well for collecting minute parasitic Hymenoptera and small beedes, for example, but it may not be apprapriate for
some other graups. Small flies may have the taxonomically important brisdes braken off, and many mirids
lose their hind legs when placed in alcohol.
Killing Bottles
If the insect is to be preserved after it is captured, it
must be killed in such a way that it is not injured orbrokeq. Some sort of killing botde is thus required. Bottles
of various sizes and shapes can be used, depending on
the type of insects involved, and a number of different
materials can be used as the killing agent. In the fieldit
is generally desirable to have two or three killing botdes
of different sizes for insects of different types. Always
use a separate jar for Lepidoptera, because other insects
(especially beedes) may damage their delicate wings
and beca use their wing scales come off and adhereto
other insects (making them look dusty). lt is desirable
to have one or more small bottles (perhaps 25 mmin
diameter and 100-150 mm in length) for small insects
and one or more larger botdes for larger insects.Corked
botdes are preferable to screw-capped botdes, but either
type will do. Wide-mouthed bottles or jars are better
than narrow-necked ones. All killing bottles, regardless
of the killing agent used, should be conspicuously labeled "POISON,"and all glass bottles should be reinforced with tape to prevent shattering and spilling ofthe
poisonous chemicals.
Several materials can be used as the toxic agentin
a killing botde. The traditional killing jar, preferredby
many entomologists, uses cyanide. Such bottles kill
quickly and last a long time, whereas most other materials kill more slowly and do not last as long. However,
cyanide is extremely poisonous. But with certain precautions, botdes made with it can be just as safeasbotdes made with some other killing agent.
Cyanide botdes can be made in two generalways
(Figure 35-2). Those made with small vials have a plug
of cotton and a piece of cardboard to hold the cyanide
in the bottle, whereas those made with larger jars have
plaster of paris holding the cyanide in the bottle,
Sodium or potassium cyanide is the cyanide usedin
most cyanide bottles. Calcium cyanide is sometimes
used in killing botdes made with small vials.
A calcium-cyanide killing bottle is made as shown
in Figure 35-2A. Pack the cotton and cardboard down
tighdy, and put some pinholes in the cardboard. Io re.
duce the hazard of breakage, reinforce the bottom and
rim of the botde with tape. If the killing botde is
capped with a large cork, it may be convenient to put
the cyanide in a hole in the bottom of the cork and
keep it there with a plug of cotton and a coveringof
cloth. Calcium cyanide is a dark gray powder that isof.
ten used as a fumigan lo lt is extremely poisonous,It
should be handled with great care, and only peoplefamiliar with its praperties should use it. This typeof
botde is ready for use as soon as it is prepared.
A cyanide bottle made with plaster of parstakes
longer to prepare but lasts longer. A bottle made witb
CollectingEquipment 749
POISON
'
Cardboard
Plaster (Set)
Cotton
Plaster (Dry)
Potassium
cyanide
I.. Calcium
cyanide
out. The escaping gas reduces its strength, and an uncorked botde (particularly one made with cyanide) is a
hazard. Keep the inside of the botde dry. Botdes sometimes "sweat"; that is, moisture from the insects (and
sometimes from the plaster) condenses on the inside of
the botde, particularly if exposed to bright sunlight.
Such moisture ruins delicate specimens. It is a good
idea to keep a few pieces of cleansing tissue or other absorbent material in the botde at all times, to absorb
moisture and to prevent the insects from getting badly
tangled up with one another. Change this material frequendy, and wipe out the botde periodically. A botde
that has been used for Lepidoptera should not be used
for other insects unless it is first cleaned to remove
scales that would get on new insects put into the botde.
Other Types of Collecting
Equipment
750
Chapter35 Collecting.Preserving,
andStudyingInsects
A
numbers on the substrate. With a series of these vials
or tubes, an insect-filled one can be removed and replaced and with an empty one, and collecting can proceedwith minimal interruption.
BeatingUmbrella. Many insects that live on vegetation feign death by dropping off the plant when it is
jarred slightly. The collector can take advantage of this
habit by placing a collecting device underneath a plant
and then jarring the plant with a stick. The insects that
fall onto the collecting device beneath usually continue
to play dead and can be easily picked up. The best device for this sort of collecting is a beating umbrella
(Figure 35-4E), an umbrella frame covered with white
Collecting Equipment
Screen or
hardware
cloth
rContanerOf
.1'0001
Figure35-5 A Berlese funnel. The funnel can be supponed by a ringstand, or by three or four legs attached
near the middle of the funnel. The light bulb can be that
of an ordinary gooseneck lamp, or it can be in a metal
cylinder put over the top of the funnel. The material to
be sifted is placed on the screen.
insects (or at least certain types of insects) than do ordinary light bulbs.
A light trap for insects may be made in such a way
that insects coming to the trap are diverted, by a series
of baffles, into a cyanide jar or container of alcohol
(Figure 35-6D). Such a trap catches a lot ofinsects, but
the specimens often are not in very good shape. Better
specimens in better condition can be collected by simply waiting at a light and getting desired insects directly into a killing bottle or aspirator as they settle on
something near the light (for example, a wall, screen,
or sheet).
A particularly effective device that is very popular
is the Malaise trap, named for Dr. Ren Malaise of Sweden (Figure 35-6C). Many modifications of this trap
have be en deveioped, but they are all essentially tentlike structures of fine netting into which flying insects
wander. The underlying principIe of this type of trap is
that insects usually move upward in attempting to escape, and in the Malaise trap they eventually en ter a
collecting apparatus at the top of the trap and are killed
in ajar of alcohol or one charged with cyanide or ethyl
acetate. Such traps often turo up rare, unusual, or eiusive insects not taken by collectors using conventional
methods. Directions for building Malaise traps are
given by Townes (1972).
Traps of the type shown in Figure 35-6B are usefuI for catching flies that are attracted to decaying materials such as meat and fruits. If the trap is visited frequently, the specimens it catches can be retrieved in
good condition. Varying the bait produces a more varied catch.
Pitfall traps of the type shown in Figure 35-6A are
useful for catching carrion beetles and other insects
that do not fly readily. Such a trap may be made of a
large plastic container, preferably with a few holes
punched in the bottom to prevent water from accumulating in it, and with some sort of screen over the bait
to permit easy removal of the insects caught. The trap
is sunk into the ground with its top at ground leve!. Insects attracted by the bait will fall into the can and be
unable to get out. The bait may be a dead animal, a
piece of meat that will eventually decay, fruit, molasses,
or some similar materia!. Here again, varying the bait
yieids a more varied catch.
Pan traps are similar in some respects to shallow
pitfall traps. Place the pan (or bowl or any type of shallow container) on or sink it in the ground, and half-fill
it with water to which a few drops of a liquid detergent
have be en added to reduce surface tension. Yellow pans
are especially attractive to many species. The insects
are either attracted to or inadvertently stumble into the
trap, are wetted, and drown. Remove the catch from
the pan with a small aquarium dip net. Traps containing only water must be tended every day to remove the
751
752
Opening___
"
--//
rrr-:
r1;
A
Container
fr bait- - -
><
>"
---1:: fB
Light
bulb
Center
pole- -
,,
,,
,,
,,
,-'
-- ....-....
...........
Baffle
Figure 35-6 Insect traps. A, pitfall trap, consisting of a can sunk in the ground; B, fly
trap, a cylindrical screen cage with a screen cone at the bottom; bait is placed in a container below the center of the cone, and flies attracted to the bait eventually go through
the opening at the top of the cone into the main part of the trap, from which they can be
removed through the door at the top; e, Malaise trap, a square, tentlike structure supported by a central pole, with screen or c\oth baffles across the diagonals, and a killing
jar at the top; D, light trap; specimens attracted to the light are funneled into the killing
jar at the bottom.
r
Collecting Equipment
is equivalent
= 1.7
km,
753
754
Chapter35 Collecting.Preserving.
andStudyingInsects
Figure35-7 Folding triangular paper envelopes forinsect specimens. Fol\ow steps A, B, and C. (From DeLong
and Davidson, courtesy of The Ohio State University
Press.)
25-gauge needle). Insert the needle into the thorax under the wings, and completely fill the thorax with water. This method is particularly useful for Lepidoptera
(except small ones) that have been kept in paper envelopes. After injection return the specimen to the envelope for 5 to 20 minutes, after which it should be relaxed enough to mount.
Cleaning Specimens
50 mI
50 mI
20 mI
7 mI
It is seldom necessary to clean specimens, and it is usually better not to. A little dirt is preferable to a damaged
specimen. Cleaning specimens is most likely to be desirable when they have been collected from mud, dung,
or a similar material, some of which has stuck to the
specimens. The easiest way to remove this material is
to put the specimens in alcohol or in water to which a
detergent has been added. If the material to be removed
is greasy, cleaning fluid can be used.
Dust, lint, Lepidoptera scales, and the like can be
removed by means of a camel's-hair brush, either dry or
dipped in a cleaning fluido This method can also remove films of oil or grease that so me times exude from
pinned specimens. Ultrasonic cleaners clean specimens
quickly and thoroughly. Take care not to overdo ultrasonic cleaning, as the vibrations eventually break most
specimens apart.
Pinning
Pinning is the best way to preserve hard-bodied insects. Pinned specimens keep well, retain their normal
appearance, and are easily handled and studied. The
colors often fade when the insect dries, but this fading
is difficult to avoid under any circumstances. Bright
colors are generally better preserved if the specimens
are dried rapidly.
Common pins are undesirable for pinning insects.
They are too thick, too short, and they rust. Insects
should be pinned with a special type of steel pin
known as an insect pino These pins are longer than
common pins, they can be obtained in various sizes
Cthicknesses), and they should not rust. Insect pin
sizes range fram 00 to 7. Number 2 or 3 pins are best
for general use; the smaller sizes (that is, smaller in diame ter) are too slender for all but specialty purposes.
Size 7 pins are longer than the other sizes (and will not
fit in some insect boxes or drawers); these pins are
used in pinning very large insects, such as some tropical beetles.
Insects are pinned vertically through the body as
shown in Figures 35-8 and 35-9. Bees, wasps, flies,
bu tterflies , and moths are pinned through the thorax
between the bases of the front wings. With flies and
wasps, insert the pin a little to the right of the midline.
Pin bugs through the scutellum (Figure 35-8C), a lit-
755
756
Chapter35 Collecting,Preserving,
andStudyingInsects
T
I
tle to the right of the midline if the scutellum is large.
Grasshoppers are usually pinned through the posterior
part of the pronotum, just to the right of the midline
(Figure 35-8D). Pin beetles, earwigs, and large hoppers through the right fore wing, about halfway between the two ends of the body (Figure 35-8E). The
pin should go through the metathorax and emerge
through the metasternum (see Figure 26-4) so as not
to damage the bases of the legs. Dragonflies and damselflies are best pinned horizontally through the thorax, with the left side uppermost. This method reduces
the space necessary to house the collection, and a spec-
I
30mm
I
I
I
I
30mm
I
I
~
+j
Figure35-10 Pinning blocks. These can be rectangular pieces of wood containing holes drilled to different
depths (A), or blocks shaped like stair steps, with holes
drilled to the bottom (B). The block of the type shownin
A usually has the holes drilled to depths of 25, 16, and
9.5 mm. After placing a specimen or label on the pin, insert the pin into the appropriate hole until it touches
bottom-into the deepest hole for the specimen, the
middle hole for the label bearing the locality and date,
and the last hole for any additionallabel. For thickbodied insects, leave enough room above the insect to
grasp the pino (From DeLong and Davidson 1936, courtesy of The Ohio State University Press.)
Insects
:_ 1/4"
1/2"
Figure35-11 The spreading board, showing dimensions, details of construction (inset), and a spread specimen. The wings of the specimen can be held in place by
a single, broad strip of paper as shown on the left wings,
or by a narrower strip and pins as shown on the right
wings. (Courtesy of the Illinois Natural History Survey.)
757
758
If
factors as temperature and humidity. No general statement of time required can be made; you learn this by
experience. To determine whether the specimen is
ready to be removed from the spreading board, touch
the abdomen gently with a pin: If the abdomen can be
moved independently of the wings, the specimen is not
yet dry; if the body is stiff, the specimen can be removed. Some of the larger moths may take a week or
more to dry thoroughly. In every case, take care that
not to lose the data on the specimen. A data label can
be pinned alongside the specimen when it is spread.
In camp work or in the lower school grades, for
example, mounting in a Riker mount or similar display
is preferable to spreading a pinned specimen. Such
specimens are more easily displayed and are less subject to breakage. However, spread specimens in good
scientific collections are always pinned. Circumstances
determine what type of spreading method to use.
Mounting Smalllnsects
lnsects too small to pin can be mounted on a card or
point (Figures 35-13A-C, 35-14), on a minuten pin
(Figure 35-13D), on a microscope slide, or they can be
preserved in liquido Most small specimens are mounted
on points.
Points are elongated, triangular pieces of light
cardboard or heavy paper, about 8 or 10 mm long and
3 or 4 mm wide at the base. Remember that a wellprepared insect collection can last for centuries. Many
types of paper do not have such longevity, becoming
yellow and brittle in only a few short years. Therefore,
points should be made of good-quality, acid-free,
archival paper. The point is pinned through the base,
and the insect is glued to the tip of the point. Points
Figure35-14 A method of mounting long, slender insects that are too small to pin; such insects are mounted
on two points.
759
760
Chapter35 Collecting,Preserving,
andStudyingInsects
Insects in Fluids
95 mI
5 mI
Kahle's soIution:
95% ethyl alcohol
Formaldehyde
Glacial acetic acid
Water
30 mI
12 mI
4ml
60 mI
r
Mounting and PreservingInsects
70-100 ml
10ml
20ml
lOml
XA mixture:
95% ethyl alcohol
Xylene
50ml
50ml
on Microscope
Slides
pending on the mounting medium used. Use permanent mounts for material that is not to be returned to
the preserving fluid after study. Despite their name,
such mounts do not last indefinitely, but may remain in
good condition for many years. Specimens mounted on
microscope slides for class use are usually mounted as
permanent mounts. Specimens of particular taxonomic
value, which one would like to keep indefinitely,
should be kept in fluids and mounted for study only in
temporary mounts.
Many small or soft-bodied specimens may be
mounted directly in a mounting medium, but others
(especially dark-colored or thick-bodied specimens or
such structures as genitalia) must be "cleared" before
mounting. The clearing process removes tissue from
within the specimen as well as some of the pigmento
Generally it do es not render a specimen truly clear or
transparento Some mounting media have an inherent
clearing action. Several substances may be used specifically as clearing agents, but the most commonly used
are probably potassium hydroxide (KOH), lactic acid,
and Nesbitt's solution. KOH can be used for almost any
arthropod or arthropod structure. Nesbitt's solution is
often used for clearing such small arthropods as mites,
lice, and Collembola. After clearing in KOH, wash the
specimen in water (preferably with a little acetic acid
added) to remove or neutralize any excess KOH. Specimens in lactic acid should be thoroughly washed with
water. The subsequent treatment of the specimen depends on the type of medium in which it is mounted.
Specimens cleared in Nesbitt's solution can be transferred directly to some mounting media, but with other
media specimens must be run through certain reagents
first.
KOH used for clearing is a 10-15% solution. The
formula for Nesbitt's solution is as follows:
Nesbitt's solution:
Chloral hydrate
Concentrated HCl
Distilled water (more for lightly
sclerotized specimens)
40 g
2.5 mL
25-50 mL
761
762
Chapter35 Collecting.Preserving,
andStudyingInsects
50 mL
30 g
200 g
20 mL
Labeling
The scientific value of an insect specimen depends to a
large extent on the information regarding the date and
locality of its capture and also on such additional information as the name of the collector and the habitat
3 '2.8'N
110"21.8'W
USA, Arizona, Cochise Co.
Sear Ck. Huachuca Mt$.
18,iv.1994 N.F.Johnson
sweeping
31-22.S'N 11 cn1.S'W
USA, Arizona, Cochise Co.
Bear Ck. Huachuca MIs.
18.iv.1994 N.F.Johnson
sweeping
31-22.S'N 110"21.8'W
USA, Arizona, Coc:hise Ce.
Bear Ck. Huachuca MIs.
18.iv.1994 N.F.Johnson
sweeping
3122.8'N 11 0"21.S'W
USA, Afizona, Cochise Co.
Bear Ck. Huachuca Mts.
18.iv.1994 N.F.Johnson
sweeping
31"22.8'N 11 O"21.S'W
USA, Arizona. Cochise Co.
Bear Ck. Huachuca Mts.
18.iv.1994 N.F.Johnson
sweeping
31"22.8'N 110"21.S'W
USA, Arizona, Cochise Co.
Bear Ck. Huachuca Mis.
18.1y.1994 N.F.Johnson
sweeping
31"22.S'N 110"21.S'W
USA, Artzona, Cochise Co.
Bear Ck. Huachuca MIs.
18.iv.1994 N.F. Johnson
8Weeping
31.22.8'N 110021.S'W
USA, Arizona, Cochise Co.
Sear Ck. Huachuca Mis.
18.iv.1994 N.F. Johnson
sweeping
31"22.8'N 11 0"21.8'W
USA, Arizona. Cochise Co.
Bear Ck. Huachuca MIs.
18.iv.1994 N.F. Johnson
sweeping
31"22.8'N 11 0"21.8'W
USA, Arizona, Cochise Co.
Bear Ck. Huachuca Mis.
18.iv.1994 N.F. Johnson
swe&ping
31"22.8'N 110"21.8'W
USA, Arizona, Cochise Co.
Bear Ck. Huachuca Mis.
18.iv.1994 N.F.Johnson
sweeping
3122.S'N 11 0"21.8'W
USA, Arizona, Cochise Oo.
Bear Ck. Huachuca MIs.
18.1v.1994 N.F. Johnson
sweeping
31"22.8'N 110"21.8'W
USA, Arilona, Coc:tIise Co.
Bear Ck. Huachuca Mis.
18.iv.1994 N.F. Johnson
swe&ping
31"22.8'N 110"21.8'W
USA, Atizona, Coc:tIise Co.
Bear Ck. Huac:huca MIs.
18.1v.1994 N.F. Johnson
sweeping
31"22.8'N 110"21.8'W
USA, Arizona, Coc:tIise Co.
Bear Ck. Huachuca MIs.
18.1v.1994 N.F. JOhnson
sweeping
31G22.8'N 110"21.8'W
USA, Atizona. Coc:tIise Co.
Bear Ck. Huac:huca MIs.
18.iv.1994 N.F. Johnson
sweeping
ica, that the country is not listed and the label begin
with the sta te or province in which the specimen was
collected. Ineluding the country adds little to the
amount of text on the label and certainly helps prevent
any future ambiguity. Specification of the collecting 10cality should use a place name that other people can
reasonably be expected to find and use, and may inelude an offset, such as "7 km S of West Bloomfield on
SR56."
Traps are commonly operated for more than one
day, and the date the traps were set and the date emptied is indicated by the range in days. Conventions for
writing dates vary widely, and data recorded as, for example, 4/8/35 may mean April 8, 1935, to one person,
but 4 August 1935, to another. This problem can be
easily avoided by using roman numerals to represent
the month of the year: 4.viii.l935. We also recommend
that the year be specified using four digits.
The name of the collector is, arguably, the least
important da tu m on a label. In some cases, however, it
may be very helpful from a historical point of view or
to enable you to go back to the collector for more information. Gn occasion you will find labels with either
the abbreviation "coll." or "leg."-meaning
collector or
donor respectively.
Supplementary information commonly in eludes
the method by which the specimens were collected, for
example, swept, Malaise; the general habitat, such as
"dry stream bed"; or behavioral notes such as "feeding
on goldenrod flowers." Specimens that are reared from
plant material, other arthropods, and those collected
from a vertebrate host commonly have the abbreviation
"ex: oo."to indica te that the specimen carne "from" that
host. Although useful, it is usually better to give more
specific information, such as "reared from mature larva
of Papilio sp."
Data labels can be printed by hand with a finepointed pen, but it is more effective to print them with
a laser or ink-jet printer. The printer quality affects the
quality, particularly longevity, of the labels produced.
In general, labels produced with a laser printer should
not be exposed to ethyl acetate. Four-point type is generally a good compromise between making the label
small and keeping it legible. When large numbers of
identicallabels are needed, as is common when sweeping or using a trap, using the copy and paste functions
of a word processor ensures that all the labels are identical. Generally, print no more than 6 lines of data on a
single label. If more space is needed, use a second label
rather than making a wide or long label. If the label is
hand-written, use indelible ink.
The appearance of a collection of pinned insects is
greatly influenced by the nature of the labels. Small,
neat, properly oriented labels add much to the aesthetic value of the collection. Labels should be on fairly
763
764
Chapter35 Collecting,Preserving,
andStudyingInsects
~s
S~~~
~,,~~
~~~~,"'""'"
Figure35-16 The identification label, giving the scientific name of the insect and the name of the person identifying the specimen.
stiff white paper and preferably not larger than 6 by
19 mm. The paper should be good quality and acid-free.
Place labels at a uniform height on the pin, parallel to
and undemeath the insect. If only one label is used,
place it about 16 mm above the point of the pino If
more than one label is used, the uppermost one should
be at this distance above the point. Orient the labels so
that all read from the same side. We prefer that they
read from the left side (Figure 35-16), but some peopIe prefer that they read from the right side. For specimens mounted on points, the label should extend parallel to the point (Figure 35-13A,B) and be offset from
the pin like the point. If there are two or more labels on
the pin (for example, one for the locality, date, and collector, and another for the host plant), the labels
should be parallel and arranged to be read from the
same side.
This discussion applies to labels containing data
conceming the locality, date, and collector, and not to
labels identifying the insects. Identifying labels are discussed next, under "Housing, Arrangement, and Care
of the Collection."
Labels for specimens preserved in fluids should be
written on a good grade of rag paper with India or
other waterproof ink, or printed as just described, and
placed inside the container with the specimen(s). La-
g'
o
-;
C>
Figure35-17
A synoptic insect
collection.
'"
c:
o
-;
C>
~
~
Figure 35-18
A drawer of a large
insect collection.
766
Chapter35 Collecting,Preserving,
andStudyingInsects
\ 11
:;;:
1::
'"
'"
Figure35-19
.,.
-..
...
~=
-.'-.-/
.".
~=
' "'"
t7V\r
=
. .
~Glass
.:;0\:~"'/~~~=')'~~:}~~
Cotton
e
Figure
35-20 Riker mount. A, front view; B, back
view; C, sectional view showing a specimen in placeunder glass on cotton.
top and bottom (Figure 35-21A), are useful for displaying one or a few specimens (that is, one or a few
in each mount). lt is also possible to endose specimens between sheets of plastic or to embed specimens
in plastic.
Supporting
glass
Specimen
Top glass
Bottom Glass
the Collection
768
materials may be used for this purpose, but one material commonly used is naphthalene (in flake or ball
form). Naphthalene flakes can be put into a small cardboard pillbox that is firrnly attached to the bottom of
the insect box (usually in one comer) and has a few pin
holes in it. Paradichlorobenzene (PDB) can also be
used, but it volatilizes more rapidly than naphthalene
and must be renewed at more frequent intervals. Also,
health concems are associated with long-terrn exposure to a chlorinated hydrocarbon such as PDB. To protect specimens in Riker mounts, sprinkle naphthalene
flakes under the cotton when making the mount.
Check a collection periodically to make sure that
plenty of repellent is presento If boxes or drawers are
stored in tight cabinets that are not opened frequently,
the repellent should last a long time.
Note that paradichlorobenzene and naphthalene
are only repellents, and although they will keep out potential pests, they will not kill pests already in the collection. If you find a box or drawer infested with pests,
fumiga te it to destroy these pests. Heating boxes, cases,
or mounts to 150F (66C) or higher for several hours
(if the boxes are such that the heat will not damage
them) will destroy any dermestids or other pests they
may contain. Similarly, rapidly reducing the temperature to - 30F (- 35C) and holding the specimens at
that temperature for several days is also effective, although slower. Because of concerns about long-terrn
human exposure to chemicals, many large institutional
collections are moving toward freezing as a means of
sanitation. Many good collections have been ruined by
pests because the collector failed to protect them.
Workwith LivingInsects
by surfacemail as long as packaging and mailing requirements are mel. You should contact private companies for their own regulations.
Insects in glass or Riker mounts can ordinarily
withstand considerable jolting without damage, but
take care that the glass of these mounts does not get
broken. Pack such mounts in an abundance of 50ft
packing material, and make sure no two of them touch
each other in the box.
Insect material mounted on microscope slides
should be shipped in wooden, plastic, or heavy cardboard slide boxes, preferably boxes in which the slides
are insened into grooves and are on edge in the box.
Place strips of a 50ft material between the slides and the
lid of the box, so that the slides do not bounce about.
Dried specimens in envelopes or pillboxes should
be packed in such a way that the specimens do not
bounce around inside the box. Pad pillboxes inside
with Cellucotton to immobilize the specimens, and fill
boxes containing envelopes with cotton or Cellucotton.
Boxes containing pinned insects, insects in fluids,
microscope slides, or dried insects in envelopes or pillboxes that are to be sent through themail should be
wrapped in paper, to keep out fragments of packing
material, and packed inside a larger box. Choose the
outer box so as to allow at least 50 mm of packing material (excelsior, shredded paper, cotton, Styrofoam
chips, and so fonh) on all sides of the smaller box. This
packing material should not be so loose as to allow the
inner box to rattle around or so tight that the cushion
effect is losl.
Whenever material is shipped through the mail,
send an accompanying letter to the addressee, notifying him or her of the shipment, and include a copy of
the letter in the package. Packages of dead insects sent
through themail are usually marked "Dried (or Preserved) Insects for Scientific Study." It is well to mark
such packages for gentle handling in transit, although
such marking does not always ensure that they will not
get rough treatmenl. Material shipped to points inside
the United States should be insured, though it may be
difficult to place an evaluation on some material. The
statement "No Commercial Value" on a box shipped
from one country to another will facilitate the box getting through customs.
field or in captivity. Many are very easy to keep in captivity, where they can be studied more easily, and often
at closer range, than in the field.
Keeping
Living Insects
in Captivity
769
770
Gauze
~
/String
or
rubber
band
Adhesive
tape
Glass
jar
'-.
Jar 01
water
A
Bottom 01
tin can
Plastic
cylinder
Cardboard
box
/ Wood trame
Cord. serving as a
shou Ider strap
I
I
::II
/;I
Screen
/ /
g~~S'
::11
Wood or
//
heavy cardboard/
Filter
paper
Figure 35-25
insects.
772
Cockroaches are excellent insects for rearing, because they are fairly large and active, most people are
familiar with them, and in most places they are abundant and easily obtained. A culture can be started by
trapping some adults. Cockroaches can be reared in
various types of containers, a large glass or plastic jar
covered with gauze, or even an open box, provided the
box is several centimeters deep and the upper 50 or
75 mm of the sides is smeared with petroleum jelly so
that the cockroaches cannot climb out. These insects
are practically omnivorous, and many different types of
material will serve as suitable food. Dog biscuits make
a good food. Plenty of water should be provided.
Many types of insects that have aquatic immature
stages can be reared easily from the immature to the
adult stage. The type of aquarium needed depends on
the type of insect being reared. Small forms feeding on
organic debris or microorganisms can be reared in containers as small as vials. Larger ones, particularly
predaceous forms, require larger containers. Larvae or
pupae of mosquitoes, for example, can be kept in small
containers in some of the same water in which they
were found, with a cover over the container to prevent
the escape of the adults. For vials, the simplest cover is
a plug of cotton. In many cases it is necessary to simulate the insect's habitat in the aquarium (for example,
have sand or mud in the bottom and have some aquatic
plants present), and in the case of predaceous insects,
such as dragonfly nymphs, smaller animals must be
provided as food. The water must be aerated for some
aquatic types. In maintaining an aquarium, try to keep
all the conditions in the aquarium as close as possible
to conditions in the animal's normal habitat.
When attempting to maintain aquatic insects in
the laboratory generation after generation, make special provision for the different life-history stages that
frequently require special food, space, or other conditions. Some mosquitoes are relatively easy to maintain
in culture in the laboratory, especially species that normally breed continuously through the warmer parts of
the year, and in which the adults do not require a large
space for their mating flights. The yellow fever mosquito, Aedesaegypti, is easily cultured in the laboratory.1At a temperature of 30C (85F) the development
from egg to adult requires only 9-11 days. The females
must obtain a blood meal before they can produce eggs.
A person's arm can provide this meal, but a laboratory
animal such as a rabbit (with the hair shaved from a
portion of its body) is better. Please note, though, that
the US government closely regulates the use and care
of vertebrates in the laboratory. Adult mosquitoes are
allowed to emerge in cages with a capacity of about
'Because Ihis species is an imporlant disease veClOr,special precaulions should be laken 10 prevent Ihe escape of any individuals reared.
0.028 m3 (1 ft3). A solution of honey in the cage provides food for the males (which do not feed on blood)
and for the females before their blood meal.
Place a small dish of water in the cage for egg laying. If paper or wooden blocks are placed in this water,
the eggs are deposited on these at the margin of the water as it recedes. These eggs usually hatch within 10 to
20 minutes after they are placed in water at room temperature, even after months of desiccation. If the larvae
are reared in large numbers, they are best reared in battery jars. As many as 250 larva e can be reared in a 150mm battery jar half-filled with water. The larvae can be
fed ground dog biscuit, which is sprinkled on the surface of the water daily. For the first-instar larvae, use
30-35 milligrarns daily. Increase this amount for successive instars, up to 140-150 milligrams daily for
fourth-instar larvae. Fourth-instar larvae pupate 7-9
days after the eggs hatch, and adults emerge about
24 hours later.
lt is usually fairly easy to rear adult insects from
galls. The important thing in rearing most gall insects
is to keep the gall alive and fresh until the adults
emerge. The plant containing the gall can be kept fresh
by putting it in water, or the gall can be caged in the
field. If the gall is not collected until the adults are
nearly ready to emerge (as determined by opening a
few), it can simply be placed inside a glass jar, in a vial
of water, and the jar covered with gauze. This same
procedure can be used to rear out adults of leaf miners
that pupa te in the leaf. If the leaf miner pupates in the
soil (for example, certain sawflies), grow the plant containing the insect in a flowerpot cage.
Adults of some wood-boring insects are easily
reared. If the insect bores into drying or dried wood,
the wood containing the larvae can be placed in an
emergence box like that shown in Figure 35-23D. If
the insect bores only in living wood, the adults can be
obtained by placing some sort of cage over the emergence holes (in the field).
Termite cultures are easily maintained in the laboratory and are of value in demonstrating the social behavior and the wood-eating and fungus-cultivating
habits of these insects. Various types of containers can
be used for termite culture, but the best for demonstration purposes is either a battery jar or a glass-plate
type of container (Figure 35-26). A termite colony can
last quite a while without queens in either type of container, but will prove more interesting if queens or supplemental queens are present.
If a battery jar is used, put 6 mm or so of earth in
the bottom of the jar and place a sheet of wood on either side of the jaro Balsa wood is best beca use the termites become established in it quickly. Put thin, narrow strips of a harder wood on each side between the
balsa wood and the glass, and put pieces between the
.
Wark with living Insects
Figure
35-26
termites.
773
774
Chapter35 Collecting.Preserving.
andStudyingInsects
1-3"
11-"11
11 11
11 11
11 11
11 q
il
11
11 11
11--lJ.
11 11
11 1(1
11 11
11 11
11 11
11 iI
11 11
11 11
11 !I
11 11
11 11
11 11
11 11
111 11
11 11
t-rr--iH
12"
3,.LI-8.-~
- Cover
Cover
~<-..
",
__-Wet sponge
r.~1'3.]r"'"
~
+-
50il
--
k\
12"
Ant""
tunnels
/~
[11
111
!J"--u-J
4"
f- 1!!.j
Figure
35-27 Vertical type of ant cage. A, end view; B, top view of one end showing
cage construction; e, front view.
Figure35-28
Observation beehive.
DrawingInsects
Photographing
Drawing Insects
Insects
775
776
Chapter35 Collecting,Preserving,
andStudyingInsects
Sources of Information
Information on insects is available in the form of literature published by federal and state organizations, fram
private organizations such as supply houses, museums,
and societies, and from a great mass of books and periodicals. Much of this literature is available in a good library, and a good bit can be obtained at litde or no cost
to the student or teacher. Information is also available
from contacts with other people who are interested in
insects-amateurs
and workers in universities, museums, and experiment stations. Materials such as slides,
movies, and exhibits are available from supply houses,
museums, and often various state or private agencies.
Electronic
Resources
The World Wide Web probably provides the most accessible and most up-to-date information. The ease
with which web pages can be written and their capacity for incorporating images have resulted in an explosion of the number of resources available. A quick
search of Google finds 1.9 million hits for the word "insect" and 585,000 for the esoteric term "entomology"
Many of these pages are of dubious quality, and the
onus is on the user lO determine their value. This is,
however, also the situation in the traditionally published literature, even in journals carrying peerreviewed science. The difference is only a matter of
scale, in our opinion, and the real-time accessibility
clearly makes the Internet, overall, a tremendous asset.
Web pages are notoriously unstable, rapidly going
out of date or, worse, out of existence. For this reason,
we have hesitated lO recommend specific sites in this
book. Most professional societies, entomology departments, extension services, and natural history museums maintain high-quality web sites containing a wide
range of valuable information. As web-indexing services continue to improve, they supply the best means
for rapidly locating quality material on the Internet.
Government Publications
Many government publications are available to the
public free of charge. Publications are available fOIsale
at a nominal costo A wealth of literature on insects is
available from the government.
Sources of Information
Information on the publications of various governmental agencies can be obtained from the Division
of Public Documents, Government Printing Office,
Washington, DC 20402 (www.access.gpo.gov).This
office publishes a number of lists of publications (one
is on insects), which are available without cost. Most
government publications on insects are published by
the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), and information on the publications of this department can
be obtained from the following sources: (1) List 11,
List of the Available Publications of the U.S. Department
of Agriculture (revised every year or so), available
from the u.s. Department of Agriculture, Washington, DC 20250; (2) indexes published by the USDA;
and (3) indexing journals, such as the Bibliography of
Agriculture.
State Publications
Many publications of state agencies are available free to
residents of that state. In some states there are several
agencies whose publications would be of interest to the
student or teacher of entomology, particularly the agricultural experiment station, the extension service, the
departments of education and conservation, the biological or natural history survey, and the state museum.
Information on the publications available from these
agencies can usually be obtained by writing directly to
the agencies.
Many agricultural experiment stations are closely
associated with the agricultural college and are 10cated in the same town. The extension service is
nearly always a part of the agricultural college. State
departments of education or conservation are usually
located in the capital. State museums are usually 10cated in the capital or in the same town as the state
university. Many state universities have museums that
contain insect collections and that often publish papers on insects. State biological surveys are usually
associated with the state university or agricultural
college.
Miscellaneous
Agencies
Biological supply houses are useful sources of equipment, material, and often publications of interest to an
entomologist. All supply houses publish catalogs,
which are sent free or at a nominal cost to teachers and
schools. These catalogs are of value in indicating what
can be obtained from the supply houses, and many of
their illustrations suggest things that ingenious students or teachers can prepare themselves.
Many societies, museums, and research institutions publish material that is useful to entomologists.
Entomological societies (see the following section),
state biological survey organizations, and organizations
of Entomologists
Societies
777
778
Chapter35 Collecting,Preserving,
andStudyingInsects
References
Blurn, M. S., and]. P.Woodring. 1963. Preservation ofinsect
larvae by vacuurn dehydration. ]. Kan. Entorno!. Soco
36:96-101.
DeLong, D. M., and R. H. Davidson. 1936. Methods of Collecting and Preserving lnsects. Colurnbus: Ohio State
University Press, 20 pp.
Gordh, G., and]. C. Hall. 1979. A critical point drier used as
a rnethod of rnounting insects frorn alcoho!. Entorno!.
News 90:57-59.
Hodges, E. R. S. CEd.). 1989. The Guild Handbook of Scientific
Illustration. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 575 pp.
Knudson,]. W 1972. Collecting and Preserving Plants and
Anirnals. New York: Harper &: Row, 320 pp.
Martin,]. E. H. 1977. Collecting, preparing, and preserving
insects, rnites, and spiders. The lnsects and Arachnids of
Canada, Part 1. Ottawa: Agriculture Canada, 182 pp.
Masner, L., and H. Goulet. 1981. A new rnodel of I1ightinterception trap for sorne hyrnenopterous insects. Entorno!. News 92:199-202.
1963. Freeze-drying
of spiAnn. Entorno!. Soco Amer.
,
Glossary
The definitions given here apply primarily to the use of these terms in this book;
elsewhere some terms may have additional or different meanings. Some terms
not listed here may be found in the Index.
779
780
Glossary
1(
Glossary
basisternum
The part of a thoracic sternum anterior to the
sternacostal suture.
beak The protruding mouthpart structures of a sucking
insect; proboscis (Figures 2-17 through 2-20, bk).
bifid Forked, or divided into two parts.
bilateral symmetry
See symmetry.
bilobed Divided into two lobes.
bipectinate
Having branches on two sides like teeth of a
combo
biramous With two branches; consisting of an endopodite
and an exopodite (Crustacea).
bisexual With males and females.
bituberculate
With two tubercles or sweIlings.
bivalved With two valves or parts, clamlike.
blastoderm
The peripheral ceIllayer in the insect egg
foIlowing cleavage (Figure 2-37C, bl).
book gills The leaflike gills of a horseshoe crab
(Figure 5-2, bg).
book lung A respiratory cavity containing a series of
leaflike folds (spiders).
borrow pit A pit formed by an excavation, where earth has
been "borrowed" for use elsewhere.
boss A smooth, lateral prominence at the base of a
chelicera (spiders).
brace vein A slanting crossvein; in Odonata, a slanting
crossvein just behind the proximal end of the stigma
(Figure 10-7E, bvn).
brachypterous
With short wings that do not cover the
abdomen.
brain The anterior ganglion of the nervous system, located
above the esophagus; in insects, consisting of the
protocerebrum, deutocerebrum, and tritocerebrum.
brain hormone
A chemical messenger produced by
neurosecretory ceIls in the brain that activates the
prothoracic glands to produce ecdysone (also known as
PTTH or prothoracicotropic honnone).
bridge crossvein A crossvein anterior to the bridge vein
(Odonata; Figure 10-5, bcv).
bridge vein The vein that appears as the basal part of the
radial sector, between Ml+2 and the oblique vein
(Odonata; Figure 10-5, brv).
brood The individuals that hatch from the eggs laid by one
mother; individuals that hatch at about the same time
and normaIly mature at about the same time.
bucca (pl., buccae) A sclerite on the head below the
compound eye and just above the mouth opening
(Diptera; Figure 34-5, buc).
buccula (pl., bucculae) One of two ridges on the underside
of the head, on each side of the beak (Hemiptera;
Figures 2-17, 22-1, buc).
bursa copulatrix
A pouch of the female reproductive
system that receives the male genitalia during
copulation.
bursicon A hormone involved in the process of
sclerotization.
781
782
Glossary
Glossary
deciduous
shed.
783
desmosome
One form of subcellular attachment between
the plasma membranes of two adjacent cells.
deutocerebrum
The middle pair of lobes of the brain,
innervating the antennae.
deutonymph
The third instar of a mite (Figure 5-17D).
diapause
A period of arrested development and reduced
metabolic rate, during which growth, differentiation,
and metamorphosis cease; a period of dormancy not
immediately referable to adverse environmental
conditions.
dichoptic
The eyes separated above (Diptera).
dicondylic
A joint with two points of articulation.
diecious
Having the male and female organs in different
individuals, any one individual being either male or
female.
dilated Expanded or widened.
direct flight mechanism
Generation of wing movements
by means of muscles pulling on the base of the wings.
disc The central dorsal portion of the pronotum
(Hemiptera) .
discal cell A more or less enlarged cell in the basal
or central part of the wing (Hemiptera, the R cell,
Figure 22-11; Lepidoptera, Figure 30-6, D; Diptera,
Figure 34-4B, D).
discal crossvein
A crossvein behind the discal cell
(Diptera; Figure 34-4B, dcv).
distad Away from the body, toward the end farthest from
the body.
distal Near or toward the free end of an appendage; that
part of a segment or appendage farthest from the body.
diurnal
Active during the daytime.
divaricate
Extending outward and then curving inward
toward each other distally (divaricate tarsal claws;
Figure 26-10A).
divergent
Becoming more separated distally.
dormancy
A state of quiescence or inactivity.
dorsad
Toward the back or topo
dorsal Top or uppermost; pertaining to the back or upper
side.
dorsal blood vessel Median upper tube that forms the
primary portion of the circulatory system of arthropods.
dorsal diaphragm
An incomplete wall of muscle
separating the area around the dorsal blood vessel (the
pericardial sinus) from the rest of the hemocoel.
dorsallongitudinal
muscles
One of the primary sets of
segmental muscles inserted on the antecostae of
successive segments (phragmata in the thorax) dorsally
and the sternum ventrally, in pterothoracic segments
contraction results in arching of the notum and
contributes significantly to depression of the wings.
dorsocentral bristles
A longitudinal row of bristles on the
mesonotum, just laterad of the acrostichal bristles
(Diptera; Figure 34-6, dc).
dorsolateral
At the top and to the side.
dorsomesal
At the top and along the midline.
dorsoscutellar bristles
A pair of bristles on the dorsal
portion of the scutellum, one on each side of the
midline (Diptera).
dorsoventral
From top to bottom, or from the upper to
the lower side.
dorsum
Thebackor tO.~~DAD
DECALDAS
BIBLIOTECA
784
Glossary
epimeron
(pl., epimera) The area of a thoradc pleuron
posterior to the pleural suture (Figure 2-6, epm).
epipharynx
A mouthpart structure on the inner surface of
the labrum or clypeus; in chewing insects, a median
lobe on the posterior (ventral) surface of the labrum.
epiphysis
(pl., epiphyses) A movable pad or lobelike
process on the inner surface of the front tibia
(Lepidoptera) .
epiphyte
An air plant, one growing nonparasitically on
another plant or on a nonliving object.
epipleura
(pl., epipleurae) The bent-down lateral edge of
an elytron (Coleoptera).
epipleurite
A small sclerite in the membranous area
between the thoradc pleura and the wing bases
(Figure 2-6, epp).
epiproct
A process or appendage situated above the anus
and appearing to arise from the tenth abdominal
segment; actually, the dorsal part of the eleventh
abdominal segment (Figure 2-1, ept).
episternum
(pl., epistema) The area of a thoradc pleuron
anterior to the pleural suture (Figure 2-6, eps).
epistomal suture
(or epistomal sulcus) The sulcus between
the frons and the clypeus (Figure 2-13, es), connecting
the anterior tentorial pits.
epistome
The part of the face just above the mouth; the
oral margin (Diptera).
erudform larva A caterpillar; a larva with a more or less
cylindrical body, a well-developed head, and thorade
legs and abdominal prolegs (Figure 30-3).
esophagus
The narrow portion of the alimentary tract
immediately posterior to the pharynx (Figure 2-22,
eso).
estivation
See aestivation.
eusodal
A condition of group living in which there is
cooperation among members in rearing young,
reproductive division of labor, and overlap of
generations.
eusternum
The ventral plate of a thoradc segment
exclusive of the spinasternum.
evagination
An outpocketing, or saclike structure on the
outside.
eversible
Capable of being everted or turned outward.
exarate pupa A pupa in which the appendages are free and
not glued to the body (Figure 2-44C-E).
excavated
Hollowed out.
excretion
The elimination of metabolic wastes from the
body.
exocuticle
(or exocuticula) The layer of sclerotized cuticle
just outside the endocuticle, between the endocuticle
and the epicuticle (Figure 2-2, exo).
exopodite
The outer branch of a biramous appendage
(Figure 5-1, exp).
exopterygote
With the wings developing on the outside of
the body, as in insects with simple metamorphosis.
exoskeleton
A skeleton or supporting structure on the
outside of the body.
exserted
Protruding or projecting from the body.
external
The outside, that part away from the center
(midline) of the body.
exuvium
(pl., exuvia) The cast skin of an arthropod.
eye, compound
See compound eye.
r
Glossary
face
785
786
Glossary
haustellum
A part of the beak (Diptera; Figures 2-19,
2-20, hst).
head The anterior body region, which bears the eyes,
antennae, and mouthparts (Figure 2-1, hd).
heart The posterior pulsatile portion of the dorsal blood
vessel.
hemelytron
(pl., hemelytra) The front wing of Hemiptera
(Heteroptera) (Figure 22-4).
hemimetabolous
Having simple metamorphosis, like that
in the Odonata, Ephemeroptera, and Plecoptera (with
the nymphs aquatic).
hemocoel
A body cavity filled with blood.
hemocyte
A blood cell.
hemolymph
The blood of arthropods.
herbivorous
Feeding on plants.
hermaphroditic
Having both male and female sex organs.
hertz Cycles per second (Hz).
heterodynamic life cycle A life cycle in which there is a
period of dormancy.
heterogamy
Altemation of bisexual with parthenogenetie
reproduction.
heteromerous
The three pairs of tarsi differing in the
number of segments (Coleoptera, for example, with a
tarsal formula of 5-5-4).
hibernation
Dormancy during the winter.
hindgut
The posterior portion of the alimentary traet,
between the midgut and the anus.
holocrine secretion
Release of enzymes by disruption of
the entire cell.
holometabolous
With complete metamorphosis.
holoptic
The eyes contiguous above (Diptera).
holotype
A specimen designated by the author of a new
species or subspecies to which the scientific name is
attached. If it is found that this specimen belongs lO
another species or subspecies, then the original name
be comes a synonyrn of the second name.
homodynamic life cycle A life cycle in which there is
continuous development, without a period of dormaney
homologize
To recognize that two characters are derived
from the same ancestral character.
homology A character that is shared between two species
because both inherited it from their common aneeslOr.
homonyrn
One name for two or more different things
(taxa).
honeydew
Liquid discharged from the anus of certain
Hemiptera.
hornworm
A caterpillar (larva of Sphingidae) with a
dorsal spine or horn on the last abdominal segment
(Figure 30-78).
horny Thickened or hardened.
host The organism in or on which a parasite lives; the
plant on which an insect feeds.
humeral
Pertaining to the shoulder; located in the anterior
basal portion of the wing.
humeral angle The basal anterior angle or portion of the
wing.
humeral bristles
The bristles on the humeral callus
(Diptera; Figure 34-6, hb).
humeral callus One of the anterior lateral angles of the
thoracic notum, usually more or less rounded (Diptera;
Figure 34-6, he).
h.
r
Glossary
instinctive behavior
Unlearned stereotyped behavior, in
which the nerve pathways involved are hereditary.
integument
The outer covering of the body.
interantennal suture
A suture extending between the
bases of the two antennae (Siphonaptera).
intercalary vein An extra longitudinal vein that
develops from a thickened fold in the wing, more
or less midway between two preexisting veins
(Ephemeroptera; Figures 9-3, 9-4, 9-6, lCuA).
internuncial neuron
(or intemeuron) A neuron that
connects with two (or more) other neurons.
intersternite
An intersegmental sclerite on the ventral side
of the thorax; the spinasternum.
interstitial
Situated between two segments (interstitial
trochanter of Coleoptera; Figure 26-9E, tr).
intestine
Anterior portion of the hindgut, between the
pyloric valve and the rectum.
intima The cuticular lining of the foregut, hindgut, and
tracheae.
intra-alar bristles
A row of two or three bristles situated
on the mesonotum above the wing base, between
the dorsocentral and the supra-alar bristles (Diptera;
Figure 34-6, iab).
invagination
An infolding or inpocketing.
isosmotic
With an equal concentration of solutes.
iteroparous
A type of life history in which the animal
reproduces two or more times during its lifetime.
katepleurite
See catapleurite.
keeled With an elevated ridge or carina.
Khz Kilohertz (kilocycles per second).
kleptoparasite
A parasite that feeds on food stored for the
host larvae.
labellum
The expanded tip of the labium (Diptera;
Figures 2-19, 2-20, lb!).
labial Of or pertaining to the labium.
labial gland Exocrine organ opening on or at the base of
the labium, usually functioning as salivary or silk gland.
labial palp One of a pair of small feelerlike structures
arising from the labium (Figure 2-16C, Ip).
labial suture
The suture on the labium between the
postmentum and prementum (Figure 2-16C, 15).
787
788
Glossary
maggot A vermiform larva; a legless larva without a welldeveloped head capsule (Diptera; Figure 2-43A).
Malpighian tubules Excretory tubes that arise near the
anterior end of the hindgut and extend into the body
cavity (Figure 2-22, mt).
mandible Jaw; one of the anterior pair of paired mouthpart
structures (Figure 2-160, md).
mandibulate
With jaws fitted for chewing.
marginal cell A cell in the distal part of the wing
bordering the costal margin (Oiptera, Figure 34-4B,
MC; Hymenoptera, Figure 28-3, MC).
Glossary
mesoscutum
The scutum of the mesothorax (Figure 2-6,
sct2).
mesosoma
In Apocrita (Hymenoptera) the middle tagma
of the body, consisting of the three thoracic segments
and the first true abdominal segment (the propodeum).
mesosternum
The sternum, or ventral sclerite, of the
mesothorax.
mesothorax
The middle or second segment of the thorax
(Figure 2-1, th2).
metamere
A primary body segment (usually referring to
the embryo).
metamorphosis
A change in form during development.
metanotum
The dorsal sclerite of the metathorax
(Figure 2-1, n,).
metascutellum
The scutellum of the metathorax
(Figure 2-6, scl,).
metasoma
In Apocrita (Hymenoptera) the posterior tagma
of the body, consisting of all segments posterior to the
propodeum.
metasternum
The sternum, or ventral sclerite, of the
metathorax.
metatarsus
(pl., metatarsi) The basal segment of the tarsus
(Figure 5-6).
metathorax
The third or posterior segment of the thorax
(Figure 2-1, th,).
metazonite
The posterior portion of a millipede tergum
when the tergum is divided by a transverse groove.
metepimeron
(pl., metepimera) The epimeron of the
metathorax (Figure 2-6, epm,).
metepisternum
(pl., metepisterna) The episternum of the
metathorax (Figure 2-6, eps,).
metinfraepisternum
A ventral subdivision of the
metepisternum (Odonata; Figure 10-4, iep,).
micropyle A minute opening (or openings) in the chorion
of an insect egg, through which sperm enter the egg
(Figure 2-37, mcp).
midgut The mesenteron, or middle portion of the
alimentary tract (Figure 2-22, mg).
millimeter 0.001 meter, or 0.03937 inch (about 1/25 inch).
minute Very small; an insect a few millimeters in length or
less would be considered minute.
molt A process of shedding the exoskeleton; ecdysis; to
shed the exoskeleton.
molting gland See prothoracic glands.
monecious Having both male and female sex organs,
hermaphroditic.
moniliform
Beadlike, with rounded segments; moniliform
antenna (Figure 2-15C).
monocondylic
A joint with a single point of articulation.
monophyletic group A group that consists of an ancestral
species and all of its descendants; recognized on the
basis of shared derived characters (synapomorphies)
among its members.
morphology
The science of form or structure.
motor neuron A neuron that forms a synapse with a muscle.
mutualism
The living together of two species of organisms
with both species benefiting from the association.
myiasis A disease caused by the invasion of dipterous larvae.
myogenic Produced by muscle; contraction of a muscle
generated by that muscle itself, without neuronal
stimulus.
myriapod
A many-Iegged arthropod; a centipede,
millipede, pauropod, or symphylan.
789
790
Glossary
olistheter
A tongue-in-groove mechanism connecting the
first and second gonapophyses of the ovipositor.
ommatidium
(p\., ommatidia) A single unit or visual
section of a compound eye (Figure 2-29D).
onisciform larva See platyform larva.
oocyte Egg.
oogenesis The production of eggs.
oogonium (p\., oogonia) The primary germ cells of the female.
ootheca (p\., oothecae) The covering or case of an egg
mass (Mantodea, Blattodea).
open cell A wing cell extending to the wing margin, not
entirely surrounded by veins.
open coxal cavity One bounded posteriorly by a
sclerite of the next segment (front coxl cavities,
Coleoptera; Figure 26-7 A), or one touched by
one or more pleural sclerites (middle coxal cavities,
Coleoptera; Figure 26-7C).
operculumn
(p\., opercula) A lid or cover.
opisthognathous
With the mouthparts directed backward.
opisthorhynchous
With the beak directed backward.
oral Pertaining to the mouth.
oral vibrissae A pair of stout bristles, one on each side of
the face near or just above the oral margin, and larger
than the other bristles on the vibrissal ridge (Diptera;
Figure 34-5, ov).
orbital plate See genovertical plate.
order A subdivision of a class or subclass, containing a
group of related superfamilies or families.
osmeterium
(p\., osmetena) A fleshy, tubular, eversible,
usually Y-shaped gland at the anterior end of certain
caterpillars (Papilionidae; Figure 30-3, osm).
ostiole A small opening.
ostium (p\., ostia) A slitlike opening in the insect heart.
out-group In a phylogenetic study, taxa outside of the focus
of interest; used to hypothesize the polarity of character
states (that is, ancestral or derived) found in the ingroup. The state found in the out-group is hypothesized
to be the ancestral, or plesiomorphic, state.
outer vertical bristles The more laterally located of the
large bristles on the vertex, between the ocelli and the
compound eyes (Diptera; Figure 34-5, ovb).
ovariole A more or less tubular division of an ovary
(Figure 2-31, ov\).
ovary The egg-producing organ of the female
(Figures 2-22, 2-31A, ovy).
oviduct The tube leading away from the ovary through
which the eggs pass (Figures 2-22, 2-31A, ovd).
oviparous Laying eggs.
ovipore The external opening of the female reproductive
system through which the eggs pass during oviposition.
oviposit To lay or deposit eggs.
ovipositor The egg-Iaying apparatus; the external genitalia
of the female (Figures 2-1, 2-32, I0-4E, and 28-5, ovp).
oviscapt Modification of the terminal abdominal segments
of a female to serve as an egg-Iaying organ.
paedogenesis
The production of eggs or young by an
immature or larval stage of an anima\.
palp A segmented process born by the maxillae or labium
(Figure 2-16, Ip, mxp); the pedipalp of a spider.
palpifer
The lobe of the maxillary stipes that bears the
palp (Figure 2-16A, plD.
palpiger
The lobe of the mentum of the labium that bears
the palp (Figure 2-16C, plg).
panoistic ovariole Ovariole without nurse cells.
papilla A small nipplelike elevation.
paracymbium
An appendage arising from the cymbium of
the pedipalp of a male spider.
paraglossa
(p\., paraglossae) One of a pair of lobes
at the apex of the labium, laterad of the glossae
(Figure 2-16C, pg\).
paramere
A structure in the male genitalia of insect,
usually a lobe or process at the base of the aedeagus.
paranotum
Lateral expansion of the notum.
paraphyletic group A group of species, derived from a
common ancestor but not including all of its
descendants; recognized on the basis of shared ancestral
character states (symplesiomorphies).
paraproct
One of a pair of lobes bordering the anus
lateroventrally (Figures 2-1 and I0-4A, ppt).
parasite
An animal that lives in or on the body of another
living animal (its host), at least during a part of its life
cycle, feeding on the tissues of its host; most
entomophagous insect parasites kill their host (see also
parasitoid) .
parasitic
Living as a parasite.
parasitoid
An animal that feeds in or on another living
animal for a relatively long time, consuming all or most
of its tissues and eventually killing it (also used as an
adjective, describing this mode of life). Parasitoid
insects in this book are referred to as parasites.
parsimony, principie of In a scientific context, the
assumption that the simplest explanation of the data
observed is the best hypothesis.
parthenogenesis
Development of the egg without
fertilization.
patella A leg segment between the femur and tibia
(arachnids; Figure 5-6).
paurometabolous
With simple metamorphosis, the young
and adults living in the same habitat, and the adults
winged.
pecten A comblike or rakelike structure.
pectinate
With branches or processes like the teeth of a
comb; pectinate antenna (Figure 2-15H); pectinate
tarsal claw (Figure 26-11B).
pedicel The second segment of the antenna (Figure 2-15N,
ped); the stem of the abdomen, between the thorax and
the gaster (ants).
pedipalps
The second pair of appendages of an arachnid
(Figure 5-6, palp; 5-12).
pelagic Inhabiting the open sea; ocean-dwelling.
penultimate
Next lO the last.
pericardial sinus The body cavity surrounding the dorsal
blood vessel, limited ventrally by the dorsal diaphragm.
perineural sinus The body cavity surrounding the ventral
nerve cord, limited dorsally by the ventral diaphragm.
peristalsis
Waves of contraction.
peristome
The ventral margin of the head, bordering the
mouth.
peritrophic membrane
A membrane in insects secreted by
the cells lining the midgut; this membrane is secreted
Glossary
pleuron
(p\., pleura) The lateral area of a segment.
pleuropodium
(p\., pleuropodia) Embryonic appendages of
the first abdominal segmento
pleurotergite
A sclerite containing both pleural and tergal
elements.
plumose
Featherlike; plumose antenna (Figure 2-151).
poikilothermous
Cold-blooded, the body temperature
rising or falling with the environmental temperature.
point A small triangle of stiff paper, used in mounting
small insects (Figure 35-13).
pollen basket See corbicula.
pollen rake A comblike row of bristles at the apex of the
hind tibia of a bee (Figure 28-66, pr).
polyembryony
An egg developing into two or more
embryos.
polyphyletic group A group of species that do not share a
common ancestor; such an unnatural group is usually
proposed on the basis of characters that represent
parallel or convergent characters (homoplasies).
polytomy
On a cladogram a no de that gives rise to more
than two branches.
polytrophic ovariole Meroistic ovariole in which
trophocytes pass into the vitellarium with the oocyte.
porrect
Extending forward horizontally; porrect antennae
(Figure 34-23G,I).
postabdomen
The modified posterior segments of the
abdomen, which are usually more slender than the
anterior segments (Crustacea, Figure 5-24A, pa; see
also the postabdomen in a scorpion, Figure 5-3).
postalar callus A rounded swelling on each side of the
mesonotum, between the base of the wing and the
scutellum (Diptera; Figure 34-6, pc).
posterior
Hind or rear.
posterior cell One of the cells extending to the hind
margin of the wing, between the third and sixth
longitudinal veins (Diptera; Figure 34-4B, P).
posterior crossvein
A crossvein at the apex of the discal
cell (Diptera; Figure 34-4B, pcv).
postgena
(p\., postgenae) A sclerite on the posterior
lateral surface of the head, posterior 10 the gena
(Figure 2-13, pg).
postgenal bridge Mesal extension of the postgenae on
each side to meet below the foramen magnum.
posthumeral bristles
Bristles on the anterolateral surface
of the mesonotum, just posterior to the humeral callus
(Diptera; Figure 34-6 pb).
postmarginal vein The vein along the anterior margin of
the front wing, beyond the point where the stigmal vein
arises (Hymenoptera; Figure 28-19B, pm).
postmentum
The basal portion of the labium, proximad of
the labial suture (Figure 2-16C, pmt).
postnodal crossveins:
A series of crossveins just behind
the costal margin of the wing, between the nodus and
stigma, and extending from the costal margin of the
wing to Rl (Odonata; Figures 10-5, 10-6, pn).
postnotum
(p\., postnota) A notal plate behind the
scutellum bearing a phragma, often present in wingbearing segments (Figure 2-6, PN).
postoccipital suture
The transverse suture on the
head immediately posterior to the occipital suture
(Figure 2-13, pos).
791
792
Glossary
postoeeiput
The extreme posterior rim of the head,
between the postoecipital suture and the foramen
magnum (Figure 2-13, po).
postpetiole
The second segment of a two-segmented
pedicel (ants).
postseutellum
A small transverse pieee of a thoraeie
notum immediately behind the seutellum; in Diptera, an
area immediately behind or below the mesoseutellum
(Figure 34-13B, pscl).
postvertieal bristles A pair of bristles behind the oeelli,
usually situated on the posterior surfaee of the head
(Diptera; Figure 34-5, pv).
preapical Situated just before the apex; preapieal tibial
bristles of Diptera (Figure 34-26B, ptbr).
prebasilare
A narrow transverse sclerite, just basal to the
mentum in the gnathoehilarium of some millipedes
(Figure 5-30B, pbs).
preeosta The most anterior of the major longitudinal wing
veins, aeeording to Kukalov-Peek.
predaeeous
Feeding as a predator.
predator
An animal that attaeks and feeds on other
animals (its prey), usually animals smaller or less
powerful than itself. The prey is usually killed and
mostly or entirely eaten; eaeh predator eats many prey
individuals.
prefemur The seeond trochanter segment of the lego
pregenital
Anterior to the genital segments of the
abdomen.
prementum
The distal part of the labium, distad of the
labial suture, on which all the labial muscles have their
insertions (Figure 2-16C, prmt).
preoral Anterior to or in front of the mouth.
prepeetus
An area along the anteroventral margin of the
mesepisternum, set off by a suture (Hymenoptera;
Figure 28-4, pp).
prepupa A quiescent stage between the larval period
and the pupal period; the third instar of a thrips
(Figure 23-2B).
presutural bristles Bristles on the mesonotum
immediately anterior to the transverse suture and
adjacent to the notopleuron (Diptera; Figure 34-6, psb).
pretarsus
(pl., pretarsi) The terminal segment of the leg,
typically consisting of a pair of claws and one or more
padlike structures (Figure 2-8B-D, ptar).
proboseis
Collectively, the extended, beaklike mouthparts
(Figure 34-36, prb).
proclinate
lnclined forward or downward.
proctodaeum
The hindgut, or the hindmost of the three
major divisions of the alimentary tract, from the
Malpighian tubules to the anus.
procurved
A line connecting a row of eyes in a spider in
which the ends of the line are anterior to the center of
the line.
procuticle
The form in which the cuticle is initially
secreted by the epidermis, before sclerotization takes
place.
produced
Extended, prolonged, or projecting.
proepimeron
(pl., proepimera) The epimeron of the
prothorax (Figure 26-4, epm,).
proepisternum
(pl., proepistema) The episternum of the
prothorax (Figure 26-4, eps,).
Glossary
pteropleuron
(p\., pteropleura) A sclerite on the side
of the thorax, just below the base of the wing, and
consisting of the upper part of the mesepimeron
(Diptera; Figure 34-6, pr).
pterostigma
A thickened opaque spot along the costal
margin of the wing, near the wing tip (see also stigma)
(Odonata; Figures 10-5, 10-6, st).
pterothorax
The wing-bearing segments of the thorax
(mesothorax and metathorax).
pterygote
Winged; a member of the subclass Pterygota.
ptilinum
A temporary bladderlike structure that can be
inflated and thrust out through the frontal (or ptilinal)
suture, just above the bases of the antennae, at the time
of emergence from the puparium (Diptera).
PTTH See brain hormone.
pubescent
Downy, covered with short fine hairs.
pulvilliform
Lobelike or padlike; shaped like a pulvillus;
pulvilliform empodium (Figure 34-2B, emp).
pulvillus
(p\., pulvilli) A pad or lobe beneath each tarsal
claw (Diptera; Figure 34-2, pul).
punctate
Pitted or beset with punctures.
puncture
A tiny pit or depression.
pupa (p\., pupae) The stage between the larva and the
adult in insects with complete metamorphosis, a
nonfeeding and usually an inactive stage (Figure 2-44).
puparium
(p\., puparia) A case formed by the hardening of
the last larval skin, in which the pupa is formed
(Diptera; Figure 2-44F).
pupate To transform to a pupa.
pupiparous
Giving birth to larvae that are full grown and
ready to pupate.
pygidium The last dorsal segment of the abdomen.
pyloric valve The valve between the midgut and hindgut.
quadrangle
A cell immediately beyond the arculus
(Odonata, Zygoptera; Figure 10-6F, G, q).
quadrate
Four-sided.
relationship
In phylogenetic systematics (cladistics), the
relative recency of common ancestry.
remote To move posteriorly.
reniform
Kidney-shaped.
reticulate
Like a network.
retina The receptive apparatus of an eye.
retractile
Capable of being pushed out and drawn back in.
rhabdom
A rodlike light-sensitive structure formed of the
inner surfaces of adjacent sensory cells in the
ommatidium of a compound eye (Figure 2-29, rh).
Riker mount A thin glass-topped exhibition case filled
with cotton batting (Figure 35-20).
rostrum
Beak or snout.
rudimentary
Reduced in size, poorly developed, embryonic.
rugose Wrinkled.
saprophagous
Feeding on dead or decaying plant or
animal materials, such as carrion, dung, dead logs, etc.
scape The basal segment of an antenna (Figure 2-15N,
scp).
sea pula (p\., scapulae) One of two sclerites on the
mesonotum immediately lateral of the notauli
(Hymenoptera; Figure 28-4, sea); also called parapsis.
scarabaeiform larva A grublike larva, that is, one with the
body thickened and cylindrical, with a well-developed
head and thoracic legs, without prolegs, and usually
sluggish (Figures 2-43B, 26-31).
scavenger
An animal that feeds on dead plants or animals,
or decaying materials, or on animal wastes.
scent gland A gland producing an odorous substance.
scientific name A latinized name, internationally
recognized, of a species or subspecies. The scientific
name of a species consists of the generic and specific
names, and that of a subspecies consists of the generic,
specific, and subspecific names. Scientific names are
always printed in italics.
sclerite A hardened body-wall plate bounded by sutures or
membranous areas.
sclerotization
The process of becoming hardened.
sclerotized
Hardened.
scolopophorous organ See campaniform sensillum.
scolytoid larva A fleshy larva resembling the larva of a
scolytid beetle.
scopa (p\., scopae)A small, dense tuft of hair.
scraper
The sharpened anal angle of the front wing
(tegmen) of a cricket or katydid, a part of the
stridulating mechanism.
scrobe A groove or furrow; antennal scrobe (Figures 26-3,
26-88A, G, agr).
scutellum
A sclerite of the thoracic notum (Figure 2-6,
scl); the mesoscutellum, appearing as a more or less
triangular sclerite behind the pronotum (Hemiptera,
Coleoptera).
scutum The middle division of a thoracic notum, just
anterior to the scutellum (Figure 2-6, ser).
sebaceous glands Glands secreting fatty or oily materia\.
secondary segmentation
Subdivision of the body of
arthropods in which the externally visible sclerites and
membranes do not correspond to the internal
attachment of longitudinal muscle.
793
794
Glossary
spindle-shaped
Elongate and cylindrical, thickened in the
middle and tapering at the ends.
spine A thornlike outgrowth of the cuticle.
spinneret
A structure with which silk is spun, usually
fingerlike in shape (Figures 5-6, 5-8).
spinose
Beset with spines; spinose costa in Diptera
(Figure 34-22H).
spiracle An external opening of the tracheal system; a
breathing pore (Figures 2-1, 2-25, spr).
spiracular bristles
Bristles very close to a spiracle
(Diptera; Figure 34-25, spbr).
spiracular plate A platelike sclerite next to or surrounding
the spiracle.
spur A movable spine (when on a leg segment, usually
located at the apex of the segment).
spurious claw A false claw; a stout bristle that looks like a
claw (spiders).
spurious vein A veinlike thickening of the wing
membrane between two true veins; an adventitious
longitudinal vein between the radius and the media,
crossing the r-m crossvein (Diptera, Syrphidae;
Figure 34-15A-C, spv).
squama
(p\., squamae) A scalelike structure; a calypter; the
palpiger (Odonata; Figure 10-9, plg).
stadium
(p\., stadia) The period between molts in a
developing arthropod.
stalked With a stalk or stem; with a narrow, stemlike base;
of veins, fused together to form a single vein.
stemmata
(sing., stemma) The lateral eyes of insect larvae.
sternacostal suture
(or su\cus) A suture of the thorade
sternum, the external mark of the sternal apophysis or
furca, separating the basisternum from the sternellum.
sternal apophysis
(or sternal arm) See furca.
sternellum
The part of the eusternum posterior to the
sternacostal suture (su\cus).
sternite
A subdivision of a sternum; the ventral plate of an
abdominal segmento
sternopleural bristles
Bristles on the sternopleuron
(Diptera; Figure 34-6, stb).
sternopleuron
(p\., sternopleura) A sclerite in the lateral
wall of the thorax, just above the base of the middle leg
(Diptera; Figure 34-6, stp\).
sternum
(p\., sterna) A sclerite on the ventral side of the
body; the ventral sclerite of an abdominal segment
(Figure 2-1, stn).
stigma (p\., stigmata) A thickening of the wing membrane
along the costal border near the apex (Figures 10-5,
10-6, 28-1, st).
stigmal vein A short vein extending posteriorly from the
costal margin of the wing, usually a little beyond the
middle of the wing (Hymenoptera; Figure 28-19B, sv).
stipes
(p\., stipites) The second segment or division of a
maxilla, which bears the palp, the galea, and the lacinia
(Figure 2-16A, stp); laterallobes of the millipede
gnathochilarium (Figure 5-30B, stp).
stomadaeum
The foregut.
storage excretion
The removal of metabolic wastes by
isolation within certain tissues or cells.
stria (p\., striae) A groove or depressed line.
striate With grooves or depressed lines.
Glossary
stridulate
To make a noise by rubbing two structures or
surfaces together.
stripe A longitudinal color marking.
stylate With a style; stylelike; stylate antenna
(Figure 2-15K).
style A bristlelike process at the apex of an antenna
(Figure 2-15K, sty); a short slender, fingerlike process
(Figure 8-1, sty).
stylet A needlelike structure; one of the piercing structures
in sucking mouthparts.
stylus (pl., styli) A short, slender, fingerlike process
(Figure 8-1, sty).
subalare
(or subalar sclerite) An epipleurite located
posterior to the pleural wing process.
subantennal sulcus A groove on the face extending
ventrally from the base of the antenna (Figures 2-13,
28-17, sas).
subapical
Located just proximad of the apex.
subbasal Located just distad of the base.
subclass A major subdivision of a class, containing a
group of related orders.
subcosta The longitudinal vein between the costa and the
radius (Figure 2-10, Se).
subcoxa Leg segment of primitive arthropods basad of the
coxa, hypothesized to be incorporated into the thoracic
wall to form the thoracic pleurites (see also anapleurite,
catapleurite) .
subequal Approximately equal in size or length.
subesophageal ganglion The knotlike swelling at the
anterior end of the ventral nerve cord, usually just
below the esophagus (Figures 2-22, 2-26, segn).
subfamily A majar division of a family, containing a group
of related tribes or genera. Subfamily names end in -inae.
subgenal suture
(or sulcus) The horizontal suture below
the gena, just above the bases of the mandibles and
maxillae, a lateral extension of the epistomal suture
(Figure 2-13, sgs).
subgenital plate A platelike stemite that underlies the
genitalia.
subgenus (pl., subgenera) A major subdivision of a genus,
containing a group of related species. In scientific
names, subgeneric names are capitalized and placed in
parentheses following the genus name.
subimago The first of two winged instars of a mayfly after
it emerges from the water.
submarginal cell One or more cells lying immediately behind
the marginal cell (Hymenoptera; Figure 28-3, SM).
submarginal vein Vein immediately behind and
paralleling the costal margin of the wing (Hymenoptera;
Figure 28-19B, sm).
submentum
The basal part of the labium (Figure 2-16C,
smt).
subocular suture
(or subocular sulcus) A suture extending
ventrally from the compound eye (Figure 2-13, sos).
suborder A major subdivision of an order, containing a
group of related superfamilies or families.
subquadrangle
A cell immediately behind the quadrangle
(Odonata, Zygoptera; Figure 10-6, sq).
subspecies A subdivision of a species, usually a
geographic race. The different subspecies of a
species ordinarily are not sharply differentiated.
taenidium
(pl., taenidia) A circular or spiral thickening in
the inner wall of a trachea.
tagma (pl., tagamata) A group of segments of the body
specialized for a given function; e.g., the head, thorax,
and abdomen of insects.
tandem One behind the other, the two connected or
attached together.
tarsal claw A claw at the apex of the tarsus, derived from
the pretarsal segment of the leg (Figure 2-8, tcl).
795
796
Glossary
toxicognath
A poison jaw (centipedes, Figure 5-32, pj; a
modified leg).
trachea (pl., tracheae) A tube of the respiratory system,
lined with taenidia, ending externally at a spiracle, and
terminating internally in the tracheoles (Figure 2-25).
tracheole
The fine terminal branch of the respiratory
tubes.
translucent
Allowing light to pass through, but not
necessarily transparent.
transverse
Across, at right angles to the longitudinal axis.
transverse suture
A suture across the mesonotum
(Diptera; Figure 34-6, trs).
triangle A small triangular cell or group of cells near the
base of the wing (Odonata, Anisoptera; Figures 10-5,
10-7, tri).
tribe A subdivision of a subfamily, containing a group of
related genera. Names of tribes end in -ini.
trichobothria
Minute sensory hairs on the tarsi (spiders;
Figure 5-7C, TR).
trichogen cell The epidermal cell from which a seta
develops (Figure 2-27, trg).
tripectinate
Having three rows of comblike branches.
tritocerebrum
The ventrallobes of the brain.
triungulin larva The active first-instar larva of the
Strepsiptera and certain beetles that undergo
hypermetamorphosis (Figure 26-68A, 32-1F).
trochanter
The second segment of the leg, between the
coxa and the femur (Figure 2-8, tr).
trochantin
A small sclerite in the thoracic wall
immediately anterior to the base of the coxa
(Figure 26-9B, tn).
trophallaxis
The exchange of alimentary canalliquid
among colony members of social insec15 and guest
organisms, either mutually or unilaterally; trophallaxis
may be stomodeal (from the mouth) or proctodeal
(from the anus).
trophocyte
See nurse cells.
tropism
The orientation of an animal with respect to a
stimulus, either positive (turning toward the stimulus)
or negative (turning away from the stimulus).
truncate
Cut off square at the end.
truss cell See hypostigmatic cell.
tubercle
A small knotlike or rounded protuberance.
tylus The clypeal region of the head (Hemiptera;
Figure 22-1, ty).
tymbal A sclerotized plate in the sound-producing organ
of a cicada (Figure 22-45, tmb).
tympanal hood One of a pair of tubercles or rounded
prominences on the dorsal surface of the first abdominal
segment (Lepidoptera).
tympanum (pl., tympana) A vibrating membrane; an auditory
membrane or eardrum (Figure 2-8D, 22-45, tym).
type genus See types.
type species See types.
types Specimens designated when a species or group is
described to serve as the reference if there is any
question about what that species or group includes. The
type of a species or subspecies (the holotype) is a
specimen, the type of a genus or subgenus is a species,
and the type of a tribe, subfamily, family, or superfamily
is a genus.
Glossary
unisexual
Consisting of or involving only females.
urc acid Chemical commonly used by terrestrial insects
for excretion of nitrogenous wastes.
urne Fluid containing excreted wastes.
urogomphi
(sing., urogomphus) Fixed or movable
cercuslike processes on the last segment of a beetle larva
(also called pseudocerci or corniculi).
uropod One of the terminal pair of abdominal appendages,
usually lobelike (Crustacea; Figure 5-22, ur).
vermiform larva A legless, wormlike larva, without a welldeveloped head (Figure 2-43A).
vertex The top of the head, between the eyes and anterior
to the occipital suture (Figure 2-13, ver).
vesicle A sac, bladder, or cyst, often extensible.
vestigial Small, poorly developed, degenera te,
nonfunctional.
vibrissae, oral See oral vibrissae.
vitellarium
Portion of the ovariole in which vitellogenesis
takes place.
vitelline membrane
The cell wall of the insect egg; a thin
membrane lying beneath the chorion (Figure 2-37, vm).
vitellogenesis
Transfer of vitellogenins to the developing
oocyte with consequent increase in size of the oocyte.
vitellogenin
Yolk precursor molecule.
vulva Opening of the vagina (= ovipore).
vulvar lamina The posterior margin (usually prolonged
posteriorly) of the eighth abdominal sternite (female
Anisoptera).
wireworm
An elateriform larva; a larva that is slender,
heavily sclerotized, with few hairs on the body, and with
thoracic legs but without prolegs; the larva of a click
beetle (Figure 26-45B).
Y-vein Two adjacent veins fusing distally, forming a Yshaped figure (for example, the anal veins in the front
wing, Figure 30-32).
zoophagous
Feeding on animals.
References
Borror, D. J. 1960. Dictionary of Word Roots and Combining
Forms. Palo Alto, CA: Mayfield, 134 pp.
Brown, R. W 1954. Composition of Scientific Words. Washington, DC: Author, 882 pp.
Carpenter, J. R. 1938. An Ecological Glossary. London:
Kegan, Paul, Trench, Trubner, 306 pp.
Dorland, W A. N. 1932. The American Illustrated Medical
Dictionary; 16th ed. Philadelphia: W B. Saunders,
1493 pp.
Gordh, G., and D. H. Headrick. 2001. A Dictionary of Entomology. Wallingford, UK: CABI Pub., 1050 pp.
Hanson, D. R. 1959. A Short Glossary of Entomology with
Derivations. Los Angeles: Author, 83 pp.
Henderson, I. F., and W D. Henderson. 1939. A Dictionary of
Scientific Terms. 3rd ed., revised by J. H. Kenneth. London: Oliver and Boyd, 383 pp.
Jaeger, E. C. 1955. A Source Book of Biological Names and
Terms. Springfield, IL: C. C. Thomas, 317 pp.
797
Credits
This page constitutes an extension of the copyright page. We have made every
effort to trace the ownership of all copyrighted material and lO secure permission from copyright holders. In the event of any question arising as lO the use
of any material, we will be pleased to make the necessary corrections in future
printings. Thanks are due to the following authors, publishers, and agents for
permission to use the material indicated.
Photographs
Chapter 2. 32: (left) Lowell Nault; (middle) Courtesy of Foster F.
Purrington; (right) Ohio Agricultural Research and Development
Center. 40: (bottom) Ohio Agricultural Research and Development
Center. 41: (left) Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center;
(top right) Courtesy of Foster F. Purrington; (bottom right)
Courtesy of Foster F. Purrington.
Chapter 4.65: WA. Foster; 71: DonaldJ. Borror; 72: WA. Foster;
73: WA. Foster; 75: (al\) L.R. Nault, Ohio Agricultural Research and
Development Center; 77: A.M. Vargo; 78: H. Briegel; 80: WA. Foster;
84: WA. Foster; 87: all WA. Foster; 88 WA. Foster; 89: (top left)
WA. Foster; (bottom left) J.G. Murtha; (right) J.G. Murtha; 90:
left WA. Foster; (top right) Ohio Agricultural Research and
Development Center; (bottom right) Ohio Agricultural Research
and Development Center; 91: (top left) Ohio Agricultural Research and
Development Center; (middle left) Ohio Agricultural Research and
Development Center; (bottom left) WA. Foster; (bottom right)
WA. Foster; 92: all WA. Foster.
Chapter 5. 123: Courtesy of U.S. Public Health Service.
Chapter 10. 203: Dwight M. DeLong; 204: Dwight M. DeLong.
Chapter 11. 211: DonaldJ. Borror; 217: Ohio Agricultural Research
and Development Center; 218: (top) Dwight M. DeLong; 221:
Donald J. Borror.
Chapter 12. 228: Ohio Agricultural Research and Development
Center.
Chapter 14. 232: Reproduced with perrnission of Simon van
Noort/Iziko Museums of Cape Town, South Africa.
Chapter 19. 257: (all) Davidson
798
Credits
799
800
Credits
Chapter 7.170: Fig. 7-1 from H.E. Ewing, "The Protura ofNorth
America," Annals of the Entomological Society of America Vol. 33,
1940, p. 495-551, Fig. 1. Used by permission. 173: Fig. 7-2
used by permission of Dr. Richard j. Snider. 174: Fig. 7-3 from
K.A. Christiansen and P.F.Bellinger, The Collembola of North
America North of the Rio Grande, Grinnell College, 1980-1981,
Fig. 1049B. Used by permission. 175: Fig. 7-4a, c from E.O. Essig,
CollegeEntomology,1942,lig. 29, lig. 30. Used by permission.
Chapter 8. 180: Fig. 8-2 used by permission of lllinois Natural
History Survey.
Chapter 9. 182: Fig. 9-2a from j.w, Leonard, "A New Baetis from
Michigan (Ephemeroptera)," Vol. 43, Annals of the Entomological
Society of America, Vol. 43, 1950, p. 155-159, pl. I. Used by
permission. 182: Fig. 9-2c from B.O. Burks, "New heptagenine
mayflies," Annals of the Entomological Society of America Vol. 39,
1946, p. 607-615, lig. 2. Used by permission.
History Survey. 241: Fig. 16-3 from P.H. Harden, "The immature
stages of some Minnesota Plecoptera," Annals of the Entomological
Societyof America Vol. 35, 1942, p. 318-331, pl. 1 lig. 2, pl. II lig. 3
and lig. 4. Used by permission. 242: Fig. 16-5 from T.H. Frison,
"The stoneflies, or Plecoptera, of lllionois," IIIinois Natural History
Survey Bulletin 20(4), 1935, lig. 3a, p. 286. Used by permission of
Illinois Natural History Survey. 244: Fig. 16-8 from T.H. Frison,
"Studies of North American Plecopter with special reference lOthe
fauna of Illinois," Bulletin of the IlIinois Natural History Survey 22(2):
253-355. Used by permission.
Chapter 17. 248: Fig. 17-1 from E.O. Essig, CollegeEntomology,
1942, lig. 68. Used by permission.
Chapter 18. 251: Fig. 18-1 from A.M. Claudell, "Zoraptera not
an apterous order," Proceedings of the Entomological Society of
Washington 22: 84-97, 1920.
Chapter 20.260:
Chapter 10. 195: Fig. 1O-2a from E.M. Walker, "The nymph of
Aeschna verticalis Hagen." The Canadian Entomologist 73: 229-231,
1941, lig. 1, p. 230. Used by permission of the Entomological
Society of Canada. 195: Fig. 10-2b from E.M. Walker, "The nymph
of Gomphus quadricolor Walsh (Odonata)." The Canadian
Entomologist 64: 270-273, 1932, lig. 1, p. 271. Used by permission of
the Entomological Society of Canada. 195: Fig. 10-3a, b from
P. Garman, "The Zygopter, or damsel-flies, of lllinois," Bulletin of the
IIIinois State Laboratory ofNatural History 12(4): 411-586,1917.
Chapter 11. 210: Fig. 11-1 used by permission of Richard A.
Alexander. 210: Fig. 11-2 used by permission of Richard A.
Alexander. 217: Fig. 11-6a used courtesy of the Ohio Agricultural
Research and Development Center. 218: Fig. 11-7 used courtesy of
the Universite de Montreal Departement de Sciences Biologiques.
218: Fig. 11-8 used courtesy of the Universite de Montreal
Departement de Sciences Biologiques. 219: Fig. 11-10 from
M. Hebard, "The Dermaptera and Orthoptera of lllinois," IIIinois
Natural HistorySurveyBulletin20(3):125-279, lig. 160. Used by
permission of the lllinois Natural History Survey. 222: Fig. 11-14
from M. Hebard, "The Dermaptera and Orthoptera of lllinois,"
IIIinoisNatural HistorySurveyBulletin20(3):125-279,lig. 158.
Used by permission of the lllinois Natural History Survey.
222: Fig. 11-14b, c used courtesy of the Universite de Montreal
Departement de Sciences Biologiques. 222: Fig. 11-15 used courtesy
of the Universite de Montreal Departement de Sciences Biologiques.
224: Fig. 11-16 used courtesy of the Universite de Montreal
Departement de Sciences Biologiques. 224: Fig. 11-17 a from
M. Hebard, "The Dermaptera and Orthoptera of lllinois," IIIinois
Natural HistorySurveyBulletin20(3):125-279,lig. 116. Used by
permission of the lllinois Natural History Survey. 224: Fig. 11-17b, c
used courtesy of the Universite de Montreal Departement de
Sciences Biologiques. 225: Fig. 11-18 from M. Hebard, "The
Dermapteraand Orthoptera of lllinois," IIIinoisNatural History
Survey Bulletin 20(3):125-279,lig. 164. Used by permission of the
lllinois Natural History Survey.
Chapter 12. 228: Fig. 12-1 used courtesy of the Ohio Agricultural
Research and Development Center.
Chapter 14. 232: Fig. 14.1 reproduced with permission ofThom GIas.
Chapter 15. 234: Fig. 15-1 used Courtesy of Fulton and the Oregon
Agricultural Experiment Station.
Chapter 16. 240: Fig. 16-2a from T.H. Frison, ''The stoneflies, or
Plecoptera,of Illionois,"IIIinoisNatural HistorySurveyBulletin
20(4),1935, lig. 1, p. 283. Used by permission of lllinois Natural
..
Credits
lig. 91, 93. Used by permission. 297: Fig. 22-31 from R.e.
Froeschner, "Contributions to a synopsis of the Hemiptera of
Missouri, pt. 1lI," American Midland Naturalist 31(3):638-683, 1944,
lig. 72, 75, 81, 82, 83, 86. Used by permission. 298: Fig. 22-32 from
Re. Froeschner, "Contributions to a synopsis of the Hemiptera of
Missouri, pt. n Coreidae, Aradidae, Neididae," American Midland
Naturalist 27(3):591-609, 1942, lig. 53, 54. Used by permission.
298: Fig. 22-33 from Re. Froeschner, "Contributions to a synopsis
of the Hemiptera of Missouri, pt. 1lI," American Midland Naturalist
31(3):638-683, 1944, lig. 73. Used by perrnission. 298: Fig. 22-34
from Re. Froeschner, "Contributions to a synopsis of the Hemiptera
of Missouri, pt. n Coreidae, Aradidae, Neididae," American Midland
Naturalist 27(3):591-609, 1942, lig. 50. Used by permission. 299:
Fig. 22-35 from R.e. Froeschner, "Contributions to a synopsis of the
Hemiptera of Missouri, pt. 1lI," American Midland Naturalist
31(3):638-683, 1944, lig. 56, 60, 61, 63, 64, 67. Used by permission.
301: Fig. 22-37a, b from Re. Froeschner, "Contributions to a
synopsis of the Hemiptera of Missouri, pt. 1lI," American Midland
Naturalist 31(3):638-683,1944,
lig. 77, 78. Used by perrnission.
301: Fig. 22-37c fromJ.A. Slater and RM. Baranowski, How to
Know the True Bugs (Hemipter; Heteroptera), McGraw-HiIl, 1978,
lig. 170,253,427,437,459,418,
and 489. Used by permission.
302: Fig. 22-38 from Re. Froeschner, "Contributions to a synopsis
of the Hemiptera of Missouri, pt. n Coreidae, Aradidae, Neididae,"
American Midland Naturalist 27(3):591-609, 1942, lig. 28,42,45,
46,47,51. Used by permission. 303: Fig. 22-39 from Re.
Froeschner, "Contributions to a synopsis of the Hemiptera of
Missouri, pt. 1. Scutelleridae, Podopidae, pentatomidae, Cydnidae,
Throeocoridae," American Midland Naturalist 26(1): 122-146,1941,
lig. 24, 25. Used by permission. 303: Fig. 22-40 from R.e.
Froeschner, "Contributions to a synopsis of the Hemiptera of
Missouri, pt. 1. Scutelleridae, Podopidae, pentatomidae, Cydnidae,
Throeocoridae," American Midland Naturalist 26(1): 122-146, 1941,
lig. 20, 21. Used by permission. 304: Fig. 22-41 from R.e.
Froeschner, "Contributions to a synopsis of the Hemiptera of
Missouri, pt. 1. Scutelleridae, Podopidae, pentatomidae, Cydnidae,
Throeocoridae," American Midland Naturalist 26(1): 122-146, 1941,
lig. 31, 33, 34, 36. Used by permission. 304: Fig. 22-42 from Re.
Froeschner, "Contributions to a synopsis of the Hemiptera of
Missouri, pt. 1. Scutelleridae, Podopidae, pentatomidae, Cydnidae,
Throeocoridae," American Midland Naturalist 26(1): 122-146,1941,
lig. 19,22,29. Used by permission. 305: Fig. 22-43 used by
permission of the IIIinois Natural History Survey. 316: Fig. 22-51
from H. Osborn, "The Fulgoridae of Ohio," Ohio Biological Survey
Bulletin No. 35 6(6):283-357, 1938, lig. 2, 5a, 5b, 5c, 13Aa, 16Bb,
18A, 25, 26A, 27B, 33, 35A, 38B. Used by permission of Ohio
Biological Survey, Inc. 317: Fig. 22-53 from G.F. Knowlton and
MJ. janes, "Studies on the biology of Paratrioza cockerelli (Su!c),"
Annalsof the EntomologicalSociety of AmericaVol.24, 1931,
p. 283-291, pl. 1, lig. 1. Used by perrnission.
Chapter 23. 335: Fig. 23-3 from P. Pesson, "Ordre des Thysanopter
Haliday, 1836 (Physapoda Burm., 1838) ou thrips" Traite de
Zoologie 10:1805-1869, 1951, lig. 1647 1619a, lig. 1626B. Used
by permission of Masson et Cie, Paris. 336: Fig. 23-4 from
LJ. Stannard, "The thrips, or Thysanoptera,of IIIinois,"IlIinois
Natural History Survey Bulletin 29(4):215-552, ligs. 93, 94, 89.
Used by permission of the IIIinois Natural History Survey.
336: Fig. 23-4a used by permission of the Utah Agricultural
Experiment Station. 337: Fig. 23-5 from LJ. Stannard, "The thrips,
or Thysanoptera,of IIIinois,"IlIinois Natural History Survey Bulletin
29(4):215-552, ligs. 62, 64, 65, 66, 68. Used by permission of
the IIIinois Natural History Survey. 337: Fig. 23-6a from L.A.
Mound and R Marullo, "Two new basal-clade Thysanoptera from
California with Old World aflinities," Journal of the New York
EntomologicalSociety 106: 81-94, 1998, Fig. 9. Used by permission.
337: Fig. 23-6b from S.F.Bailey, "The thrips of California, pan 1:
Suborder
Terebrantia,"
4(5):143-220,
the University
Bulletin
of the California
nsect Survey
801
802
Credits
If
Credits
1939, Fig. 1.
Chapter
27.474:
to collect and
39, 1949, fig. 44,
by permission.
of lllinois
Natural
Chapter 28. 490: Fig. 28-9 from H.H. Ross, "A generic classification
of the Nearctic sawflies (Hymenoptera, Symphyta)," Illinois
Biological Monographs15(2), p. 141. Used by permission.
523: Fig. 28-44a from D. De Leon, "The morphology of Coe\oides
dendroctoni Cushman (Hymenoptera: Bradonidae),journal of the
New YorkEntomologicalSociety42: 297-317, 1934, Pl. XIX. Used by
permission of the New York Entomological Society.523: Fig. 28-44b
from H.L. Parker, "Notes on Meteorus (Zemiotes) nigricollis
Thomson, an occasional parasite of the European corn borer,"
Proceedingsof the EntomologicalSocietyof Washington33: 93-103,
1931, Fig. 1. Used by permission of the Entomological Society of
Washington. 523: Fig. 28-He from BJ. Kaston, "The native e\m
bark beetle Hylurgopinus rufipes in Connecticut," Bulletin of the
ConnecticutAgricultural ExperimentStation No. 420, 1939, Fig.18.
524: Fig. 28-45a from A.M. Vance, "Microgaster tibialis Nees as a
hymenopterous parasite of Pyraustanubilalis Hubn. in Europe,"
Annals of the EntomologicalSocietyof America Vo\. 25, 1932,
p. 121-135, Fig. 1. Used by permission. 527: Fig. 28-48a, e from
G.H. Griswold, "On the bionomics of a primary parasite and of two
hyperparasites of the geranium aphid," Annals of the Entomological
Societyof America Vo\. 22, 1929, p. 438-457, p\. 1 fig.4, p\. n
fig.4. Used by permission of the Entomological Society of America.
527: Fig. 28-49a, b from B.B. Fulton, "Notes on Habrocytus
cerealellae, parasite of the Angoumois grain moth," Annals of the
EntomologicalSocietyof America Vo\. 26, 1933, p. 536-553, fig. 1,
fig. 2. Used by permission. 527: Fig. 28-49c, d from G.H. Griswold,
"On the bionomics of a primary parasite and of two hyperparasites
of the geranium aphid," Annals of the Entomological Society of
America Vo\. 22, 1929, p. 438-457, fig. 2, fig. 3. Used by permission.
529: Fig. 28-52 from 1.]. Condit, "Caprifigs and Caprification,"
Bulletin of the California Agricultural Experiment Station 319:
341-375,1920, fig. 5. 530: Fig. 28-53a from G.H. Griswold, "On the
bionomics of a primary parasite and of two hyperparasites of the
geranium aphid," Annals of the EntornologicalSocietyof America
Vo\. 22, 1929, p. 438-457, p\. III fig. 4. Used by permission.
536: Fig. 28-58 from D.W Clancy, "The insect parasites of the
Chrysopidae (Neuroptera)," University of California Publicationsin
Entomology7:403-496, 1946, fig. 2. Used by permission of the
Regents of the University of California Press. 542: Fig. 28-65 from
R.H. Davidson and B.]. Landis, "Crabro davidsoni Sandh., a wasp
predacious on adult leafhoppers," Annals of the Entomological Society
of America Vo\. 31, 1938, p. 5-8, Fig. 1, Fig. 3. Used by permission.
548: Fig. 28-75b, c from R.W Burrell, "Notes on the habits of
cenain Australian Thynnidae," journal of the New York Entomological
Society43:19-29, 1935, p\. IV.Used by permission.
lllinois Natural History Survey. 560: Fig. 29-3 From H.H. Ross,
"The caddis flies,or Trichopter,of lllinois," Illinois Natural History
Survey Bulletin 24(1):1-326, 1944, figs. 4520, 333, 162,212,77,
629, 76. Used by permission of the lllinois Natural History Survey.
561: Fig. 29-4 from H.H. Ross, "The caddis mes, or Trichopter, of
lllinois," Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin 24(1):1-326,1944,
figs. 80-90. Used by permission of the lllinois Natural History
Survey. 562: Fig. 29-5 from H.H. Ross, "The caddis flies, or
Trichopter,of lllinois," Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin
24(1):1-326, 1944, figs. 59-64, 321, 214. Used by permission of the
lllinois Natural History Survey. 562: Fig. 29-6 from H.H. Ross, "The
caddis tlies, or Trichopter,of lllinois," Illinois Natural History Survey
Bulletin 24(1):1-326, 1944, figs. 69-75. Used by permission of
the lllinois Natural History Survey. 564: Fig. 19-7a, b, c used
by permission of Dr. John Morse. 564: Fig. 29-7d-j D-J, from
D.E. Ruiter, "Generic key to the adult ocellate Limnephiloidea of
the Western Hemisphere (lnsecta: Trichoptera)," Misc. Contrib. Ohio
Biological Survey Bulletin No. 5, 2000. Used by permission of Ohio
Biological Survey, lnc. 564: Fig. 29-71-m from H.H. Ross, "The
caddis flies,or Trichopter,of lllinois," IllinoisNatural History Survey
Bulletin 24(1):1-326, 1944, figs. 208, 210. Used by permission of the
lllinois Natural History Survey. 567: Fig. 29-8 from H.H. Ross, "The
caddis flies,or Trichopter,of lllinois," Illinois Natural History Survey
Bulletin 24(1):1-326, 1944, figs. 136,465,672,710,833,906,904,
762, 862. Used by permission of the lllinois Natural History Survey.
567: Fig. 29-8 from H.H. Ross, "The caddis flies, or Trichopter,
of lllinois," Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin 24(1):1-326,
1944, figs. 136,465,672,710,833,906,904,762,862.
Used by
permission of the lllinois Natural History Survey. 568: Fig. 29-9
From H.H. Ross, "The caddis flies, or Trichopter, of lllinois,"
Illinois Natural History SurveyBulletin 24(1):1-326,1944, figs.641,
588,393,420,602,
540,863. Used by permission of the lllinois
Natural History Survey.
Chapter 30. 573: Fig. 30-4 from Alvah Peterson, Larvae of Insects:
An introduction to Nearctic species,1948, Vo\. 1,fig. 010F, 0100,
010A, 010e. Reprinted by permission. 597: Fig. 30-3-b from
].H. Comstock, an Introduction to Entomology, Comstock Publishing
Company, 1933, fig. 771, p. 629. 599: Fig. 30-33 from].H.
Comstock, an Introduction lo Entornology, Comstock Publishing
Company, 1933, fig. 755, 765, 759, 757, 754, 763 600: Fig. 30-34
from].H. Comstock, an Introduction to Entornology, Comstock
Publishing Company, 1933, fig. 762, p. 622, fig. 719, p. 593.
612: Fig. 30-45b from Alvah Peterson, Larvae of Insects:An
introduction to Nearctic species,1948,Vo\. 1,fig.L23B.Reprinted by
permission. 616: From WH. Lange,Jr., "Biology and systematics of
plume moths of the genus Platyptilia in California," Hilgardia 19:
561-668, P\' 8, Fig. A and Fig. C, 1950. 632: Fig. 30-74 from Alvah
Peterson, Larvaeof Insects:An introductionto Nearctic species,1948,
Vo\. 1, fig. L23A-E. Reprinted by permission.
Chapter 31. 649: Fig. 31-1 used by permission of Roben E. Lewis.
650: Fig. 31-2 used by permission of Roben E. Lewis. 651: Fig. 31-3
used by permission of Robert E. Lewis. 653: Fig. 31-4 used by
permission of Roben E. Lewis. 654: Fig. 31-5 used by permission
of Roben E. Lewis. 655: Fig. 31-6 used by permission of Roben E.
Lewis. 657: Fig. 31-7 used by permission of Roben E. Lewis.
An introduction
by permission.
Chapter 29. 559: Fig. 29-1 from H.H. Ross, "The caddis flies, or
Trichopter,of lllinois," Illinois Natural History SurveyBulletin
24(1):1-326,1944, figs. 541, 133, 188, 281. Used by permission of
the lllinois Natural History Survey. 559: Fig. 29-2 from H.H. Ross,
"Thecaddis flies,or Trichopter,of lllinois," Illinois Natural History
SurveyBulletin 24(1):1-326, 1944, fig. 21. Used by permission of the
Chapter 33. 670: Fig. 33-1d, e from H.L. Parker and H.D. Smith,
"Additional notes on the strepsipteron Eoxenos laboulbenei
Peyerimhoff," Annals of the Entornological Societyof America Vo\. 26,
1933, p. 217-233. Used by permission of the Entomological Society
of America.
803
804
Credits
Vol. 34, 1941, p. 289-302, pl. !l, lig. 4. Used by permission of the
Entomological Society of America. 721: Fig. 34-47b from H.H. Ross,
"The Rocky Mountain blaek fiy Symphoromyia atripes (Diptera:
Rhagionidae)," Annals of the Entomological Society of America
Vol. 33, 1940, p. 254-257, pl. 1, Fig. 1. Used by pennission.
722: Fig. 34-49 from H.H. Sehwardt and D.G. Hall, "Preliminary
studies on Arkansas horse-fiies," ArkansasAgriculturalExperiment
Station Bulletin 256, 1930. Used by pennission the Arkansas
Agricultural Experiment Station. 724: Fug. 34-53 from F.R. Cole,
"Notes on Osten Sacken's group; Poecilanthrax, with deseriptions of
1937.
11(7):337-346,1911.
of Insects: An introduction
D31F, D31G,
D30D,
by permission.
730: Fig. 34-63 used eourtesy of the Ohio Agricultural Research and
Development Center. 731: Fig. 34-66 used by permission of the
Utah Agricultural Experiment Station. 738: Fig. 34-79 from G.N.
Wolcott,
"The insects
University
of Puerto
Rico," Joumal
255-822.
of Agriculture
Used by permission
of the
of
Larvae of Insects: An
pennission.
Chapter
35. 750: Fig. 35-3 from D.M. DeLong and R.H. Davidson,
..
Index
Numbers in italics refer to pages bearing illustrations; numbers in boldface indicate the most important page references. Common names of species and subspecies are listed in the singular; those of more inclusive groups are listed as
plurals. Many items not in this index may be found in the glossary.
Acartophthalmidae,
aaroni, Neoneura,
Aaroniella,
Abdomen,
205
348
5, 5, 7-9,8
digestive
Aceratogallia,
of, 8
Dyspteris,
522
538
acetic, 339
uric,27
bivittata,
Acanaloniidae,
hydrochloric,
lactic, 761
316
Acanthametropodidae,
Acanthocephala
Acanthoceridae,
Acanthocerus
302
aeneus, 411
Acanthoclisini,
Acanthococcus
478
azalea, 326
Acanthodomatidae,
Acantholyda,
femorata,
368
108
280
Acanthopterocetetes
unifascia, 603
Acanthopteroctedidae,
573, 574, 580
Acanthopteroctoidea,
574, 575, 577
Acidogona
578, 579
737
Acinopterus, 311
Aclerdidae, 270, 285, 326
Acmaeodera
prorsa, 419
pulchella, 418
Acontiinae, 638
482
674, 700
key to subfamilies
Acridinae, 210
of, 215
Acroceratidae,
673
Acroceridae,
673, 686, 721
Acariformes,
Acaroidea,
134
rapidus,
294,295
Adephaga, 368,376,
401
Aderidae, 369, 398, 440
adnixa, Rhaphidia,
advena, Ahasverus,
Aedes, 712
Acrolepiidae,
700
736
Adiheterothripidae,
Adimeridae,
369
652
Actenoptera,
hilarella,
cooleyi, 322
melanura,
Acorduleceridae,
8, 8
Actenopsylla,
acutangulus,
Achilidae, 270,280,283,316,317
Achostemata,
368, 401
Acid
628
596, 605
242, 245
Acrotergite,
Acrolophus,
Acroneuria,
Acrosternite,
8, 8
Acrosticta, 696
311, 314
Acalymma
virratus, 448
vittatum, 449
Acanalonia
739
Achiilidae,
674, 739
Acartophthus nigrinus,
Acentria, 603
574
440
430
805
Io.c
806
Index
Aenictopenchenidae,
269, 288
Aeolothripidae,
Aeolothrips, 337
aequabils, Calopteryx, 194
aerarium, Chlorion, 541
aereus, Helops, 437
Aeshinidae, 195
Aeshna, 200
constricta, 203
verticalis, 195
Aeshnidae, 195, 197,200,200,201,
203,203
Aestivation, 49-50
Aetalion, 307
Aetalion, 284, 310
Aetalionidae,
Aetheca, 652
Aethes rutilana, 615
champlaini, 417,419
Alypia, 593
octomaculata, 638, 638
planipennis, 417
Agriotes, 374
Agromyza, 698, 703
Agromyza parvicomis,
739
Alysiinae, 522
Amalaraeus, 652
Amaradix, 652
Amatidae, 575
Agrosoma, 311
Agrotis, 638
Agula, 476
Amber-winged
ambigua, Casarinaria,
Amblycera, 357
Alderflies,
skimmer,
204
525
detection of, 33
Alaus oculatus, 422
Alceris gloverana, 614
Alcitoidea, 616
Amaurobiidae,
154,469,471,474,474,474
Ambylcorypha, 221
Ameletidae, 187, 189
Amelinae, 261
americana, Melanophthalma,
americana,Silpha, 408,409
Aleyroididae,
339
522
Agathomyia, 701
Agdistidae, 575
Alleculinae,
Agonoxeninae,
602, 609
477
376, 436
Alimentary tract
as air reservoir, 44
Allocapnia, 242
Agraulis, 582
vanillae, 624
134
embryonic formation
Allantus cincutus, 516
Alleculidae, 369
432
Alfalfa caterpillar
parasite of, 530
alfreduges, Eutrombicula,
609, 612
270
Agdistis, 616
americana, Harrisina,
metamorphosis,
Ametropodidae,
Amitermes, 257
sesotris,
Amphalius, 652
Amphiagrion
Altimeter,
Amphinectidae,
123, 124, 126
Amphipoda,
140, 140
753
bilineatus, 418
Alydidae,
Amphibolips
or, 43
462
46
188, 189
saucium, 206
sp., 535
Amphipsocidae,
Amphipsylla,
Amphipsylla
652
sibirica, 654
Amphipsyllinae,
1(
Index 807
Amphipyrinae,
638
Amphisbatidae,
Anisopodiinae
574, 601
Amphizoidae,
mycetobiidae,
Anisopodinae,
Anisota,
574
534
huehniella,
617
Anapidae,
Gammarus,
annulatus,
annulatus,
Manophylax, 564
Psilonyx, 724
Anomiopsyllinae,
528
Anomologidae,
Anoncia, 602
523
Anophe/es,
punctipennis,
Andrenidae,482,492,494,495,495,543
Andrenids, 543
Andreninae, 492, 543
63
septentrionalis,
Anostostomatidae,
Anostraca, 137
Ant
10
195
Antaeotricha
Angel insects,
250
antaeus,
butterflies,
624
of, 533
angraeci, Conchaspis,
327
410
angusticollis, Zootermopsis,
Animal relationships
256
commensals
(inquillines),
mutualist, 86
87-88
Anisembiidae,
248
anisocentra, Homadaula,
schlaegeri,
Cocytius,
635
17, 19
arista te, 19
capitate,
clubbed,
filiform,
19
19
19
flabellate,
function
615
236, 236
Anisopodidae,
673, 682, 683, 684,
685, 715
8, 8
segmented,370
Antennae,
16
annulated,
86-87
predators, 88-90, 90
Anisembia texana, 248
Anisolabididae,
445
316
212, 214, 219
grain moth
parasites,
711
Anepisternum,
Aneshnoidea,
angulare, Labrium,
quadrimaculatus,
Anoplodera, 443
caerulea, 671
parasites
574
Anoplophora glabripennis,
Anoplotermes, 254, 257
Angoumois
Anomiopsyllus,
652
montanus, 655
Anglewing
427,428
203, 203
Anastatus japonicus,
Anax, 195
140
366
punctatum,
Anapleurite,
10
Anarsiidae, 574
Anasa tristis, 301,302
Anemotaxis,
annulatus,
Anobium,
175, 175
Anas junius,
629
368
of, 197,202
591, 632
Anisotomidae,
Anagasta
Anisoptera
classification
confus, 538
Anacampsidae,
673
19
of, 19
geniculate,
19
lamellate, 19
moniliform,
pectinate,
18, 19
19
608
plumose, 19
segmentation of, 17, 19
serrate, 19
setaceous, 19
structure of, 17
stylate, 19
types of, 17, 18, 18
Antennae filliform, 18, 19
Antennifer, antennal sclerite, 17, 18, 19
Anterior tentorial pits, 15, 16
Antheraea polyphemus, 632, 634, 634
Anthicidae, 369, 398, 399, 440, 440
Anthidium, 544
Anthoboscinae, 547
Anthocoridae, 272, 277
Anthomyia, 699
Anthomyiidae, 674, 695, 699, 729,
729, 730
Anthomyza, 706
Anthomyzidae, 674, 704, 706
Anthonomus, 460
grandis, 459
quadrigibbus, 459
signatus, 459
Anthophoridae, 482
Anthrax, 721
Anthrenus
jlavipes, 425
megatoma, 425
scrophulariae, 425
Anthribidae, 370, 381, 451, 451
Anthrophora terminalis, 546
Anthropotamus, 184, 185
Anthropotamus sp., 184
antiopa, Nymphalis, 624
Antispila, 599
Antlike flower beetles, 369, 398, 399,
440, 440
Antlike leaf beetles, 369, 440
Antlike stone beetles, 395, 408
Antlions, 154,469,470,473,478,478
adult,478
Ant-loving crickets, 225
Ant nests, 521, 538, 622
Antrodiatidae, 111, 113, 120
Ants, 79-81, 154,483,552,
767
as inquilline habitat, 86
parasites of, 533, 536
predaceous, 416
rearing of, 773, 774
societies of, 79
castes in, 79
food in, 79
nests in, 79
new colonies formation, 79
queen and female workers in, 79
worker types in, 79
808
Index
Ants-cont'd
Aphis
trophobiotic
relationships
of,86
velvet, 483, 548, 548
worker,
491
muticus,
225
gossypii, 320
pomi, 320
Aphis mellifera, 70
Aphodian dung beetles,
Aphodiinae,
Anyphaenidae,
112, 119, 128
Aonidiella aurantii, 328
Aorta, 24, 27
413, 414
413, 414
307
permutata,31O
apicalis, Hylobittacus,
666
Apanteles, 522
diatraeae, 524
thompsoni, 524
Apantesis, 641
Apioceratidae,
673
Apioceridae,
673, 722
Apataniidae,
longirostre, 453
Apionceridae,
673, 687
Apionidae, 370
Apatelodinae,
Apis, 494
melliJera, 546, 547
parasitic,
Aphidiinae,
500, 522
Aphidoidea,
predaceous,
Apoidea,
71 7
538
320, 321
behavior
of, 69
525, 735
520
520
Appendages
development
of, 43
Appendages,
Arthropoda,
101, 101
appendiculatus, Ascaloptynx,
Apple, 604, 631
320
gall-making,
epilachnae,
Apomorphies,
53
Apophysis, 7, 7
270, 273
Aphidolestes meridionalis,
Aphids, 154,270,477,527,
apple grain, 320
corn root, 320
cotton,
Aplomyiopsis
Aphidiidae,
Aplodontia, 408
Aplodontia ruja, 658
320
478
529
Apple skeletonizer,
615
Apple tree borer, 445
Apstomyia elinguis, 724
Aptania zonella, 564
Apterobittacus
aperus, 666
155
180
Index
Arenivaga, 265
Areolet, 523
Asilinae, 723
Asiloidea, 673
argenteomaculatus,
Argia, 205
Argidae, 482, 489
Sthenopis,
603
298
audax, Phidippus,
Audiospectographs,
Argiope, 125
argyospilus, Archips,
Argyreidae, 575
615
Asopinae,
302, 303
Assassin
classical conditioning
operant conditioning
Astatidae, 482
Asteia, 698
Artace, 631
Asteiidae,
Artematopodidae,
368, 390, 421
arthemis, Limenitis, 625
Arthenidae,
Astigmata, 134
Astiidae,674
Arthropelidae,
184, 189
Arthropoda, 90, 155
appendages
of, 101, 101
characters of, 99
classification
herbivorous,81
zoophageous,
Artiidae, 640
81
478
appendiculatus,
141
Asemum striatum,
443
478
leucopeza,
Aulacigastridae,
Aulonothroscus,
740
Chrysochus,
aureofasiatus,
Autostichidae,
autumnalis,
Athericidae,
673
Atherix, 688, 720
173, 173
Autosomes,
294
448
Pseudochorutes,
auricrinella, Epimartyria,
603
auricularia, Forficula, 234, 235, 237
Austrotinodes mexicanus, 564
Atheas mimeticus,
39
574, 610
Musca, 731, 732
Axillary muscle, 15
axyidris, Harmonia, 433
221
Ax)'myia,
atra, Orsodacne,
furcata, 715
Axyrnyiidae, 673, 684
Azalea, 326
445
564
721
684
azalea, Acanthococcus,
528
326
574
Attagenus
425,425
scrophulariae, 425
Attelabidae, 382, 452
Attelabus, 452
nigripes, 451, 452
Attelbidae, 370, 451, 452
Attellabinae,
522
Aulacigaster, 704
Aulacigasteridae,
674
Automeris,
Automeris
megatoma,
611
522
Aulacigaster
in, 64
in, 64-65
atropurpureus, Eupelmus,
Attacidae, 575
Attacus, 631
Ascalaphid,473
Ascalaphidae, 470, 474, 479
71
543,544
grain moth,
atripes, Symphoromyia,
Atropidae, 368
Ascaloptynx
64
atripes, Dicosmoecus,
Atlanticus,
phytophagous,
18
references on, 148
Augoumois
Aulacids,
examples,
718
Arthromacra,
124
211
Audiospectrographs
of cicada calling songs, 305, 306
Auditory attractants,
71
Augochloropsis,
607
Wockia, 615
Asphondylia websteri,
Aspiceratinae,
534
Aspirators, 749, 750
Associative
of, 538
Augochlora, 543
Augochlorella, 543
447, 448
asperipuntella,
parasitoids
audiospectrograph
Aspen leafminer,
652
Auchenorrhyncha,
273,282
Atyphloceras,
Asilus, 675
623
Argyresthiinae,
602
Arhyssus lateralis, 302
Arilus cristatus, 296, 297
607
argiolus, Celastrina,
Argyresthia, 607
Argyresthiidae,
574
Atteva punctella,
452
809
810
Index
Baeonotus,
Baetidae,
Batrachedra,
705
Baeus, 537,537
Bagoninae,
Ballooning,
Banchinae,
551
106
526
157
Beating umbrella,
Beaver
beckeri, Stichotrema,
Bedellidae,
Bark beetles,
Bedelliidae, 608
Beech,518
Beech trees, 453
773, 774
296, 297
461
369, 428
azalea, 326
Bark weevils
of, 538
cuckoo,482,539,
545,545,
139
Baryconus, 537
Baryscapus bruchophagi, 527
10, 15
kleptoparasite,
539
leaf-cutting,
lice of, 674
482, 544
flight and, 14
Basalar muscle, 14, 15
nurse,
parasites
parasitic,
plasterer,
544
482, 543
pollen-collecting,
539
rearing of, 773
short-tongued,
540
stingless, 545
sweat, 482
81
orchid,
bathyscoides,
545,
545, 546
broad-nosed,457,458,462
Basalare,
671
Barnacles,
750, 750
Bark-gnawing
Barklice, 341
Bark scale
463
Barinus bivattatus,
457, 461
Bagworms, 606
bakeri, Byturus, 432
Balanus sp., 139
Bald-faced hornet,
609
Batrachedridae,
Bats
yellow-faced,
408
482, 543
Index
Behavior, 3
causal system of, 65, 66
changes in, 65-66
composition and pattern of, 62-63
control of, 66
feeding, 71, 74
genetics of, 69-70
hill-topping, 476
life history strategies, 68-69
mating, 68, 70, 71, 73, 73
migratory, 68
modification of, 63-65
nesting, 67, 67-68, 74
release mechanisms in
innate, 65
interlocking, 65
sequential, 65
social, 74, 78, 79
temporal structure of, 65-68
Behavioral interactions
ant societies, 79
comparison between termites and
eusocial hymenoptera, 76-77
copulation, 72-73
courtship, 71-72, 72
honey bee society, 79-81,80
mating, 70-71, 71, 73, 73-74
nesting and paren tal care, 74
paper wasp societies, 78, 78-79
social communication, 76
social systems, 74-76, 75
termite societies, 77, 77-78
Behavior modification, 64-65
Behninglidae, 184, 185, 186, 188, 190
Belastoma, 290
Belastomatidae, 269, 271
belfragei, Cyrpoptus, 316
belfragei, Protenor, 301
belfragei, Trogonidimimus, 225
Belidae,370,382,451
bella, Nannothemis, 203, 204
Belostomatidae, 269, 274, 275, 289, 290
Belytidae, 482
Belytinae, 536
parasites of, 536
Belytinae, 510
Bembix americanus spinolae, 542
Beraea, 569
gorteba, 561, 562
Beraedidae, 560,561,562, 565, 569
Berlese funnel, 180,339,554, 750, 751
Berlese's fluid, 762
Berosus, 366
Berothidae, 470, 477
Berries, 302, 415, 539
Berry plants
parasites of, 518
811
812
Index
Bittcacomorphella,
708
bivattatus, Barinus, 461
bivattus, Melanoplus,
217
Bibionidae,
Bibionomorpha,
673
bicaudatus, Amphicerus, 426
biceps, Systelloderes, 288
bicolor, Callitula, 530
bicomis, Neomida, 437
Blacinae, 522
Blackberries, 605, 611
Biddies,
Black-light,
Blackberry, 433
Black flies, 673, 714, 714, 715
Black hunter
197,200,203
bifidus, Tylozygus,
310
thrips,
339
751
Black scavenger
flies, 674
Big-headed
432
bilineatus,
Blastobasinae,
Blastobasine,
asahinae,
52
Blattellidae,
and, 93-95,
94
430
Teineola, 605
Biston betularia,
Biting
defensive,
Biting insects,
629
4
20, 21
266
Blattidae,
263, 264,264,
265, 266
263, 264,265,265
Blattodea,
263,669
classification
of, 263
collecting
and preserving,
key to families
267
of, 264
bipunctatus, Rhizophagus,
Birches, 516
Birch leafminer, 518
609, 609
germanica, 266,266
Blatta orientalis, 265
Blattaria, 154, 155, 156
Biotic communities
and ecosystems
food chains and webs, 96, 96-97
Biphyllidae,
596, 597,601,609
609
Binomials,57
insect impact in
insect diversity
655
Blastobasis glandulella,
Blastoderm, 62
timothy, 461
species concept,
106, 124
blarinae, Doratopsylla,
Blastobasidae,574
biguttatus,
Biionidae,
Biological
667
Blepharicera, 683
Blephariceridae,
673, 683, 714
Blephariceromorpha,
673
Blepharoceratidae,
673
Blissidae, 277, 299,300
B lissus
insularis,
300
leucopterus, 299,300
Blister beetles, 369, 398, 438, 439
Blood meal, 772
Blood-sucking
snipe fly, 721
Bloodworms,
701
Blotch miner, 518
Bittacomorpha, 681
Bittacus, 663, 664, 665, 666
Bittcacomorpha
Bluets, 206
clavipes, 708
Blue dasher,
204
Body, segmentation
of, embryonic,
42-43
pink, 610
Boloria, 624
Bombidae, 482
Bombycidae, 575,586, 587, 590,
590, 591
Bombycinae, 631
Bombycoidea, 575,631
Bombyliidae, 673, 674, 687, 691,692
Bombyx, 586
mori,631
Booklice, 341
Booklung, 107,109
Borage, 608
Borboropsis, 700
borealis, Brunneria, 261
borealis, Calephelis, 622
borealis, Epilachna, 434
borealis, Helicopsyche, 561
borealis, Helicopysche, 567
borealis, Oecleus, 316
borealis, Stemocranus, 316
Boreidae, 665, 667, 667
Boreostolus americanus, 288
Borers, 441, 441
corn, 523
European corn, 618, 618
moths, 608
peach tree, 612
pin-hole, 464, 464
po tato stalk, 461
sugarcane,617
Boreus bruma lis, 667
Boridae, 369, 400, 440
Boros, 440
Bostrichidae, 388, 394, 395, 426, 426
Bostrichiformia, 369
Bot flies, 674, 732, 733
cervid, 733
horse, 732
human, 732
robust, 732
sheep, 733
Botherideridae, 369,385,394,433
Bouin's solution, 180, 760
Bourletiella hortensis, 174
Bovicola bovis, 362
bovis, Bovicola, 362
If
Index
bovis, Hypoderma,
732
301,302
770, 771
dust-proof,
764
569
561, 562, 567
547
Brachypanorpa,
666
oregonensis, 665
Brachypsectra fulva, 421
Brachypsectridae,
368, 390, 421
Brachypteridae,
359, 392, 429, 430
Brachys, 417
ovatusI, 418
Braconidae,
513,514,515,522,522,
523,524
parasites of, 534
Braconids, 524, 526
Braconinae, 523
bractatus, Halticus,
Bracygastra, 552
Bradynobaenidae,
Bradysia, 705
Brain
structure
294, 295
483, 549
of, 30, 30
48
in molting, 44
Brambidae, 617
Branch borers, 426, 426
Branchinae, 526
Branchiopods,
Branchipoda,
154
137
368, 409
370,375,
Brentinae, 452
brevicomis, Dendroctonus,
brevicoris, Metaleptea,
brevicornis, Sphyracephala,
Brevicoryne brassicae, 320
brevifrons, Hesperinus,
465
217
716
735
813
814
Index
Butterflies-cont'd
brush-footed,
623
cabbage, 621
checkerspots,
624
classification
of, 561
collecting
of, 560
and preserving,
569
finger-net, 560,562,
566
key to families of, 563, 565
emperor, 625
goatweed, 625
large, 560,561,568,
Calliceratidae,
482, 485
Calligrapha, 449
Callimomidae,
482
Callipappus, 325
Calliphora, 675, 695
Calliphoridae,
674, 675, 694, 729, 729
Callirhipidae,
Callirhytis
569
hackberry, 625
hairstreaks,
622, 623
long-horned,
560, 567, 569
micro-, 560, 567,567
Callistopsyllus,
652
Callitula bicolor, 530
net-spinning,
566
Callobius
northern,
560, 567,567
primitive,
references
560,562,
on, 570
milkweed, 626
monarch, 626, 627
orange sulphur,
orange-tips,
622
trumpet-net,
Calopteryx,
560,
352, 353
Caelifera, 211, 215
snout,
623
757, 758, 758
viceroy, 625
whites, 621
caerulea, Andrena,
wood nymphs,
caeruleella,
626
yellows, 621
zebra, 624
Byrrhidae,
Byrrhoidea, 368
Byrrhus, 419
Byturidae,
Adela, 604
carrying,
Butterfly caterpillars, 86
Byropidae, 357, 360, 361
cylindrical
screen,
770
emergence
flowerpot,
looper, 637
Cacopsylla
mali, 318
era, 101
sleeve,
Camouflage,
Campaniform
770
e
Cabbage
Calyptrate
303,608,
719
Calypteratae,
674
Calypteres,676
Cambrian
769, 770
Byturus
bakeri, 432
unicolor, 433
Cabbage,
205
aequabilis, 194
maculata, 205
Calosoma scrutator, 402
671
194, 197,205
195,200,
Calptratae,
sulphurs, 621
swallowtails, 621
461
Calopteran
reticulatum, 423
terminale, 423
Calopterygidae,
satyrs, 626
scales on, 571
spreading,
callosus, Sphenophorus,
Calobatidae,
674
560, 566
Caeciliusidae,
of, 773
591
pramethea,
567
tube-making,
560 566
turtle-shaped
case-making,
567,567
pine, 621
deces, 108, 11 O
Callosamia,
566,569
621, 621
3
sensillum,
Campanulate,
campestris,
31, 32
532
Lyctocoris,
296
campodeiformis,
Campodeiform
Calcium
Camponotus,
cyanide,
748
Grylloblatta,
larvae, 49
pennsylvanicus,
554
Campopleginae,
525, 526
virginiensis, 622
California red scale, 328
Campoplginae,
cactorum, Cactoblastic,
Cactus flies, 674, 735
califomica, Phrygamidia,
califomicum,
Chalybion,
318
617
154, 558,559,
adult, 568
560, 567
526
Campsicneumus,
636
540
Camptonotus
230
554
Calephelis
borealis, 622
pyricola,
606, 607
706
caralnensis,
219
Camptoprasopella,
697
Canacidae, 674, 701, 703, 740
calfomicus,
Calothrips,
Ptinus, 428
337
canadensis,
Callaspida,
498
Dendraides,
438
Index
canadensis,
Profenusa, 518
Carrion
canadensis,
canadensis,
Spathius, 523
Tetranychus, 133
beetles,
caryae, Longistigma,
canium, Dipylidium,
Cankerworms
659
Casarinaria
Casebearers,
628
320,321
Cannula pellucida,
217
pistol,609
Case-bearing
leaf beetles,
Canthyloscelididae,
Case-making
Canthylsoelididae,
673
clothes
moths,
Capitalization,
57
capitata, Ceratitis, 738
Case-making
insects
caging of, 773
Case-making
moths,
Capitate
Capitate
antenna, 370
antennae, 19
capitatus,
Cupes, 401
Cassida pallidula,
411
cara, Protoneura,
Carabidae,
608
450
450, 450
castaneus,
Castes
366
Eupsophulus,
ant, 79,552
sterile,
Carcinophoridae,
236
cardinalis, Rodolia, 434, 741
Cardiochilinae,
522
Catepistemum,
10
Caterpillars,
521, 741
alfalfa, 530
652
Catapleurite,
Catepimeron,
10
10
Cardo, 19,20
cardui, Vanessa, 625
butterfly, 86
eastem tent, 630, 630
Carneocepahala
inchworm,
lepidopteran,
674
297
Carpenter,
Carpenter
F.M., 470
bees, 482, 545, 545, 545, 545
carpenteri,
Dendrocerus,
Carpet beetles,
Carpophilus
571
slug, 612
tent, 630, 630, 631
628
redhumped,
saddleback,
salt-marsh,
741
carolina,Araphe, 300,301
carolina, Dissosteira, 217
carolinensis,
75-76
Castor, 408
Cat
205
Carboniferous
period, 154, 155
Carbon tetrachloride,
749
Carcinides, 141
Camoidea,
605
cassidea, Chelymorpha,
self-sacrificing
termite, 77
Captotermes, 254
formosanus, 256
cara, Catocala cara, 637
446, 448
520
425
wooly-bear,
Catocala
641
cara, 637
ultronia, 638
Catocalinae,
637
Catonia impunctata,
Catopidae,
368
316
815
816
Index
Cerambycinae,
369, 442, 443,
444, 445
Cerapaehyinae,
553
Ceraphronidae,
482, 520
Ceraphronids,
520
Ceraphronoidea,
482, 510
Ceratinidae, 482
Ceratitis capitata, 738
Ceratoeampidae,
575
Ceratoeampinae,
Ceratocanthidae,
632
368, 379, 411
Ceratocombidae,
269, 289
Ceratomcampinae,
591
Ceratophyllidae,
Ceratophyllinae,
Ceratophyllus, 652
gallinae, 653
Ceratophyllus species, 658
Ceratopogonidae,
673, 685, 708, 708
Cercaclea tarsipunctata,
Cercerini, 540
561
309
Cercyonis, 581
pegala, 626
cerealella, Sitotroga, 611
cerealellae, Pteromalus, 532
Cereals, 539, 617
cerealum, Limothrips,
Cerebrum, 30, 30
cerifus, Ceroplastes,
Cermanbycidae
339
327
long-horned
beetles, 369, 441
Cerococcidae,
270, 286, 326
Cerococcus kalmiae, 326
Cerodontha dorsalis, 736
Cerophytidae,
Cerophytum,
421
Ceroplastes, 327
cerifus, 327
Certopogonidae,
Cervix
ofhead,
15, 16
433
654
Ceuthophilus, 219
maculatus, 219
Ceutorhynchinae,
458, 462
Ceutorhynchus, 462
rapae,462
.>J
_.
"
",
.~).. ?~{
71 O
Chitin, 6, 7
Chlidanotinae, 615
Chloealtis conspersa, 218
Chloral hydrate, 761, 762
Chlorion aerarium, 541
chloromera, Tiben, 305
Chloroperla, 244
Chloroperlidae, 244, 244, 245
Chloropidae, 674, 698, 703, 703, 706,
741
Chlorotettix, 311, 315
Chlosyne, 624
Choragidae, 370
Chordotonal organs, 32
Choreumida, 143, 144, 145
Choreutes pariana, 615
Choreutidae, 574, 600, 615
Choreutoidea, 574
Chorion (eggshell), 36, 41, 42
Index
Chorisoneura,
265
Choristoneura,
614
of, 536
Chrysalidslchrysalis,
Chrysalis, 48
of sulphur
573
butterfly,
48
520
374
417
jloricola, 418
trinerva, 419
Chrysochista
Chrysochus
auratus,
linnella, 609
448
cobaltinus,
448
446, 448
369
473, 477
Chrysoperla,
Chrysopidae,
parasites
477
470, 473, 477
of, 534
Euproctis,
Chrysuginae,
Chyromidae,
592
674, 704, 741
Chyromyidae,
640
694, 700
Chyromyiidae,674
Cicada-killer wasp, 540,542
Cicada parasite beetle, 368, 383,
417, 417
Cicadas,
154,268,270,280,305,
beetle parasite
417
306, 307
seventeen-year,
305
306, 307
thirteen-year,
306, 307
Cicadellidae,
270, 284,310,310,311,
311,313
key to subfamilies of, 311
Cicadellinae, 310, 311,312, 315
hemipterus, 296
lectularius, 296, 296
Cimicidae, 270, 278,296, 296, 297
Cimicoidea, 270
Cimicomorpha, 270, 293
Cincinnus, 587, 629, 630
cincticollis, Euborellia, 236
cincticomis, Mantispa, 476
cinctipes, Amaurochrous, 303
cinctus, Allantus, 516
cinctus, Cephus, 518
Cinderalla, 704
cinerascens, Ocetis, 567
cinerea, Phryganea, 568
Cinetidae, 482
cingulata, Oncideres, 445
cintipes, Mochlonyx, 709
Circadian rhythm, 63
Circular-seamed flies, 674, 719
Circulatory system, 24, 27-28
Circulifer, 311
Circulifer tenellus, 310
Cirrhopinae, 522
Cirripedia, 139
Cis fuscipes, 432
Cisidae, 369
Cisseps fulvicollis, 640, 642
Citheronia regalis, 633
citri, Planococcus, 325
citricola, Pseudocaecillius, 354
Citrus, 738
Citrus mealybug, 325, 325
Citrus trees, 318, 328
Cixiidae, 270,280,316, 316
Cixius, 280
angustatus, 316
Cladistics (phylogenetic systematics), 53
Cladocera, 137
Cladogram
bootstrap value for, 55
Bremmer support values for, 55
hierarchical branching of, 53, 54, 55
817
UNIVERSIDAD
DECALDAS
81BUOTECA
818
Index
Clusiidae,
Coeliodes dendroctoni,
Clusiids, 740
Clusiodidae, 674
Coelioxys,
Coenomyia,
Cobubatha,
448
serratella,
638
270, 285,286,
326
609, 610
Coleophoridae,
574, 597,597,
599,
601,602,609,609,609,609
Coleophorinae,
609
Coleoptera,
688, 719
ferruginea, 719
Coenus delius, 304
larva, 438
Coarctate pupa e, 49
cobaltinus, Chrysochus,
Coboldia, 705
738
Clypeus, 15, 16
Clythiidae, 674
Coarctate
523
492, 544
324
of,370
giant, 324
coccinea, Graphocephala,
Coccinellidae,
369,376,
315
385,433,433
327
and preserving,
and preserving
key to families
Cochiolyia hominovorax,
Cochliidae, 574
references
Cochylidae, 574
Cochylini, 615
cocherelli, Paratrioza,
Cockroaches,
sound
brown-hooded,
classification
philodice,
of, 263
267
263, 265
colichopeza,
Colladonus,
Collecting
622
622
Nyphomyia,
311, 315
and preserving
insects
Blattodea,
267
Collembola,
175
Dermaptera,
237
Diplura, 175
Embiidina, 249
Entognatha,
Suroma,
Ephemeroptera,
Grylloblattodea,
266
175
191
228
Grylloblattodea249
Mantodea, 261
Codulegastridae,
197,200,203
Codyluridae,
674
coeca, Braula, 740
Odonata,
Coelidiinae,
Phthiraptera,
146
Coliadinae, 621
Colias, 582
eurytheme,
266
in, 366
524
coleoptrata, Scutigera,
Coleotechnites, 611
521, 753
American, 263, 265
532, 533,
on, 466
production
wood-boring,
317, 318
466
of, 466
of, 377
370
206
Orthoptera,
225
Phasmatodea,
228
363
715
apterogote
Plecoptera, 245
Psocoptera, 354
references on, 778
regulations and permissions for, 746
Thysanoptera, 339
Zoraptera, 250
Zygotera, 207
Collecting and preserving apterygote
insects
Chelicerates, 136
Crustacea, 136
Diptera, 742
Hemiptera, 328
Lepidoptera, 642
Myriapods, 148
Neuroptera, 479
Thysanura, 188
Trichoptera, 569
Collecting and preserving of
Coleoptera, 466
Collecting bag, 753
Collecting equipment, 746
aquatic, 753
Collecting insects, 745
Collembola, 152, 153, 155,156,162,
169,170
antennae in, 19
collecting and preseerving, 175
key to families of, 171
references on, 176
Colletes, 492
Colletidae, 482, 487, 491,492,494,
543
Colletinae,492,543
Collophore, 171
Colobognatha, 143, 145
Colopha, 282
Colopha ulmicola, 321
Color, 2
distinguishing of, 34
Coloradia pandora, 633
Colorado po tato beetle, 449, 449
Colorado tick fever, 131
columba, Tremex, 518
columbianum, Propsilloma, 536
Colydiidae, 369, 433, 435
Commensalism, 81
Commensals (inquillines)
categories of, 86
hosts for, 86
Common mosquitoes, 710, 711
Common sawflies, 482, 517, 518
Common scorpionflies, 662, 665, 666
Common snipe flies, 721
Common snipe fly, 721
Common stoneflies, 241, 242,244,245
Common walkingsticks, 227, 228
Index
Common whitetail
Communication
skimmers,
204
ant, 553
chemical,
71, 76
Asellus, 141
communis,
Pyrgus, 619
Community
associations.
community
animal, 86-93
microbial,81-83
plant,
See Biotic
associations
83-86
Competition,
65
Complete metamorphosis,
48
46-48,
47,
Compound
eyes, 662
Lepidoptera,
571
comptana, Aneylis, 615
Comstock,].H.,
12, 13, 13, 14,470,575
Comstock-Needham,
678
Comstock-Needham
system
terminology,
of venation
12, 13, 14
Comstock-Needham
wing
nomenclature,
198, 198
coneavus, Lixis, 463
Conchaspididae,
270,327
636
bugs
bloodsucking,
297
confus, Ampulicomorpha,
538
confusum, Tribolium, 437
Conifer bark beetles, 369, 440
Conikrs,
517, 539,611
Conifer sawflies,
Coniopterygidae,
Coniopteryx, 473
Conioscinella, 706
Conocephalinae,
Conopoidea,
674
Conorhinopsylla,
652
Conotelus, 410
obseurus, 430
conotraeheli,
Conotraehelus,
218
819
820
Index
Crustaceans,
Creeping
Cremastobombycia,
602
Cremastocheilus, 415, 416
Cremifania, 702
crenata, Stenelmis,
Cryptocephalidae,
Cryptocephalinae,
420
Creophilus maxillosus,
Creosote bush, 476
369
446, 448
Cryptocercidae,
410
crepuscularis, neureclipsis,
Crescent butterflies, 624
Cryptocerus,
263
265
punctulatus,
Cryptochetidae,
564
265
674, 702, 741
cresphontes,
Cretaceous
Cribellum,
Cryptococcus, 326
Cryptolestes, 431
Crickets,
20, 153,209,
anomalous,
212
cryptomeriae, Ectopsocopsis,
Cryptonephridia
212
Malphigian
Cryptophagidae,
field,21~
211,211,
tubules in, 27
369, 431
Cryptopidae,
147
Cryptorhynchinae,
cave, 212,219,219,219
224,224
ground,212,224,224
house, 224,224
354
457, 462
Cryptostematida,
275
Cryptostemma,
289
Cryptotermes,254
brevis, 256
Crysididae,
482
Crysidoidea,
482, 485
Ctenicera noxia, 422
Ctenidae,
silk-spinning,
219
snowy tree, 222
Ctenophthalamus
pseudogrytes,
Ctenophthalamus
Ctenophthalmidae,
pseudogyrtes, 658
652, 655, 658
Ctenophthalminae,
656,658
sound production
in, 209, 210, 211
stone, 212,219
tree, 211, 211, 212,223,224
Criocerinae,
Ctenucha virginica,
Ctenuchidae,
575
duodecimpunctata,
447, 448
crispata, Lagoa, 611
cristatus, Arilus, 296, 297
Ctenuchinae,
Cucjidae,
592, 594
339
545, 546
in
775
Cuckoo
wasps,
Cuclotogaster
655
Cucjoidea, 369
Cuckoo bees, 482, 539, 545, 545,545,
collecting
references
120, 122
642
Critical-point
drying, 760
crocata, Dysdera, 121, 122
drawing,
111, lB,
Ctenophthalmus,
652
Ctenophyllus, 652
C rioceris, 447
Cross-hatching
Ctenizidae,
136
heterographus,
Cucujiformia,
369
Cucujus clavipes, 431, 431
Cuculionoidea,
369
Cucumber beetles
spotted,
448
362
IJ
Index
Cylas, 452
formicarius elegantulus,
Cylindrotomidae,
673
Cylindrotominae,
453, 453
681, 707
109
notabilis, 300
Cyniphids,
Cynipidae,
534
482, 497, 534
608
Cyphoderris, 222
monstrosa, 222
Cyphoderus simils, 174
Cyphonidae,
368
Cyphophthalmi,
Cypridopsis,
Cyrnellus
129
138
marginals,
562
Cyrtidae, 673
Cyrtonotidae,
675
Cyrtosiinae,
673, 692
Cyrtoxipha, 224
Cysteodemus, 440
armatus, 439
Cytilus, 419
D
Dabrotica undecimpunctata
Dacnidae, 432
Dactylocerca
howardi, 448
rubra, 248
Dactylochelifer
Dactylopiidae,
copiosus, 135
270, 288, 326
Dactylopsyllinae,
Dacylopsylla, 652
Daddy-longlegs,
129, 129
Daktulosphaira
Dalbulus, 311
Dalceridae,
197,205
bluets,
206
broad-winged,
classification
copulation,
197, 199,205
of, 197
195
Decticinae,
221 221
Decticous pupae, 49
Deer flies, 673, 720, 722
Defense
chemical,621
Defenses,
camouflage, 91, 92
chemical, 4, 90
concealment,91-92
disguise,
90-91
92
85-86
90
91
89-90,
90
652
465
frontalis, 465
obesus, 465
ponderosae,
465
maculatus,
denticrus,
Megaphasma,
dentiger, Mermessus,
424
228
108
dentipes, Amphicyrta,
419
Deoclona yuccasella, 609
Deoclonidae,
574, 609
Depressariidae,
574
Depressariinae,
of, 236
of, 235
237
821
822
Index
Dermatobia
Dermatophagoides,
134
Dermestes, 373, 375, 425
lardarius, 425
Dermestidae, 369, 372, 375, 387,388,
Dermestid
Dicerca
lepida, 418
tenebrosa, 418,419
Dichelonyx, 414
Dichotomius, 413
389,400,424
Dicondylic
beetles,
389,424
Dicosmoecus
Derodontidae,
Derodontoidea,
369
legjoint,
Dictyopharidae,
Derolathrus,
Dictyoptera,
270, 283,316,
Desmia funeralis,
differentialis,
93
Development.
See also Metamorphosis
eggs in, 40, 40-41, 41
embryonic,
41-44
postembryonic,
44-45
sex determination
in, 39-40
Devonian period,
Dexiidae,674
154, 155
diabasia, Heptagenia,
Diabrotica
184
barberi, 449
undecimpunctata
virifera, 449
Diactraea saccharalis,
diadematus, Araneus,
Diadociddidae,
673
Dialysis, 720
Diamondback
Dianthidium,
Diapause,
moths,
howardi, 449
diffinis, Hemaris,
108
Digestion, 26
Digestive enzymes,
544
50
Diguetidae,
67, 67, 68
ll2,
ll5,
123
Dikerogammarus fasciatus,
Dilaridae, 470, 474, 477
dimidatus,
Meteorus,
659
Dionycha,
ll2,
Diopsidae,
Diopsoidea,
127
674
Dioptidae,
Dioptinae,
575, 635
587, 590
Dioryctria,
617
latum, 139
Diphyllostoma, 4ll
Diphyllostomatidae,
526
Diplocoelus, 433
Diploda
classification
of, 142
Diplolepis,
on, 148
498
Diaphram,
Diplostrava
Diapriidae,
27
482, 497, 499,510,536,
536,536,536
Diapriids, 536
collection of, 536
Diapriinae,
143
Diplotoxa, 703
Diplura, 19, 152, 153, 155, 156
collecting and preserving,
key to families of, 174
references on, 175
536, 536
dippiei, Hystrichopsylla,
diatraeae, Apanteles,
Dipriocampe
Diatraea grandiosella,
140
528
diminuta, Hymenolepis,
Dineutus, 373, 403
americanus, 404
references
Diaperis, 436
maculata, 437
24, 26
Diplazontinae,
608
217
635
Diphyllobothrium
617
63
Melanoplus,
Digger wasps,
Deuterophlebiidae,
673, 682, 715
Deutocerebrum,
30, 30
524
524
317
154, 156
12
ll-12,
atripes, 564
Dipluridae,
lll, 113, 120
Dipper, white enameled, 753
Diprion, 517
653
diprioni, 531
175
Index 823
Dorycephalus platyrhynchus,
Doryctinae, 522
560
Dorylaidae,
573, 574
di vergens, Mycetobia,
diversifolia,
Douglas
Douglas
715
Coccoloba, 327
diversiungis,
Dixa, 683
Holojapyx,
674
fir, 518
fir beetle, 464, 465
Douglasiidae,
Dracaena
175
pinning, 756
pond species, 197, 205
venation of, 197
vernacular
Doeringiella,
495, 545
for publication,
776
Drepanoidea,
575
Dromogomphus
Drones
spoliatus,
203
Dolichopodidae,
674, 690, 692, 692,
706, 726, 727
Dolichopsyllus,
Dolichopus,
for, 198
Drepana, 593
Dolerus, 489
Dolichoderinae,
names
652
692
Dolichovespula
Drosophila, 706
Drosophila sp., 742
Drosophilidae,
675, 741
Drosophilid
fly, 679
Drugstore
maculata,
550,551
Drumming,
239
katydid,
dolobrata, Leptoptema,
Dolomedes, 127
294,295
Drumming
Dolophilodes
560
distinctus,
Thermobia,
179, 180
pets
Drying chamber,
Drying methods
chemical,760
dehydration,
212, 222
760
760
Drying specimens
time, 758
Dryinid, 509
Dryinidae, 482, 508, 515, 538
Doodlebugs,
Doratopsylla,
Dryinids,
478
652
dorsalis, Stemocranus,
Dorsallongitudinal
14, 15
dorsata, Pteronarcys,
Dorycephalinae,
455, 459
Drywood termites,
dubia, Scolia, 549
316
muscles,
538
Dryophthorinae,
245
430
311,315
mollipes,31O
Dragonflies, 18, 153, 155, 156, 160, 193
classification
of, 197
Dixids,714
duodecimpunctata,
Dyar's rule, 45
Dynastes
574,601,606
spp., 605
Draeculacephala,
aliciae, 709
Dixidae, 673, 683, 685, 714
312
256
Dynastinae,
415
suturellus,
300,301
Dysentery, 730
Dyseriocranis auricyanea,
603
Dysmicohermes,
475
Dysodia ocultana, 617
Dyspteris abortivaria, 628
Dysticidae, 368, 378, 405
Dysticus verticalis, 406
Dystiscidae,
368, 406
E
Eacles imperialis, 632, 633
Earth-boring dung beetles, 368, 379,
412,412
Earthen tubes, 254
Earwigflies, 666
Earwigs, 153, 155, 156, 157,211,234
black, 236, 237
European, 234, 235,237
little, 236, 237
pinning, 756
spine-tailed, 235,237
striped, 236, 237
Earworm
corn,638
Eburia quadrigeminata, 444, 445
Ecdyses, 44
stage between, 45, 45f
Ecdysone, 35,35, 44,48
Echidnophaga, 652
Echidnophaga gallinacea, 659
Echinophthiriidae, 357, 361, 362
Echmepteryx, 343, 345
Eciton, 553
Ecitoninae, 553
Eclosian, 44
Ecnomidae, 560, 564,565,566
Ectoderm, 42
Ectoedemia, 604
Ectognatha, 152, 153
Ectoparasites, 522
Ectopsocidae, 342, 342,343,347,350,
351,354
Ectopsocopsis cryptomeriae, 354
824
Index
Ectopsocus,343, 348
Ectotrophi, 152, 153
edentulus,Peltodytes,405
Edessinae,302
Efferia, 687
Egg-bursters,44
Egg case,41
Eggplant !lea beetle, 449, 449
Egg rafts, mosquito, 710, 711
Eggs,2-3, 37, 42
deposit of, 41
development of, internal and
external, 37, 41
formation of, 37
mosquito, 710, 711
production of, 37
shapesof, 40, 40-41, 41
Eggshell,41
Eicocephalomorpha, 269,288
Ejaculatory duct, 36, 37
Elacatis,440
Elachista,598, 600
Elachistidae, 574,598, 600, 600, 602,
608,609
Elachistinae, 609, 610
Elaphidion,443
Elaschistidae,574, 602
Elasmidae,482
Elasminae,504
Elasmuchalateralis, 305
Elasmus,504
Elasphidiomoidesvillosus, 441
elassa,Naniteta, 630
Elasteroidea,368
Elasteroideslugubris, 428
Elateridae, 369, 384, 388, 422,
422,437
Elateriformia, 368
Elateriform larvae, 49
Elateroidea,368
electa,Zonosemata,737
Electronic resources,776
Elenchidae, 670, 671
Eleodes,436
suturalis, 437
Elephant beetles,413, 415
Elephants, lice of, 356
Elfins, 623
elingiuis,Apstomyia,724
Elipsocidae, 342,343,348, 350, 351,
353
Elipsocus,343
elisa, Celithemis,204
Ellabella, 616
Ellipura, 155
Elm, 517
Elm, American, 462
Enicocephaloidea, 269
Enneboeuscaseyi,434
Ennomosmagnarius, 628, 629, 629
Enoclerusichneumoneus,429
Enodia portlandia, 626
Enopterinae, 212, 224
Ensifera, 212, 218
ensiger,Neoconocephalus,220, 221
Ensign coccids, 270
Ensign scales,325, 325
Ensign wasps, 482, 521, 522
Entelegynae, 112, 123
Entiminae, 458, 459, 460, 461, 462
Entinibryidae, 169, 171, 172, 173
Entognatha, 152, 155
classification of, 169
collecting and preserving, 175
referenceson, 175
Entomobryasocia, 173
Entomological societies, 776
Entomological Society of America list
of common names, 59
Entomologists, directories of, 776
Entrotrophi, 152
Entylia concisa,308
Enzymes
in digestion, 24, 26
Eocene period, 154
Eosentomidae, 169, 170
Eoxenoslaboulbenei,670
Epalpus, 675
Epargyreus,579
clarus, 619
Epeolus,545
Epermeniapimpinella, 616
Epermeniidae, 602
Epermeniodea, 616
Epermenioidea, 575
ephemeraeformis,Thyridopteryx, 605,
606,606
Ephemerella,184, 185
Ephemeridae, 184
Ephemeropter, 155
Ephemeroptera, 12, 153, 155, 156, 158,
159, 159, 163, 181, 185,188
characters of, 183
classification of, 184
collecting and preserving, 191
keys to families of, 186
referenceson, 191
venation terminologies in, 183
Ephermerellidae, 184, 185, 190
Ephermeridae, 184, 186, 188, 190
Ephydra, 698, 703
riparia, 742, 742
Ephydridae, 675, 698, 703, 705, 706,
742
Index
Ephydridea,
Eriococcidae,
Eriocraniidae,
675
ephyre, Perlinella,
Epicauta
lemniscata,
245
Eriocranioidea,
573, 574, 575,
577,603
439
pennsylvanica,
439
Eriophyoidea,
698
Epiclerus nearticus,
Epicuticle, 6, 6-7
531
Ermine
132
moth,
Erotylidae,
Eructiform
Eryinidae,
434
607
575
Erythemis
simplicicollis,
204, 205
Epilobium, 609
Epimartyria auricrinella,
Epipaschiidae,
575
Esophagus,
Epiplemidae,
603
24,24
Estigmene
acrea, 641
Ethmia discostrigella,
Ethmiidae, 574
575
608
Epipleminae,
588, 628
Epipleura, 376
Ethmiinae,
Ethyl acetate,
749
Epipleurite,
Ethyl alcohol,
760, 761
Epiproct,
10
9
Ethylene
Epipsocidae,
Epipsocus, 348
Epiptera, 280
Epipyropidae,
574, 587, 611
Epistomal
sulcus,
Episyron quinquenotadus,
549
annulipes, 236
cincticollis, 236
Eubranchipus, 138
Eubriidae, 368
Eucinetus
482
482, 500,506
532, 533
terminalis,
Eucleidae,
574
Euclemensia
449, 449
Eucnemidae,
449, 449
416
534
Eucromiidae,
575
Eudeilnea, 592
Euderces, 445
Eretmoptera, 705
Ergates, 444
Ericacea, 616
pini,443
Eudiagogus, 460
Euetheola, 415
299
424
518
610
Eremochrysa, 477
Eresoidea, 112, 124
Erethistes, 454
erichsonii, Pristiphora,
Erinnidae,673
bassettella,
eucnemidarum,
Vanhornia,
Eucoilidae, 482
Eucoilinae, 498, 534
Eucoilines,
Eremobatidae,
135
Eremoblatta, 265
416
Euclea, 587
24
24-25
hirtipennis, 449
eremicola, Osmoderma,
ericae, Nysius,
Euchloe, 582
Eucinetidae,
368, 391, 416, 416
203
Epitrix
cucumeris,
fuscula,
Eubasilissa
Euborellia
Eucharididae,
Eucharitidae,
of foregut,
of midgut,
glycol, 751
Eucharidae,
Epitapus, 705
Epitedia, 652
princeps,
Epithelium
608
Euglenidae, 369
Euholognatha,
241, 244
Euholopsyllus,
glacilalis,
652
657
535
825
-826
Index
Eusocial
behavior
comparison
of termites and
hymenoptera,
76-77
Eutrombicula
Euura, 5\8
alfreddugesi,
Euxesta stigmatis,
Euxestus, 433
Evamoidea,
134
738
Fanniidae,
Evanoidea,482,485,520
Evaporation
Everes, 623
of preservation
Everlastings,
625
fluid, 76\
Exarate pupae, 49
Excretory system, 26-27
Excultanus,311
exigua, Anaxipha,
612, 613
extemus, Gomphus,
Eye, 2
apposition, 33
compound,
spider,
fasciatus,
Conocephalus,
222
fasciatus,
fasciatus,
Dikerogammarus,
140
Glischrohlus, 430
451
339
system,
mites,
Feather
winged
133
beetles,
408
203
felis, Ctenocephalides,
Felt lines, 548
Felt scales, 270, 326
649, 659
Female reproductive
system
external, 37-38, 38
internal, 35-37, 36
33, 34, 34
egg development
33
hairy, 624
621
in, 37
femoralis,
Pipiza, 729
femorata,
Acanthocephala,
femorata,
femorata,
Chrysobothris,
Diapheromera,
302
417
228, 228
F
fabae, Empoasca,
310,310,
311
605
femurrubrum,
fenestra,
Melanoplus,
Rhyacophla,
Fairyflies, 526
Fairy moths, 604
pusilla, 5\8,518
ulmi,5\8
137, 138
fenyesi,
femaldana,
Carposina,
Ferridae, 27\,271
616
ferruginea,
Fever
719
368, 421
368, 407
beetles,
369, 434
217
559
Fairy shrimps,
Araecerus,
Aleurodothrips,
Feather
121
superposition,
Eye cap, 578
Eyes
Eyespots,
224
Fattigia, 569
Fauriellidae,
335, 337, 338
of, 44
reproductive
Allonemobius,
297
fasciatus,
fascipennis,
growth
fasciculatus,
224
exitiosa, Synanthedon,
Exocuticle, 6, 6, 44
Exoskeleton
369, 424
57
spider, \11
Fannia, 693, 73\
521
Evaniidae,
names,
beetles,
369, 438
Caenocholax,
Coenomyia,
Colorado
Oroya,
671
tick, 131
708
pappataci,
708
relapsing, 131
rocky Mountain spotted,
Texas cattle, 131
13\
Index
predaceous, 720
predators of, 540
references on, 743
robber, 676, 723, 723
mst, 674, 735
sand, 673, 708
screwworm, 731
seaweed, 674,738, 738
shore, 675, 742, 742
short-horned, 673
skipper, 674, 736
small fmit, 675
small-headed, 673, 721, 723
snipe, 18, 673, 720, 721
soldier, 673, 719, 720
spear-winged, 674, 727
stable, 732
stalk-eyed, 674, 735
stiletto, 674, 725
stilt-Iegged, 674, 734
syrphid, 526, 534, 674
tachinid,525, 734, 734, 745
tangle-veined, 673, 722
thick-headed, 674, 735, 736
tme, 156
tsetse, 674
vinegar, 675
warble, 674, 732, 733
window, 674,725,725
winter crane, 673
Fligh t
muscle temperature for, 30
wings in, 14
jJoecosa, Psylla, 317
jJorieola, Chrysobothris, 418
jJoridana, Eurycotis, 265
jJoridanus, Odontotaenius, 411, 411
jJoridanus, Oomorphus, 448
jJoridanus, Sehizomus, 105
jJoridanus, Smithurus, 173
Floridaxenos monronesis, 671
jJoridensis, Merothrips, 338
jJoridensis, Rhytidops, 739
Flour beetles, 537
Flour moths, 617
Mediterranean,617
parasites of, 537
Flower beetles, 369, 413, 415, 416, 440
antlike, 369, 398, 399, 440, 440
bumble, 416, 416
false, 369, 399, 441
shining, 369, 397, 431, 432
soft-winged, 392,429, 430
tumbling, 369, 434, 435g
Flower bugs, 296
Flower flies, 674, 728
Flower-Ioving flies, 673, 722
827
828
Index
615, 615
fucicola,
Emphyastes,
fulgens,
Urania, 628
462
fulginosus, Chrysops,
Fulgoridae, 316,317
721
270,280,
311,315
fulva, Brachypsectra,
421
fulvicollis,
fulvicollis,
Hemiptarsenus,
527
Fumigation,
chemical, 362
fumipennis, Agria, 205
funeralis,
Desmia, 528
Fungi, 298
Fungivoridae,
673
Fungus, 538
Fungus beetles
hairy, 369, 432, 434
handsome, 369, 385, 433
minute, 369, 385, 432, 434
minute
pleasing,
dark-winged,
673
parasites of, 526, 536
Fungus weevils, 370, 451, 451
Funiculus, 371
funiferana,
Funnels
Choristoneura,
614, 614
750, 751
222
Physocephala,
fuifura, Chionaspis,
fusca, Frankliniella,
fuscipes,
715
736
328
339
Cis, 432
G
gagates, Mallochiola, 294, 294
Galea, 19,20
Index
Gerroidea,
269
Gerromorpha,
269
gertschi, Tricholepidion,
Geusibia, 652
Ghost moths, 603
Giant coccids,
179
270, 324
Giant cockroach,
263, 266
fly, 193
isopoda, 140
nymphulinae,618
stonefly, 239,240
glabra, Camilla,
741
241
Euholopsyllus,
thrips, 339
glandulella,
Blastobasis,
657
609, 609
Glaphyridae,
368, 379, 411
Glaresidae, 368, 370, 412
Glaresis, 412
glaucus, Papilio, 620, 621
Gliders, 205
Glischrohilus
fasciatus,
430
quardrisignatus,
Global positioning
430
system,
753
567
384, 423
Glue, 760
Glutops, 720
Glycerine, 762
Glycobius speciosus, 444
Glyphidocera,
609
Glyphipterix impigritella,
Glyphipterygidae,574
608
Gnaptodontinae, 522
Gnatbugs, 269,288, 288
Gnathamitermes, 257
Gnathochilarium, 142, 143
Gnats
Buffalo, 673, 714
dark-winged fungus, 673, 718
fungus, 526, 536, 673, 718, 718,
718, 718, 718, 718
gall, 673, 716
root, 673
wood, 673, 715
Gnorimoschema,611
Gnorimoschema gallaesolidaginis, 609
Gnostidae, 369
Goatweed butterflies, 625
godmanni, Naupactus, 462
Goera calcarata, 561
Goeridae, 560, 561, 566, 567
Goes tigrius, 444
Goldenrod, 297
Goldenrod gall fly, 738
Goldenrod gall moth, 609, 611
Gomphocerinae, 210, 212, 217
Gomphus, 200
exilis, 201
extemus, 203
quadricolor, 195
Gompidae, 195, 197,200,201, 202,
203
Gonangulum, 38
Gonapophysis, 38, 38
Goniops chrysocoma, 721
Gonobase, 39
Gonocoxa, 37-38,38
Gonopods, 37
Gonostylus, 38
Gooseberries, 518
gorillae, Pthirus, 363
gorteba, Beraea, 561, 562
Gossyparia spuria, 326
gossypiella, Pectinophora, 610, 611
gracilis, Oxidus, 145
Gracillaria, 599
Gracillariidae, 596, 599,599, 601, 602,
606
Gracillarioidea, 574, 606
Grain, stored, 571, 617
Grain moths
Angoumois, 533
parasites of, 537
Grain pests, 431
Grains, 299
Grain thrips, 339
Grain weevils, 455, 459, 460
Graminella,311
Grammia, 641
829
830
Index
Ground-nesting
wasps, 540
Ground pearls, 270, 324
Growth,
postembryonic,
hageni, Enallagma,
196
44-45
GrylJacrididae,
212, 219
GrylJidae, 209,210,212,214
haimbachi,
Hairs
GrylJinae,
of sphecid wasps,
Hair sensilla, 32
224
Grylloblatta campodeifonnis,
230
GrylJoblattaria,
153, 155, 156
Grylloblatta sp., 230
GrylJoblattidae,
230
Gryllodes,
and preserving,
on, 229, 231
228
GrylJoptera,
153
GrylJotalpoidae,
212, 214
Gryllus, 20, 224
pennsylvanicus,
224, 225
Gryllus pennsylvanicus,
Gryon, 537
Gula, 17
GuIar suture,
211
17
Gynaikothrips
310,310,
311
jicomm,
339
Gynandropmorphs,
40
311, 3D,
314
Gypsy moth
parasite of, 527, 528
Gyrinidae,
Halictophagidae,
Halictophagus
oncometopiae,
serratus, 670
670
Helecomyza, 739
Heleidae, 673
492, 543
Haliplidae,
368,377,404
Heleomyza, 697
Heleomyzidae,
675, 696, 697, 704,
706, 741
294,295
H
Habituation, 64
Hackberry, 133
Hackberry butterflies, 625
Hackled-band orb-weaver spiders, 112,
114,124
Hadeninae, 638, 639
Haematobia irritans, 732
Haematomyzidae, 357
Haematopinidae, 357,359,361,362
Haematopinus suis, 359, 362
Haematopis, 589
grataria, 628
haemorrhoidalis, Gasterophilus, 732
haemorrhoidalis, Heliothrips, 336
haemorrhoidalis, Sarcophaga, 731
Helice, 602
Cameraria,
hamamelidis, Honnaphis,
Handmaid moths, 636
653
674
Hecalus, 311
Hecalus lineatus, 310
Hectopsylla, 652
psittacei, 652, 657
Hectopsyllinae,
652, 656, 657, 659
543
hamadryaldella,
460
Gymponana,
622
369, 432, 434
Halictidae,482,487,492
Halticus bractatus,
Gymnetron,
31,31
Haloperla, 245
brevis, 245
Gumaga, 569
Gum arabic, 762
gwyni, Polygenis,
Gymmosomatidae,
Heart rate, 28
butterflies,
Halictinae,
GrylJoidea,212
of, 17
Hearing, 33
Heart, 24, 27
539
225
0[, 5
surface
segmentation
0[, 17
structure of, 14-15, 16
607
in hearing, 33
in "mechanical sense,
Hairstreak
GrylJoblattids,
230
GrylJoblattodea,
164, 230
colJecting
references
Zelleria,
functions
posterior
606, 607
321
Handsome
fungus beetles,
385,433
Hanging
Haploembia
Haplogynae,
111
Haplogyne condition,
Haplothrips
hispanicus,
122
335
518
624
borealis, 561
Helicopsychidae,
560,560,561,
567, 569
Helicopysche borealis, 567
Helicoverpa zea, 637, 638, 639
Heliodinidae,
574, 603, 608
433
609, 612
Hartigia, 490
Harvester butterflies,
622, 623
hemaptems, Camus
Hemaris, 588
mites,
133, 134
Hawthorn,
418
of, 17-19,
of, 16
536,
536, 536
Harpalus, 373
Harrisina americana,
Harvest
566,
Helminthomorpha,
143, 144
Helochara, 311, 315
charitonius,
Helicopsyche
Heliozelids,
604
Helminthidae,
368
verbesci, 339
Hannonia
Heliconius
665,
575
582, 624, 624
Heliothrips haemorrhoidalis,
336
Heliozelidae,
599, 602, 604
kurdjumovi, 339
leucanthemi, 339
Hardwoods,
Heliconididae,
Heliconiinae,
369,
solieri, 248
18
Hemileucinae,
591
Hemimetabolous
insects,
Hemimetabolous
46, 48
metamorphosis,
46
Index
369
Hemipeplidae,
Hemipeplus, 440
Hemipsocidae,
342,348,
349, 354
Hemipsocus, 348
pretiosus, 354
Hemiptarsenus fulvicollis,
527
Hemiptera,25,
153, 154, 156, 157,
157, 158, 160, 161, 162,
166,268,669
characters used in identifying,
classification of, 269
271
of, 521
526, 531
Hippelates, 741
Hesperioidea,
Hemocytes, 27-28
Hemolymph, 27-28, 46
hemocytes in, 27-28
in metamorphosis, 46
plasma in, 27
Hispidae, 369
hispanicus, Haplothrips,
Heterogastridae,
335
Histeromerinae,
522
Histogenesis, 45-46
Histolysis, 45
histrionica,
270
270, 278, 300
Murgantia,
drying, 760
Hmerobioidea, 469
Heteroneuridae, 674
Heteroneurous venation,
Hobomok
573, 576, 577
154, 158
303
HMDS (hexamethyldisilazane)
Heteroptera,
452
pressure, 28
pubescens,
23, 25,42,43
Hesperocorixa, 290
Hessian fly, 716, 717,718
Heteroplectron, 569
americanum, 561
27
Hindgut,
Hesperininae, 716
Hesperinus brevifrons, 716
Heterogastroidae,
Hemolymph
Himatolabus
Heterocheila, 739
Heterodoxus, 361
groups, 156
in molting,
americana, 205
Hilarimorpha, 724
Hilarimorphidae, 673, 691, 724
Hilarimorphids, 724
Heteropterinae, 620
Heterotermes, 256
Hennig, W, 53
Henopidae, 673
Henry, T.]., 269
Heterothripdae,
Holometabola,
Holophyletic
580, 603
classification
of, 152
Holognatha,
241
156, 662
groups, 53
wingless, 162
Homalonychidae,
112, 119, 127
hominis, Dermatobia, 732, 733
Hibiscus, 615
hominovorax, Cochiolyia,
Homolobinae, 522
Homologous character, 53
Homoneurous venation, 573
Hickory
Homonyms, 58
Homoporus nypsius, 530
eastern, 415
Herminiiae,
637
Homoptera,
730, 731
154,268
workers, 80, 80
831
832
Index
Humidity
communication
in, 80
dance in, 80
pheromones
Humpbacked
flies, 674, 727, 727
Hump-winged
crickets, 222
Hunterellus, 531
in, 80
sense, 34
in, 80-81
Hunter's
butterflies,
Hyadina,
706
625
Hyalinata,
Hook-tip
moths,
Hoplitis, 544
Hoplopleuridae,
627
357, 361, 362
Hoplopsyllus, 652
Hoppers, 154, 268, 270
pinning,
756
321
35,35,
48,49
48
tomato,
675
560, 563, 567
acid, 578, 579
Hydromeriidae,
275
Hydrometra martini, 292
269,292,292
Hydrometroidea,
269
Hydrophilidae,
366, 368, 386, 392,
404, 406
Hydrophilus
368
triangularis,
Hydropophagus
292
of, 534
634, 634, 635
635, 635
obcordata, 436
Hydroporus, 406
Hydropsyche simulans, 559, 561, 568
Hydropsychidae,
559, 560,561,562,
565,566,568
Hydropsychoidea,
Hydroptila
Hydre\idae,
Hydrophiloidea,
parasites
Homworms,
Hydrometridae,
brain, 44, 48
prothoracicotrophic,
Honnopsylla, 652
Hornets,483,549,550
bald-faced, 550
609
533
631, 634
Hydrochloric
Honnaphis hamamelidis,
Hormone, 35, 35
Homtails,
Hyalophora,
Hydrobiosidae,
Hoppers, large
pinning, 756
Hordnia,311
Diaphania,
Perilampus,
juvenile,
hyalinus,
560
waubesiana,
559
Hydroptilidae,
559, 560,560,
568,568
Hydroptiloidea,
Hydroscapha
560
natans, 401
Hydroscaphidae,
368, 378, 401
Hyella knickerbockeri,
140
Hylaeidae,
482
762
hubbardi, Marginitennes,
256
agginis, 543
Hylastinus obscurus, 465
222
angles, 271
cross vein, 12
563, 567,
apicalis, 666
pales, 463
postica, 463
punctata,
Hylotomidae,
Hylurgopinus,
Hymenolepis
463
482
373
diminuta,
659
Index
Identification,
60-61
Identification
312
482
Idiomacromerus,
Idolothrips
Idris, 537
iperplexus,
marginatus,
529
339
Prionous, 444
immaculata, Scutigere/la,
immaculatus, Myrme/eon,
148
478
Glyphipterix,
impunctata,
Catonia, 316
inaequalis,
Craponius,
inaequalis,
Spilopsyllus,
Incense-cedar
608
462
659
Cheiracanthium,
inconsequens, Taeniothrips,
336, 338
106
335,335,
snakeflies,
469
541
443
527
or, 425
767, 767, 768
764, 765
\ice or, 357, 361, 362
plants,
86
732
cervula, 206
verticalis, 206
islossoni, Rhopalotria,
Ismarinae, 536
Isochnus, 459
451
Isogenoides, 244
Isohydnocera curtipennis, 429
Isonychilidae,
186, 187, 190
Isoperla, 244
transmarina,
241
Isopoda,
140
Isoptera,
Issidae, 270,316
lthomiidae,
575
Ithonidae,
Ithonid
lthyceridae,
Ithycerus, 452
noveboracencis,
Itonididae,
469
673
Iverticalis,
Ischnura,
206
131
Ixodiphagus,
531
J
Jacobsoniidae, 386
Jacobson's beetles, 369, 424
Jacosoniidae, 369, 424
jamaicensis, Xyloryctes, 415
janata, Basiaeschna, 201
janus integer, 489, 490, 518
Japlopti\idae, 574
japonica, Popillia, 414
japonicus, Anastatus, 528
Japygidae, 169, 174, 175
jayvalii, Pecaroecus, 362
je/lisonia, 652
833
834
Index
K
KAAD mixture,
Kala-azar,
191, 760
708
255, 256
368
Katydid,
11
Katydids,
209,210,
212,219
211,211,
cone-headed,
Kermesidae,
270, 326
Keroplatidae,
673
Keroplatinae,
Keys
684
analytical, 60
use of, 60
Key to subfamilies of
Acrididae, 215
Korscheltellus,
Araneae,
Kristensen,
113
Krombein
Blattodea, 264
Caddisflies, 563, 565
Cerambycidae,
442
Cicadellidae,
311
Coleoptera,
Collembola,
486
Isoptera, 254
Lepidoptera,
579
Mantodea, 261
652, 664
Neuroptera,
470
Odonata, 198
227
357
Plecoptera, 242
Protura, 170
Psocoptera,
342
scarabaeidae,
413
Siphonaptera,
Strepsiptera,
Trichoptera,
Killer bee, 547
563, 565
cyanide,
cyanide,
748
748
748, 749
potassium
cyanide,
749
Kinseana marginella,
Kissing bugs, 297
Kleidocerys, 671
Kleptoparasites,
Klinotoxis, 63
Kukalova-Peck
system of
venation,
14
Label
Hemiptera, 273
Hymenoptera,
486
Phthiraptera,
Diptera, 680
Embiidina, 248
Mecoptera,
N.P., 574
K.V.D.P., 481
455
Dermaptera,
235
Diplura, 174
Hymeoptera,
354
603
377
171
Curculionidae,
140
Hexapods, 157
spiders, 112
calcium
corked,
212
sound production
true, 212, 221
Kenolla, 311
Keriidae,
146
112, 143
Thysanoptera,
335
Thysanura,
174
drumming,
212, 222
matriarchal,
222
meadow, 212, 222
pine-tree,21O
shield-backed,
Chilopoda,
Tettigoniidae,
knickerbockeri,
Hyella,
Koch, CL., 122
Diplopoda,
Orthoptera,212
Phasmatodea,
761
Kahle's solution,
Key to orders of
Arachnida,
103
312
110,539,543
lIIf
Index 835
Lactura, 612
pupula, 612
Lacturidae, 574, 612
Ladybird beetles, 365, 369, 385,
433,433
Laemobothriidae, 357, 358, 360,361
Laemobothrion, 358
Laemophloeidae, 369, 396,431
Laetilia coccidivora, 617
Lasiochillidae, 277
Lasioderma serricome, 427
Leafrollers
Lasioglossum, 543
Latent leaming, 65
lateralis, Arhyssys, 302
lateralis, Elasmucha, 305
raspberry, 482
Leaf-rolling sawflies, 482
parasites of, 450, 450
Leaf shelter, 619
Leaming, 64-65, 65
associative, 64-65
exploratory,
latent, 65
tricolol; 735
laevis, pachyplectrus
65
Lagriidae, 369
Lecanodiapsis, 326
Lecanodiaspididae,
270, 326
lecontei, Che/onarium, 421
Lagriinae, 436
Lagynodes, 520
Lagynodinae, 520
Latrodectus, 106
latum, Diphyllobothrium,
139
Lauxaniidae, 674, 696, 697, 701, 738
Lauxanioidea, 674
Leg
Lamina, 6
Laminae, 442, 443, 444
articulation
thorax and, 9
lanata, Callirhytis,
535
723
49
49
midge, 709
mosquito, 710, 710
predaceous, 642
scarabeiform, 49
types of, 49
vermiform, 49
Larvaevoridae,
Lasiocampidae,
Lasiocampoidea,
674
575, 591,592
575
mechanisms
11-12,
strucutre
Leg joints,
of, 11, 11
11-12,
12
trilinea, 447,448
lemniscata, Epicauta, 439
Lepas sp., 139
Lepeletier, 518
bees, 482
Lephe/isca, 582
Lephridae, 482
grape, 528
Leaf-footed bugs, 278, 301, 302
Leafhoppers, 281, 542
beet,
characters of, 312, 312
parasites of, 538
potato, 310
sound production
by. 311
sugarcane, 316
Leaf miners, 522, 606, 611
identifiying,
575
classification of, 573
aspen, 607
birch,518
Leafminers
spinach, 730
Leaf miners
white oak, 607
of,
12
642
mounting, 642
parasites of, 526, 530, 532, 533,
537,540,734
pinning, 642, 756, 756
references on, 643
Leaf-mining sawflies
birch, 524
Lepidosaphes
Lepidostoma,
569
-836
Index
Lepidostomatidae,
565,569
Lepidotrichidae,
201,202,203,204
449
Leptocera, 701
Leptoceridae,
560, 561, 562, 565,
567, 569
560
Leptoconops,
bachmanii,
Libytheidae,
575, 583
stenopsis, 362
vituli, 362
Linyphiidae,
Liocranidae,
Leptogastridae,
Leptogastrinae,
723
Leptoglossus clypealis, 302
Leptohyphes, 185, 186
Leptohyphidae,
185, 186, 190
Leptonetidae,
112, 116, 123
Leptophlebiidae,
183, 185, 186, 188,
189, 190
Leptopodidae,
270, 293
Leptopodomorpha,
270, 293
Leptopsylla, 652
segnis, 658
signis, 654
Life history
Liposcelis,
strategies
variations
Light attractants,
751
Lightningbugs,
384, 423, 423
Lights
Leptopsyllinae,
Ligyrus, 415
Lilac, 631
Lilies
mali, 339
442, 443, 444, 445
Corinthiscus,
429
533
241, 242,243,243,244
326
obliquus, 462
462
212,220,
221
Listroscellidinae,
212, 219,
220, 221
574
588,612
416
146, 147
Lithobius erythrocephalus,
Lithocolletidae,
574
Lithocolletis, 602
625
Limnephilidae,
Limnephiloidea,
147
Lithobiomorpha,
Limenitis, 582
Limoniinae,
oregonensis,
Listroscelidinae,
Lithobiidae,
Limnebiidae,
740
642
Limnaecia,
490
leucopeza, Aulacigaster,
leucophaeus,
339
collection,
Toumeyella,
Liriopeidae,
673
Listroderes costrirostris
Listronotus, 460, 462
Lithidae,
archippus,
461
341, 344
liriodendri,
in, 68
in, 49-50
Ligula, 20, 20
Leptothrips
Lepturinae,
368
Leptopsyllidae,
dolobrata,
Liodidae,
363
poultry, 356
references on, 363
for specimen
Leptoptema
609
Linognathus
setosus, 362
624
Leptodidae, 276
Leptodiridae,
368
673, 687
Chrysochista,
Linognathidae,
Libytheinae,
573, 624
Lice, 154, 166,356
709
294,295
518
735
lineatus, Poecilocapsus,
204,204
195, 196, 197, 198, 200,
libocedri, Syntexis,
decemlineata,
Leptoceroidea,
lineata, Latheticomyia,
pulchella,
Libellulidae,
408
Leptinotarsa
635
luctuosa, 204,204
179
Leptidae, 673
Leptinidae, 368
Leptinillus,
lecteolaris,
Levemidae,574
Libellula
179
Lepisma saccharina,
Lepismatidae,
179
Leuculodes
lithophilus,
Lithosiinae,
Helichus, 420
575, 588, 595, 640
Little earwigs,
Live insects
236, 237
in captivity,
Livestock
769
457, 463
Lixis concavus,
463
Lizard beetles,
Llaveia, 325
loa, Loa, 721
Loa loa, 721
Loania canadensis,
lobatus, Diradius,
671
248
Lobelia, 460
lobifera, Rhyacophila,
681, 707
146
562
Lobiopa, 373
Lobsters, 136, 140
..
Index
Locusts,
462
migratory
behavior
of, 69
Logs,421,516
fallen, 538
Lomamyia, 477
Lonchaea, 696
Lonchaeidae,
674, 696, 697, 700,
701, 736
Lonchopteridae,
Loneura, 344
674
Long-horned
Long-horned
leaf beetles,
longicomis,
Odontoloxozus,
735
Macrospinae,
311, 313, 314
Macrosteles, 311, 315
Macrostemum zebratum, 562, 568
Pseudococcus,
573, 575,582,
Macroveliidae,
macswaini,
Lycosoidea,
Lygaeus, 272
Loopers, 628
cabbage, 637
hemlock, 629
mountain
mahogany,
Lophocampa
629
Lotisma trigonana,
616
212
Lovebugs, 716
Loxocera, 694, 695, 735
Loxosceles, 106
reclusa, 106, 121, 123, 123
Lucanidae,
maculatus,
maculatus,
299
asini, 362
Magacyllene,
445
Lygus, 272
lineolaris, 294
oblineatus, 269
Lymantria,
Magicicada,
Magicicada
septendecim,
magnarius,
magnatella,
Lymexylidae,
apple,
595
Lymexyloidea,
369
Lymnaecia phragmitella,
610
738
maidiradicis,
Anuraphis,
Lyonetiidae,
major, Xerophloea,
Malachiidae,
369
Lyonetiids,
608
aeneus, 430
Malaise,
R., 751
Malaise
trap, 191
Lucinidae, 373
luctuosa, Libellula,
Macrocentrinae,
Machimia
lugubris, Carpophilus,
430
lugubris, Elasteroides,
428
315
449
178, 179
tentoriferella,
gregarious,
Macrocentrus
ancylivorus,
610
522, 523
522
Malacostraca,
Malaria,
523
grandii, 523
Macrodactylus, 414
subspinosus,
414
204
203
Macropidinae,
543
310
Malacopsyloidea,
652
Malacosoma, 591
americanum, 630, 630
39
Machiliidae,
204,204
320
maidis, Sphenophorus,
461
Maize billbug, 459, 461
Machilidae,
H.W, 357
Ludwig,
550,551
294, 295
673
530
175
205
Ceuthophilus, 219
Dendrotus, 424
Malachius
Lucanus, 373
lucens, Asaphes,
Lygidea mendax,
Lygistorrhinidae,
277, 279,299,
Calopteryx,
maculata, Dolichovespula,
maculatta, Psoa, 426
270,272,
489, 490
Procampodea,
maculata,
482
Lygaeidae,
Macroxyela,
112
Lydidae,
320
Macroteleia, 537,537
Macrovelia homii, 292
622
Longistigma, 282
Longistigma caryae, 320, 321
Long-toed
623
325
311, 312,313,314
Lycaena, 582
Lycotocoridae,
Lyctidae, 369
205
Macropsinae,
Lycaenidae,
Longchaeidae,
139
713
Male reproductive
system
external, 38-39, 39
internal, 36, 36-37
mali, Leptothrips, 339
malifoliella, Tisheria, 605
malivorella,
Coleophora,
609
154,356
tubules, 24, 25, 26-27
837
-838
Index
Malthaca, 586
Marnbradidae,
Markov
284
384, 408
chains,
marlatti,
rnoths,
Marsh beetles,
Marsh
Marsh
Medetera,727
Masarinae,
Megachilidae,
Megachilinae,
Mastophora, 125
Mating, 70, 71, 73, 73
sexual encounter in, 70-71
European, 261
narrow-winged,
297
territories
Maxilla,
Mantispid,476
and preserving
of, 261
232
marginata,
270, 324
562
Idolothrips,
marginella,
Kinzeana,
339
312
228
716, 717
652
446, 448
482, 497, 499
520
Megaspilinae,
Megaspillidae,
520
520
Megathymidae,
678, 680
204
katydid,
222
172
denticrus,
510, 526
Megaspilids,
261
575
megatoma,
Anthrenus,
425
megatoma,
Attagenus,
425, 425
212, 221,222,222,
Melandryidae,
369, 399, 434
Melanism, industrial,
629
Mealybugs, 270
citrus, 325, 325
Melanolestes
Melanophila
325
picipes, 297
drummondi, 419
Melanophora
rorals, 733
Melanophthalma
americana, 432
Melanoplinae,
212, 216,216,
216
Measuringworms,
628
Mechanical senses, 31, 31-32,90
functions of, 31
Melanoplus,
bivattus,
11,213,216,216
217
gravity, 32
differentials,
rnovernent of surrounding
rnediurn, 32
femurrubrum,
217
sanguinipes,
217,217
organs
of, 31, 31
melanopus,
pressure
proprioception
(joint position),
tactile, 31, 31-32
32
Mecinus, 460
Morella, 435
marginatus,
Meadow
parasites
Maple,518
McAlpine,].E,
Meadowhawks,
minimus,
Megaphasma
Megarhyssa,
Megasceliinae,
Megaspilidae,
longtailed,
232
Mantophasrnatodea,
153, 155, 156, 232
references on, 233
Margarodidae,
Mayflies,
Megalothorax
Megarthroglossus,
16, 19, 20
maya, Mantoidea,
469, 474,474,474
Megalopyge, 586
Megalopygidae,
574, 585, 586, 611
rnonogyny, 73
polygyny, 73
sex-role rule in, 73-74
260
Megaloptera,
Mating systerns
Mantispidae,
Megalopodidae,
for, 70
praying, 261
Mantinae,261
375
annulatus, 564
469, 470, 476, 477
Chinese,
hunters,
Megacyllene,
Manophylax
Mantidflies,
bedbug
Megachile, 544
latimanus, 544
292
Masked
Carolina,
Mediterranean
Mediterranean
fruit fly, 738
Megabothris, 652
Mantids,
Media vein, 12
Martarega, 291
martini, Hydrometra,
Masariidae, 483
635, 635
327
Marsupiallice,
603
quinquemaculata,
sexta, 635
65
Phoenicoccus,
Meciocobothriidae,
of, 662
and preserving,
667
217
Oulema,
447, 448
Melanothrips, 335
Melanthrips, 337
melanura,
melanura,
Acidogona, 737
Nacerdes, 438
Melasidae, 368
meldei, Cheiracanthium,
meleagridis, Chelopistes,
Meleoma, 477
110
359
482, 495
Apis, 546, 547
Mellindae, 482
Index
369,376,
439, 669
Melolonthinae,
Melonworm,
413, 414,414
609
Neophasia,
621
673
bulbs,
751
Aphidolestes,
71 7
652
Merothrips, 337
jloridensis, 338
morgani, 336, 338
Merragata,
Merycidae,
292
369
Mesitiopterus, 537
Mesoderm formation,
Mesolecanium
42, 43
nigrofasciatum,
327
Mesopscocus, 343
Mesopsocidae,
342,343,344,347,
350,353
Mesopsocus, 347
Mesoptiliinae,
457, 463
Mesothelae,
111
Mesothorax,
9, 10
Mesotigmata,
131
Mesovelia, 272
mulsanti, 292
Mesoveliidae, 269,272,292,
292
Mesoxaea, 544
Mesozoic era, 154
Mesquite bug, 301
Metabolism, 23
Metaleptea brevicoris, 217
Metallic wood-boring
beetles,
383,390,417,418,519
368, 374,
839
840
Index
Mimallonoidea,
mimeticus,
575, 629
Mocis, 638
Atheas, 294
Mimetidae,
Mogoplistidae,
Mogulones,
Molanna
615
Mimosa webworm,
Mineral cases, 569
Miners,
615
in embryonic development,
Molecular studies
605, 608
of arthropoda,
640
minimus,
Megalothorax, 172
ministra, Dantana, 636, 636
minar, Incisitermes,
minar, Labia, 237
256
black scavenger
Minute
bog beetles,
Minute
brown scavenger
386,434
Minute
fungus beetles,
432,434
Minute
Minute
369,
369, 385,
369, 434
154
270,272,
Mischocyttarus,
Miscopastrinae,
550
532
Mompha,61O
Momphidae,
Momphina,
574
602
Momphinae,
601, 610
butterfly,
626
18, 19
443
Monocondylic
leg joint,
monodon, Notoxus, 440
Monoedidae,
369
11, 12, 12
Mononychus
vulpeculus,
462
Monophyletic
groups,
53, 56
beetle, 134
feather, 133
Monopsyllus, 652
Monotomidae,
369, 392, 393, 396, 430
Monotrysia,
129, 129
Miturgidae,
Mochlonyx,
".
. .
~ ~"
h'-
montanus,
Anomiopsyllus,
montivaga,
Montrysia,
Microhexura,
573, 604
655
120
73
369, 397, 434, 435
Morella marginata,
133
~,cincliEes,J09.
i~':';"~~.L"';\'",
monstrosa, Cyphoderris
montana, Rossiana, 564
Monyandry,
Mordellidae,
573, 574
parasitiformes,
130
predators of, 339
red, 133
scab, 134
,,~.
44-45
Monommatidae,
132, 132
mange, 134
opilliocariform,
."
ecdysone in, 44
of exo- and endoskelton,
notatus, 444
277, 278, 294, 295
",.'.'
in, 48
Monochamus,
451
Molting, 44
brain hormone
migration of, 63
Moniliform antennae,
Mioctenopsylla, 652
Miogryllus, 225
Miracinae, 522
Miridae,
mollis, Rhopalotria,
Minute
Miocene
614
604
miniata, Hypoprepia,
43
100
molesta, Grapholitha,
462
Wasmannian,91
Mimosa,
435
237
518
Morphidae, 575
morrisonarius, Pero, 628
Mosquitoes, 20,21, 673, 712
Aecles, 713, 714
Anopheles, 712, 713, 713
Culex, 713,714
house, 711
larvae, 13, 713
Psorophora, 713
rearing of, 772
saltmarsh, 711, 711
woodland, 711, 712
Moth, 22 22-23
Moth flies, 673, 708
Moths, 154, 573
acorn, 609, 609
augoumois grain, 533, 611
badwing, 628
bee, 617
black witch, 637
cactus, 617
case maker, 604, 608
clearwing,612
close-wings, 617
clothes, 605
darling underwing, 637
diamondback, 608
epipleminae, 628
ermine, 607
fairy, 604
flannel,61l
flour, 537, 617
forester, 638
geometer, 628, 629
ghost, 603
goldenrod gall, 609, 611
grain
parasites of, 537
grape berry moth, 615
grass, 617
gypsy, 527
handmaid, 636
hawk, 634, 635
hepialid, 604
hook-tip, 627
imperial, 632
lappet, 630, 631
loopers, 628
mandibulate, 603
measuring worms, 628
Mexican jumping-bean, 615
noctuid, 636, 637
notch-wing, 628, 629
parasites of, 526
plume, 616
pupation of, 773
royal, 631, 632
Index
basalar,
10
Mydasidae, 674
Mydidae, 674, 687, 724
Mygalornorphae,
Mygalomorphs,
or, 23
neurogenic,
synchronous,
23
23
intestinal,
10
730
730
nasal, 730
Mymaridae, 482, 497, 502, 503,
526, 526
Myrnarommatidae,
Mymarornrnatoidea,
tergostemal,
14, 15
thoracic, 14
visceral, 23
482
482, 485
Mymaronrnmatidae,
wing,3,14
Muscoidae, 674, 693, 696, 699,
Muscoid
111, 120
110, 111
Myiasis, 730
cutaneous,
24
729, 731
flies
516
Myodopsylla, 652
insignis, 653
Myopsocidae,
acalyptrate,
674, 734-742
calyptrate, 674, 677, 694, 698,
728, 729-734
349, 354
Myriapoda,
100
collecting and preserving,
Myrmecochory,
84
Myrmecocystus,
554
house
Myrmecolacidae,
670, 671
Myrmecophila
pergandei, 225
fly, 674
Myrmecophiles,
Myrmecophilidae,
Muscomorpha,
19, 21,21,
673, 719
rnouthparts
or, 21,21,
structure or, 19
specimens,
86
212, 214, 225
21-22,
Myrmecophytes,
84, 84
Myrmeleon immaculatus, 478
22,22
Myrmeleontidae,
470, 473, 473, 478,
478,478,478
muticus, Anurogryllus,
225
Myrrneleontoidea,
Myrmex,
478
460
subglaber, 461
Myrmicinae,
491,553
Mutillids, 548
Mutualism,
81
Myrrnosinae,
483
Mysmenidae,
Mutualism, plant-insect,
Mutualists, 81-82
Muzinum, 484
Mycetaea
subterranea,
Mycetobia,
Mycetobia,
83-84t
715
673
715
Mycetophagidae,
433
divergens,
Mycetobiidae,
Mycetobiinae,
or, 526
675
369, 398, 440
Mycterus, 440
Mydas, 687
clavatus, 724, 725
heros, 724
Mydas flies, 674, 724, 725
148
Myrientomata,
169
Myrmarornmatidae,
502
Museum
841
368, 401
Myzininae, 547
Myzinum, 511
N
Nabicula subcoleoptrata, 295
Nabidae, 272, 277, 278, 279, 294, 295
Nabis, 271, 272
americoferus, 295, 295
Nacerdes melanura, 438
N-acetylglocosamine, 6, 7
Naearctic, 536
naevana, Rhopobota, 615
Naiads, 46
Nallacius
americanus, 477
puchellus, 477
Names, 59
authors', 56
UNNERSIDAD
DECAlDAS
BIBLIOTECA
842
Index
Names-cont'd
common,
endings
Neoephemeridae,185,
Neohennes, 476
56, 59
in, 57
Neoheterocerus
Neoholla, 3ll,
family, 56, 57
Neolema,
genus-level, 56
scientific, 56, 57
in scientific
species,
nomenclature,
57
52, 57
subfamily,
56, 57
pallidus,
315
420
collecting
522
clymene,
Neophasia
Neuroptera,
153, 154, 156, 160, 163,
165,469,469,471,472,473,
524
classification
447
Neoneurinae,
56, 57
superfamily,
tribal, 57
186, 190
245
of, 469
and preserving
hyperparasites
or, 521
key to ramilies
or, 470
menapia, 621
Naniteta, 629
elassa, 630
Neurotoma
nevadensis,
Nannothemis
Neopsylla,
Nanopsocus,
297
Naupactus
godmanni, 462
leucoloma, 461
Neararctic,
172
538
Neelus minutus,
Neoptera,
155, 164
Neorhynchocephalus,
Neostylops shannoni,
Neotennes, 256
Neottiophilidae,
Neanura muscorum,
652
173
687
670
224
nigricans,
Ammophila,
nigricollis,
Meteorus,
Nephila
nigricoxum,Simulium,
nigrinis, Acartophthus,
clavipes, 125
269, 274, 289
Nemonychidae,
382, 451,3369
Nemoura, 242, 243
trispinosa, 241
Neocoelidiinae,
3ll,
314, 315
541
523
714, 715
739
nigripes, Attelabus,
nigrofasciatum,
Mesolecanium,
Nepomorpha,
nigromaculata,
Willowsia,
451, 452
nigripes, Orchelimum,
269, 271,274,289
221
Nepticula, 604
Nepticulidae,
574,577,596,597,597
Nepticuloidea,
Nionia,311
327
172
Nerioidea,674
Nervous system
central, 30, 30-31
126
224, 224
449
Nepiomorpha, 343
perpsocoides, 346
Nepoidea, 269
Nesticidae,
213
637
Nightshade,
Nemeobiidae,
575
Nemesiidae, lll, 113, 122
Nemobius,
179
34
Nemobiinae,
638
ni, Trichoplusia,
Nicoletiinae,
Nemestrinidae,
Nemestrinioidea,
inconspicua, 516
Hemileuca, 633
Nepa, 289
Nepidae,
156
674
Neoxabea bipunctata,
Neozeloboria, 548
of, 479
ll2,
ll5,
ll7,
Nesting, 74
digger wasp, 67, 67, 68
Nests
termite,
Nets
77, 254
430, 430
nivalis, Taeniopteryx, 241
nivea, Panchlora, 266
nivicola, Hypogastrura,
172172
nobilitella, Cydosia, 638
Noctuidae,
575, 592, 593, 595, 636,
636
larvae of, 638
Noctuinae,638
Noctuoidea,
575
369, 387,
Net-winged
midges, 714
Neumouridae,
241,242,243,
Neureclipsis
insects,
collecting,
ovilla, 640
sorghiella, 640
triquetrana, 640
Nolidae, 575, 590, 640
243, 244
crepuscularis,
Nocturnal
Nola
564
Nomada,
494, 545,546
746
1I
I
Index
I
Nornadidae,
482
dolichopeza, 715
walkeri, 715
Zoological, 56
references on, 61
scientific, 56-57
Norniinae, 543
Nopalea, 326
Northern cloudy wing skipper,
Norvellina,311
619
Nosodendron, 424
I
I
I
Odinidae,
482
Nyssoninae,
540
675
575, 590, 590, 635,
636, 636
Notondontidae, 587
674
classification
collecting
560,561,562,
Odontopus, 463
Odontota dorsalis, 450, 450
Odontotaenius, 373
728
argentinus, 211
latipennis,211
oecellaris, Cecidomyia, 717
Oecleus borealis, 316
Notonectidae,
Oecobidae,
Oecobiidae,
Notostraca, 137
Obtect pupae, 49
obtectus, Acanthoscelides,
Notoxus, 440
monodon, 440
Noturn, 14
Notonectoidea,
270, 274
noveboracencis, Ithycerus,
nubilalis, Ostrinia, 617
453
619
Nursery-web
spiders, 112, 118, 127
nutalli, Trichodes, 429
Nuts, 617
nvicta, Solenopsis, 671
Nycteribiidae,
Nycteridopsylla,
674
652
Nyrnphalidae,
573, 575, 578, 582,
584,623
Nyrnphalinae,
584
46
575
Nyrnphulinae,
603, 618
occidentalis,
447, 447
Neolepolepis,
346
occidentalis, Pachysphinx,
occidentis, Curculio, 459
635
Occipital
foramen, 15, 16
566, 569
longicomis, 735
Odontopsyllus, 652
Notonecta, 291
206
Odontocorynus, 454
Odontoloxozus, 697
obliqua, Allograpta,
of, 197
and preserving,
Odontoceridae,
tripunctata, 441
obesa, Clubiona, II O
Nosopsyllus, 652
Nyssonidae,
291
cornrnon, 59-60
International
Code of
Nosodendridae,
Nyphomyia
607
Ochsenheimeriidae,
574, 600
Ochteridae, 270, 274, 290
Ochthiphilidae,
674
Ochyroceratidae, 112, 116, 123
octomaculata, Alypia, 638, 638
oculata, Harlomillisia, 174
112
124
Oecophoridae,
574, 602, 609, 610
Oedancala, 300
Oederneridae,
369, 399, 438, 438
Oedipodinae,
212, 217, 217
Oedlidius, 317
Oemopteryx glacialis, 241
Oeneis, 626
jutta, 626
melissasemidea,626
polixtenes katahdin, 626
Oestridae, 674, 692, 693, 729, 732, 733
Oestrus, 693
ovis, 733
Ogre-faced
Oinophila,
spiders,
112, 114,124
605
Oinophilidae,
Olceclostera,
574
631
Oldenbergiella,
700
oleae, Saissetia, 326
Olethreutidae,
574
Oligembia hubbardi,
Oligentornata,
152
248
843
844
Index
Oligotoma saundersi,
Oligotomidae,
248
Olistheter, 38
Orchelimum,
248
OmatidiurnJomatidia,
33, 34
Ommatidiea,
170
Omoglymmius,
Orthoptera,
172
classification
Orchid
flight in, 14
key to families
collecting
scale, 327
relative
368
270, 284,286,325,
of, 211
and preserving,
of, 212
Omorgus, 412
oregonensis,
Agelenopsis,
oregonensis,
oregonensis,
Brachypanorpa, 665
Listronotis, 462
Oncometopia, 311,315
undata, 310
oregonensis,
Paratyphloceras,
658
Orthopteroid
orders, 155
Orthorrhapha,
673
Orthosoma brunneum, 444
oregonensis,
Trichopsylloides,
658
Orussidae,
Halictophagus,
670
ordos, Oligothrips,
Oreta, 593
Oifeliafultoni,
Organ-pipe wasps,
Orgilinae, 522
Onocopodura, 174
Onychiuridae,
169, 170, 171,
172, 173
Onychiurus, 172
ramosus, 1 73
110
sound
337, 338
540
575
134, 134
35
in, 63
migration in, 63
taxes in, 63
Oriorhynchus, 462
ovatus, 462
611
sulcatus, 462
Oriridar, 674
Opinae, 522
Opillones, 129
Orius, 272
Opisodasys, 652
Opisthandria,
143, 144
insidiosus,
Opisthognathous
Opisthorhynchous
Opisthosoma,
Opisthothelae,
mouthparts,
mouthparts,
16
16
101
111
Opomyza,
Opomyzoidea,
674
Opostegidae,
574, 596, 604
Opriastes, 454
Optimality
theory, of behavior,
Opuntia, 326
Orangedog
swallowtail,
Orange-tip butterfly,
Orbiculariae,
112
Orchard fruits, 539
Orchard
trees, 133
Orobittacus,
703
Opomyzidae,
296, 296
Omithophaga,
652
anomala, 658
Opogoma, 605
sacchari, 605
621
621, 621
55, 66
production
666
Orussoidea,
482
Orussus, 489, 490
oryzae, Sitophilus,
459
Oryzaephilus surinamensis,
Oschsenehimeriidae,
607
Oscinidae,
Osmoderma
eremicola,
Ostomidae,
Ostracoda,
369
137,138,
139
35, 36,36
polytrophic,
36
telotrophic,
36
ovatus, Oriorhynchus, 462
ovatus, Pterocolus, 452
Oviducts, 36, 36
common, 36
lateral,
36
median,
36
731, 731
Ovipositor, 37, 38
ovis, Oestrus, 733
ovis, Psoroptes, 134
Owlflies, 154,469,470,479
Oxacis trimaculata,
Oxaeidae, 482
438
Oxaeinae,
Orthezia,
325
insignis, 325
solidaginis, 325
341
Ostracoderms,
154
Ostrinia nubilalis, 617
Otitidae, 674
ovinus, Melophagus,
674
416
ostiniodes, Thysanosoma,
Ostomatidae,
369
Oropsylla, 652
Oroya fever, 708
Orphnephilidae,
673
Orsodacne atra, 445
Ortalididae,
597
431
674
Orsodacnidae,
Ortalidae,674
in, 209
Oschsenheimeriinae,
639, 639
Oocytes, 35-36
Ooencyrtus, 531
kuvanae, 527, 531
Oogonia,
101, 154
718, 718
Oniscomorpha,
143, 144
Oniscus asellus, 141
225
Ordovician
oncometopiae,
325
401
Omomyia, 737
Omophronidae,
Ortheziidae,
Orchesella hexfasciata,
Orchestes, 459
Olognatha,143
Omaseus, 371
Omethidae,
221,221
nigripes, 221
543
Oxycarenidae,
.
Index
Oxygen
atmospheric,
panicifoliella,
29
nuptialis,
Oxyopidae,
Oxytorinae,
Oystershell
526
scale, 324, 328, 328
Ozyptila
pacifica, 121
Pachydiplax longipennis,
Pachygronthidae,
300
pachyneuron,
pachyplectrus
529
667
pacidus, Phylocentropus,
pacifica, Ozyptila, 121
318
Pantheidae,
492
492, 543
564
Pantomorus,
Panurginae,
celtidismamma,
Packing
Panorpids,
panurga,
laevis, 412
Pachypsylla
666
Panorpoids,
156
Panphiliidae,
516
Pantala, 205
205
Eurytoma,
608
Panorpha, 9
Panorpidae,
662, 665, 666
Panorpodidae,
Pachyneuridae,
Cucloplasis,
insects,
768
607
Paedogenesis,
3, 37, 717
Pagaronia, 311, 315
padella, Yponomeuta,
Papilioidea, 620
Papilionidae,
572, 573, 575, 581,
584,620
Palearctic,
Papilioninae,
Paleartic
Paleocene
610
region,
658
period,
Pappataci
154
Paleoptera, 155
Paleozoic era, 101, 154
pales, Hylobius,
palliatus,
443, 445
Paracantha
463
Desmocerus,
581
fever, 708
420
culta, 737
Paraclemsia acerifoliella,
Paracoelidia, 311, 315
Paracotalpa, 415
Paracymbium,
109
Paradichlorobenzene,
paradoxus,
605
768
Lepidocyrtus,
172
Paraglossae,
parallelopipedum,
Trogoxylon,
Parameres, 39, 39
Parandra, 375, 442, 443
Palpatores,
Palpifer,
609
129
19, 20,20
Parajapygidae,
20, 20
175
Parandridae,
369
Parandrinae,
442, 443
Pamphiliidae,
Paraneotermes,
482
460
pandora, Coloradia,
633
Pangaeus bilineatus,
Stegobium,
Paraphyletic
groups, 53, 56
Parasatoids,
87-88, 88
Parasites, 521, 527, 528
beaver, 384, 408, 658
pangaeus, 279
bilineatus, 303
paniceum,
256
671
427, 427
426
of Lepidoptera, 526
psychodids, 708
transmission of, 82-83
twisted-wing, 154,669,670
Parasitica, 520
Parasitic flat bark beetle, 369, 397,
431, 431
Parasitic Hymenopeta, 522
Parasitic insects, caging with hosts, 775
Parasitic wood wasps, 482
Parasitism, 81
gregarious, 532
solitary, 532
Parasitoids, 81, 523
Paraspinal furrows, 486
Paratanus, 311
Paratrioza cockerelli, 317, 318
Paratyphloceras, 652
oregonensis, 658
Paravelia, 293
Parcoblatta spp., 266
pardalis, Eubasilissa, 568
Parenting, 74
pariana, Choreutes, 615
Parlsey
mines in, 616
Parnassian, 620
Parnassiidae, 575
Parnassiinae, 581, 620
Pamassius, 581
Parnidae, 368
Paronellidae, 169, 171, 174
Parrellathrips ullmanae, 337, 338
Parsnip, 608
Parsnip webworms, 608, 609
Parthenogenesis, 39
arrhenotoky in, 39
thelytoky in, 39-40
parvicomis, Agromyza, 739
parvula, Urodes, 615
parvulus, Homaemus, 303
parvus, Pselaphochemes, 135
Passalidae, 368,373,379,380,411
Passandridae, 369, 397, 431
pastinacella, Depressaris, 608, 609
Patent-leather beetles, 368, 379, 411
Pathogens, 81
host insect, 82
plant, 83
propagative and cydopropagative, 83
transmission of, 82-83
Patterns of movement
central generator of, 62
fixed-action, 62
modal-action, 62
Paurometabola, 155
Paurometabolous metamorphosis,
46
845
846
Index
Pauropoda,
147, 147,147,
147, 147
references
147,
on, 148
497
Paxylommatidae,
Peach,516
482
Perilampus
hyalinus,
596
Peusdophasmatidae,
Phaenicia sericata,
533
Periplaneta, 264
Peripsocidae,
342,343,
Periscelididae,
Phasmatodea,
classification
316
227, 228
153, 156, 164, 211
of, 227
Perlampids,
533
Perlesta placida, 245
Perlidae, 241, 242,244,245
Perlinella
Pheidole, 553
Phelopsis obcordata, 435
Phengodes plumosa,
drymo, 245
Pharynx, 24,24
Phasiidae, 674
Phasmatida,
155
Phasmatidae,
Perla, 241
535
350,351,353
Phalacropsylla,
652
Phalacrus politus, 432
Phalaenidae,
575
Phaneropterinae,
Peripsocus, 343
periscelidactylus,
Geina, 616
Periscelidae,
674
227, 228
730
Phaeoses, 605
225
platygaster, 528
Periodical cicadas, 306, 307
Phengodidae,
Pheromones
ephyre, 245
Perlodidae, 241, 244, 245
femoratus, 291
Peltodytes, 404
edentulus, 405
in bee colonies,
perniciousus, Quadraspidious,
Pero morrisonarius,
628
trail-rnaking,
327,328
321
Perophoridae,
Peroplaneta, 265
Perothopidae,
368
Pemphrendonidae,
Pencillata, 143
perplexus,
482
Idiomacromerus,
perpsocoides,
Persea, 615
persicum,
pennsylvanicus,
Camponotus,
pennsylvanicus,
Chauliognathus,
554
pennsylvanicus,
424
Nepiomorpha,
Pamphilius,
529
346
516
Reduvius,
296, 297
542
philenor, Battus
Phileurus, 415
philodice, Colias, 622
Philodrornidae,
112, 119, 128
Philopotamidae,
76
79
Philanthinae,
540
Philanthini,
540
Philanthus ventilabris,
Perothops, 422
80
in cornrnunication,
spumarius, 309,309
Philanthidae,
482
575
vagabundus, 322
Pemphredon inornatus, 541
79
Peromyscopsylla,
652
Peronyma sarcinata, 737
Pemphigus
populitransversus,
alarm,
423
384,387,400,423
Peltoperla, 244
Peitoperlidae,
241,241,243,245
659
642, 742
222
Perilampidae,
482, 497, 506, 507, 528,
532,533
pellionella,
25
pyrrhonota,
petrolei, Helaeomyia,
membrane,
Petrochelidon
scabricollis,
Percaroecidae,
Perdita, 544
197,201,202
673
A., 579
482
Petritrophic
pergandei, Myrmecophila,
Peck, j., 14
Peck, S.B., 753
Pelidnota punctata,
Peterson,
Petiolata,
Pelecinus polyturator,
270, 293
434
Penthimiinae,
Peranabrus
Pectinophora,
Petaluridae,
Petauristidae,
302, 304
obliquata,
341
Pearshaped
Pentatominae,
pimelia, 434
Penthimia, 311, 314
Pentatomomorpha,
Pentazonia,
143
Penthe
Pentaromomorpha,
270
Pentatomidae,
270, 280, 303, 304
560,562,
563, 566
Philopotamoidea,
560
Philopteridae,
357, 359, 360, 362
..
Index 847
Philotarsidae,
Phylogenetic
Phlothennus,
433
Phylogeny,
Phyloxera
Phithiraptera,
153, 154, 156
Phlaeothripidae,
335, 339
Phlebotominae,
708
insects,
775
phragmitella, Lymnaecia,
Phratora, 449
Phrydiuchus,
462
Phrygamidia
califomca,
Phryganea
610
636
154
Physegenua,
696
Physocephala,
569
aqulegivora,
363
Picture-winged
flies, 674, 738, 739
Pieridae, 573, 575,582,
584,621
Pierids, 621
621
Pigment,
Pigweed,
of corneagenous
298, 641
611
Phyllapalpus, 213
Phyllocnistidae,
574
Pinchingbugs,
Pine
606, 607
Phyllocoptes variabilis,
Phyllomyzidae,
674
Phyllonorcyter, 602
Phyllophaga
Phyllorerans,
Pine aphids,
Pine beetles
mountain,
southern,
224
western,
373
Phylocentropus
Phylogenetic
270
465
465
465
sp., 414
322
270,280,
Pine-tree
322
software,
katydid,
210, 212
placidus, 564
analysis
616
414
Epennenia,
524, 526
ponderosa,
621
white, 418
133
Phyllopalpus
portoricensis,
722
Phyllophaga,
cells, 33-34
674
pulchellus,
674
pikei, Chrysops,
575
617
Phyllocnistis,
739, 740
Phytophagous
(herbivorous)
arthropods,81
Piazorhinus, 463
Pierinae,
691
furcillata, 736
Phytodiectus vulgaris, 525, 526
Phytoliriomyza
clara, 739, 740
and preserving,
Phycodromidae,
Physapoda,
297
Phryneidae,
673
Phthiraptera,
162, 356
cIassification of, 356
Phycitidae,
Phycitinae,
fasciata georgiensis,
Phymatinae,
297
560,561,568,
560
collecting
56
Phytomyzidae,
775
cinerea, 568
Phryganeidae,
Phryganeoidea,
Phylumlphyla,
Phymata,271
Phytomyza
Photomicrographic
equipment,
Photoperiod,
50
Phragmata,
10, 10
53, 55
154, 156
Phlegyas, 300
Phlocidae, 112, 115, 116, 121, 123
Phoenicococcidae,
systematics,
of Hexapoda,
pinifoliae,
Chionaspis,
328
736
848
Index
Plastoceridae,
369
Plate-thigh beetles,
Plathemis, 195
730
Platycentropus
radiatus, 568
Platydesmida,
platygaster,
Perilampus,
Platygaster
hiemalis,
528
537
Platygastridae,
482, 497, 501,501,
537,538
Platygastrids
parasite of, 530
Platygastroidea,
482, 485, 501,
520,537
Platypezidae,
Platypodidae,
Platypodinae,
Platypsylla, 408
Platypsyllidae,
368
platypterus,
Bruchophagus,
529
Platyrrhinidae,
Platystictidae,
370
197, 200, 205, 299
312
Platystomidae,
370
and preserving,
245
274
Pleistocene period,
Pleochaetis, 652
154, 155
Pleocoma, 412
fimbriata,
Pleocomidae,
412
368, 379, 411
Plesmatidae,
7, 8, 10, 10
Pleuroneura,
period,
154
Plodia interpunctella,
Plum, 516
617
Polyphagidae,
263, 264,265
fungus
359
beetles,
caps, 761
Polysphinctini,
Polystoechotes,
punctatus,
526
472
478
Polystoechotidae,
Polytomy,
polyturator,
polyxenes
55
Pelecinus,
asterius,
535
Papilio, 620
Polyzoniida,
143, 144, 145
Polyzonium bivirgatum, 145
Pomace flies, 675, 741
pometaria,
Alsophila,
628, 629
724
pomonella,
lineatus, 294,295
606
Pogonomyrmex,
553
Poison ivy, 517
pomonella, Rhagoletis,
Pompilidae,
483
Pompilids,
539
Pompillidae,
511, 512, 549
Pond damsels, 197, 199,205,206
fuscatus, 551
Polistes, in paper wasp societies,
Polistinae, 550, 550
Polites peckius,
78
619
insect,
738
ponderosae, Dendroctonus,
Ponderosa pine, 621
Pondhawk,
204
Ponds, 181
465
Ponerinae,
491
Ponpilids,
549
pons, Eusattus,
437
Popil/ia japonica,
414
wind, 539
Polxenida,
143, 144
Polyandry,
73
Polycentropidae,
559
Polycentropodidae,
560, 564, 565, 566
Polycentropus
interruptus,
559
populitransversus,
Pemphigus,
tentorial
652
Postgena,
15, 16
Postgenal
bridge,
17
Polygynous family
Polymitarcyidae,
186, 191
Polyneoptera,
Postoccipital
624
155
13
Polygonia,
321
gwyni, 653
Polygenis,
signatipennis,
Poecilocapsus
polyergus, 554
lucidus, 554
516
Pleuropodism,
Polyphaga,
alpha, 724
platyrhynchus,
Platystomatidae,
suture,
15, 16
Index
Potamanthidae,
Prodoxidae,
596, 597, 604
Prodoxus, 604
Produridae,
Progressive
Potato
Potato
Potato
leafhopper, 310
psyllid, 317
stalk borer, 461
Projection
Potato
tuberworm,
Potomanthidae,
potoricensis,
Profenusa canadensis,
provisioning,
apparatus,
Prolegs, 9
Promachus,
611
Phyllophaga,
414
687
Pronation,
Powderpost
426, 426
Pronymphal
256
Prophalangopsidae,
propinqua, Isotoma,
Powerpost
beetles,
termites,
Praedatophasma,
232
Praedatophasma
Prayidae,574
maraisi,
Predaceous
Predaceous
beetles,
Proprioception,
diving beetles,
405,406
insects,
368,
Pretarsus,
prorsa, Acmaeodera,
Prosoma, 101
132
369, 394, 437
Protenomide,
Prothoracic
Prothorax,
354
glands,
9, 9
Protoneuridae,
197, 199,200,205
Protoplasa, 681
fitchii, 708
Primitive
weevils,
Prototrupoidea,
Protoxaea, 544
370, 451
Protura,
351
Prionoxystus, 586
robiniae, 613, 614
58
537
morio, 518
in nomeclature,
44, 48-49
Protocerebrum,
30,30
Protoneura cara, 205
Primitive
Primitive
Priority,
437
170
11, 11
Priophorus
536
419
Prostomis mandibularis,
755
pretiosus, Hemipsocus,
Priacma serrata, 401
Price, M.A., 357
44
212, 214,222
In
32
Prostigmata,
Prostomidae,
517
58
membranes,
Propsilloma columbianum,
Propylene glycol, 751
Prorhinotermes, 254, 256
14
Pronunciation,
232
540
775
promethea, Callosamia,
Prominents,
636
Promotion,
14
182
173
518
24
Tibian,
305, 603
Prygotidae, 697
Pryraloidea,
575
Psalididae, 236
Pscoptera,
Pselaphidae,
368, 409
Pselaphochemes
parvus,
Pselaphognatha,
143
135
Proctotrupidae,
482, 500, 501,501,
520,536
Psephenus, 375
herricki, 420, 421
Proctotrupoidea,
482, 485, 501, 535
Procuticle, 6, 6
Prodidomidae,
112, 119, 127
Pseudaletia
unipuncta,
Pseudergates,
Pseudironidae,
254
186, 189, 191
849
-850
Index
Psylla
alder, 318
apple sucker, 318
gall-making, 318
pear, 318
puchellus,
puera, Hyblaea,
government,
sta te, 776
Psylla, 282
potato, 317
Psyllidae, 270, 280, 282, 285, 317
Psyllids, 154
parasites or, 534
Psyllipsocidae,
341, 343, 344, 345,
345, 351
Psyllipsocus, 343, 344, 345
Psylloidea, 270
Ptecticus, 675, 719
Pterocolus ovatus, 452
Pterolonchidae,
574
Pteromalidae,
50, 482, 502, 508, 527,
531,532,5072
Pteromalids, 531, 532
Pteromalinae,
532
eurymieurytheme,
530
241, 242,242,243,
242, 243
575, 616
Pterophylla camellifolia,
Pterotermes, 256
Pterothorax,
9, 10
Pterygota,
221,221
Ptinidae,
Ptinus
349,353
369
californicus,
204,204
pulchellus, Phyllopalpus,
Pulex, 652
irritans, 657, 659
224
575
Pyraustinae,
609, 618
Pyrginae,
Pyrgus communis,
porcinus, 659
simulans, 659
pyrina, Zeuzera,
Pyrochroidae,
440
Pulicinae,
Pyrochroid
Pyroderces
Pulicoidea,
652
pulsatorium,
Pulse, 209
Pulvillus, 11, 11
Pulvinaria inumerabilis,
Hylobius,
fur, 426
Pyrrhocoridae,
326, 326
pyrrhonota,
Pythidae,
463
Polystoechotes,
punctella,
Atteva, 607
478
Quadraspidious
common mosquitoes,
decticous, 49
710
49
quadricolor,
659
punctatus,
perniciousus,
Gomphus,
quadrigeminata,
327,328
195
quadrigibbus, Anthonomus,
459
quadriguttatum,
Scaphidium, 410
quadrimaculatus,
Anopheles,
711
quadrimaculatus,
Oceanthus,
223, 224
quadrisignatus,
Queen
ant, 79
Glischrohilus,
420
49
Pupipara,674
quinquemaculata,
quinquenotadus,
Episyron,
quinquevittatus,
Tabanus, 722
Pycnogonida,
135
Pycnoscelus surinamensis,
Pygidicranidae,
Pygmy grasshoppers,
Pygmy mole cricket,
pylades,
Pyloric valve, 25
Thyorybes,
Pyragropsis
212,
157
212
619
buscki, 236
Manduca,
635, 635
549
266
236, 236
pubescens, Himatolabus,
325
beetle, 440
rileyi, 610, 610
Ptychopteridae,
673, 681
Ptychopteromorpha,
673
452
coarctate,
619
613
Pyrophorus, 422
Pyrrharctia isabella, 641
Trogium, 346
Pygmy grasshopper,
218,218
428
579
pubescens, Naokermes,
Pyraustidae,
types or, 49
gorillae, 363
Ptiloneuridae,
Marava, 237
obtect,
Pterygota, 153
Pthiridae, 357, 361, 363
Pthirus
Ptilodactylidae,
Ptilodexia, 689
Libellula,
exarate,
farinalis, 617
Pyraloidea, 585, 617
418
pulchella,
617
477
616
pulchella,
Pupae, 46-48,
adecticous,
575, 584
Pterophoroidea,
Nallacius,
punctata,
Pteromalus, 527
cerealellae, 532
Pteromarcyidae,
245
coccid-eating,
Pyralidae,
776
Pteromarcys,
Pyralid
Index
Resin base
for slide mounts,
762
beetles,
256
strobiloides,
717
Rhadinopsylla, 652
fraterna, 655
Rhadinopsyllinae,
652, 658
inquisitor, 443
603
Rhaphidophoridae,
212, 214,219
Rhinoceros beetles, 413, 415
Rhinophoridae,
674, 694, 729, 733
Rhinotermes, 254
Rhinotermitidae,
255,255,
Rhinotoridae,
675
256
Rhipiceridae,
368, 372, 375, 383,389,
41 7, 417
Rhipiphoridae,
369, 669
Rhizopertha dominica,
Rhizophagidae,
369
426
Rhizophagus bipunctatus,
Rhodobaenus, 460
tredecimpunctatus,
Rhogadinae,
522
Rhogovelia,
430
459
272
(butterflies),
573
Rhopalomeridae,674
Rhopalomyia
chrysanthemi,
718
Rhopalopsyllidae,
520, 652, 653, 653,
655,656,658
Rhopalopsyllus,
652
Ctenocephalides,
Rhopalosiphum
652
fitchii,
Rhopalosoma, 510
Rhopalosomatidae,
515,549
Rhopalosomidae,
Rhopalotria
mollis, 451
slossoni, 451
320
851
852
Index
Ropalomeridae,
Rophitinae, 543
Ropronia, 536
garmani, 536
Roproniidae, 482, 500, 501, 536
roralis, Melanophora, 733
rosae, Aulacaspis, 328
277,293
Rosickyiana, 652
Ross, H.H., 483, 484
565, 568
in digestion, 26
nurse bee, 81
Rostrum, 22, 22
Salivary gland, 20
Salpingidae, 369, 383, 394, 398,440
saltator, Orocharis, 224
Salticidae, 112, 119, 121, 124, 128
Salt-marsh caterpillar,
Saludua,272
Sandalidae, 368
Sandalus,
641
373, 417
petrophya, 417
Sand cricket, 212, 219
Sand fleas, 140, 140
sanguinea,
sanguinipes,
sanguinolenta, Aceratagallia,
San Jose scale, 327
Melanoplus,
217,217
312
vestita, 441
Sapromyzidae,
674
S
sabalella, Homaledra, 609
saccharalis, Diactraea, 617, 617
sacchari, Opogoma, 605
saccharina, Lepisma, 179
sacer, Scarabaeus, 413
moths, 629, 630
Saddleback caterpillar,
Formica, 554
candida, 445
tridentata, 445
Rutelinae, 414
rutilana, Aethes, 615
Sack-bearer
Saperda, 445
calcarata, 441, 445
526, 612
Sarcophaga haemorrhoidalis,
731
Sarcophagidae, 674, 694, 729,
730, 733
Sarcoptidae, 134
Sassafras tree, 463
saturejae, Holocranum, 300
Saturnids, 631, 631, 632
Saturniidae, 573, 575, 591,591,
631,
631,632
Satyrid butterflies,
Sawflies, 154,483,485,516,522
birch leafminer, 524
cherry, 518
common, 482, 517,518
conifer, 482, 491, 517
elm, 517
hawthorn, 518
larch,518
larvae of, 516, 572
leaf-mining, 524
leaf-rolling, 482
parasites of, 526, 533
predators of, 537
raspberry leaf, 518
redheaded pine, 517
stem, 482, 486, 518, 519
stout-bodied, 517
web-spinning, 483
wheat stem, 518, 519
Saw-toothed grain beetles, 431, 431
Sawyer beetles, 444, 444
scabei,Pnyxia, 719
scabricollis, Peranabrus,222
626
Saddlebags, 205
Saddle-case makers, 560, 567
saucium, Amphiagrion,
206
Index
Scaphinotus,
401
schlaegeri, Antaeotricha,
Schoenobiidae,
575
guyotis, 402
Scaphinus muticus, 442
Scaphoideus, 311
Schreckensteiniidae,
Scaphytopius,
Schuh,
574, 602
Schreckensteinioidea,
311
574, 615
R.T., 269
Scapoideus, 311
luteolus, 315
schwarzi, Probethylus,
Sciara, 684
Scapteriscus,
Scarabaeidae,
Sciaridae,
225
368, 370, 373, 411, 412
key to subfamilies
of, 413
Scarabaeinae,
Sciomyzidae,
674, 691, 696, 697, 700,
701, 739, 739
Sciomyzoidea,
674
Sciophilinae,
684
Scirtidae, 368, 384, 389, 390, 416, 417
of, 549
Sclerite,
15, 15
axillary, 13, 13
body wall, 7, 7
cervical, 9, 9
Scarhophagidae,
729
Scarites subterraneus, 402
699
Sclerogibbidae,
Scathophagidae,
674, 693, 695,
699, 733
Scatophagidae,
674
Scatopidae, 705
Scolia, 513
Scatopsidae,
Sco\iidae,
dubia, 549
Scolopendromorpha,
146, 147
Scolophorous
organ (chordotonal
537,
organs),32
Scolops, 317
perdix,316
537
Sceliphron, 540
caementarium,
Scolothrips, 338
Scolytidae, 370, 523
540
Scolytinae,
Scenopinidae,
Scenopinus fenestralis,
Scent gland, 621
725, 725
schefferi, Hystrichopsylla,
Schistocerca, 216
658
gregaria, 216
Scopae, 539
Scopeumatidae,
Scorpionflies,
common,
674
154, 160, 662
662, 665, 666
short-faced,
pilicomis, 517
10, 102, 103, 105
Schizomus floridanus,
Schizopodidae,
368
367
Scenopindae,
Schizocerella
Schizomida,
520, 549
Sce\ionines,
Scolopendra, 146
obscura, 146
Sce\ionids,
Sclerogibbids,
538
Scleroracus, 311
Scobicia declivis, 426
Scatomyzidae,674
Scavenger beetles
minute brown,
in, 57
types in, 58
413
plant-feeding,
414,415
Scarcophaga, 695
Scathophaga,
priority in, 58
roles in, 56-57
538
608
105
Schizopteridae,
269, 276, 289
Schizura concinna, 636
Scorpions,
windscorpions,
Scotogramma,
Scotophaeus
Scraptiidae,
135
638
blackwalli, 110
369, 399, 441
853
854
Index
31, 31
hearing, 33
humidity, 34
mechanical, 31, 31, 31-32,32
proprioception,
32
temperature,
34
vision, 33-34,34
Sensil\um
campaniform,
31, 32
chemical, 31, 31
hair, 31, 32
hearing, 33
mechanical, 31, 31-32,
32
proprioception,
32
structure of, 31
tactile, 32
vision,
33
Sensory organs,
chaetosemata,
571
739
730
560, 561, 562,
566,569
Sericotomatidae,
561
Sericotomatoidea,
560
Serphidae, 482
serrata, Priacma, 401
Serrate antennae, 19
serratdla,
Coleophora,
609, 610
369
574
362
arrhemotoky, 39
autosomes in, 39
chromosomes
in, 39
parthenogensis
thelytoky,
in, 39-40
39-40
sexnotdla, Stagmatophora,
609
Sex pheromones,
71
sexpunctata bicolor, Charidotdla,
sexta, Manduca, 635
Sexual attraction,
71
450
Silk sac
spider, 109
Silk-spinning crickets, 212, 219
Silkworm moths, 631
giant, 631
Silpha, 408
americana, 408,409
bituberosa, 409
Silphidae, 368, 372, 383, 391,
408,409
Silurian period, 154, 155
Silvanidae, 369, 381, 396, 431, 431
Silverfish, 153, 156, 179, 753
Silver-spotted skipper, 619
Silvicola, 683
Silvicolidae, 673
similis, Cyphoderus, 174
simplex, Anacrus, 221
simplex, Spilopsyllus sp., 659
simplex, Taeniothrips, 336, 339
simplicicollis, Erythemis, 204, 205
simulans, Hydropsyche, 559,
561,568
simulans, Pulex, 659
Simuliidae, 673, 683, 685, 714, 714
Simulium, 683
nigricoxum, 714, 715
pictipes, 715
Sinea, 271, 275
Singing insects
in captivity, 773
Siphlonuridae, 186, 187, 191
Siphonaptera, 153, 154, 156, 162,162,
166, 648
characters used in identification
of, 650
classification of, 652
collecting and preserving, 659
key to families of, 652
references on, 660
Siphunculata, 154
Siricidae, 482, 488, 490, 518
parasites of, 534
Siricids, 518
Siricoidea, 482
Sisyra, 478
Sisyridae, 470, 472, 475, 478
Sitona, 462
Sitophilus
granarius, 459
oryzae, 459
Sitotroga arealella, 611
Skeletal muscles, 23
Skeleton, 6
Skeletonizers, 609, 615
palm leaf, 609
Skiff beetles, 368, 378, 401
Index
Sound production
in beetles, 366, 367
in cica das, 305, 305, 306
crickets, 209,210, 211,211
ensifera, 218
grasshoppers, 210, 211
katydids, 209, 210, 211
in lealhoppers, 311
in Orthoptera, 209
Southwestern corn borer
parasite of, 524
Sowbugs, 140, 141
Spalangiinae, 532
Sparasiidae, 108, 112, 119, 128
Sparganothidae, 574
Spathius canadensis, 523
Spear-winged flies, 674, 727
Speciation,53
Species
concept of, biological, 52, 53, 57
name in, 57
speciosissima, Centrodora, 527
speciosus, Glycobius, 444
speciosus, Sphecius, 542
Speleketor, 344, 345
spenceri, Cramptonomyia, 718
Spercheidae, 368
Sperm,37
Spermatazoan,37
Spermatheca, 36-37
Spermatogenesis, 37
Spermatogonia, 37
Spermatophore,37
Speyeria, 582
Sphacophilus cellularis, 517
Sphaeridiidae, 368
Sphaeridium scarabaeoides, 407
Sphaeriidae, 368
Sphaeritidae, 368, 388, 407
Sphaeroceridae, 675, 701, 702,
706, 741
Sphaeroceroidea, 674
Sphaeropsocidae, 342, 353
Spharagemon boli, 218
Sphecidae, 482, 494, 494, 511, 539, 540
Sphecid wasps, 541, 542
Sphecius, 540
Sphecius speciosus, 542
Sphecodes, 487, 492, 543
Sphecoidea, 494
Sphecoid wasps, 538
Sphenophorus, 459
callosus, 461
maidis, 461
Sphex, 494
icheumoneus, 540
Sphingidae, 573, 575, 588,588, 634
855
856
Index
Spilopsyllinae,
735
Spider beetles,
621
Stem sawflies,
Spinach
leafminer,
Spinneret,
Stenocolus
107, 109,110,
Spirostreptida,
camel, 135
cellar, 112, 116, 123
classification
cobweb,
of, 111
Spirobolida,
spledidus,
129, 129
Stenopelmatidae,
unforms,
Spongillaflies,
638
203
442
Spring cankerworm,
628
Springtails,
152, 156, 162, 169,170,
171
parasites
Sprites,
reproduction
and development
of, 109
sea, 135
silk sac, 109
spitting, 112, 123
stridulation
of, 109
structural
characteristics
of, 106,
206
Spruce aphids,
argenteomaculatus,
270
604
Stenopona, 652
americana, 655
Stenoponiiae,
Stephanoidea,
spretulus, Ataenus,
219
stercorea, Typhaeca,
Sterilization
medically
of, 132,532,537,549
212, 214,219
Stenopelmatus,
Stenopis, 576
Stephanosomatidae,
Spreading
Spreading
604
702
lamp-shade,
111, 114
Iynx, 112, 118, 121, 127
nursery-web,
412
442, 443
106
598
Spreading
butterflies,
important,
Spondylinae,
421
445
Stenomatinae,
Geotrupes,
Spondylis
scutellaris,
Stenocorus,
7, 8
spoliatus, Dromogomphus,
Spondylidae,369
112, 114
482, 486,519
28, 28, 29
Spodoptera frugiperda,
tracheal,
splendoriferella, Coptodisca,
Spodoptera, 638
112, 118
folding-door,
111,122
730
brown
598
Spiracle
abdominal,
recluse,
427, 427
Spinach
Spiders,
Stegobium paniceum,
Stehr, EW, 579
Stelis, 544
Stemmata, 34
Stemomatinae,
inaequalis, 659
simplex, 659
697
735
Spicata, 652
Spicebush swallowtail,
Spilopsyllus, 652
cuniculi, 659
674
434
heat, 362
Stemechus paludatus,
Stemocranus
461
borealis, 316
dorsalis, 316
Stemopsylla,
652
Sternorrhyncha
parasites of, 537
Sternorrhynchara,
268, 270,282,
Sternorrhynchous
Heminoptera
parasites of, 531
Sternum, 7, 8
Stewart's disease of corn, 450
Squash
Sthenopis,
603
argenteomaculatus,
603, 604
thule, 603
Stchotrema beckeri, 671
Stag beetles,
Stagmatophora,
602
sexnotella, 609
Stictocephala bizona,
Stictopleptura, 445
Stagomantis
stigmatis,
Stalk-eyed
stansburyi,
carolina, 260
flies, 674, 735
Tricrana, 439
Euxesta,
307,308
738
Stigmella, 604
Stigmellidae,
574
Staphylinidae,
368, 383, 384, 386,
409,410
Stigmelloidea,
574
Stiletto flies, 674, 725
Spilomya,
Stathmopodidae,
691
574
317
Index 857
striders
broad-shouldered water, 269, 272,
275,293
water, 271, 271
stridulation
beetle, 366,367
spider, 109
spiders, 109
striped earwigs, 236, 237
striped walkingsticks, 227, 228
strobi,Pissodes,461, 463
strobiloides, Rhabdophaga, 717
strongylophthalmyiidae, 674
structure, 5, 5
Strymon melinus, 623
stylate antennae, 19
Stylogaster, 736
stylopidae, 669, 670, 670, 671
Stylops pacifica, 671
stylus, 9
subalare, 10, 15
flight and, 14
subalare muscles, 14, 15
subaptera, Trichomalopsis, 530
subbifasciata, Sphyracephala, 735
subcoleoptrata, Nabicula, 295
Sub costa vein, 12
subcoxa, 10
subesophageal ganglion, 30, 30
subfamily names, 57
subfuscus, Phygadeuon, 525
subgenalsulcus, 15, 16
subglaber, Myrmex, 461
subimago, 181, 191
suborder, 56
subphylum, 56-58
subspecies, 52, 57, 58
subterranea, Mycetaea, 433
subterraneus, Scarites, 402
subvirescens, Tomosvaryella, 727
succinctus, Largus, 301
sucking mouthparts, 20
sugarcane borer, 617
sugarcane leafhopper, 316
sugaring, 753
sugar maple, 133
Suioestrus, 732
cookii, 733
suis, Haematopinus, 359, 362
sulcatus, Oriorhynchus, 462
sulcifroms, Tabanus, 722
sulcus, 7
epistomal, 16, 17
occipital, 15, 16
subgenal, 15, 16
sulphur butterfly, 48
sunscopions, 135
858
Index
Synoeketes,
86
Tagma, 5
abdomen,
Synopeas, 537,538
7-9
Syntectidae, 482
Syntexidae, 482
head, 14-23
thorax, 9-14
Syntexis, 490
libocedrii, 518
Syntomidae, 575
Syrbula, 216
Syrphidae,
parasites
574
Tanaoceridae,
211, 214,215
Tanaostigmatidae,
Tangle-veined
Tanhypezidae,
674, 700
Tanuderidae,673,707
Tanyderidae,
Tanypezidae,
Syrphus
torvus, 728
vittafrons,
Talaeporiidae,
Tamarix, 325
Tanypteryx
729
hageni, 202
tapetzella, Trichophaga,
Tapeworm, 659
Tarantulas, 111, 122
System
circulatory, 27
digestive, 23
endocrine, 35
excretory,
tarquinius,
26
35
respiratory, 28
tracheal, 28
Tarsopsylla, 652
Tarsus, ll, 11
Tawny skipper,
Taxon,56
Systema Natura, 58
52-56
phylogenetic,
Feniseca, 623
internal reproductive,
nervous, 30
Systematics,
605
53
620
Taxonomy, 56
Techypachidae,
368
T
tabaci, Thrips, 339
Tabanidae, 540, 673, 675, 686,
720, 721
Tabanomorpha,
673, 719
Tabanus, 675, 720
atratus, 721, 721
Tegmina, 234
Teig pruner, 441
Teineola bisselliella,
605
537
Telephoridae,
369
quinquevittatus,
722
sulcifrons, 722
tabidus, Trachelus, 519
Tachardiella, 327
Temperature
Tachinidae,
thoreyi, 202
Tachyerges, 459
Tachygonus, 462
Tactile sense, 31, 31-32
241,241,243,244
Taeniopteryx, 242
nivalis, 241
Taeniothrips
nconsequens,
virescens, 428
body, 30
sense of, 34
tenax, Eristalis,
728
Tendipedidae,
673
Tenebriodes sp., 428
Tenebrio molitor, 27
Tenebrionidae,
369, 372,376,
436,437
Taeniaptera, 696
Taeniopterygidae,
taeniorhynchus,
Temnochila
Tenebrionoidea,
369
Tenebroides mauritanicus,
tenebrosa, Diara,
Aedes, 711
335, 335, 336, 338
tenebrosa, Diarca,
428
418
419
393, 436,
Index 859
Termitidae,
257
Termitophiles,
86
Termopsidae,
255, 256
Terrapin scale, 327
Terrestrial turde bug, 303
Tersilochus conotracheli, 525, 526
Tertiary period,
154, 155
318, 321
674
Tetanoceridae,
674
Tethina, 703
Tethinidae, 674,703,
Tetracampidae,
704, 741
Tetragnathidae,
125
Tetraleurodes mori, 318
Tetramesa, 533
maderae, 529
tritici, 529
Tetrangnathidae,
Tetranychidae,
Tetranychus
132
canadensis,
133
Tetraopes, 445
tetraophthalmus,
445
tetraophthalmus,
Tetraopes, 445
Tetratomidae,
369, 400, 434
Tetropium, 444
Tettigidea lateralis, 218
Tettigonidae,
209,210,
Tettigoniidae,
211,211
key to subfamilies
of, 219
526
311
Meconema,
222
270
308, 538
theliae, Crovettia,
538
Theliopsyche, 569
corona, 562
Theliopyschie
sp., 561
Thelytoky, 39-40
Themira, 699
Theraphosidae,
Thyanta
custator, 304
Thyatiridae,
575
Thyatirinae,
Thylodrias,
590, 627
425
Thynnidae,
483
Thyorybes pylades,
Thyphocybinae,
Thyreocordidae,
Thyreophoridae,
Thyrididae,
619
311
302, 303
674
575, 591,592,
Thyridoidea,
609
575, 616
Thyridopteryx,
588
ephemeraefonnis,
Thyris, 591
lugubris,
Thysanidae,
609
482
Thysanoptera,
159, 162, 333, 335
c\assification
of, 335
collecting
and preserving,
339
ostiniodes,
341
collecting
and preserving,
180
108
tibialis, Microgaster,
Tibicen
chloromera,
524
305
pruninosa, 305,305
Tibio-tarsal joint, 12
Ticks, 129
dog, 131
fowl, 131
hard, 131, 131
Ixodida, 131
soft, 131, 131
Tiger beedes,
227, 228
539
Timothy billbug,
Tinagma, 599
obscurofasciella,
459, 461
606
Tinigidae,
--
860
Index
Tinobregmus, 311
vittatus, 312
Tiphia, 513
popilliavora, 547,548
Tiphidae, 483, 484, 511, 513, 514,
516,547
Tiphids,
547
Tiphiinae,
28, 28-29
open,28
Trachclus tabiduss, 519
Tracheoles, 28
Trachymyrmcx, 553
Tramea, 205
547, 547
Tiphioidea,
Tracheal system,
closed, 29
520
Tipula, 681
Tipula sp., 707
Tipulidae, 673, 681, 682, 705, 707
Tipulinae,
Traps, 763
flight-intercept,
753
light, 751, 752
Malaise, 751, 752
707
Tipulomorpha,
673
Tischeriidae, 574,599, 601, 605
Tischeroidea,
574, 577, 604, 605
Trap-door
spiders,
malaise,
malifoliella, 605
Tisherioidea,
574
Titaniidae, 674
open-topped
112, 126
laricis, 631
vcllida, 631, 631
Trench
fever, 362
snout beetles,
369,
370, 451
Tribolium,
599,600,
436
673
gibbosa, 427
Trichodes nutalli, 429
Trichogrammatidae,
Trichomyiinae,
tl-,:'~~'Y or'~'
~_
000.'"
1,
482, 485
Trigonalyoidea,
Trimenoponidae,
Nola, 640
tritici, Frankliniella,
416
..
521
Trichiotinus,
Trichoceratidae,
cylindicollis, 443
/.'~~;.-'_ !,~"."~ ::-: ~ f;...l'.~;""1""".'ifJt
ol.; i.t";
.~ 1IJ.\;'\'J~~t!,.,' tN!: 'J.
Trigonalyids,
Tortricoidea,
521
Trigonalyidae,
triquetrana,
326
Trigonalyid,
confusum, 437
Trichadenotecnum,
347
Trichodectidae,
573, 574
212, 218
Sapcrda, 445
Tripludia, 638
tripunctata, Obera, 441
297
Trichoceridae,
673, 681, 681, 707, 707
Trichodectes canis, 362
603,615
moths, 523
tridentata,
Trepidariidae, 674
Tooth-necked
fungus beetles,
424,424
Tortricid
Tortricidae,
112, 127
212, 223, 224
jlavescens, 174
Tomosvaryclla subviresccns, 727
Tooth-nosed
buffalo, 307
449
Tomoceridae,
Tomocerus
Treehoppers,
735
snowy, 222
Tomato, 635
Tricodes, 428
Tricogen cell, 31
tricolor, Isotomurus, 172, 173
Trechaleidae,
Tree crickets,
Tolype, 631
Trichosirocalus, 462
Travertine
Tobacco,449,539,635
Tomatoes,
343
clarus, 354
Trichopsylloides, 652
oregonensis, 658
Trichoptera, 153, 154, , 163,558,573
characters used in identification of,
561,561,562,564
classification of, 560
collecting and preserving, 569
key to families of, 563, 565
references on, 570
Trichord sensila, 32
tricolor, Latheticomyia,
554
Tisheria, 599
Titanoecidae,
111, 113,120,122
Trichopsocus,
Trichopsocidae,
342, 347,354
339
Boisea, 301,301,302
Trixagidae, 369
Trixagus, 422
Trixoscelididae,
675
Trochanter,
11, 11
Trochantero-femoral
Trochantin,
10
Trochoplusia
Trocobaris
joint,
ni, 637
mucorea, 462
trinotata, 461
Troctomorpha,
345, 351
12
Index
Trogidae,
368, 370,373,412
Trogiidae,
346, 351
Trogiomorpha,
Trogodenna
genus, 58
holotype, 58
346
granarium,
Trogondimmus
Trogossitidae,
species,
425
belfrage,
35, 36
Tropduchidae,
Typocerus,
368, 405
445
deceptus,443
U
Uchneumonoidea,
Trox, 373
703, 738
674
Trupneidae,674
Trypetidae,
ullmanae, parrellathrips,
ulm, Fenusa, 518
674
Tryphoninae,
520
Uenoidae,560,563,564,569
scabrosus, 412
Trupaneidae,
315
Typhus, 362
scrub, 133
Tropotaxis, 63
Trout-stream
beetles,
58
225
Trogoxylon paralleloppedum,
troilus, Papilio, 621
Trophallaxis,
254
Trophocytes,
Types
341, 345,351
Trogium pulsatorium,
ulm, Lepdosaphes,
525
337, 338
324, 328
Trypoxylon, 540
clavatum, 541
politum, 541
Tsetse fly, 674
Ultrasonc cleaners,
Ultraviolet,
751
Tsutsugamushi
disease,
133
Tuberworm, potato,
Tubilifera, 335
ultrona, Catocala,
755
638
611
Tularemia,131, nI
undecmpunctata
howard, Dabrotca,
448, 449
undulata,
Tullbergia,In
Tumblebeetles,
413
Tumblers, 711
Tumbling
flower beetles,
Tunga, 652
penetrans,
657
hickory,
641
Twelve-spotted
204
pcrostrs, 459
Tylidae,674
Tylodenna, 462
Tylozygus,
311
Tylozygus
bifidus, 310
Tymbals,
305, 306
Tympanal
unophila,
unipuncta,
Molanna,
organ, 33
603
637,
Uranids,
154
562, 567
Pseudaleta,
638, 639
Uranafulgens,
Urana, 587
429
unfasca, Acanthopterocetetes,
Unique-headed
skimmer,
Twisted-wing
Tychus, 454
Cymatodera,
628
628
Uraniidae, 575,587,
Uric acid, 27,27
588,591,628
Uroceridae, 482
Urocerus, 490
Urodes parvula, 615
Uroddae, 573, 574,601,615
Urodoidea, 574
Urodus, 573
Uropygi,
861
U~OAD DECALDAS
8UOTECA
862
Index
542
376
Vitellogenesis,
verbesci, Haplothrips,
Veriform larvae, 49
339
Vermilionidae,
673
Vermipsyllidae,
36
vitifoliae, Daktulosphaira,
vittafrons,
Vermileonidae,
attraction,
Syrphus,
322, 323
729
Vermispsyloidea,
652
vemata, Paleacrita, 628
Verruga peruana,
Vertex, 15, 16
vulpeculus,
Vulva, 37
708
Mononychus,
462
406
vesicularis, Eupelmus,
Vesidae, 483
528
Vespa, 513
Vespid, 521
Vespidae,
511,512,513,513,514,521,
538,549
parasites
of, 521
Vespids, 539
social, 550
Vespinae,
Vespoidea,
550,551
483, 485, 486, 520
Vespula, 550
maculifrons,
550,551
441
428
174
eyes in, 33
34
insect,
34
78, 79
33
71
sphecoid, 538
spider, 483, 549, 549
square-headed, 542
stephanid, 520
thread-waisted, 482, 485, 540
tiphid, 547, 548
vespid, 521
weevil, 540, 542
wood,482,488,490,
519,522
Water, for caged insects, 771
Water base
for s!ide mounts, 762
Water beetles
burrowing, 368, 405
craw!ing, 368, 405, 405
long-toed, 420, 420
Water boatmen, 270, 290, 290
Water bugs
giant, 269, 289,290
ve\vet, 279, 290
Water fleas, 138
Waterleaf families, 608
Water liIy leaf cutter, 618
Water measurers, 269, 292, 292
Water mites, 133
Water-penny beetles, 368, 375, 390,
391,420,421
Water scavenger beetles, 368, 386, 406
Waterscorpions, 269, 289, 289
Water striders, 271,271
Water tigers, 405, 406
Water treaders, 269,292, 292
waubesiana, Hydroptla, 559
Wax moth, 617
Wax scales, 270, 326
Chinese, 327
Oak,325
Webbing clothes moths, 605
Webspinners, 153, 155, 156
Web-spinners, 211, 247
collecting and preserving, 249
key to fami!ies of, 248
references on, 249
Web-spinning sawflies, 482
websteri, Aroga, 611
websteri, Asphondylia, 718
Webworms, 608
burrowing, 605
mimosa, 615
parsnip, 608, 609
sod,617
Weeds, 301, 302
Weevils
bean stalk, 463
broad-nosed, 458, 460, 461, 462
broad-nosed bark, 457, 458, 462
Index 863
370,451,
spread
thorax
451
Winkler
Winkler
pea~shaped,
Winter
370,451,
452, 453
positions
and, 9
of, 757
13
Wireworms,
sweet potato,
toad, 462
woglumi, Aleurocanthus,
453, 453
529
Wheat
Wheat
Wheel
bugs, 297
Whipplei,
Yucca, 609
Whipscorpions,
102, 103, 104, 105
micro-, 102, 103, 104, 105
short-tailed,
tailIess,
318
607
516
516
walkingsticks,
Wings
articulation
attachment
muscles
617
227, 228
:>18
x
XA mixture,
761
Xanthogaleruca
to thorax,
Xanthotype,
Xenopsylla,
13
in, 14
of, 14
notal processes
615
Wolves
fIeas of, 659
Wood,417
Wood-boring beetles, 519, 537
parasites of, 520
parsites of, 522
predators of, 433
Wood-boring Coleoptera, 524
Wood-boring insects
rearing,772
rearing of, 772
Wood gnats, 673, 715
Wood nymph butterfIies, 626, 626
Woodpeckers, 658
Wood rat
fIeas of, 658
Wood wasps, 482, 488, 490,519,
522,524
incense-cedar, 482, 518
parasitic, 482, 488, 489, 490, 519
xiphydriid, 522
Woolen fabrics, 605
Woollybear caterpilIars, 641
Woolly oak gall, 535
Worker ants
parasites of, 522
Workers
ant, 79
bee,80,80
termite, 77, 253,253, 254
Worm lions, 673, 721
Wounded tree beetles, 369,424
Wrinkled bark beetles, 368, 378,
401,402
fIexing mechanisms
location of, 9
movements
Wockia asperipuntella,
Wheat,
422
luteola, 449
589
652
Xestobium, 366
rufovillosum, 427, 427
Xestocephalinae, 311, 314, 315
Xestocephalus, 311
Xiphocentronidae, 560, 565, 566
Xiphosura, 100, 102, 102
Xiphosurans, 154, 155
Xiphydria, 489, 490, 519
Xiphydriidae, 482
Xiphydriid wood wasps
parasites of, 522
Xlophagomorpha, 719
Xyelecia, 516
Xyelidae,489,490,490,
516
Xyeloidea, 482
Xylastodoris luteolus, 270, 293
Xylocopa, 545
vlxinica, 545
Xylocopidae, 482, 487, 493, 602
Xylocopinae, 545
Xylodopa, 487
Xylomya, 688
Xylomyidae, 673, 686, b719
Xylophagidae, 673, 682, 686,
719, 720
Xylophagomorpha, 673
Xylophagus, 688, 719
Xylophids,719
Xylopinae, 545
Xyloryctes jamaicensis, 415
Xyloryctidae, 574, 609
xylostella, Plutella, 608
Xylphagidae, 673
y
Yellow-faced bees, 482, 543
Yellow fever, 713
Yellow fever mosquito, 772
Yellow-headed cutworm, 637
Yellow jackets, 483, 549, 550
Yolk
embryonic formation of, 43
Yolk proteins, 36
Yponomeuta, 607
padella, 607
Yponomeutidae, 574, 601, 602,607
Yponomeutoidea, 573, 574, 607
Ypsolopha, 607
Ypsolophidae, 574, 597, 600, 607
Yucca moths, 604
yuccasella, Deoclona, 609
Yucca whipplei, 609
Z
Zanolidae, 575
Zarphopalus inquisitor, 527
-864
Index
arthropods,
Zootermopsis, 256
aevadensis, 256
Zopheridae,369,394,435
Zeugloptera,
573
Zeugophora, 445
Zeuzera pyrina, 613
Zeuzeridae,574
Zodariidae, 112, 118, 126
zonella, Aptania, 564
81
angusticollis, 256
Zopherus,
Zoraptera,
435
153, 154, 156, 161, 165,250
collecting
references
and preserving,
on, 251
250
Measurement Tables
Metric to English
Englishto Metric
Length
1 mm = 0.03937in
1 m = 39.37in = 3.28083ft = 1.0936yd
1 km = 3280.833ft = 0.62137mi
Length
Area
1 mm2 = 0.00155 in2
1 m2 = 10.76387 ft2 = 1.195986 yd2
1 hectare = 2.471 acres
Volume
1 cm3 = 0.0610 in3
1 m3 = 35.315 ft3 = 1.3080 yd3
lliter = 1.05671 qt
1 in = 25.4001 mm = 2.54001 cm
1 ft = 304.8 mm = 0.3048 m
1 yd = 914.4 mm = 0.9144 m
1 mi = 1609.35 m = 1.60935 km
Area
1 in2 = 6.452
1 ft2
cm2
= 929.088
cm2
1 yd2 = 0.8361 m2
1 acre
0.40469
hectares
Volume
1 in3 = 16.387
Weight
cm3
1 ft3 = 28,316.736 cm3= 0.02832 m3
1 yd3 = 764,551.872 cm3 = 0.765 m3
1 g = 0.03527 oz
1 kg = 2.2046 lb
Weight
Speed
1 oz = 28.3495g
Ilb = 453.5924g = 0.45359kg
Speed
1 ftlsec = 0.3048 mlsec
1 mph
= 0.447
mlsec
= 1.09728 kmlhr
= 1.6M35 kmlhr
THOMSON
BROOKS/COLE
nuu
ISBN 0-03-096835-6
Visit Brooks/Cole online at www.brookscole.com
rrr