6/6/2010

FULA HISTORY & CULTURE

Ambakisye-Okang Quaashie Nantambu Olatunde Dukuzumurenyi, PH.D.

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The Fulani People
The Fulani people call themselves Fulve*
(Pullo, in singuler).They were originally
nomadic herders, traders and farming people
living throughout West Africa. Today the
majority of fulani people live urban centers.
While their origins are disputed, Arab writers
recorded their existence over 1000 years ago.
However experts believe that they originated
from a region that occupied the present day
Northern Senegal. Over the centuries, they
migrated with their cattle to occupy vast
areas in the Sahel and Savannah regions of
West Africa and evolved into many subgroups
with a variety of designations including Fulve,
Jelgove, Gurma, Gorgave, Fellata, Fula,
Fulakunda, Bororos, Wodaabe, Peul, Pulaar,
Halpulaar, Liptaako, Toucouleur, and Tukolor.
Presently, they live in communities
throughout much of the West-Africa, from
Senegal to Cameroon and as far east as
Sudan and Ethiopia.The fulani range covers
an area larger than continental United States
and western Europe.

Historically, the Fulani played a significant

role in the rise and fall of ancient African
empires such as Ghana, Mali, Songhai and the
Mossi states.

They greatly contributed to the spread of Islam throughout Western Africa.

More recently, slavery and colonialism dispersed Fulani throughout the Middle
East, the Americas and Europe. American history books are full of individuals of
Fulani origin who have distinguished themselves in North and South America
and the Caribbean.

Fulve have rich traditions and fascinating way

of life. They have had a significant social,
religious and political impact in West Africa.
As minorities in most of the West African
countries where they reside, the Fulani are
steadily mixing with local dominant cultures.
The phenomenon of local integration,
combined with the impact of colonization and
westernization, has slowly eroded the Fulani
language and traditions.

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If nothing is done to maintain their culture and language, the Fulani will simply
vanish in a few generations. Without an awareness of the unique richness and
formidable contribution of the Fulani traditions and without a serious effort to
conserve and sustain the Fulani heritage, their culture may be lost forever. It is
increasingly important to preserve this ancient culture. Jamtan.Com will
explore the history, traditions and many aspects of Fulani culture to promote a
better understanding of the Fulani people.
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*Note; The letter V is read as a sound close to Bh which does exist neither in
English nor in French.

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Society & Culture

Notion of a culture

The African diversity is bewildering. First, there

are some Fifty Countries, Thousand of Ethnics
groups and Tribes, Thousand languages mixed
with foreign languages such as Arabophony,
Anglophony, Francophony, Lusophony, and
Hispanophony. Then, consider the prevalent
religions, starting from the traditional ancestral
African beliefs to the monotheistic religions such
as Christianity and Islam. And finally, the entire
diversity spectrum is

super imposed on the real traditional cultures such as the Malinkes, the
Bantus, the Hausas, the Yorubas and Fulani that span several modern Africa
Countries.
How can one speak of a single culture since African culture is not easy to
comprehend?
In spite the Diversity, and the subsequent vast number of subcultures, it is
very possible to find a foundation of shared history, values, traditions,
attitudes, and ways of live that bind together a group of people and defined
them as culture.

From this diversity, several distinctions could be made

based on physical appearance, languages and religion. In
Africa and everywhere else in the world the most enduring
distinction is language. A person mother tongue is still one
of the most important indices of cultural identity and
therefore a Culture is best defined as people sharing a
common language. Such are the Fulani of West Africa who
shaa large degree of kinship Fulani are the quintessential
people of primarily West Africa that embodies all of this
diversity.

The Fulani are so scattered across West Africa that their

attitudes and sense of identity varies so considerably from
place to place. Intermarriage with various groups and the
lack of it in others cases has resulted in the variety of
modern Fulani groups. Indeed, diversity is an separable
part of Fulani's past and present traditions. The variations
manifest them selves in their physical features, their social
structure, their settlements and their daily occupation.
However, their pastoralism, their cultural concept of
Pulaagu and their religion have helped them maintain their
distinctiveness.re language, history, ways of life and They
are also held together by a common language, although
this is being rapidly lost. Religion plays an important
part in

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their live but it is their common background and history and their resilience in
surviving in the hash Sahel environment which are really their strongest
attributes. Indeed many Fulani suffered greatly in the drought which affected
the Sahel region of West Africa during the 1970s and 1980s. But even when
Fulani are forced to settle, many of their attitudes to life, their beliefs, an much
of the social structure acquired during the pastoral period, survive.

The Fulani were originally nomadic

herders, traders and farming people
living throughout West Africa. While
their origins are disputed, Arab writers
recorded their existence over 1000
years ago. Over the centuries, they
migrated with their cattle to occupy
vast areas in the Sahel and Savannah
regions of West Africa and evolved into
many subgroups with a variety of
designations including Fulbe, Fellata,
Fula, Fulakunda, Bororos, Wonaabe,
Bauchi, Peul, Pulaar, liptaako, and
Toucouleur. Presently, they live in
communities throughout much of the
region, from Senegal to Cameroon and
as

far east as Sudan. While most commonly called Fulani in current literature,
they prefer to be called Fulbe.
Historically, the Fulani played a significant role in the rise and fall of ancient
African empires such as Ghana, Mali, Songhai and the Mossi states. They
greatly contributed to the spread of Islam throughout Western Africa. More
recently, slavery and colonialism dispersed Fulani throughout the Middle East,
the Americas and Europe. American history books are full of individuals of
Fulani origin who have distinguished themselves in North and South America
and the Caribbean.

The Fulani Social System

As mentioned earlier in the text, the

traditional social system is fairly complex.
Intermarriage with various peoples of some
groups has resulted in the variety of
modern Fulbe groups. Furthermore, the
concept of ethnic group or tribe is not a
reference for many Fulanis.
Fulanis and Africans in general traditionally
liked to identify themselves and others by
the social group titles. However, Three-tire
distinctions can be made when considering
Fulanis social systems: The major groups
and the social groups more often called

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casts. The major groups are:given in the
communities section.

The social groups are in general

The Fula or Fulani society also has three castes: The Rimbe consist of the Fulbe proper who
raise cattle and who have the political power. Three other main groups are the Neeybe who
are craftsmen including the Maabube and the Lawbe, who are also praise singers and
genealogists and mentioned below among the non-pastoral nomads. Jeyaabe or Muccube
who are the former slaves,

The Cast System

Yaya Wane in his study Les
Toucouleurs du Futa Toro
(stratification social) has divided the
Fulani society in three major Classes:
Rimbhe, Neenbhe, Jiyaabhe which can
be grouped as follow: The Traditional
occupation within the Cast System in
Futa Tooro is also provided below.

Social Groups Work Functions Titles

Social Groups Work Functions Titles

Can hold leadership in
Rimbhe-Ardiibhe village, serve as Iman, Fulbhe, Toorodbhe
etc.
Free born, noble in class
Sebhbhe, Jaawambhe,
Rimbhe-Huunbhe but generally in service
Subhalbhe
to a leader
Maabubhe-Sanoobhe,
Neenbhe-Fecciram-
Artisans, Product Waylubhe, Sakkaebhe,
Golle
Lawbhe
Neenbhe-Naagotoobhe- Wammbhaabhe,
performers, historians
Naalankoobhe Maabhubhe Suudu Paate
Jeyaabhe/Jiyaabhe Captives of war laborers Maccubhe

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The Traditional occupation within the Cast System in Futa Tooro

Tooroodo (sing), Toorodoe (Pl) leaders, Iman, Farmers

Cuballo (sing), Subalbhe (pl) The Subalbhe. Specialized in fishing and river matters.

Jaawando (sing), Jaawambhe (pl) Courtesans, diplomat intermediaries

Tooroodo (sing), Toorodoe (Pl) leaders, Iman, Farmers

Cuballo (sing), Subalbhe (pl)
Jaawando (sing), Jaawambhe
(pl)
Ceddo (sing)
Baylo (sing), Sebhbhe (pl)
Mabe (sing) Maaabubhe (pl)
Labbo (sing) Lawbhe (pl)
Sakke (sing) Sakkebhe (pl)
Gawlo (sing) Awlubhe (pl)
Bammbaado (sing)
Wammbaabhe (pl)
Maccudo (sing) Maccubhe (pl)
The Subalbhe. Specialized in fishing and
river matters.
Courtesans, diplomat intermediaries
leaders, courtesans, support position to
leaders
leaders, courtesans, support position to
leaders
Weavers and Pottery makers
Woodworkers
Leathers Workers
Singers, genealogist Griots
Griots, Guitarists
Servants, entertainers

Explication of major social groups below

They have four main branches, each descending

from a common ancestor, the Wollarbe or
Dayebe, the Ouroube, the Yirlabe or Yillaga and
the Ferobe. But normally the Fulbe identify
themselves by their local territorial lineages.
Within these there are the migratory groups they
belong to, which are led by an ardo or 'guide'.
The Fula or Fulani society also has three castes:
The Rimbe consist of the Fulbe proper who raise
cattle and who have the political power. Three
other main groups are the Neeybe who are
craftsmen including the Maabube and the Lawbe,
who are also praise singers and genealogists and
mentioned below among the non-pastoral
nomads. Jeyaabe or Muccube who are the former
slaves, some of whom are weavers among the
Tukulor, also described below.

Other descriptive terms used of various groups are: Fulbe Mbalu or Sheep Fulani are small
groups in various countries herding sheep rather than cattle. Fulbe Ladde or Na'i or Bush or
Cattle Fulani are found in different areas. There are a few clans that are completely

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nomadic, with grass or mat huts. Many migrate between rainy season and dry season
villages. Some are semi-sedentary, and rely on the crops of the surrounding farmers. Some
are prosperous with small herds; the men migrate with the cattle for part of the year
leaving their families at home.
Fulbe Ouro or Settled Fulani, who have settled for various reasons such as farming and
education, etc. In Nigeria they are called Joodiibe or Fulbe Gariri. Those that have lost their
cattle, are the poorest and despised by other Fulbe.
The influence of the Toroobe paved the way for the pastoral Fulbe to move south into these
areas for pasture.

Wodaabe (see below) have their own form of Pulaaku called Mbodangaaku that unites them
or 'holds their hands together'. A sense of responsibility to their fellow Wodaabe involving
hospitality and generosity binds them together

Divisions of Fulbe

Fulbe Waalo and Fuuta Tooro. The waalo is the floodplain on the south bank of the Senegal
River where crops can be grown as the floods recede each year during October - November.
This is distinguished from the Jeeri or Ferlo, which is the slightly higher ground south of the
Senegal River that stretches south to include the course of the Ferlo river. In its centre is
the town of Lingeer (Linguere). On the Jeeri crops can grown only in the rainy season.
The Fulbe of the Futa Tooro live mostly in La Region du Fleuve of the Department of Podor,
that is a region 250 km. long, south of the Senegal River between just south-west of Podor
and Matam to the east. The Fuuta Tooro group of the Ururbe travel the furthest from near
Njum to between Mbede and Haare Law.
The Fulbe have attempted to maintain both their pastoralism and also engage in cultivation,
for keeping one's herd is security against poor harvests. They have tended to divide the
family with the father cultivating the field and the children looking after the cattle. But
neither can be done successfully, and many Fulbe farmers and sedentary herders are being
forced to move into the Ferlo, the area of the Fulbe Jeeri, so that there is a degree of
conflict between these two groups of Fulbe.

Fulbe Jeeri: in the centre of northern Senegal and a large number of diverse lineages still
follow a semi-nomadic life, but this total possibly includes the Fulbe of the Waalo. They are
named for the Jeeri or central region of dry higher ground south of the Senegal Valley,
where most have lived since the 15th century. The Fulbe Jeeri can be divided between those
groups who live in the areas of the old pre-colonial kingdoms nearer the coast, and those on
the Jeeri further into the centre of Senegal. There are Fulbe Jeeri in Mali and probably
others in the west of Gambia.
The Jeeri is a wind-swept, semi-arid area receiving sparse rainfall, crossed by the Valley of
the Ferlo River and numerous dry valleys and river-beds which have pasture only during the
rainy season. The town of Lingeer (Linguere) forms the centre around which the various
groups of the Fulbe to be found. The Fulbe on the Jeeri are divided into two major groups
called Laccenaabe, or Fulbe of the Lacce area and the Jeenglebe or Jengeloobe. The former
has twelve clans. Some of these are related to those among the Waalwaalbe and with whom
they have contact when they migrate northwards in the dry season. The Jeenglebe consists
of three groups located south of the railway between Louga and Lingeer and southwards to
the Saalum Valley.
The Fulbe Jeeri living on the Jeeri are family groups linked together by descent, who are still
nomadic, or semi-nomadic as cattle raisers and with flocks of sheep and goats. During April
the Fulbe Jeeri plant crops of millet, peanuts and beans on the Jeeri. In the following

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months during the rains they care for their animals and maintain their camps. After the
harvest in October, when the rains are over, they move out of the Jeeri because in the dry
season the watering holes dry up. They move either to the north towards the Waalo or
south to the peanut basin, to return to the Jeeri in the following April.
This movement was modified in the 1950s when artisan wells were drilled at 30 km.
intervals on the Jeeri. The constant supply of water is making it possible to cultivate fields
where the ground was previously too dry. Sedentary Fulbe and Wolof farmers have been
encouraged to settle on the Jeeri and graze their herds close to the wells, so that the wells
near the Ferlo valley are becoming surrounded. The pastoralists are finding it increasingly
difficult to move their herds close to the water. The water from the wells does not guarantee
pasture close to the villages, as the pastoralists once found out to their cost. In the drought
of 1972-73 many Jeerinkoobe decided to stay by the wells to have water, however they
soon ran out of pasture and lost many animals.
Having learned this hard lesson, the Fulbe Jeeri have continued to be highly mobile, owning
large herds of cattle and, more importantly, sheep and goats of which they have flocks of
500 to a 1,000 animals. Since the drought, the rainfall has been better, so that in most
years, the majority of the Fulbe Jeeri are able to stay some 15 to 20 km. distant from the
wells in the dry season and get better pasture than the farmers close to the wells. This has
enabled them to adopt a semi-nomadic life style with semi-permanent camps for the
families in reach of the boreholes, while the men travel with the herds looking for pasture.
In this way the herds get the best of the pasture before the herds of the sedentary peoples,
and they only need to go to the wells every second day. This means they move camp
several times in the year to 'rotate' the herds over the pastures. But other Fulbe Jeeri
continue to be truly nomadic with the whole families travelling outside the Jeeri in the dry
season for pasture using straw huts, which that take apart to carry with them.
In the past the Fulbe Jeeri have found dry season pasture in forest reserves established by
the French to the south, where agriculture was banned. There is no pastoral alternative to
these reserves because the surrounding country is heavily populated and cultivated by
Serer and Wolof peoples

West and south of the Jeeri region there is the area once occupied by the ancient kingdoms
of Njambur, Kajoor, Bawol, Siin and Saalum. Here are other groups of Fulbe Jeeri. They are
in the region of Njambur, Kajoor, Baol, Siin and Saalum in Senegal. These have had greater
contact with the farming communities and so have more incentives to settle.

The Fulbe in western Mali are located

in Nioro and Kayes. Many of these
originated from around Podor, in the
Fouta Toro area of Senegal, but there
are other villages of Fulbe that have a
different origin. They spend the rainy
season in some thirty villages in a 30
km. radius, mostly south-west of Nioro
around Govmanwe. In the dry season
they migrate some 200 km. south-
westwards to the area north of
Bafoulabe. Others are based around
Segala and migrate southwards to the
Senegal River Valley north-west of
Bafoulabe.

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Others are found 50 km. north-east of Kayes close to Kontela. They speak Pulaar.
Maasina (Macina) and Nampala Fulbe, Mali: These Fulbe are the central part of a number of
interrelated areas of Fulbe, from Dilly and Nara through to northern Burkina Faso. They use,
or have used in the past, the flooding of the Niger in its delta in central Mali as part of their
migratory pastoralism. of the Fulbe in the Maasina region. The Fulbe live among many other
peoples, including thousands of Bella, Moors, Tuareq, Bozo, Songhai and Dogon, and the
estimate of their population may be affected by the fact that their social organisation, called
the wuro, or a residential community, often includes more than the Fulbe.
Each wuro (Fr. Ouro) is under the leadership of an Ardo, jooro or dioro who negotiates the
use of the pastures with his opposite numbers. The wuro may have several thousand heads
of cattle, so reciprocal renting of pasture between the wuros is often necessary in the dry
season, during May to July. At this time the Fulbe get permission at 'gates' such as near
J'Afarabe and Yuwaru to move into the flood plain of the Niger River to use the fresh
pasture until July.

When the river floods in the months from

August to December the Fulbe migrate north-
westwards into the Sahel, to avoid the mud
and flies during August to October, going as
far as to the south of ema in Mauritania, a
distance of over 300 km. In the 1990s many
have turned to the south into farming areas,
because of the threat of attack by the Kel
Tamasheq. They return to the Niger flood
plain in November, and so start the cycle
again. Nomadic groups include the
Cookinkoobe, Naasaadinkoobe and Sonnaabe
migrate from the north. Others have
abandoned going into the Delta, pasturing
their cattle in localised areas.
The Fulbe live in semi-permanent villages,
which also have one or two families of a
craftsman caste,

probably Lawbe or Inadan, working in work, leather, and gold and silver and also ex-slaves
called maccube, who nowadays have to be paid to do menial work, such as cultivation,
sweeping and carrying.
Jallube herders (sing. Jallo) in the Douentza or Hayre region of Mali live in camps a few
miles from villages of the Riimayde, the former slaves of the Fulbe, who are sedentary
cultivators of millet. The Riimayde were either slaves of individual Jallube or of clans; but
these arrangements were abolished in 1945. The Jallube themselves grow millet during the
rainy season and trade milk with the Riimayde for millet, spices and other goods. The
Jallube also cultivate as the Riimayde do it for them, and also herd the animals of some of
the latter.
The Jullube migrate for the dry season, north towards the Delta or southwards. Some move
the short distance to the fields of the Riimayde, the rest travel some 30 to 100 km. to the
fields of Dogon farmers. They return before the rainy season in July to September to plant
again. The men are responsible for both the herding and the cultivation of the millet. The
women are responsible for the milking. According to pulaaku Jallube fathers neither eat
with, or speak to their sons, even though the sons do all the cultivation and herding for
them, Instructions have to be passed by intermediaries.
Burkina Faso has quite a few Fulani in the north-east. Jelgoobe, Djibo, northern Burkina

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Faso. The Jelgoobe claim to be descended from two chiefdoms who migrated from Haire
region of Mali by 1750. According to their oral traditions, they arrived from Maasina in Mali,
driving the cattle of the Jullube in the 17th century, because of famine and the political
struggles of that region. But they did not escape these entirely, for they became in 1824 the
eastern edge of the Islamic Diina kingdom of Aamadu Seeku, based in the Maasina, but
rebelled and had their leaders killed. They appealed to the Mossi king of Yatenga, who
attempted to impose Mossi rule. The Jelgoobe threw off both until the French arrived in
1864.
They continue a very independent group. Many Fulbe have migrated eastwards to Oudalan,
Liptako, Yagha and into Niger who continue to call themselves Jelgoobe. These and other
Fulbe of different origins and varied dates of arrival are called Fulbe Jelgooji, like the Fulbe
Kelli, who became subject to the Jelgoobe. But some of the Riimaybe, ex-captives, who
possibly gaining their freedom in the conflict with the Mossi around 1834, live in the town of
Djibo and speak the language of the Mossi. The town is about 25% Mossi, a further 18% are
also Riimaybe speaking Fulfulde.
In this region 72% of the population are of Fulfulde speaking and culture, but only 44% are
Fulbe, the rest being Riimaybe former slaves, who now have independent farming
communities. The Fulbe living in the surrounding hamlets speak Fulfulde and insist on
keeping cattle to have status as cattle owners in the Fulbe tradition. Many migrated south
during the droughts of the 1980s. But since then those that remained have prospered better
than the farming population. This has been helped by new water holes and a cattle market
in Djibo. They have a Inadan craft community, maabube - griots, living with them.
Queguedo Fulbe, to the west of Tenkodogo in south-east Burkina Faso, are an example of
small groups of Fulani who are settling among other ethnic groups to have a specialised
pastoral role. They came from Maasina in Mali and work as herders for the Mossi, as well as
having cattle of their own. While both sides profit from the arrangement, they tend to
mistrust each other, the Mossi claiming that the Fulani tend to 'lose' only Mossi cattle. The
advantages to the Mossi include keeping their cattle separate from their crops. Another
reason used to be, keeping the cattle hidden from the tax inspector! But this tax had been
abolished. These Fulbe migrate with the cattle herds, going north out of the area during the
growing season. The Fulbe also do some cultivation, but have portable houses that can be
moved.
Niger has close to a million Fulbe, including the Bororo, right across the southern part of the
country and west and north of Agadez. There has been a response of a few dozen.

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Traditions

Greetings
Greetings in Pulaar are formed from a
series of questions from what we call the
greeting sequence. The questions may be
about family, health, work, the weather,
etc., and will vary slightly depending upon
the time of day. The questions from the
greeting sequence always require one of
the standard replies: Jamtan, Jam solo, or
Ko mawdhum. Greetings are highly
ritualized, and at this point in the
conversation no one expects to hear the
truth about you health, family problems, or

whatever.
All encounters with everybody should always begin with a greeting meaning
several appropriate questions from the sequence and a handshake. It is
normally the person who arrives who should begin the greeting. In fact,
greetings could be viewed as the fulfulde equivalent to English expressions
such as Pardon me or Excuse the interruption. In other words, greetings are
the mark of politeness themselves. Foreigners who customarily fail to greet are
viewed as being very impolite.
Greetings normally take the form of one person asking several questions.
When he pauses, the other person asks in his turn. Then there may be a slight
pause and the whole thing will begin again. The length of the greeting will
depend upon how well two people know each other, how long it has been since
they have seen each other, and upon the respective age and status of the
persons involved.

Finally, you should notice some of the

body language, gestures, and tone of
voice which go with greetings. When
you are meeting a stranger or someone
older than yourself, it would be
considered impolite to look him or her
directly in the face. Instead, greetings
are often mumbled quickly and in a low
tone of voice, with the two participants
looking at the ground. To Americans
this attitude seems to signal disinterest
in what one is doing. But in this case it
actually means the opposite. It simply
means that you are showing respect for
the person you are greeting. (See also
Family)

(Adapted from: Introduction to Pulaar by Sonja Diallo)

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13 | P a g e
Politeness

You will find the concept of being polite is something

quite different from what you are accustomed to. For
example, there is no real Fulfulde/Pulaar equivalent
for the English expression thank you. A jaaraama can
be used as thank you, but it is used much more
sparingly than the English expression. In your day to
day contacts with people it is simply not necessary to
automatically use expressions such as excuse me,
please, pardon me, thanks, I'm sorry to bother you
but..., etc. The nearest Pulaar equivalents to these
expressions tend to be reserved for a more serious
and important context. They are not used every time
one interrupts another person. (In fact, the whole
concept of interrupting is an American concept in
which we express the

cultural value that time is money, and in which we try to minimize daily human contacts to
a business rapport.)
In English we probably would have said Excuse me, but could you piease show me where
the road is We would have marked the sentence several times with words of deference and
politeness. We must show the other person that we know we are interrupting him, even
bothering him. That is our formulaic way of being polite
On the other hand, in Fulfulde/Pulaar it is perfectly polite to simply state a request. People
expect all sorts of human interactions during the day. There are, however, certain very
important signs of respect and politeness which Americans tend not to recognize at first.
Most important is, once again, the greetings. Correctly greeting people is one of the most
important signs of respect that you can show them. You should never ask anybody for
something without greeting them first.

Politeness is a very important and admired behavior in

Fulani society.That behavior must be transparent in all
social interactions including greetings, exchanges, and
conversations.People are very sensitive to looks,
attitudes, and communications styles. A polite behavior
is specially expected between young and older. Some
attitudes that are frowned upon include starring at an
older person and talking back.
In order to develop the complex web of social
relationships which will make your stay in any village
or town enjoyable, you should get in the habit of not
only greeting the people you happen to run into on the
Street or in business, but also of deliberately going to
visit someone you haven't seen for a while for no other
purpose than to greet them. Passing by someone's
house even for only five minutes will please them
enormously.

Secondly, it is not considered impolite to interrupt

others by greeting them when you arrive, even if they

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are talking between themselves. In fact, to enter a
room and fail to greet everybody(including shaking
hands) would be seen as rude. Also, always
acknowledge the presence or arrival of someone else.

You should not simply walk past people, even if you have already greeted them earlier.
When someone else comes into your presence you can always say A arli. When you arrive,
you can always say Mi artii (I have returned). (Adapted from: Introduction to Pulaar by
Sonja Diallo)

Daily Planning
(See also Education)

Telling time by the hour and the minute is

something which Pulaar don't probably have
much use for. However, people mark the
times of the day either by noting the
position of the sun or by the five Muslim
prayers which are called out from the
mosque. The times of day which (subaka,
weeti, kilkilde, jamma, etc.) are units of
time more or less measured by the position
of the sun. This is one factor that divides
everyone's day, and people make their plans
accordingly. Furthermore, one of the ritual
obligations of all Muslims is to pray five
times a day at specified times. People will
therefore use these points of time as a
reference.Most educated urban dwellers,
however, use standard time.
Daily activities change according to the
season of the year. Being part of a rural
farming community will make it important to
know the yearly seasonal cycles.

Daily activities for both men and women change with the season. It is important in planning
work projects to go by seasons since people are much busier during certain seasons than
others. Periods of time which can be effectively exploited for various purposes depend upon
weather, the seasonal flow of work, seasonal migration patterns, and times of the year
when money and leisure time are available. (Adapted from: Introduction to Pulaar by Sonja
Diallo

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Holidays

The most important holidays of the

year are religious holidays. Of the
four, Koorka and Taaske (Ramaan
and Koriete) are the most
important. Koorka (from the verb
hoora, to fast) is the month of
fasting prescribed by Islam. The
month ends with a day of
celebration. called Juulde Koorka.
Haaraan, or the New Year, is the
only non religious holiday we
discuss. Maawluudu commemorates
the birth of the Prophet
Mohammad. Taaske is the Day of
Atonement which reminds

Muslims of the covenant between God and Abraham. (Adapted from: Introduction to Pulaar
by Sonja Diallo)

Culture Clash
THE AMBIGUOUS ADVENTURE by C. H. Kane
Culture clash is dangerous to the individual who
experiences it in many ways. It can cause, for
example, the loss of faith, the rejection of one's
values, and then the adoption of alien customs.
Thus, the recipient of the new foreign culture
always faces many difficulties with his own people.
As a result, this person will live isolated from his
people as they will do to him.
The culture clash problems are particularly
dangerous to some African students. This is the
case with the main character of the novel under
study here. Diallo went to Europe and learned
philosophy, science and technology. From this
point, the study of Kane's novel here is based on
the episode of initial stage of culture clash with the
first contact of Diallo (in Paris) with the European
culture.

The second stage is Diallo, the student, alien at home with a foreign culture. This culture
clash puts him in an ambiguous situation first. Then, Diallo faces the tragic death under the
fool man hands as the final main stage in the novel.

16 | P a g e
The Concept of Cousinhood

Fulani communities such as HaalPulaar of

Senegal, have instituted a unique custom
and code of conduct called dendiraagal, to
govern not only the relationship between the
members of the family and of the society but
also between members of the community
and other ethnic groups. The dendiraagal or
cousinhood, is a tool to express a friendly
and fun relationship and to induce a fun and
non-threatening interaction between people.
It aims at establishing a closer relationship
between individuals at three different
levels:the first or close level, the median
level and the extended level.
The first level concerns particularly the link
between the respective descendants of a
brother or a sister. In this society the term
cousin is applicable to the children of ones
mother's brothers or father's sisters. The
children of ones mother's sisters and father's
brothers are called brother and sister, not
cousin in Pulaar. This first level is limited
only to the family or clan. In reality two
particular kinds of privileged kinship emerge
from the definition of the cousinhood in
Fulani Society. On the other hand, these
privileged relations concern a person and his
mother's brother and, on the other hand, the
relation concerns a person and his father's
sister. The respective descendants of one's
uncle and one's aunt are called, collectively
"dendiraave" or cousins.

The second or median level, concerns the relationship of cousinhood that exists
between groups within a society of the Fulani through the patronymic of the
individuals. People who are not biologically related, but who stand in the
relationship of dendiragal because of their last names or clans : between clans,
such as between the Sih family and the Njaay family, or between Bah and
Dialo for example. See Table of Dendirabhe below.

These relationships are known as Poking fun or joking relationships. That is,
whenever cousins see one another, they tease or joke with each other. This
kind of familiar behavior may go on even between two strangers who discover
that they are cousin. In the relationship of dendiraagal, there is a concept of
sharing and that of a leader and follower, but always in good and friendly
humor.

17 | P a g e
Table of Dendirabhe

Last Name Cousin

Bah Diallo
Sih Njaay
Jallow Bah
Njaay Sih
Kan Bah
Joop Jeng

Cultural Cousinage

Finally, at the third, extended level, dendiraagal reaches the trans-societal

level, and deals with other cultural groups. It fosters a sense of good neighbor
relation that the Fulani and their neighboring communities maintain. Fulani
People has shown a great sense of cooperation and friendship with the all other
groups they have settled with or whose land their vast herd cross during
transhumance periods. The concept of cousinhood is extended to them as
well.This has done well to avoid conflict in the regions they inhabit, and to
foster an harmonious relationship and peaceful cohabitation with the others
ethnic groups for centuries. The relationship between Fulve and Maouri in Niger
and that between Halpuular-en and the Serer are some of the shining
examples of the extended cousinhood.

Links to Fulani Cousins and Neighbors

Serer (Senegal)
Jola (Senegal)
Wolof (senegal)
Maouri (Niger)
Gobirawa (Niger)
Kanuri (Niger)
Wangarawa (Niger)
Bambara (Mali)
Dogon (Mali)
Hausa (Nigeria)
Manlinke (Guinea)
Soussou (Guinea)
Ewe (Togo)
Mina (Togo)
Kabre(Togo)
Djerma (Niger)
Arabs (Chad)
Gorane(Chad)
Fon (Benin)
Adja(Benin)
Yoruba (Nigeria)
Baya (Central Afrique)
Mandjia (Central Afrique)

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Gurunsi (Burkina)
Senufo(Burkina)
Lobi(Burkina)
Bobo(Burkina)
Akan (Cote D'Ivoire)
Mandinka (Gambia)
Sarakhule (Gambia)
Akan (Ghana)
Moshi-Dagomba(Ghana)
Ga(Ghana)
Ewe(Ghana)
Balanta ( Guinee Bissau)
Manjaca( Guinee Bissau)
Mandinga( Guinee Bissau)
Mande (Mali)
Songhai(Mali)
Tuareg(Mali)
Moors (Mauritania)
Harateen(Mauritania)
Arabs (Sudan)

For more information click le following link:

http://www.uiowa.edu/~africart/toc/people.html

Fulani Pathways
Pulaaku

Central to their life is their code of behavior

called Pulaaku, which enables them to
maintain their identity across boundaries and
changes of life style. Pulaaku has been
described as 'Fulaniness' , decorum, good
manners, and pastoral chivalry. Pulaaku
involves important virtues such as, munyal,
which is patience, self control, mental
discipline, prudence; semteende which is
modesty and respect for others, even for
enemies, and also hakkille, wisdom,
forethought, prudence in managing his
personal affairs and giving hospitality.

The Pullo, as the Fulani call themselves, is trained to be stoic, never to show
his feelings. He is disciplined, thoughtful and proud but respectful. He also
tends tohave a deep emotional attachment to cattle. It means that one is a
better person if one is self-sufficient and relies on few personal possessions
and comforts.

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Pulaaku implies that one can
manage onself well and also that
one can manage one's herd well.
The Pullo or Fulbe male sees his
people as having a priestly role to
maintain the triangular
relationships of interdependence
between himself, his wife and
family, and his cattle. Indeed,
many Fulani groups give to their
cattle individual endearing
names.His cattle give a man milk
and prestige, and is treated like an
extended family rather than just
an economic asset.

In return he gives them pasture, water and protection. The wife contributes
food preparation, dairy production and fertility. Therefore the man has both
skill as a herder but also wisdom and character to fulfill his responsibility.

To appreciate the moral principles governing the Fulani life, one must have a
deep understanding of the notion of Pulaaku or Fulaniness. Pulaaku along with
their cattle, language and religion, is the basis of their extreme pride or
dimmaaku/dimaanku. As Riesman (1977:128) say, Pulaaku is an exact
structural equivalent of the English word chivalry and, like it, designates at
once certain moral qualities and a group of men possessing these qualities. It
is both the appropriate code of Fulve behavior and simultaneously refers to the
group of men who embody it.

The dominant traits of Laawol Pulaaku or the Fulani way are munyal, hakkiilo,
semteende, sagata and an intimate understanding of both the Fulfulde
language and people.
Munyal is a cross between strength and courage in adversity and a stoic
acceptance or endurance of the supposedly pre-ordained vicissitudes of life. It
is often translated as patience.
The word hakkiilo (hakkille) (intelligence or common sense) conveys a blending
of prudence and shrewdness in livelihood management and face to face
encounters. Semteende (shame) is best described both as a lacking of
restraint (gacce/yaage) and self-control in daily social interaction, and
evidencing a weakness when facing adversity (Riesman 1974). It is most often
translated as shame. The French term pudeur or informed sense of decency is
closer to the mark. In essence it represents any revelation of weakness or non-
conformity to the code of pulaaku. When someone acts shamefully Fulve say o
sempti meaning they shamed themselves, or alternatively, o alaa semteende
(o ala gacce) meaning they have no shame. In other words a pullo must know
of the social constraints on behavior and be able to avoid contravening them in
all situations, especially in front of his in-laws. But not having semteende a
pullo would escape from social constraints. A true pullo is in total control of his
emotions and impulses (Kirk-Green, 1986).
Semteende, is also a lack of pulaaku (or even a fear of lacking it) is the
motivating force for the Fulani to behave as Fulani. Without cattle it is difficult
to exhibit pulaaku and if one has no longer any cattle then one has probably

20 | P a g e
not acted as a pullo. In pre-colonial times, loss of cattle was shameful. It
implied that one was not man enough to defend his herd and by implication,
not brave enough to get some back. These days the shame is attached to
inadequate shepherding ability in the face of a degrading environment.
Sagata means brave in the senses of both courage of a warrior and hard work
of any person. It is often used to congratulate someone for their valor and
accomplishments.

More often, Pulaaku is characterized by the taste or ndaku for cows and an
intimate knowledge of cattle husbandry, self-control over physical needs and
impulses, and the choice of stimulation over comfort. One must not express
any discomfort in public, whether it be a pain, physical or moral (such as
grief), or a need (like hunger, thirst). Of course one does not enact pulaaku all
day, but for limited periods of public interaction. Thus as Riesman (1975:45-
47) maintains, there are formal and informal aspects of life and behavior and
these are not always easy to differentiate.

Pulaaku, must be passed on by each generation as high moral values of Fulve

otherwise it will disappear, which it seems to be when herds are lost and clans
break up to seek for work in the settled society. It is taught by any Rimve
relative, or perhaps by his parents and also by mawdo laawol pulaaku, a leader
of his clan. To be a true Fulani, and described by terms such as O waadi, or
banti, or teendru Pulaaku, means he not only speaks the language but knows
how to live as a Fulani.

The Fulani pathways (Laawol Fulve):

Munyal = patience, self control, discipline

Gacce/ Semteende = modesty, respect
Hakkille = wisdom, forethought, managing it's own
Sagata /Tiinaade= courage, hard work

Adapted from : Weekley, Paul, University of Western Sydney

(...Among the Fulbe Jelgobe of Northern Burkina Faso, thesis)

Initiations

Children begin to acquire knowledge of their ancestral ties to Fulani family when they
accompany and assist their parents in work and social interaction. They travel to the
farm, to market and to the compounds of friends and relatives. They are sent running on
errands to deliver yams, to fetch water, to bid a neighbor visit, to perform countless tasks
assisting in the progress of daily life and sociality. Through this participation in quotidian
existence they gain an emerging sense of the cultural environment. They learn also about
friendship and the importance of cousinhood(link to Cousinhood )Simple as it is, this rite
embodies a fundamental relationship between individual, family, cattle and land which is
the crux of personhood in Fulani society.
As children grow up they learn to have a particular kind of relationship with their bodies,
one which links their sense of their own masculinity with the ancestral traditions of Fulani.
They will wait until the auspicious moment to perform important initiations such as
circumcision, sharo, and cattle herding. Various rites and performances are specifically

21 | P a g e
aimed at somatically transmitting the knowledge of the Fulani person. Whether this
knowledge is embodied in aesthetically structured performance, such as the guerewol
dance of the Wodhaabe, or in a more arduous task such as the cattle crossing of the
Jafurabe of Mali,the performed aspects of ancestral practices are considered crucial to the
preservation of Fulani identity, and the Pulaaku.

Circumcision
When a child reaches the age between 8 and 15, he
goes trough the special ritual of circumcision. In the
Fulani society, the traditional ritual of circumcision is a
big event that required the participation of all the
segments of the society; each social class, and each
member of the family has a specific role according to his
relationship with the candidate to the circumcision.
The traditional ritual of circumcision in the Fulani society
focused on religious and cultural perspectives. It is
rooted in the belief in the myth of androgyny, in the
primitive animist societies where the ritual was required
for gender, sexual identity, and in the strong belief in
the Sunna of Muslim societies where the ritual is
required for purification. In the past, it was done
following certain traditional rules among which the
choice of the "Selbe-coach", the
participation of the group, the isolation, the initiation for individual socialization. Here, the
ritual has many goals like fecundity, sexual determination, gender determination, and
integration into adult community. It also reinforces the Fulani values of courage, patience,
self control, and mental discipline which are the fundamental attributes of Pulaaku.
In this society, female circumcision is done in the same context as male circumcision with
which it shares the same origin, the same significance. In addition, the female
circumcision has the justification of a protection of the girl's virginity and the sexual
intercourse control.
Today, the western influences on the traditional ways of life, the advance of medical
sciences, and urbanization, have produced great changes to the traditional rituals of
circumcision. Now, the operation is done in hospitals without isolation or initiation. It is
done just for conformity. So, the traditional justifications of the ritual have lost their
values. Nowadays, the discovery of medical complications has changed the view about the
ritual, and especially the female circumcision. Throughout the world, female circumcision
has met strong opposition and has been abandoned on the whole in many societies.

22 | P a g e
Sharo

The institution of vital importance to the nomadic

Fulani, and all kinds of customs and ceremonies has
arisen around it. One such ceremony is the sharo, a
public flogging that is a test of manhood. Not all
Fulani nomadic groups observe this ceremony or
insist on it before a young man may marry. For some
it is merrily a sport, indulged in for its own sake.
Probably the keenest exponents of the sharo are the
Jafun Fulani found in Nigeria.
The sharo is a test of endurance; a youth is

expected to undergo severe flogging in public without flinching. It is normally staged

twice a year, during the dry-season guinea corn harvest and the Muslim festival of Id-el-
kabir. It may occasionally be held during a marriage, at the naming ceremony of the
firstborn child of a renowned sharo exponent, to honor a chief, or as a contest between
clans.

The sharo is a festival in its own right and attracts Fulani from far and near. It is usually
held in a marketplace and lasts for a week. Men and women gather at the marketplace all
dressed up for the occasion. Although various kinds of entertainment are available the
maidens dance, performances by well-known minstrels, and all kinds of tricksters these
are only a prelude to the main act. The young men who are to be flogged are attended by
their seconds (those who might act in their stead should they be unable to finish the act)
and surrounded by a small crowd of relatives, friends, and well-wishers. When the sharo
is about to begin, young men carrying staffs and pretending fierceness clear the ground of
spectators. The tempo of the music, provided mainly by drums, quickens; the youths cry
shrilly and recite incantations.

At this point one of the young men to be flogged comes

out and strikes a defiant pose with one leg crossed
over the other and arms raised clutching either a staff
or a mirror into which he gazes with apparent
indifference. Another young man of about the same
age and size approaches, wielding a strong, supple
cane about a half inch thick, and moves around the
victim taking careful aim. Without warning he lands the
whip heavily on the other's ribs, sometimes drawing
blood. Blow upon blow may be struck, with the victim
shouting for more. Other youths acting as referees
observe the proceedings closely, ensuring that the
blows are fairly struck. The

point, however, is that the victim does not flinch but shows utter indifference to pain and
even sneers at his attacker. If he is able to achieve this, his family and friends surround
him with joy, offering gifts and congratulations. Even the belief that the youth may have
fortified himself with charms and pain-resistant drugs does not dim the joy. He has now
displayed his manhood and is considered worthy of a wife. Incidentally, the Fulani have
herbal medicines that heal the wounds fairly quickly, leaving only scars that the youth
may display for all to see.

23 | P a g e
From The Fulani by Pat I. Ndukwe

Test of endurance an honor avec le fichier pdf

Art Society

Rock Art Paintings

Fulani art and culture is manifested in art,

dance, language, literature, folklore, music, and
even the environment. The Fulani people are
well known for the delicate decoration of
utilitarian objects such as milk bowls that reflect
their nomadic and pastoral lifestyle. The history
of the Fulani in West Africa begins in the fifth
century A.D. Islamized early on and traveling
constantly, they did not develop a tradition of
figural, sculpted art. The complex nature of art
among Fulani is widely recognized but still
understudied.. In this site the following is the
described

Like most Art in Africa, the Fulani Art shows rich traditions, histories and life
styles. Fulani's artifacts depicting the early life of the people date back to
thousands of years. The Among the most ancient of the art are the rock
paintings from Tassili N'Anger (6000B.C). Examination of certain rock paintings
in the Tassili-N'Ajjer suggests the presence of proto-Fulani cultural traits in the
region by at least the fourth millennium B.C. Tassili-N'Ajjer in Algeria is one of
the most famous North African sites of rock painting. Scholars specializing in
Fulani culture believe that some of the imagery depicts rituals that are still
practiced by contemporary Fulani people.
At the Tin Tazarift site, for instance, historian
Amadou Hampate Ba recognized a scene of the
lotori ceremony, a celebration of the ox's
aquatic origin. In a finger motif, Ba detected an
allusion to the myth of the hand of the first
Fulani herdsman, Kikala. At Tin Felki, Ba
recognized a hexagonal carnelian jewel as
related to the Agades cross, a fertility charm
still used by Fulani women.With the
disappearance of many traditions and other
aspects of African culture, works of traditional
African art are becoming more and more
scarce. Fulani artistic, combining the useful and
the beautiful, have developed diverse traditions
of Pottery, Jewelry.
Textile, and Body Adornment, such as Hair Braiding, Cicatrisation
(scarification), and Body Painting. Working generally within their own social
system or as part of gender role, the Fulani artistic has displayed a talent
admired by many people from within and outside the Fulani group.

24 | P a g e
Due to their nomadic life style, Fulani did not Manufacture their own art object
which they ordered most of time from a neighboring ethnic group such as the
Dogons, the Tuareg, and Yoruba. They also entrust members of specialize
castes with the fabrications of their object. These specialized castes include for
instance: Maabube who do Pottery and Weaving; Lawbhe who are the caste of
Woodworkers, Waylubhe the Caste of Blacksmith and Jewelers; Sakkabhe
caste of leatherworkers; Wammbaabhe caste of Griot and Guitarist and
Awlubhe caste of Griot Genealogist. Therefore, the label Fulani art may often
reflect ownership rather than manufacture.

Fulani Aesthetic

Bracelets, Earrings, Necklaces, rings, Beads, leather gris-

gris, amulets, knife handles, and sandals are decorated
with geometric designs that reflect Fulani symbolism .
Objects are tinted in bright colors of red, yellow, or white
and green, and often feature long fringes. Some of the
designs are cross ethnic: the zigzag bordered by parallel
lines, for instance, is shared by Fulani and Dogons alike.
Fulani aesthetic expression is, with exceptions, inscribed
on objects or sites of an ephemeral nature. Above all,
Fulani people are known for their mastery of verbal art
expressed in

song and poetry. They are also renowned for their elaborate art of body adornment. Men
and women alike are fond of tattooing. They wear amulets (lohol) as both protective and
decorative elements. Women wear heavy twisted gold earrings (dibi), gold necklaces
(caaka), and copper or white metal bracelets, round or open with bulging extremities, and
delicately engraved with dotted lines. Blacksmiths used to make heavy and thick anklets
that gave young Wodaabe women a "cowlike" step, much appreciated in this herders'
culture. Women from other Fulani groups wore copper or brass leg ornaments or anklets
made by the lost-wax casting process. These rings might once have served as currency.

Men's clothing includes a conical herdsman hat in red, black, and natural color made of
woven raffia and leather, with geometric design in the form of a cross, complete with a
prominent button, the "Mount of the world." Men also wear leather or baggy fabric pants,
and use woven blankets with geometric patterns. Wodaabe people are famous for
organizing male beauty contests, know as yaake or gerewol. Fulani women also specialize
in the decoration of calabashes and wooden bowls (la'al kosam). The Fulani people have a
rich heritage of crafts, including textiles, wood-carving, and mud architecture. Body
adornment and hair decoration stand out among the people's most distinctive arts.

25 | P a g e
Body Adornment

Body modification and adornment is a universal

culture. All civilizations have attempted to change
their body in order to fulfill their cultural construct of
beauty, religious and/or social obligations. The Fulani
are an exceptionally beautiful people who take great
pride in their appearance. They are known for their
adherence to tradition and fierce resistan. Ear piercing
is widely practiced piercing among the Fulanis. Ear
piercing mark the life stages of an individual and his
group affiliation. Ear cartilage piercing among Fulanis
also emphasized Beauty and Wealth. ce to any other
influences.Henna, also known as Puudi in Pular is the
painting of portions of the body using temporary ink
(usually a dark orange color) made from the herb
henna. The patterns of henna painting vary

from culture to culture, but in the Fulani culture black henna is used as a temporary
tattoo covering entire hands, forearm, feet and shin during weddings, baptism, and
special holidays.

In Traditional cultures people used body paint, scarification, and/or tattooing for wars,
different clans and family purposes. The most well known Fulani group who use body
panting extensively is the Wodaabe.

Hair Decoration

Gourds or Calabashes whether decorated or

not, basically fulfill practical functions in the
daily activities of the Fulani family. Cut into
contains of various shapes and sizes, they are
used for serving foods and drinks, for milking
cattle and are carriers vessels. However, the
decorated ones have additional value.
They are highly prized objects of prestigious
and aesthetic value. Used has containers for
food and drink they embellish the service; as
tools in the dairy trade they attract
customers, thereby Women generally put on
elaborate and colorful scarf around their
head. However, among young women the
care of the hair is the one aspect of personal
adornment to which they pay much attention.
For instance, during

the Diafarabe cattle crossing festival, one of the biggest Fulani festival in Mali, girls dress
up to welcome their boyfriends when they return from months herding cattle in the
desert. Most important to them are their hair decorations. They may take about four or
five days to dress their hair for the festival, about two more days to plait the braids, and

26 | P a g e
then two or three more to weave in the coins and the amber.
The hair styles are so elaborate that they are giving special names. The hair styles are
elevated to the level of pure artistic form. The hair style depends on the locality, sex, age
and social status. However, there may be preference for design which is convenient for
their household activities which involve carrying loads on their heads. (See more on PDF)

Jewelry
Jewelry has a special place among Fulanis.
Jewelry has been a symbol of status and
wealth, created to decorate and adorn and
used for trade. From Senegal in the west to
Cameroon in the east, Fulanis strive to acquire
jewelry Cudaari in Gold, Silver, Bronze, Beads,
Amber etc.., The among of jewelry worn
depends on the place the subgroup to which
they belong as well as their age, gender and
time. The necklaces, aprons, cache-sex
jewelry, denote age, status and social
condition. They were worn to attract attention
and protect against evil. Men wear minimal
jewels until their middle age. The Women
however, put on lavish style of jewelry on
them.

Amber and Beads

Fulani women are readily recognizable by their
exquisite adornments--large gold earrings
known as kwottone kanye, heavy silver rings
and bangles, and hairdos that incorporate large
amber beads, glass beads. Fulani women
generally receive their jewelry on the death of
her mother or at marriage as a dowry from her
husband. Adornment is a distinctive African way
of showing of their beauty. Cowry Shells, Beads,
Amber, Silver and gold are part of the panoply
used for personal adornments.
The cowry shell has long been a very important
element in our jewelry. As the first universal for
of currency used on the African continent, it is
symbolic of wealth. It also symbolizes the
connection of African people to each other.

Beads have played an important role in throughout Africa. While glass beads are perhaps
the most recognizable form of adornment in Africa today, these items did not receive
widespread acceptance until the fifteenth century when Europeans began importing beads
for trade purposes. Despite the widespread use of glass beads, stone and organic
materials (e.g., seeds, bone, teeth, shell, ostrich eggshell) have remained integral
components in personal ornaments throughout the country. The earliest known African

27 | P a g e
beads are disk-shaped ostrich eggshell beads that date to circa 10,000 B.C. Ostrich
eggshell beads are still used today in the creation of personal ornaments by a variety of
groups in Africa, including the Fulani.
Amber is a fossilized resin, generally tree sap, light yellow to deep brown, opaque to
translucent, which give off an evergreen fragrance when burned with a hot needle. This
will distinguish it from other amber-like beads. Amber is worn by many traditional African
ethnic groups.

The Meaning and History of the Cowry Shell

The ever popular cowry shell has

many uses and meanings. It has
shown up in the form of money,
jewelry, and even religious
accessories in almost every part of
the world. Found in the islands of the
Indian Ocean, the cowry shell soon
gained popularity throughout much of
ancient Africa, where it has been used
as a monetary unit.

Its influence, however, also spread to China, where it was used as a form of currency to
such an extent that the Chinese used its shape to form their pictograph for money! Today
excavations have found some of the money of ancient China in the form of brass and
silver cowry shells. Wherever the cowry shells were found, it seems as if they were
thought of as wealth. Spiritually,

according to African legend if you are attracted to cowry shells you could be family to an
ocean spirit of wealth and earth. It also represents Goddess protection which is very
powerful and connected with the strength of the ocean. Throughout Africa, and South and
North America, the cowry symbolized the power of destiny and prosperity. Thought of as
the mouth of Orsisa Divinities, it also is believed to have taught stories of humility and
respect.

28 | P a g e
Dress and Decoration

The Fulani are known for ther elaborate body

adornment from the striking clothes they wear with
flair, to the ponderous gold jewelry & the tribal
tattoos. Elaborate gold earrings worn by women are
an indication of wealth and status. They reflect the
importance of gold in the trans-Saharan trade

Textiles

There are several artisan castes among the

Fulani people, including the Maboube,
hereditary weavers. Their most important
traditional products are blankets, known as
Leppi Chianiadhe or khasa, which are woven
from hand-spun sheep's wool. They are six
to eight feet long, made up of narrow strips
sewn together, often with stripes and
patterns in red and black on white. Khasa are
woven to order and used by men who camp
out in the desert with their herds of cattle.
Batik and tye dye cloth of various pattern are
well known internationally. Mudcloth is also
popular among many African ethnics groups
including Fulanis. Mud dye has been used for
many centuries to pass African culture from
generation to generation.

Mud Cloth Paintings

Mud Cloth Paintings are made using an

ancient and extensive process. The
fabric is all hand spun making a
number of individual cloth strips. Each
strip of cloth is then sewn together.
The entire piece of fabric is then dyed
in tea made from Bogalon tree found in
Mali, West Africa. The tea acts as a
fixative for mud painted designs that
are hand painted using specially
prepared mud. Some parts of

29 | P a g e
the fabric are then bleached after the entire process is complete to produce the white areas

The Making of Mudcloth

The making of mudcloth is a time-consuming process, normally taking four days to a week
to complete depending on weather. Each piece is made of 100% cotton, and is completely
and totally hand-made. Normally mudcloth is made totally from scratch. The men start the
process by weaving cotton thread on a loom. The loom is normally hand-held and makes a
strip of cloth five to six inches wide. For a normal sized ( 6'x45") piece they will weave nine
panels and then sew them together. From then on the women have traditionally painted and
designed the cloth.

A mudcloth artist is much

like any western artist
dealing in a specific field.
Each concept must be taught
and learned over a long
period of time. A person
wishing to work in the art of
mudcloth has to be taught
how to make each of the
different dyes out of organic

substances, as well as how each of the substances will react with the fabric and fixatives.

The first step in making the cloth is to set it in a solution that dyes the cloth yellow and acts
as the fixative: typically this is a tea made from the Bogolon tree which is native to Mali,
West Africa. The mud designs are then hand painted onto the cloth with the tea acting as a
fixative for the mud dye. The mud used to make mudcloth is usually mixed with water and
then set aside to sit for about one year.
Using twigs or metal instruments the artist will paint the designs with the mud, being sure
to saturate the area so it will not wash out. The fabric is then washed and another layer is
applied over the first. The fabric is then dried and put in an organic solution to make the
patterns appear darker. Finally, on black and white fabric, a soda is painted on to the areas
that have no patterns. This bleaches the fabric causing it to regain its original cotton white.

The Colors of Mudcloth

A mudcloth artist is much like any

western artist dealing in a specific
field. Each concept must be taught
and learned over a long period of
time. A person wishing to work in the
art of mudcloth has to be taught how
to make each of the different dyes
out of organic Each color in a
mudcloth sheet has its own meaning.
The most traditional coloring has
been the black background

30 | P a g e
with white designs. This is typically used for story telling or the portrayal of a proverb.
Another color popular among hunters, and the Fulani people is the rust. This color is
preferred as it does not show dirt and also as it is supposed to represent the strong
supernatural powers that protect the hunter. The rust color signifies blood either from the
hunt, or from warfare. Because mudcloth is made from the soils, it has been useful to both
groups as a form of camouflage.
White mudcloth is perhaps the most difficult fabric to make as it is easy to stain with the
dye: it is typically worn by girls and women in ceremonial events. Another color rarely seen
is gray, this color is worn as camouflage by hunters. The cream color is the natural color of
the mudcloth before it has been dyed. Many of the other colors also represent meanings.
Recently many colors have been added to the traditional colors. Bright reds, purples,
yellows and oranges are all new colors that are being developed by new artists. Many
people of older generations view the newer colors with disdain as they are not made in the
traditional ways.

Patterns of Mudcloth

Mudcloth is often meant to be interpreted, and many times there are long discussions on
how the patterns should be put together. Many times there is no symbolic meaning: the
colors and patterns are simply meant to be beautiful. People often attach symbolic meaning
behin the design of their fabric.

(From http://www.adire.clara.net/francophone.htm)

Blankets and Covers of the Sahel

The Sahel, where most Fulani live, is an arid

region south of the Sahara. The area reaches
both extreme heat during the day and also can
get very cold at night. Throughout this area wool
or cotton blankets and cover cloths are used
both for warmth in the cold nights and as
protection against mosquitoes. Mande speaking
weavers (Mande, Bamana, Maninka, Mandingo,
Yarse, etc) would seem to be the most
widespread and influential producers of these
cloths, but distinctive types are also made by
the Fulani (Peul), Hausa, and Dogon among
others. All utilize a weft faced weave structure,
producing bands of designs across the cloth
strips. This appears to be an ancient technique
in the area as it is used on Tellem textile
fragments dating back to the C11th &12th

found in Bandiagara, Mali. Through the twentieth century some cloths, such as Fulani kaasa
and arkila, continued to be woven in long established designs, while many other new styles
developed to make vivid and inventive use of the full range of imported dyed cotton that
became available.
Fragment of a rare and beautiful type of Fulani wedding blanket called an "arkilla jenngo".
These spectacular cloths of up to 6 or more metres length were woven only by a few
Maabuube (the sub-group weaving clan or the Fulani) weavers primarily for use by certain

31 | P a g e
noble Tuareg families. Chiefs have used Fulani blankets for centuries to line ceremonial
litters, cloak important drums, and various other display purposes.

(From http://www.adire.clara.net/francophone.htm)

Fulani Wedding Blanket

Fulani wedding blancket display beautiful
and popular design patterns. An
interesting aspect of the textile fractal
(See box below) pattern was noted by
the famous mathematician
anthropologist, Dr. Ron Eglash: "The
weavers who created it report that
spiritual energy is woven into the pattern
and that each successive iteration shows
an increase in this energy," "Releasing
this spiritual energy is dangerous,

and if the weavers were to stop in the middle they would risk death. The engaged couple
must bring the weaver food and kola nuts to keep him awake until it is finished."

African Fractals

Fractals are characterized by the repetition of similar patterns at ever-diminishing scales.

Fractal geometry has emerged as one of the most exciting frontiers on the border between
mathematics and information technology and can be seen in many of the swirling patterns
produced by computer graphics. It has become a new tool for modeling in biology, geology,
and other natural sciences.Anthropologists have observed that the patterns produced in
different cultures can be characterized by specific design themes. In Europe and America,
we often see cities laid out in a grid pattern of straight streets and right-angle corners. In
contrast, traditional African settlements tend to use fractal structure--circles of circles of
circular dwellings, rectangular walls enclosing ever-smaller rectangles, and streets in which
broad avenues branch down to tiny footpaths with striking geometric repetition. These
indigenous fractals are not limited to architecture; their recursive patterns echo throughout
many disparate African designs and knowledge systems including : traditional hairstyling,
textiles, sculpture, painting, carving, metalwork, religion, games, practical craft,
quantitative technologies, and symbolic systems. By Dr. Ron Eglash

Habitat and architecture

The habitat ranges from simple temporary

huts to elaborate structures. Generally
nomadic Fulani women, who often are in
charge of building the family tents or
temporary shelters, weave wall and floor
mats. However, many houses and even large
buildings are built from mud bricks with mud-
plastered walls. Larger structures, such as
mosques have wooden supports built into
them. The supports stick out, giving the
appearance

32 | P a g e
of spines. The habitat ranges from simple temporary huts to elaborate structures. Generally
nomadic Fulani women, who often are in charge of building the family tents or temporary
shelters, weave wall and floor mats. However, many houses and even large buildings are
built from mud bricks with mud-plastered walls. Larger structures, such as mosques have
wooden supports built into them. The supports stick out, giving the appearance of spines.
The most famous mud building is the mosque at Djenne, a town built on an island in the
Niger river. The current mosque was built on an old site in the early 1900s.

Calabash Decoration and Wood carving

Gourds or Calabashes whether decorated or not,

basically fulfill practical functions in the daily
activities of the Fulani family. Cut into contains of
various shapes and sizes, they are used for
serving foods and drinks, for milking cattle and
are carriers vessels. However, the decorated
ones have additional value.
They are highly prized objects of prestigious and
aesthetic value. Used has containers for food and
drink they

embellish the service; as tools in the thereby performing some economic functions. They
are also an extension of the seller's appearance.

Calabashes are engraved with a combination of abstract and figural motifs and colored with
pigments. In the cow-centered Fulani culture, milk bowls are also important objects for the
household. They are used as storage containers for fresh, curdled milk and grains. An
artifact, symbol of the pastoral life and of the cooperation between men who keep the herd
and women who milk the cows, the la'al kosam encapsulates Fulani identity. Because of
their delicate chiseling, smoke-derived patina, and exquisite decorative treatment, bowls
and calabashes could be considered as the true focus of aesthetic efforts of the Fulani
people. The decorations on the calabashes are the Fulani only graphic expressions, the
truest representation of the artistic skill and vision.

Wooden masks and figures are not widespread in

Fulani society. However The caste of lawbe is
specialized in woodcarving. They make elaborate
figurines and furniture which they sell in the tourist
market. West Africa is home to many master wood
carvers. They use simple hand tools to produce
incredible works of art. Wood carvings are hand
crafted from ebony or other hard wood trees. Ebony
is an exceptionally hard and beautiful wood found in
the Sahara desert regions of Africa. Its exceptional
density makes it not only very heavy, but also gives
it an incomparable sheen when

polished. Ebony normally is brown on the outside of the tree; and black on the inside.The
carvings often come as a beautiful mixture of black and brown; as well as the pure black
wood that is most well known. Each has its own special beauty. Like any wood, ebony is
subject to drying and cracking: especially in dry climates

33 | P a g e
Brass Artwork

All brass items are made of solid

brass using the Lost Wax Method.
This is an exceptionally labor
intensive process where a wax
mold is formed by hand, over an
open fire until the mold is exactly
as intended. The wax is then
dipped into very fine powdered
mud several times; being allowed
to harden between applications;
this forms a clay casting around
the mold. The clay is then heated
until the wax melts and is

poured out of its casting. Finally, molten brass is poured into the casting replacing the old
wax mold.
The clay is then broken away from the brass; leaving a solid brass ornament. Each piece is
individually made. No two are exactly the same because the mold is broken in the process
of making the piece. These will retain their original brilliant look indefinitely as each work is
solid brass; not just plated.

Pottery

In many African societies, Pottery is used for many

functions from household use to ritual practices.
Cultural stability and the environment determine
most of the time the type of pottery used by one
culture. Fulani pottery styles are characterized by
very recognized decorations. In the Fulani society,
a special caste called Maabube do the actual
fabrication of the pot. There is a considerable
variation in the shape, the concavity, and the neck
and rim forms. Because they are difficult to handle
the pots have short life expectancies and the large
majority are transported within short distances,
making their production localize and their
distribution limited
Paintings

Apart from such crafts as Jewelry

making, bronze-casting, wood carving,
leather work, pottery and weaving, a
form of artistic expression that has
quietly gained a stronghold but has not
been given its due recognition in Fulani
painting. As a medium of artistic
expression, painting is not completely
new in the country.The two groups of
rock paintings in parts of Sahara Tassi

34 | P a g e
Najjer are the attributed to Fulani.

Body paintings and

decoration for ceremonial rites and festivals are also a common practice . The designs and
decorations used in body painting possess esoteric connotations and the human body so
painted at times in varied contours, visually becomes a really beautiful "living art piece".
Another form of artistic expression closely akin to painting that has been in practice for a
long time is the multicolored decoration of the inner and outer walls of houses with beautiful
and elaborate symbols and designs. Some of such designs have their origin in the Islamic
influence . Since Islam forbids representation Human and Animal forms, Fulani sculpture
and wood carving is not as developed as in other cultures such as Dogon and Benin.
Those who have gained prominence at home and abroad in this field within a relatively short
time include Kalidou Kasse and Sow A large number of the works of Modern Fulani painters
can be found in many galleries and private collections in Africa and elsewhere. Looking at
art as the umbilical cord between men and their culture, Kalidou Kasse has been called the
brush of the Sahel, painting pictures that have been exhibited in Germany, USA, France,
Egypt. See Slides show pictures(lvre 32)

Literature

The African Oral Tradition (see box below:

African Orature) is one of narration, poetry,
proverbs, jokes and riddles. Most of Fulani
literature is and remains oral. The Griots told
of the achievement of the braves. Fulanis are
fond of oral poetry, saying in rims stories,
riddles and proverbs.

The most striking aspect of Fulani oral poetry

is its rhythm. Indeed, rhythm is the most
important defining characteristic of African
poetry: It is its very essence. The skillful use
of numerous linguistic resources in this poetry
is obscured in English, which is insufficiently
flexible to convey many of the verbal and
aesthetic nuances of the Fulani originals. In
any case, the poet is as indispensable to
Fulani society as any other individual. Steward
and artisan of the word,

crystallizer of the people's collective memory, eulogist of the ancestors' noble deeds and
exploits, he remains the genuine promoter of cultural and social values.Source: Sow, Abdoul
Aziz. Fulani Poetic Genres.(Special Issue: Oral Literature) Research in African Literatures
24.2(Summer 1993): 61(17pp). Full text available at COCC: Infotrac 2000 Expanded
Academic ASAP Article A13891469.

On the other hand Fulani writers preferred to write in Arabic. However, when the European
languages were introduced during the colonial period, many African authors including Fulani
began writing in French, English, Spanish, or Portuguese. In 1950, Amadou Hampate

35 | P a g e
published his Peul poetry in French. Cheikh Hamidou Kane wrote the much celebrated
Adventure Ambigue in 1961.

Fulani Poetic Genres.

Abstract: The Fulani people of the northern

Senegal River have songs which fit poetic
genres. There are different songs for
fishermen, weavers, warriors, hunters, cattle
drivers, women griots, merchants, nomad
entertainment, shepherds, lullabies, eulogies,
rejoicing, mockery and special occasions. As
elsewhere in Africa, literature among the
Fulani is essentially oral and musical. It is
lyrical, and it is by its very nature literary, as
is every word that transcends the merely
denotative or communicative functions of
language. Sung, chanted, declaimed, recited,
set to rhythm, or supported by gestural or
musical accompaniment, it is magnified to the
status of art - a verbal art so pure and so
complete that writing, far from assuring its
diffusion, merely impoverishes and

weakens it by restricting its range of expression (Seydou 178) [qtd. by Sow]. The most
striking aspect of Fulani oral poetry is its rhythm. Indeed, rhythm is the most important
defining characteristic of African poetry: It is its very essence. The skillful use of numerous
linguistic resources in this poetry is obscured in English, which is insufficiently flexible to
convey many of the verbal and aesthetic nuances of the Fulani originals. In any case, the
poet is as indispensable to Fulani society as any other individual. Steward and artisan of the
word, crystallizer of the people's collective memory, eulogist of the ancestors' noble deeds
and exploits, he remains the genuine promoter of cultural and social values.By: Sow, Abdoul
Aziz. Fulani Poetic Genres. Research in African Literatures 24.2 (Summer 1993): 61 (17 pp).
Rpt. Infotrac 2000 Expanded Academic ASAP: Article A13891469. For more information
about Fulani Litterature click here

African Orature

African ORATURE Ancient writing traditions exist on the African continent,

as shown earlier in this timeline, but most Africans are primarily oral
peoples, and their art forms primarily oral rather than literary.. In contrast
to written "literature," African "orature" is orally composed and transmitted,
and often created to be verbally and communally performed as integral
part of dance and music. Oral arts and traditions of Africa are rich and
varied, developing with the beginnings of African cultures, and continuing
to flourish today.Power of the World: In traditional African cosmologies, the
spoken/performed word animating the creative process, is considered to
have special powers to evoke spiritual and communal forces and ferment
inner life. African oral arts often combine religious, artistic as well as social
functions: e.g., to convey wisdom, teach ethics and social codes of
conduct; teach religious beliefs and communal values, celebrate cultural

36 | P a g e
heroes and revered ancestors, & explain the origins, history, and
development of states, clans, and other important social organizations.
Mutere calls African oral arts art for life sake.Dr. Mutere's African Culture
and Aesthetics.

Dance and Music

What ever the tribal or ethnic group, Music
and Dance forms are at the centre of all
African arts and culture. Music plays an
integral role in the celebration of life's many
rituals and accompanies everyday activities.
The Fulani music is as varied and rich as its
people. The numerous sub-groups all
maintain unique repertoires of music and
dance. Songs and dances reflect traditional
life and are specifically designed for each
individual occasion. Music is played at any
occasion: when herding cattle, working in
the fields, preparing food, or at the temple.
Music is extremely important to the village
life cycle with field cultivation,harvest and

winnowing of millet performed to the rhythm of the songs and drums. Fulani herders have a
special affinity for the flute and violin Nianioru. The young Fulani shepherd like to whistle
and sing softly as they wander the silent savannah with cattle and goats.
The well known tunes include: Lele made popular by Samba Diop, Yela sung by women at
the drum of Gourds, and the more recent wango dance. The truly Fulani instruments are the
1 string viola of the Fulani (nianioru), the flute, the two to five string lute hoddu or molo,
and the buuba and bawdi set of drums. But they are also influenced by the other
instruments of the region such as the beautiful West African harp, the kora, the balafon.
Entertainment is the role of certain casts. The performance of music is the realm of
specialized casts. The Griots Awlube recite history of the people, places and events of the
community.

Steward and artisan of the word, crystallizer of

the people's collective memory, eulogist of the
ancestors' noble deeds and exploits, griots are
the genuine promoter of cultural and social
values. Wambaabe are expert virtuosos in string
instruments. Apart from the griots, and
wambaabe, other casts such as the blacksmith
caste (Wailuube) are masters of the drums
especially the talking drum.Though not
preeminent in nomadic Fulanis, drum buuba is
played at all occasion in more settled Fulani
societies..

Certain buuba instruments can even talk by imitating the tonal patterns characteristic of
the language
Traditional lines are being blurred by modern mobility and changes. Nowadays, Music and

37 | P a g e
dance are performed by all segments of the society, the motivation being no longer cast but
talent.

Modern Musicians

There is a growing numbers of famous Fulani

musician know all over the world. They include
Baba Maal, Demba Dia, Aisha Khalil
Baba Maal is one of African pop musician.
Maal produced great traditional records,
notably Baayo (Mango 1991), his band
releases never quite earned him the media
spotlight. The magic of Baba Maal's
exceptional musicality lies in its combination
of delicate acoustic sounds--principally
plucked string instruments from the 21-string
kora to a French folk harp--and ballsy electric
pop. Maal's sharp, gale-force voice easily cuts
through all this, keening and caressing by
turns, but never lost in the action.Malick Sow
Musician :Welnere Founder Welnere ( =

happiness in pulaar) was founded by Malick in Brussels in 1995 with three goals : be a link
between the various hapulaar (peuls or fulani) communities in Europe, let the european
public become more familiar with hapulaar music from the Senegal river and eventually
bring back to Africa a new music, being the crossbreed of african and european influences
Welnere is becoming increasingly famous in Europe (Belgium, France, the Netherlands,
Switzerland, Italy, etc.) and has released in August 98 it's debut CD "Danniyanke" on the
new Yoff label, which has been founded by Baaba Maal and Jumbo Vanrenen. Reviews of the
CD have been excellent, especially in the specialized press (World, Le Disque Africain).

38 | P a g e
Origins

Some believe that they are from a

Semitic origin. According to the
tradition, the ancestors of Fulani is
Jacob son of Israel, son of Issac,
son of Abraham When Jacob left
Canaan and went to Egypt where
Joseph was established. The
Israelites prospered and grew in
population while living in Egypt.
Fulani people descended from
them. After a long time a new
Pharaoh who did not
know about Joseph's fame in Egypt, came to power. He made the Israelites
work hard at slave labor. The Pharaoh oppressed the people, including
Fulanis who were rich in cattle. They emigrated from Egypt, some of them
went back to Palestine and Syria under Moses guidance and the other
crossed the Nile with their cattle and headed west. They took the name of
fouth or foudh meaning those who left. A group from the latter moved
along the edges of the Sahara to Touat-Air and then to West-Africa.
Those who came to Masina (in present day Mali) spread to the neighboring
regions where they were rejoined by Fulani groups from Morocco. It has
established that about 700AD, Fulani groups from Morocco, moved
southward, and invaded the regions of Tagout, Adrar, Mauritania, and Fuuta
Tooro. The cradle of the Fulani group is situated in the Senegal River valley,
where Fulanis established kingdoms. Until the beginning of the IX th
Century..Around that period they continued their migration in the regions of
Bundu, Bambouk, Diomboko, Kaarta, and Bagana
Finally those who where concentrated in the Ferlo from the XI to the XIV
century moved in various groups to the Fuuta Jalon, to the Volta river basin
, to the Gurma, to the Haussa land, and to the Adamawa, Boghirme,Ouadai

Other versions of the Fulani origin include:

a- The mixing between the proto-Berber from North Africa, and the
Bafur (the people who populated the Sahara)

b- Issued from Asiatic pastoral tribes that invaded Africa, crossed the
Sahara and dispersed through all the West-Africa Sahalian zone

c- The Anthropologists declare that the study of many Fulbe cranian

structure has indicated that they are intimately linked to the
Ethiopians and that both types are very similar to the Egyptian crane
structure. According to the eminent Anthropologist Mr. Verneau, the
Fulbe origin has to closely link the Egypt.

39 | P a g e
Genesis

The History section examines the topics

relevant to the Fulani Historical experience.
It describes their uncertain Origins, the
impact of Islam, Colonization, Slavery and
the Diaspora on their culture. Some Fulani
Historical Figures are also described
including: Usman Dan Fodio, Umar Talll, A.
Bamba, el-hadj Malik Sy, M.Diakhou Ba,
Alpha Yaya, Bocar Biro, Lamidho Bayero,
Alpha Mamadou Diobbo, Sr. A. Bello, A
Ahidjo. The overall historical Time line of
Fulani people is shown below.

The History section examines the topics relevant to the Fulani Historical
experience. It describes their uncertain Origins, the impact of Islam,
Colonization, Slavery and the Diaspora on their culture. Some Fulani Historical
Figures are also described including: Usman Dan Fodio, Umar Talll, A. Bamba,
el-hadj Malik Sy, M.Diakhou Ba, Alpha Yaya, Bocar Biro, Lamidho Bayero,
Alpha Mamadou Diobbo, Sr. A. Bello, A Ahidjo. The overall historical Time line
of Fulani people is shown below.

Origin

The early origin of Fulani People is most fascinating and shrowed in mystery
with widely divergent opinions. However, it is generally recognized that Fulani
descended from nomads from both North Africa and from sub-Sahara Africa.
They came from the Middle-East and North Africa and settled into Central and
West Africa From the Senegal region they created the Tekruur empire which
was contemporary to the Ghana empire. Then, they spread in all the countries
in West-Africa, continuing to lead their nomadic life style. They created here
and there mixed states where they sometimes were the dominant group. But
more often, they were absorbed by the indigenous population whom they had
dominated.

Early European Commentaries on Fulani Origins

Fulbe Observer's
Date Observer Situation Reference
claims claims
residence Tauxier, 29,
1785-7 Golbéry India
in Senegal 109-10
Winterbottom
journey to Judaeo-
1790s and Arab Tauxier, 29
Futa Jalon Syrian
Matthews
journey to
from
1818 Mollien Futas and Arab Voyage, 162-3
Sahara
Bundu
journeys Arab, Second
1824,1826 Clapperton
to Uqba ExPedition,

40 | P a g e
 Northern 337-8
Nigeria

journey to Last
Arab, eastern
1826 Lander Northern Expedition, 11,
Uqba origin
Nigeria 24-6
synthesis, Malaysian
1840s d'Eichtal from Arab or son of 'Foulahs
Europe Ham
residence
1842-3 Thomson Arab CMS Archives
in Futa
Nouveau
journey to Arab ,
1846-7 Raffenel voyage, 11,
Karta Uqba
310
journey to
1850 Hecquard Futa jalon Arab Voyage, 314
& Bundu
journey
distant
through Travels III,
1851-5 Barth Arab eastern
Centr. 110-15
origin
Sudan
missionary son of Western Africa,
1850s Wilson
in Gambia Ham 79
journey to Arabs
1860 Lambert Voyage, 40-1
Futa Jalon of Fez
journey
across eastern
Timbouctou,
1879-81 Lenz North and origin,
11, 266-77
West Hamitic
Africa
journey
across eastern
1887-9 Binger Niger, 1, 390-3
West origin
Africa
French
Judaeo- Haut-Sénégal-
1912 Delafosse colon. Arab
Syrian Niger. 1, 207
official

Note: For references, see bibliography. Tauxier refers to Louis Tauxier, 1937
Moeurs et histoire des Peuls, Payot.
1935 - Les races de l'Afrique, -TAUXIER (L.)

41 | P a g e
Early history

Archeologists have found stone tools indicating a

human presence dating back over 10,000 years in
Fulani regions, such as present-day Senegal and
the Gambia. They have also found clusters of
stone circles, (See Gambia Stone Circles in file
fototraite) some nearly 2,000 years old that
probably had religious significance. Archeologists
have also found iron-smelting sites dating to the
4th century C.E., indicating the development of
me
Tallworking skills among the region's people. By this time speakers of West
Atlantic languages (which belong to the larger Niger-Congo family of
languages) had probably settled in West Africa.
The late Senegalese scholar Cheikh Anta Diop discovered linguistic and
cultural similarities with ancient Egypt, indicating that most of West African
people had migrated from the Nile River valley.
The development of metal working technology by the
4th century C.E. may have contributed to the rise of
the region's first centralized state, the Tekruur
kingdom in the Senegal River valley. This kingdom
stretched across the central savanna into the Sahara
to the north. Tekruur, who was mostly populated by
Fulani, had extensive contact with peoples from
North Africa, including the Zenaga Berbers.
After their conversion to Islam beginning in the 8th
century C.E., Berbers brought Islam to Senegambia.
The Zenaga founded a monastery, probably along the
Senegal River, around 1040. This hermitage housed
an ascetic Islamic sect known as the Almoravids who
swept north and, over the course of the century,
conquered Morocco and established a Muslim kingdom in Spain. The sect's
leader, 'Abd Allah ibn Yasin, converted the Tekruur king, War Jabi, and
many of the Fulani people to Islam.
During the 13th century, as Tekruur fell under the dominance of the Mali
empire to the east. Later on through nomadic life styles and holy wars,
Fulani expanded their living range further east to Fuuta Jalon, Macina,
Bhundu, to Adamawa.

42 | P a g e
Versions of Fulani Origins
Ethnologists and others have
been provoked to seek the
origins of the Fulani far outside
their present habitat, in remote
periods and states of society,
and to describe the successive
migrations which are supposed
to have brought them into their
present habitat before
documentary evidence from the
West and Central Africa became
available. Considerable
ethnological debate has
surrounded the widely divergent
hypotheses of the origin of the
Fulani. Tauxier (1937) lists the
majority of these.

 Jewish or Syrian origin and suggested a migration westwards along

the North African littoral, southwards into the West-Africa and,
thence, in historical times, eastwards. According to Some writers
(e.g. Guiraudon, 1888; Delafosse, 1912; Morel, 1902)
 Ethiopian affinities and inferred a prehistoric movement westward
from Ethiopia into the West- Africa. According to Mollien, 1820;
Seligman, 1930; Barth, 1857-8
 Fulani were North African Berbers, According to. Passarge, 1895;
Meyer, 1897; Crozals, 1883
 Compromised between the Berber and Ethiopian theories. According
to Bayol, 1887; Machat, 1906; Gautier, 1935; Palmer, 1923, 1928,
1936) which
 Hindu Origins According toGolberry, 1805; Binger, 1892), Malayo-
Polynesian (EichTall, 1841
 Gypsy theories complete the list of elaborate surmises on Fulani
origins

The myths of the Fulani themselves do little to confirm hypotheses linking

them with events of the Classical or Near Eastern world. They often describe
the marriage of a Muslim Arab or Moor with a negro-African woman which is
blessed with children. One infant is left in the care of an elder brother while
their mother goes to draw water. It cries and is comforted by its brother in
an incomprehensible language which the mother overhears on her return.
She runs to tell the father, who takes this as a sign, predicted by the
Prophet, that the child will be the founder of a new people who do not speak
Arabic, but will be the saviors of Islam. This child is the ancestor of the
Fulani. In some versions his brothers learn the new language, Fulfulde, from
him and found the four great branches of the Fulani people. In all its versions

43 | P a g e
(e.g. Madrolle, 1885; de St. Croix, 1944) this myth relates the racial affinities
of the Fulani, their linguistic peculiarities, and their historical role in the
West-Africa.
A common version of the Origin of Fulani
common version (de St. Croix,
1944; Stephani, 1912) runs
somewhat as follows. The first
Fulani to own cattle is expelled
from a Fulani settlement. The
context of this expulsion is not
stated. He wanders alone in the
bush, enduring great hardship. A
water spirit appears and tells him
that if he obeys his orders he will
acquire great wealth and be the
envy of those who despised him.
In one version he waters all the
wild animals in turn, until finally,
in reward for his
exertions, the spirit sends him cattle to water. In another version the Fulani
is enjoined to wait patiently by a lake until the source of his future wealth
appears. The water spirit then tells him to lead the cattle away and never to
fail to light a fire for them at dusk, lest they revert to their wild state and
leave him. The settled Fulani despise the nomad and pour ridicule upon his
harsh way of life. But he takes a wife from them, and his progeny are
eventually able to pursue their pastoral existence without intermarriage with
those who spurned their ancestor. While explaining and justifying the way of
life of the cattle-owning Fulani, this myth retails a stereotype of the relations
of Pastoral and sedentary Fulani.
The search for the origins of the Fulani was based on racial and linguistic
criteria, and attempts were made to link these with Classical, Biblical, and
Near Eastern history.
Mass Migration
Although the details of these migrations may be
open to doubt, their general sense is quite clear.
The general mass movement of the Fulani (known
by one or other of their various names) within the
West-Africa has been from Senegal eastwards.
The periods at which stages of this movement
were accomplished are not so clear. It appears
that the exodus of the Fulani from the kingdom of
Tekruur in Senegal occurred in the eleventh
century A.D. (Delafosse, 1912). It is clear that by
the time of the rise of the Fulani Muslim States in
the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries the
Fulani formed more or less
substantial minorities in the various regions in which their Holy Wars were
fought, since these were in no case invasions, but insurrections. Since that
period, largely owing to the pacification of hitherto inaccessible areas by
colonial administrations, Fulani have penetrated farther into areas such as

44 | P a g e
the Jos Plateau in Nigeria and parts of British and French Cameroons. It may
be concluded that the present distribution of the Fulani was more or less
completed during a period of at most eight hundred years.
There is little doubt that the main impetus of this vast ethnic movement was
provided by the pastoral elements of the population. The transhumance
systems of the Pastoral Fulani have probably always been of a conservative
nature, involving close knowledge of the grazing potentialities of relatively
limited tracts of country. The independence of the simple or compound
family with its own herd has militated against the formation of extended
kinship groups having well-defined grazing and water rights in specific tracts
which might be defended by force. Thus herds have been maintained, not by
cattle-raiding, feud, and war, but by the continuous adjustment of
transhumance patterns to subtle changes of an ecological nature. The
resultant movement may be described as migratory drift, and it is this type
of movement which accounts for the spread of Pastoral Fulani
populations. Indeed, Pastoral Fulani have always formed minorities within
wider societies, and intolerable political conditions within these have been
countered by a more dramatic form of movement migration from the scene
of war, excessive tribute, and the like. Pastoral Fulani have remained
pastoralists, in the sense we have described, only by continuous seasonal
movement, which develops imperceptibly into migratory drift, and by
periodic migration. They have left behind them Fulani populations more
closely wedded to the soil, the semi-sedentary and sedentary populations.
Islam
The Prophet Muhammad (PBUH)
began preaching in Mecca Saudi
Arabia. After his death in 632.

Islam grew, and little by little reached lands far from Arabia in Asia, Europe, and Africa.
Islam spread in West - Africa through commerce. Timbuktu, Jenne, and Gao in present
day Mali became great cities of commerce. Both as a sedentary and as a nomadic
people, Fulanis have played an important part in the history of West- Africa. A number
of West-African kingdoms and empires had strong Fulani influence. The Fulani became
Muslims in approximately the 11th cententury AD. With the Almoravids they conquered
lands all the way to Southern Spain and destroyed the Empire of Ghana. From 1750 to
1900 they engaged in many holy wars in the name of Islam. During the first part of
the19th century the Fulani carved out two important empires. One, based on Massina,
for a time controlled Timbuktu; the other, centered at Sokoto , included the Hausa
States and parts of Bornu and W Cameroon. The Fulani emir of Sokoto continued to rule
over part of Northern Nigeria until the British conquest in 1903.

45 | P a g e
Islam and Fulani

Many West African Empires have

endured for centuries, while, others
were short-lived. Cities were
established, and within their walls
were to be found not only the pomp
of the king's court and the splendor
of his military power, but also more
peaceful manifestations of urban
culture. Some cities became centers
of Islamic learning. Most displayed
considerable diversity in their arts
and crafts, whose practitioners were
organized into guilds under the
king's patronage. Many were
commercially important, not only
gathering into their markets the
produce of the surrounding
countryside, but also maintaining a
far-flung caravan trade with
other West African cities and with commercial centers on the opposite
Maghrebine shore of the sand sea which is the Sahara. Many of the urban
populations of the West- Africa could truly be called cosmopolitan. The city
was the nodal point of the State, which more often than not was described
by the city's name. Surrounding it to a greater or lesser depth was the city's
countryside, from which produce was drawn and to which the city's products
percolated. Within this area, as in the city itself, the affluence of the State
was maintained by the arts of peaceful administration, in the levying of all
manner of tolls and taxes, the quid-pro quo of which was effective defense.

Still farther out was the zone entrusted to governors who, though often
residing in the city, were responsible for the defense of its various, sectors,
and the safeguarding of such trade routes as passed through them. Here
public administration was manifest not in tax, but in tribute, collected from
populations only loosely bound to the State. The affluence of the State did
not depend solely on the maintenance of a vigorous internal and external
trade, fostered by peaceful conditions. Apart from the trade in gold, salt,
and diverse consumer goods, one of the principal resources of the West-
Africa was its human material, in the form of slaves. These were sought in a
more distant zone outside the governors' domains, which was a no-man's-
land between one State and the next. In the Islamic era in the West Africa,
these zones assumed a dual importance and the activities of States in them
had an ideological as well as an economic impetus. They lay outside Dar-el-
Islam, the Community of the Faithful; their populations were either to be
subdued and converted and thus brought into the web of Muslim State
administration. Thus on the States' peripheries the art of government
merged into the art of war. Where the territorial interests of one State
collided with those of its neighbor, the slave-raiding column became an
instrument of aggression. Here too, ideological reasons were brought to
bear, and accusations of backsliding in the faith were used as justifications
for extending territorial claims.

46 | P a g e
Islamic Expansion in West Africa

The State was thus committed

to a ceaseless course of
expansion; trade had to be
guaranteed and tax and tribute
levied in order to support
further military endeavors in
the name of Islam, which, if
successful, brought not only
new wealth but also new
administrative problems.
This expansion was facilitated
by geographical and
technological considerations.
The savannah zone of the
West- Africa rarely affords
natural barriers upon
which a frontier line can be established. The horse was widely used in
warfare and made possible military formations of great mobility. It was
therefore not surprising that, in periods of affluence, the nominal boundaries
far outran the area which could be effectively administered, and that in
periods of adversity the periphery of the State was quickly overrun.
Moreover, at all points in the territorial organization of the State a strong
governing hand was required. At the centre, in the city, there were the
inevitable court intrigues; merchants with diverse and distant connections;
peripatetic Muslim preachers and holy men. In the countryside the pagans
were always seeking to avoid taxation. In the governors' domains, military
forces at the disposal of local commanders might be indispensable to the
State, but were equally likely to be used against the ruler. Here, too, the
tribute paying populations might be of diverse ethnic origins, with their own
local traditions and religions, eager to regain a semblance of autonomy, and
willing to ally them with any power that would help them. Outward again,
the no-man's-land was the home not only of pagan tribes jealous of their
time-hallowed customs, but also of bands of freebooters, selling their
services at will.

47 | P a g e
Conquests: Fuuta Jalon, Fuuta Tooro, Massina. Soko

Muslims scholars called sub-Sahara

Africa Bilal al Sudan (Land of the
blacks) within the Dar al-Islam (the
realm of Islam). Indeed, many West
African Empires and kingdoms that
have endured for centuries began to
witness during the eighteenth and the
nineteenth centuries, far reaching
reformist movements that redrew the
West African historical setting and
were only halted with the arrival of
the European Colonization. All the
leaders of these movements were
Fulani from various regions of West-
Africa. These leaders/scholars
mobilized herders and farmers from
the Fulani as well as from other ethnic
groups to launch holy wars and to
establish formidable Islamic states in
little more than 100 years.This
expansion was facilitated by
geographical and technological
considerations. The savannah zone of
the West- Africa rarely presents
natural barriers upon which a frontier
line can be established. The horse
was widely used in warfare and made
possible military formations of great
mobility.
Cities were established as
administrative capital, but also
centers of Islamic learning. Most
displayed considerable diversity in
their arts and crafts.The city was the
nodal point of the State. In the
countryside, as well as in the city
itself, the affluence of the State was
maintained by the arts of peaceful
administration, in the levying of all
manner of tolls and taxes.

48 | P a g e
Fuuta Jalon

The most spectacular contribution to the history of West Africa was the Fulani
creation of Muslim States. These Muslim States arose within a century in
widely separated parts of the West Africa, and at one juncture, before the
arrival of the French and English Colonizers, it seemed likely that they would
be united under a single leader Umar Saidu Tall. The first movement occurred
in Fuuta Jalon (present day Guinea), the second in Fuuta Toro (present day
Senegal), the third in Masina (present day Mali) and finally the most notable
the Sokoto Caliphate (present day Nigeria, Cameroon).
During the seventeenth century this well endowed highland area was the
scene of a considerable immigration of Fulani pastoralists who, although of
different clans, were all Muslims of the Kadiriya persuasion. In 1725 a Muslim
Fulani known as Alfa Ba put himself at their head and declared a Holy War
not only against the pagan Sosso and Mandingo inhabitants but also against
the pagan Fulani dynasty which ruled the country. Alfa Ba died during the
course of preparations for the Holy War, but his son, a holy man, known as
Ibrahim mo Timbo or Karamoko Alfa, continued his work with the aid of a war
leader, Ibrahim Sori. They conquered and converted by force all except the
least accessible parts of the country and established a territorial organization
which, although much modified, is the basis of present-day administration.

49 | P a g e
Futa Toro

The second Muslim Fulani State was Fuuta Tooro, which, during the
sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, had been ruled by a pagan Fulani
dynasty, the Denianke. In 1776 the Muslim Fulani minority rose under Abd-
el-Kadr Toorodi and established the Muslim State. In Fuuta Tooro there was
little of the internal dissension seen in Fuuta Jalon. Abdel-Kadr had both
preached and waged war, and his kingdom consisted of provinces under the
rule of Muslim divines. The State expanded after the death of Abd-el-Kadr in
1788 and its dependencies in the Senegambia region Dimar, Damga, and
Boundou, were in situ on the arrival of the French.

Masina

The Bamana kingdom of Masina was the scene of the creation of the next
Muslim Fulani kingdom. Masina is a region located in central Mali and
northern Burkina Faso. Here the Muslim Fulani had for long been tributaries
of the Bamana.Following the collapse of Songhai Empire in 1591 by the
armies of al-Mansur of Morocco number of small kingdoms Masina, Gonja,
Segou, Kaarta strove to dominate the western Mali, but continual strife and
economic decline were the only results. In 1818 Seku Ahmadu, a Fulani

50 | P a g e
Muslim introduced a theocratic state in Macina. During his rule an empire
embracing the whole of the Niger River region, from Jenne to Timbuktu, was
created. Upon his death in 1844 his son took power, but in 1862 Macina fell
to another Muslim reformer, al-Hajj Umar.
Masina saw the achievements of great leaders such as Ahmad Al-Kabir,
Ahmad Al-Tijani, and the Kunta leader Ahmad Al-Bakkay.Many cities
flourished including Jenne, Nioro and Hamdallay.Hamdallay is a now shadow
of what it used to be during the glory days of masina.Prior to the arrival of
the French when Segou was powerful and practicing traditional religion,
Hamdallay was the center of the Fulani's emerging Masina Islamic Empire
and a center of Islamic education at the time. Currently it is not even
labeled on most maps.(More about Masina in Communities Section)

Sokoto Caliphate

The greatest feat of empire-building on the part of the Fulani was the Jihad
of Usman dan Fodio, who established a widespread empire in what, is now
Northern Nigeria, both founding new States and usurping the rule of the old-
established Hausa kingdoms. The mixing of pagan with Muslim practices and
other errors disquieted Nafata, king of Gobir, who, although formerly a pupil
of Usman's, saw in these activities a threat to his position at the centre of
the pagan rites of kingship. Before his death, Nafata made proclamations
designed to restrict the effect of Usman's efforts. His son Yunfa was more
energetic and in 1803 attacked Gimbana, an important Muslim village,
destroying the scribes' writings and carrying off their wives and children. In
February 1804 Usman declared a Hegira or Flight from Degel, which was a
demonstration of defiance of the constituted government. It took the Muslim
leader into an ill-administered part of the kingdom, from which messages
might be sent to Fulani communities urging them to join the instigator of the
rising, and from which the first deployments of insurrection might be made.
Usman was speedily joined in his flight by a considerable number of fervent
supporters. In June 1804 Usman met Yunfa in battle at Kwotto lake and
defeated him. The victorious Muslim army proclaimed Usman Commander of
the Faithful (Arab. Amir al Muminin; Hausa Serkin Musulmi; Ful. Laamiidho
Julbhe) and he was thenceforth known as Sheik or Shehu. He declared Holy

51 | P a g e
War against the enemies of Islam and, in the next decade or so, Shehu, or
his son and successor Bello, gave the flag of Holy War to trusted followers
who took existing kingdoms by insurrection or carved out new ones by war.
Usman himself retired early to a life of contemplation, and is revered to this
day as a saint.
By 1810 four of the seven Hausa States were taken by the Fulani, and the
city of Sokoto, from which the Empire was to be governed, had been
established. During the next twenty years, Fulani dynasties were set up in
other States, principally Ilorin and Nupe. During the same period new
kingdoms were established, chief among which was Adamawa. On the
eastern borders of the Empire developments took place with which we shall
be more concerned later in the text. Bornu resisted the Fulani invaders, but
in large portions of its western territory small kingdoms, such as Hadeijia,
Katagum, Bauchi, Misau, and Gombe, were established by the Fulani. The
history of the Fulani States during the nineteenth century is one of attempts
at expansion and internecine strife, which neither the military power of the
suzerain State of Sokoto nor the religious authority of its ruler were able to
compose. Nevertheless, on their arrival in Northern Nigeria, the British
recognized the legitimacy by conquest of the Fulani rulers, and the present
Emirs of the States are for the most part the descendants of the flag-bearers
of the Jihad.

Dinguiray, Segou, Nioro & Bandiagara

The final movement of Fulani Islam was the rise of Umar Saidu Tall. He was
born in 1797 into a family of holy men of Podor in Senegal. He went on the
pilgrimage in 1827 and studied in Mecca, Medina, and Cairo. He returned to
the West- Africa in 1838 and was well received in Bornu, Sokoto, and
Massina. The Fulani rulers of Sokoto and Massina gave him their daughters in
marriage. He attempted to seize power in Fuuta Tooro but was unsuccessful,
although he succeeded in raising followers prepared to preach the Holy War
elsewhere. He moved to Dinguiray in Fuuta Jalon, which he established as a
fortress and centre of learning. He led a Holy War in the Bambouk country
and by 1861 had established his son as king of Masina. Under his hand, Nioro,

52 | P a g e
Bandiagara, and Segou became important religious centers. He was seen as
the potential unifier of all the Muslim Fulani empires and States of the West-
Africa. However, in 1857 he was stopped at Khosso by the French colonial
power.

Holy Men
Role of Holy Men

Muslim holy men are a special breed of specialists in

Islam. They hold a particular place in the Fulani society.
Many of these Holy men go on to become leaders or
spiritual guide with a large following. Their
specialization comes from their knowledge of Quran and
Hadith. It also alludes to a special relation with the
higher power which is manifest in their possession of
sanctity (barka or baraka) a term common to many
West- African Islamic groups and to the Berber dialects
of Maghrebine North Africa. Sanctity may be inherited
genealogically, or acquired from one's teachers.
Ultimately, barka derives from Allah
himself, through the Prophet and his Companions. Holy men may belong to
one or other of the Islamic fraternities Kadiriya, Tijaniya, Mahdiya, and
Murids etc, which ramify throughout the West- Africa. Holy men live on the
fees, obtained by the performance of their special tasks, which have the
quality of alms for the Muslim donor. But many also have farms, or are
craftsmen or traders. They may work alone in a community or they may
form hamlets, around which they farm, and from which they travel in pursuit
of their calling.
The term holy man covers many degrees of proficiency in magic, Islamic
ritual, law, and tradition, but in general the status of a holy man depends
upon his ability to read the Arabic of Koranic texts and such Maghrebine
writings as are copied and circulated in the West- Africa. Some holy men are
little more than magicians or diviners, fashioning amulets, making
decoctions of the ink in which pious texts have been written, manipulating
sand patterns, or telling the stars. Others have received a more extensive
grounding in Muslim ritual and dogma after years of study by rote in a
Koranic school. In addition to practicing as magicians and diviners, they may
instruct others in the niceties of religious observance, or officiate at naming
ceremonies, weddings, and funerals. They may compose disputes by
recourse to the principles of Islamic law as they understand them. They may
acquaint their listeners with details of the lives of Islamic divines who have
attained sainthood, and whose tombs they have visited. Yet others achieve a
wider fame after making the pilgrimage, studying in Cairo, or traveling
between West- African centers of learning. They establish their own
followings and schools, with whose members they have a continuing bond
wherever they may be.
Each holy man has his own sphere of influence, proportional, we may say, to
his barka. As we shall see, in the past, Muslim divines had great influence in
the States of the West- Africa, converting princes, reforming systems of
administration, and, in the last resort, leading popular uprisings. Men of this
caliber are today found in high administrative or judicial posts, their Tallents

53 | P a g e
curbed, perhaps, by the demands of European government. Their religious
zeal, we may rest assured, is no less fervent. Others remain in the
background, maintaining their links with the Islamic Middle East, leading
their fraternities, and encouraging the dissemination of their doctrines. Yet
others have a more restricted sphere of action in the towns and country
districts, continually transmitting by precept and example the fund of Islamic
learning, the observance of its rites, and the rudiments of its law. Finally we
come to the holy man of the village the scene of compromise and the
amalgamation of Islamic popular beliefs and practices with those of pagan
origin and sometimes of Christian dissemination.
Their efforts at proselytism are, at best, circumscribed by their own narrow
vision; or, at worst, merely batten on the credulity of those who seek their
aid. But whatever their accomplishments or fields of activity the holy men
are the spearheads, blunt or keen, of an Islam which is distinctively West-
African.

The Rise Fulani Tooroobhe

But in affirming the importance of the pastoralists in

dispersing communities of Fulani throughout West-
Africa, the role of holy men of Fulani descent should not
be minimized. They served to crystallize these groups
into self-conscious communities which later became the
nuclei of Fulani States. For the pastoralists the savannah
grassland of the West- Africa was a vast potential
grazing ground. For the holy men it was a field of
missionary and reformist endeavor among the courts of
pagan and Muslim rulers no less than among Fulani
populations. It is often supposed that Fulani were
converted to Islam before the eleventh century owing to
the efforts of Malikite Mauritanian Arabs in Senegal
(Delafosse, 1912). These were fortified by the
establishment of the Almoravid Empire on the ruins of
the kingdom of Ghana (Bovill, 1933). These events gave
rise to the Fulani Tooroobhe (those who pray to Allah).
The Fulani Tooroobhe of Senegal
themselves moved eastwards in the wake of the Fulani migrations, initiating
members of Fulani sedentary communities and forming their widely
dispersed brotherhoods. These men not only preached among existing Fulani
communities wherever they found them, forming links based on their own
influence with the central authorities of the alien States; they also often
formed the foci of new communities drawn together by real or imagined
persecution and cemented by a common language and common faith. Such
dissident communities were formed by the Flights of holy men and were
located in ill-administered parts of the States in which they were found.
The rise of the Fulani Muslim States through the activities of the Fulani holy
men thus depended in large measure on their influence among communities
of their own people.
background, maintaining their links with the Islamic Middle East, leading
their fraternities, and encouraging the dissemination of their doctrines. Yet
others have a more restricted sphere of action in the towns and country

54 | P a g e
districts, continually transmitting by precept and example the fund of Islamic
learning, the observance of its rites, and the rudiments of its law. Finally we
come to the holy man of the village the scene of compromise and the
amalgamation of Islamic popular beliefs and practices with those of pagan
origin and sometimes of Christian dissemination.
Their efforts at proselytism are, at best, circumscribed by their own narrow
vision; or, at worst, merely batten on the credulity of those who seek their
aid. But whatever their accomplishments or fields of activity the holy men
are the spearheads, blunt or keen, of an Islam which is distinctively West-
African.

Important Historical Personalities

Usman Dan Fodio (1754-1817)

Usman Dan Fodio was a Fulani from Degel in Gobir. He was brought up
strictly in the Maliki rite and at an early age found his vocation as teacher
and writer, but above all as a preacher.In the 1790s, He began a holy war,
swept through Hausaland and, repulsed only by the eastern empire of
Kanem-Bornu, engulfed Adamawa, Nupe, and Yorubaland to the south.
After the invasion by the Fulani of the northern provinces of the Oyo, the
emirate of Ilorin to the northeast became the base from which Islam was to
spread among the Yoruba. Usman, who was more a scholar than a
statesman, ceded the practical direction of the eastern part of the empire to
his son Muhammad Bello, who settled in Sokoto, and the western (with its
capital at Gwandu) to his brother Abdullahi. In the late 19th century British
rule over ended their domination in Nigeria.

Nana Asma'u, (1793-1865), Teacher, Poet & Islamic Leader

Nana Asma'u (1793-1864) was a poet, teacher,

and role model for Muslim women.
Nana Asma'u was the daughter of Shaykh
Usman dan Fodio, leader of a jihad to reform
and purify Islam in the Sokoto region of what is
today northern Nigeria. Her half-brother was
Muhammad Bello, who became caliph of the
region and whose descendents still hold that
office. Nana Asma'u was a remarkable woman
who was devoted to the cause of purifying
Islam and unifying the region. She established
a group of literate women teachers (jajis) who
carried her teachings, written into her poems,
and disseminated them to illiterate women
throughout the community. One stunning
example in the book is the poem "Be Sure of
God's Truth" (pp. 120-
126), which reaches out to ordinary
people (men and

55 | P a g e
 women) with advice on the behavior of good Muslims anywhere. She was a
scholar of Islam and a key advisor to her father as he waged a jihad to bring
Islam to the population of what is now northwestern Nigeria. Asma'u's
literary legacy, consisting of 65 poems in Arabic, Fulfulde, and Hausa,
constitutes one of the largest existing collections of 19th-century materials
from the region. Her poetry has been transmitted over the years and is
familiar to Hausa Muslims today, attesting to the power and continued
relevance of her convictions and achievements. She is portrayed in the book
entitled:
One Woman's Jihad Nana Asma'u, Scholar and Scribe; By yeverly B. Mack
and Jean Boyd

El-Hadj Umar Tall (1797-1864)

El Hajj Umar Tall was a muslim religious and

military leader in W Africa. Declared a holy war in
1852. In several engagements (1857-59) against
the French in Senegal, he was repulsed. Thereafter
he turned eastward, conquering the kingdoms of
Segu and Massina and sacking Timbuktu.

CHEIKH Ahmadou Bamba Khadimou Rassoul (1852-1927)

Cheikh Ahmadou Bamba whose true name is

Ahmed Ben Mohamed Ben Abib Allah was
born about 1852, called by the community
Khadimou Rascal, the servant of the prophet.
Like a considerable number Black apostles of
Islam, he was of Fulani origin that four
generations earlier came from Fuuta Tooro to
settle in the Wolof countryside. Cheikh
Ahmadou Bamba then left Cayor to come to
settle at MBacke-Baol the village of his
ancestor. He founded close to Me Backe-Baol
his own village, called TOUBA, which today
has become the large religious metropolis,
sanctuary of Mouridisme and an annual place
of pilgrimage of the Black Muslim world. The
French authorities bothered by the increasing
influence of Ahmadou Bamba, exiled him in
1895 to Gabon where he remained for 7
years, 7 months and 7 days. He returned to
Senegal continued to preach, to write and to
oppose the French.

56 | P a g e
El Hadj Malick Sy

El Hadj Malick Sy was born in 1855 in a village

of Gaya in Northern Senegal. He studied Quran
and went to Mecca. When he came back from
Mecca he started preaching the Tijaniya, and
Islamic Suni. He settled in Tivaoune (Senegal)
in 1902 and began organizing the Gamou, a
well established holiday celebrating the
Birthday of Prophet Muhammad. He fought
against poverty and ignorance in the villages as
well as in the cities. He was called the Maodho,
the Guide.

Alpha Yaya Bocar Biro

Apha Yaya Bocar Biro

was a King was the last
of Labe in great
Fuuta Jalon, Almamy of
he was one Fuuta Jalon.
of the most He fought to
controversial consolidate
figures in his power
the history and to
of Fuuta safeguard the
Jalon. independence
He was tricked byFrench colonials and of Fuuta
was sent in exile in Mauritania where Jalon.
he died in 1912. His ashes were In alliance with Samory Toure, he
returned to Guinea in 1969. He resisted the French conquest of
inspired the Guinea National Anthem Guinea. He was killed by the French
which was derived from a song by one army at the battle of Poredaka in
of Alpha Yaya's griot 1896. He belonged to the African of
great destiny who valiantly gave their
lives to oppose colonization.

57 | P a g e
Sr. Ahmadu Bello (1910-1966)

FSir Ahmadou Bello was a teacher, farmer,

administrator, politician, statesman and a religious
leader. He was one of the founding fathers of
Nigeria. His effort and others led to attainment of
independence by the country in 1960. He
encouraged both Islamic and Western education. He
preached religious tolerance and honesty. He
established Ahmadou Bello University, a Teaching
hospital, the Nigerian newspaper, radio-television
Kaduna, the northern Nigeria housing corporation
and several others. Ahmadou Bello received honors
and awards at home and abroad during his life
time.He was made a Knight of the British Empire. He
was

Ahmadou Ahidjo

Ahidjo, Ahmadou , 1924-89, president of the United

Republic of Cameroon (1960-82). A Muslim Fulani
chief's son, he served with the French during World
War II. Entering politics in the French Cameroons,
he became vice premier (1957) and premier (1958)
of the territory. With the Cameroon Republic's
independence (1960), he was elected its first
president. He also became president of the
Mouvement d'Union Camerounaise, which favored
continued strong ties with France. He persuaded the
British-administered Southern Cameroons to unite
(1961) with the Cameroon Republic in the Federal
Republic of Cameroon. He was reelected president in
1965, 1970, 1975, and 1980 .see book pdf

58 | P a g e
Kingdoms and Empires with Fulani Presence

Ghana Empire (c~700-1240) Kaya Magnan

Ghana (Wagadu), the earliest

known empire of the western
Sudan, first entered the historical
consciousness of North Africa near
the end of the eighth century but
probably originated long before.
The empire's legacy is still
celebrated in the name of the
Republic of Ghana; apart from
this, however, modern-day and
ancient Ghana share no direct
historical connections. Despite
early texts that discuss ancient
Ghana, such as The Book of
Routes and Kingdoms by the
eleventh-century Andalusian
geographer Abu cUbayd al-Bakri, it
remains very much an enigma.
Famous to North Africans
as the "Land of Gold," Ghana was said to possess sophisticated methods of
administration and taxation, large armies, and a monopoly over notoriously
well-concealed gold mines. The king of the Soninke people who founded
Ghana never fully embraced Islam, but good relations with Muslim traders
were fostered. Ghana's preeminence faded toward the end of the eleventh
century, when its power was broken by a long struggle with the Almoravids
led by Abdullah ibn Yasin. Ghana subsequently fell to the expanding Soso
kingdom.

Tekruur (850ad), Dia Ogo, Warjabi Ibn Rabis

Islam was accepted as early as 850 AD in the Kingdom of Tekruur, situated

on both banks of the Senegal, by the Dia Ogo dynasty. This dynasty was
the first West African people who accepted Islam . It was for this reason
that Arab Muslim historians referred to Bilâd al-Tekruur as The land of the
Black Muslims. Warjabî ibn Rabis, was the first ruler of Tekruur, in whose
reign Islam was firmly established and the Islam ic shariah system
enforced. This gave a uniform Muslim law to the people of the region. By
the time the Al-MurabiÏûn or Almoravids began their attack on Tekruur in
1042 A.C., Islam had made a deep impact on the people of that area. Al-
Idrissa in 1511 A.C. described the Tekruur country as secure, peaceful and
tranquil. The capital town of Tekruur was also called Tekruur which had
become a centre of commerce and merchants used to bring wool to sell
there from Maghrib, taking away with them gold and beads in exchange.

When the Kingdom of Tekruur fully converted to Islam in the mid-11th

century, it participated in establishing the Almoravid state, centered in

59 | P a g e
Morocco. After 1087 the Almoravids kingdom began disintegrating, the
Tekruur kingdom started to strenghten on the banks of the Senegal river .
Tekruur's people were the first of the West African kingdoms to have a
strict interpretation of the Islamic faith and to wage wars against people
who weren't Muslim. Tekruurian soldiers were allied with the Almoravids
and in 1056-1057 they waged wars against pagan Ghanaians. At the end of
the 10th century War Diabi took power and converted to Islam. Tekruur,
situated on the Senegal River and the Transsahara roads, was a powerful a
rich kingdom whose principal activity was trade of gold and beads. It came
under the domination of the Ghana Empire in the 11th century, of the Mali
Empire in the 13th century and of the Djolof Empire in the 14th century. At
the end of the 15th century the Tekruur was conquered by Koli Tenguela, a
Fulani from the south who gave it its independence and created a new
dynasty, the Denianke and a new kingdom the Fuuta Tooro.In the 16th
century the Fuuta Tooro conquered the neighboring states of Djolof and
Cayor. The Denianke dynasty was replaced by Muslim clerics led by Thierno
Sileyman Baal in 1770. Islam became the guiding principal of the civil
society. Almamy Abdul Kader was selected the 1st Almamy (Leader of the
Believers) See also Halpulaar.

60 | P a g e
The Almoravids (1090-1147)

History
1039: The Almoravid leader Abdallah bni Yasin declares
holy war against the Sanhaja Berbers.
1054: The Almoravids start their conquest of Maghreb.
1062: The Almoravids establish their capital in Marrakech
(today's Morocco).
1082: The Almoravids take control over Algiers.
1085: The Almoravid leader Yusuf bni Tashufin sets over to Spain, and
establishes himself in Cordoba.
1102: Valencia falls to the Almoravids
1147: Marrakech falls to the Almohads, and the Almoravid leaders move to
first Spain and then the Balearic Isles.
The Almoravids were a group of Muslims, originating in southern
Mauritania/ Northern Senegal of mixed Berber and Fulani people that built
an empire in Maghreb and Spain in the 11th and 12th centuries. Their
Muslim orientation was one of simple and basic rules. Their theological
foundation had been formed by Ahdallah Abdallah bni Yasin.The Almoravids
were based on military commanders who also were administrators, called
themselves jurists (fuqaha). Their theology was based on a strict Malikite
version of Sharia (Islamic law).Architecture from the Almoravid period is
characterized by simplicity, and with little decoration.

Kanem-Bornu (1097-1150)

At about 800 CE, the Kanuri people of the Lake Chad region, under the
leadership of their legendary king Dugu, formed the beginnings of the
trading empire of Kanem, and later Bornu. At about 1085, with the
influence of Islam having entered the region some time before, the first
Muslim ruler, Houme of the Sefawa dynasty, came to the throne. And,
under Mai (king) Salma (1194-1221) Islam became the state religion.
Under the reign of Idris Alooma (1580-1603), the now merged Empire of
Bornu-Kanem regained much of its influence with its borders encompassing

61 | P a g e
Murzuk to the north and Darfar in the east. In the 1800's the Kanuri were
faced with invasion from the Fulani armies that had already conquered
Hausaland.

Mali (1238-1468)

In the early thirteenth century, the exiled

prince Sundiata Keita ("the hungering lion") led
a Mande revolt against the powerful Soso king
Sumanguru Kante that marked the ascension of
the Mali empire. After Sundiata, the most
famous ruler of the Mali empire is Mansa
Kankan Musa I, who came to power several
decades after the death of his legendary
predecessor. Musa's hajj (pilgrimage to Mecca)
of 1324-25 drew the attention of both the
Islamic world and Europeans. Accompanied by
an enormous entourage, Musa apparently
dispensed so much gold in Cairo that the
precious metal's value plummeted and did not recover for several years
thereafter. The image of Mansa Musa bearing nuggets of gold was
subsequently commemorated in maps of the African continent.The
fourteenth-century traveler Ibn Battuta visited ancient Mali a few decades
after Musa's death. north and Darfar in the east. In the 1800's, the Kanuri
were faced with invasion from the Fulani armies that had already conquered
Hausaland.

It was from one of Mali's former

conquests, the kingdom of Gao,
that the last major empire of the
western Sudan emerged. Although
the city of Gao had been occupied
by a Songhai dynasty prior to
being conquered by Mansa Musa's
forces in 1325, it was not until
much later that the Songhai
empire emerged. It began to rise
in 1464 when Sonni cAli Ber came
to power. Sonni cAli conquered
much of the weakening Mali
empire's territory as well as
Timbuktu, famous for its Islamic
universities and the pivotal trading
city of Jenne. Following Sonni
cAli's death, Muslim factions
rebelled against his

62 | P a g e
successor and installed Askia Muhammad (formerly Muhammad Ture) as
the first ruler of the Askia dynasty (1492-1592). Under the Askias, the
Songhai empire reached its zenith, Timbuktu and Jenne flourished as
centers of Islamic learning, and Islam was actively promoted.

Fuuta-Jalon (1727)

Fuuta Jalon is a highland region, in central Guinea, W Africa. Largely rolling

grassland the region is inhabited by the Fulani. The Niger, Senegal, and
Gambia rivers rise there. Since the 18th cent. It has been a stronghold of
Islam until the arrival of the French colonizers.About 1727, the Fulani of
Fuuta Jalon were led by Karamoko Alpha who established the Almamya
(Leader of the Believers). The Almamy was selected between two families,
The Alfaya Family and The Soriya Family. See table of The Almamies of
Fuuta-Jalonbelow.Muhammad (formerly Muhammad Ture) as the first ruler
of the Askia dynasty (1492-1592). Under the Askias, the Songhai empire
reached its zenith, Timbuktu and Jenne flourished as centers of Islamic
learning, and Islam was actively promoted.
Fuuta Jalon is a highland region, in
central Guinea, W Africa. Largely rolling
grassland the region is inhabited by the
Fulani. The Niger, Senegal, and Gambia
rivers rise there. Since the 18th cent. It
has been a stronghold of Islam until the
arrival of the French colonizers.About
1727, the Fulani of Fuuta Jalon were led
by Karamoko Alpha who established the
Almamya (Leader of the Believers). The
Almamy was selected between two
families, The Alfaya Family and The
Soriya Family. See table of The Almamies
of Fuuta-Jalonbelow.Muhammad
(formerly Muhammad Ture) as the first
ruler of the Askia dynasty (1492-1592).
Under the Askias, the Songhai empire
reached its zenith, Timbuktu and Jenne
flourished as centers of Islamic learning,
and Islam was actively promoted.

Table of the Fuuta-Jalon Almamya

Sovereign Almamies of Fuuta Jalon

18
Ibrahima Sambeegu, called Karamoko Alfa mo Timbo
years
Ibrahima Sori Yero Poore, called Ibrahima Sori Mawdho(1730- 34
1764), years
Alfaya Soriya

63 | P a g e
3th. Alfa Saalihu (son of 4th. Saadu(son of Sori 6
4 years
Karamoko Alfa)(1764-1770) Mawdho)(1784-1791/95) years
6th. Abdul Qaadirison of Sori
5th. Abdullaahi 16 13
Mawdho, Pathe
Baademba(1796/97-1813) years years
d'Umaru1805-1813/25)
7th. Bubakar Zikru(1813- 9 8
8th. Yaya (1825-1833/37)
1814) months years
9th. Bubakar Mawdhoson of
25 10th. Umaruson of Abdul 29
Abdullaahi Baademba(1814-
years Qaadiri(1837/42-1871) years
1839/42)
11th. Ibrahima Sori Daara son
30 12th. Ibrahima Sori Donhol 19
of Bubakar Mawdho(1843-
years Fella (1871-887/88) years
1873)
13th. Ahmadu Daara (1873- 18 14th. Bubakar called Bokar
6years
1894/95) years Biro (1889-1896)

Source: Laing, Hecquard, Lambert, Bayol, Noirot, Madrolle, Arcin, Saint-Pere,

Marty, Tauxier, Vieillard, Sow, Diallo

Non-Sovereign Almamies of Fuuta Jalon

In 1912, the French administration officially cancelled the functions of Almamy.

The Almamies of the period are:

 Almamy Sori Yilili. Soriya (1896-1897)

 Almamy Umaru Bademba. Alfaya, (1896-1912)
 Almamy Baba Alimou. Soriya (1897-1906)
 Almamy Bokar Biro II (1906-1912)
 Almamy Aguibou. Soriya,

Masina (1818-1853) Sheik Ahmadu

The Masina is a region located in central Mali and northern Burkina

Faso.Following the collapse of Songhai Empire in 1591 by the armies of al-
Mansur of Morocco number of small kingdoms Masina, Gonja, Segou,
Kaarta strove to dominate the western Mali, but continual strife and
economic decline were the only results. In 1818 Seku Ahmadu, a Fulani
Muslim introduced a theocratic state in Macina. During his rule an empire
embracing the whole of the Niger River region, from Jenne to Timbuktu,
was created. Upon his death in 1844 his son took power, but in 1862
Macina fell to another Muslim reformer, al-Hajj Umar.

64 | P a g e
Bhundu (1690)

About 1690, Malick Sy, a Fulani religious scholar from Fuuta Tooro, obtained
from the Tunka(King) of Goye at territory between the Faleme River and The
Gambia River, he called Bhundu. He proclaimed the Holy war opposed the
kingdom of Goye and grew his kingdom. Bhundu prospered under Malick Sy
reign and his descendants, the Sissibe.

65 | P a g e
Sokoto (1809-)

The Fulani Empire of Sokoto was

the last of the five great empires
that rose and fell in the Sudan
between the eighth and twentieth
centuries. It was founded by three
men of the same family, probably
the most remarkable triumvirate
that Africa has yet produced, and
it
developed a society which, in its heyday, was perhaps better governed and
more highly civilized than any other that Africans had until then evolved.
The late author, who for over twenty years was an Administrative Officer in
Northern Nigeria, the core of the Sokoto Empire, was an accomplished
Hausa scholar who also published a volume of translations. He was
therefore able to supplement the established English and Arabic authorities
by introducing new information gathered from Fulani and Hausa sources,
much of which he collected himself in the course of his service. More
important still, every chapter of his history is illuminated by an intimate
knowledge of the country and genuine sympathy with its people

Special Historical places

Sokoto (Nigeria)

city (1987 est. pop. 164,000), NW

Nigeria, on the Sokoto River. It is the
commercial center for a wide region and
a collection place for hides, skins, and
peanuts. Rice and tobacco are grown for
local consumption. The city has cement,
pottery, and leather tanning and dyeing
industries. Sokoto was founded in 1809
by Usman dan Fodio, the Fulani leader
who established a large Muslim empire
including most of N Nigeria. It became
the capital of the empire and was built up
in the 1820s by Muhammadu Bello, dan
Fodio's son. In 1903, Sokoto fell to
British forces under Frederick Lugard . ABubacar Sidiq Sultan of Sokoto
The assassination of the Sultan of Sokoto
in 1966 was a cause of the Nigerian civil
war (see Biafra, Republic of ). The tomb
of dan
Fodio and other shrines in the city have made it a place of pilgrimage for
Muslims.

66 | P a g e
Bornu (Chad)

Former Muslim state, mostly in NE Nigeria, extending S and W of Lake

Chad.
It began its existence as a separate state in the late 14th cent. From the
14th to the 18th cent. Bornu exported slaves, eunuchs, fabrics dyed with
saffron, and other goods to N Africa. Bornu reached its peak under the mai
(ruler) Idris Alawma (ruled 1570-1610), when it was the leading state in
the central Sudan region. Bornu declined from the 17th cent. In the early
19th cent. it was severely threatened by the Fulani but maintained its
independence when Muhammad al-Kanemi (ruled 1814-35), who
established a new dynasty, revived the state. However, Bornu began to
decline again after c.1850 because of weak rulers, and was conquered
(1893-96) by the forces of Rabih, a Sudanese slave trader. In 1898, Bornu
was divided among Great Britain, France, and Germany. In 1922 the
German portion became part of the British Cameroons mandate of the
League of Nations.

Idris king of Kanem-Bornu Bornu Royal Court

Touba (Senegal)

Touba was founded by Ahmadou

Bamba. It is a Holy City in
Senegal West Africa. Touba is
considered by many Mourides as
very important. Pilgrims come to
Touba at any time, but the high
point of the year is a mass
pilgrimage called the Grand Magal
(48 days after the Islamic New
Year), which celebrates Bamba's. Touba Mosque
return from exile. At this time,
about half a million Mouride
followers flock into Touba from all
over Senegal and Gambia

67 | P a g e
Kano (Nigeria)

One of the oldest kingdoms of Africa created c998. Kano became vassal of
Bornu in the 18th century. In 1807, the Fulbe Jihad killed the 42nd King
and replaced his Habe dynasty with a new dynasty of Emirs. On 3/2/1903,
Kano became part of the Northern Nigerian British protectorate. Today, the
State of Kano with capital named also Kano..

Kano

Dinguiray (Guinea)

El Hajj Umar was a prestigious as a religious

leader. He went to Fuuta Jalon in 1849. He
established his following in Dinguiray where he
declared a jihad in September 1852 against all
non- believers. In a decade, he conquered the
Western Suan including Dinguiray, Bure, Segou,
Kaarta and Macina. By 1863, his envoys demanded
tribute from Timbuktu. El Hajj Umar Mosk

Fez (Morocco)

Fez is a Holy city very much respected by a

large number of Fulani who belong to the
Tijaniya, a Sufi Muslim order. The Tijaniya
order was founded by Cheikh Ahmed Tijane
who lived in Fez (Morocco). The order
flourished all over West Africa, including
Senegal with the Teachings of Cheikh Ibrahim
Niass. Many members of the Tijaniya order
go to Fez for pilgrimage. The beautiful
Kairouine mosque of Fez was founded in 859
by Fatima, a wealthy woman refugee from Fez
the city of Kairouan (Morocco).

68 | P a g e
Tivaoune (Senegal)

Fez is a Holy city very much respected by a

large number of Fulani who belong to the
Tijaniya, a Sufi Muslim order. The Tijaniya
order was founded by Cheikh Ahmed Tijane
who lived in Fez (Morocco). The order
flourished all over West Africa, including
Senegal with the Teachings of Cheikh
Ibrahim Niass. Many members of the
Tijaniya order go to Fez for pilgrimage. The Elhajj Malik Sy and Entourage
beautiful Kairouine mosque of Fez was
founded in 859 by Fatima, a wealthy woman
refugee from the city of Kairouan (Morocco).

Timbuktu

A Historical city

What major city in the West African empire of Mali was once a worldwide
cultural center, with vast libraries, rich universities and a thriving gold trade?
The answer is Timbuktu.

What earned this "Town of the 333 Saints" its symbolic power to fascinate?
Even today, the "Pearl of Medieval Mali" is renowned the world over because it
was, in its heyday, among the most radiant seats of culture and civilization in
the world. In 1354 the great Muslim explorer Ibn Batuta (1304-1377) wrote of
his visit to Timbuktu and told of the wealth and gold of the region. Thus,
Timbuktu became renown as an African El Dorado, a city made of gold.

Testimony to this is found not only in history books, but also in the unique
earthen architecture, of which some of the finest examples are the mosques of
Djingareyber, Sankoré and Sidi Yahia. In 1988, Timbuktu was designated a
United Nations World Heritage Site and efforts are underway to preserve and
protect the city and especially its centuries-old mosques. UNESCO included all
three Mosques in the World Heritage List.

Timbuktu, also spelled Tombouctou or Timbuctoo, is a city in the West African

nation of Mali. It is historically important as a post on the trans-Saharan
caravan route. It is located on the southern edge of the Sahara, about 8 mi (13
km) north of the Niger River. Timbuktu was a centre for the expansion of
Islam, an intellectual and spiritual capital at the end of the Mandingo Askia
dynasty (1493-1591) and home to a prestigious Koranic university. Three
great mosques built at that time, using traditional techniques, still remain.

69 | P a g e
Timbuktu was founded about AD 1100 as a seasonal camp by Tuareg nomads.
After it was incorporated within the Mali Empire, probably in the late 13th
century, the Mali sultan, Mansa Musam, built a tower for the Great Mosque
(Djingereyber) and a royal residence, the Madugu (the former has since been
rebuilt many times, and of the latter no trace now remains). Shortly after this
the city was annexed by the Mossi kingdom of Yatenga, but when the North
African traveller Ibn Battutah visited in 1353, he found it again governed by
Mali.

In the 14th century Timbuktu became an important focal point of the gold-salt
trade. With the influx of North African merchants came the settlement of
Muslim scholars. It made little difference that the Tuareg regained control of
the city in 1433; they ruled from the desert, and, though they plundered
periodically, trade and learning continued to flourish.

In 1468 Timbuktu was conquered by Sonni 'Ali, the Songhai ruler. He was
generally ill-disposed to the city's Muslim scholars, but his successor--the first
ruler of the new Askia dynasty, Muhammad I Askia of Songhai (reigned 1493-
1528)--reversed the policy and used the scholarly elite as legal and moral
counselors. During the Askia period (1493-1591) Timbuktu was at the height
of its commercial and intellectual development. Merchants from Wadan, Tuwat,
Ghudamis (Ghadames), Augila, and the cities of Morocco gathered there to buy
gold and slaves in exchange for the Saharan salt of Taghaza and for North
African cloth and horses. The city's scholars, many of whom had studied in
Mecca or Egypt, attracted students from a wide area.

The city declined after it was captured by Morocco in 1591. Two years later the
city's scholars were arrested on suspicion of disaffection; some were killed
during a struggle, others were exiled to Morocco. The small Moroccan garrisons
could not protect the Niger Bend, and Timbuktu was repeatedly attacked and
conquered by the Fulani, Bambara, and Tuareg until 1893, when the French
captured the city. The French partly restored the city from the desolate
condition in which they found it, but no railway or tarmac road ever reached it.
In 1960 it became part of the newly independent Republic of Mali.

Timbuktu is now an administrative centre of Mali. Small salt caravans from

Taoudenni still arrive in winter, but there is no gold to offer in exchange, and
trans-Saharan commerce no longer exists. Although there is air service, the
city remains most easily accessible by camel and boat. Islamic learning
survives among a handful of aging scholars, and a Lyc e Franco-Arabe teaches
Arabic to the younger generation. Pop. (1998) 36,000.

From: Encyclopedia Britannica

Leo Africanus: Description of Timbuktu

from The Description of Africa(1526)

70 | P a g e
El Hasan ben Muhammed el-Wazzan-ez-Zayyati was born in the Moorish city of
Granada in 1485, but was expelled along with his parents and thousands of
other Muslims by Ferdinand and Isabella in 1492. Settling in Morocco, he
studied in Fez, and as a teenager accompanied his uncle on diplomatic
missions throughout North Africa and and to the Sub-Saharan kingdom of
Ghana. Still a young man, he was captured by Christian pirates and presented
as an exceptionally learned slave to the great Renaissance pope, Leo X. Leo
freed him, baptised him under the name "Johannis Leo de Medici," and
commissioned him to write in Italian the detailed survey of Africa which
provided most of what Europeans knew about the continent for the next
several centuries. At the time he visited the Ghanaian city of Timbuktu, it was
somewhat past its peak, but still a thriving Islamic city famous for its learning.
"Timbuktu" was to become a byword in Europe as the most inaccessible of
cities, but at the time Leo visited, it was the center of a busy trade in African
products and in books. Leo is said to have died in 1554 in Tunis, having
reconverted to Islam.

What evidence does he provide that suggests the importance of learning in

Timbuktu?

The name of this kingdom is a modern one, after a city which was built by a
king named Mansa Suleyman in the year 610 of the hegira [1232 CE] around
twelve miles from a branch of the Niger River (1).

The houses of Timbuktu are huts made of clay-covered wattles with thatched
roofs. In the center of the city is a temple built of stone and mortar, built by an
architect named Granata, (2) and in addition there is a large palace,
constructed by the same architect, where the king lives. The shops of the
artisans, the merchants, and especially weavers of cotton cloth are very
numerous. Fabrics are also imported from Europe to Timbuktu, borne by
Berber merchants. (3)

The women of the city maintain the custom of veiling their faces, except for
the slaves who sell all the foodstuffs. The inhabitants are very rich, especially
the strangers who have settled in the country; so much so that the current
king (4) has given two of his daughters in marriage to two brothers, both
businessmen, on account of their wealth. There are many wells containing
sweet water in Timbuktu; and in addition, when the Niger is in flood canals
deliver the water to the city. Grain and animals are abundant, so that the
consumption of milk and butter is considerable. But salt is in very short supply
because it is carried here from Tegaza, some 500 miles from Timbuktu. I
happened to be in this city at a time when a load of salt sold for eighty ducats.
The king has a rich treasure of coins and gold ingots. One of these ingots
weighs 970 pounds. (5)

The royal court is magnificent and very well organized. When the king goes
from one city to another with the people of his court, he rides a camel and the
horses are led by hand by servants. If fighting becomes necessary, the
servants mount the camels and all the soldiers mount on horseback. When
someone wishes to speak to the king, he must kneel before him and bow

71 | P a g e
down; but this is only required of those who have never before spoken to the
king, or of ambassadors. The king has about 3,000 horsemen and infinity of
foot-soldiers armed with bows made of wild fennel [?] which they use to shoot
poisoned arrows. This king makes war only upon neighboring enemies and
upon those who do not want to pay him tribute. When he has gained a victory,
he has all of them--even the children--sold in the market at Timbuktu.

Only small, poor horses are born in this country. The merchants use them for
their voyages and the courtiers to move about the city. But the good horses
come from Barbary. They arrive in a caravan and, ten or twelve days later,
they are led to the ruler, who takes as many as he likes and pays appropriately
for them.

The king is a declared enemy of the Jews. He will not allow any to live in the
city. If he hears it said that a Berber merchant frequents them or does
business with them, he confiscates his goods. There are in Timbuktu numerous
judges, teachers and priests, all properly appointed by the king. He greatly
honors learning. Many hand-written books imported from Barbary are also
sold. There is more profit made from this commerce than from all other
merchandise.

Instead of coined money, pure gold nuggets are used; and for small purchases,
cowrie shells which have been carried from Persia, (6) and of which 400 equal
a ducat. Six and two-thirds of their ducats equal one Roman gold ounce. (7)

The people of Timbuktu are of a peaceful nature. They have a custom of

almost continuously walking about the city in the evening (except for those
that sell gold), between 10 PM and 1 AM, playing musical instruments and
dancing. The citizens have at their service many slaves, both men and women.

The city is very much endangered by fire. At the time when I was there on my
second voyage, (8) half the city burned in the space of five hours. But the wind
was violent and the inhabitants of the other half of the city began to move
their belongings for fear that the other half would burn.

There are no gardens or orchards in the area surrounding Timbuktu.

Translated by Paul Brians

(1) Mansa Suleyman reigned 1336-1359. The city was in fact probably founded
in the 11th century by Tuaregs, but became the chief city of the king of Mali in
1324.

(2) Ishak es Sahili el-Gharnati, brought to Tinbuktu by Mansa Suleyman.

(3) By camel caravan across the Sahara Desert from NorthAfrica.

(4) 'Omar ben Mohammed Naddi, not in fact the king, but representative of the

72 | P a g e
ruler of the kingdom of Songhai.

(5) Such fabulous nuggets are commonly mentioned by Arab writers about
Africa, but their size is probably grossly exaggerated.

(6) Cowrie shells, widely used for money in West Africa, sometimes came in
fact from even farther away, from the Maladive Islands of Southeast Asia.

(7) A Sudanese gold ducat would weigh .15 oz.

(8) Probably in 1512.

Library of Congress Exhibits :

Ancient Manuscripts from the Desert Libraries of Timbuktu

June 24 - September 3, 2003

Situated on the edge of the Sahara Desert, Timbuktu was famous among the
merchants of the Mediterranean basin as a market for obtaining the goods and
products of Africa south of the desert. However, Timbuktu's most famous and
long-lasting contribution to Islamic and world civilization is the scholarship
practiced there. By at least the fourteenth century, important books were
written and copied there, establishing the city as the center of a significant
written tradition in Africa.

These ancient manuscripts cover every aspect of human endeavor. The

manuscripts are indicative of the high level of civilization attained by West
Africans during the Middle Ages and provide irrefutable proof of a powerful
African literary tradition. Scholars in the fields of Islamic Studies and African
Studies believe that analysis of these texts will cause Islamic, West African,
and World History to be reevaluated. These manuscripts, surviving from as
long ago as the fourteenth century, are remarkable artifacts important to
Malian and West African culture. The exhibited manuscripts date from the
sixteenth to eighteenth century.

The manuscripts on view are from the Mamma Haidara Commemorative

Library and the Library of Cheick Zayni Baye of Boujbeha, two of the most
noteworthy institutions in the Timbuktu area. As part of its continuing effort to
create a universal collection of recorded knowledge from all geographic areas
and all historical eras, the Library of Congress is particularly proud to have the
opportunity to exhibit these important cultural artifacts from Mali. The Library
is also pleased that copies of these manuscripts will be deposited in its
collections and will be available for use by researchers and scholars.

73 | P a g e
Sources

Library of Congress

Unesco World Heritage

CEDRAB: The Centre de Documentation et de Recherches Ahmad Baba at

Timbuktu

The Portuguese First

aThe first sustained European interest

in Africa developed through the
efforts of Henry the Navigator, prince
of Portugal. Numerous expeditions
were sent out after 1434, each
extending European knowledge of the
African coastline southward, until, in
1497 and 1498, Vasco da Gama
rounded the Cape of Good Hope and
reached India. The Portuguese
explorations were motivated by a
variety of impulses: a desire for
knowledge, a wish to bring
Christianity to what they perceived as
pagan peoples,
the search for potential allies against Islamic threats, and the hope of
finding new and lucrative trade routes and sources of wealth. Wherever the
Portuguese and the English, French, and Dutch who followed them, went,
they disrupted ongoing patterns of trade and political life and changed
economic and religious systems.With their exploration of the lower Senegal
River in 1444, Portuguese navigators became the first Europeans known to
visit the West Coast of Africa. The Portuguese soon began to export slaves.
Until the end of the 16th century the Senegambian region was the most
important source of slaves for the transatlantic slave trade. During the 17th
century other European states challenged Portuguese commercial dominance
in the region. The Dutch built a series of coastal forts, the most famous of
which on Goree Island quickly developed into a major slave-trading station.

74 | P a g e
Trade Routes in Africa
The Portuguese established a chain of
trading settlements along the West
African coast. Elmina, founded on the
Gold Coast in 1482, was the most
important; in fact, it was only on the
Gold Coast and in the Congo and
Luanda areas that trade was really
lucrative. African gold, ivory, foodstuffs,
and slaves were exchanged for
ironware, firearms, textiles, and
foodstuffs. The Portuguese trade
attracted rival European traders who, in
the 16th century, created competing
stations or attempted to capture the
existing trade. In western Africa the
new trade had profound effects. Earlier
trade routes had been oriented
northward across the Sahara, primarily
to the Islamic world. Now the routes
were reoriented to the coast, and as the
states of the savanna declined in
economic importance, states along the coast increased their wealth and
power. Struggles soon developed among coastal peoples for control over
trade routes and for access to the new firearms introduced from Europe. In
the 19th century, contact with the Europeans began when the first
European explorers--notably Mungo Park (British) and Heinrich Barth
(German) Rene Caille.
Slave Trade

The most horrible trade ever humanity engaged in was the Triangle Slave
Trade between Europeans and Africans to the America. Over400 Years Africa
was robbed of more than 200 millions of its best, brightest and strongest

75 | P a g e
inhabitants. Against guns alcohol and trinkets, Europeans purchased slaves
from Africa took them to America where they sold them for labor to
purchase sugar, tobacco and cotton. (Picture from fototraite) Though slavery
existed long before the arrival of the Europeans, under subject of the Muslim
religion in the eleventh century the exportation of African slaves increased
and in time Europe and West Africa found themselves exchanging guns for
slaves. Yet, the definition of slavery in Africa was not tantamount to the
American or European vision of slavery. Slavery in Africa was a symbol of
honor and not an instrument of wealth and greed. African slaves were
permitted to live very normal lives. They had sanction to marry, own
property, and customary legal rights. Many of them had significant skill and
learning. While in America slaves underwent brutal beatings, hard labor, and
lack of respect.
While some slaves shipped to Europe and America had previously been
African slaves, many enslaved had been innocent bystanders. It was not
uncommon for the Europeans to hide and wait for an African to come along,
and then kidnap him. The retrieval of slaves was also obtained through
Africans convicted of a crime. It was also likely for Africans of a tribe to be
captured by an enemy tribe as a prisoner of war and then exchanged for
goods. This lasted from the 15th to the 19th century, devastating the lives
of at least twenty million Africans. All forced into foreign enslavement,
exported in exchange for imported goods. This is known as the slave trade.

With the rise of the slave trade to the Americas, wars over the control of
African commerce became more intense. During the latter 18th century,
sentiment in Great Britain turned against the slave trade. Following the
Mansfield decision of 1772, which freed slaves in Great Britain, plans were
made for a West African colony for former slaves. The first attempt (1787-
1790) at Saint George's Bay (in present-day Sierra Leone) failed; a second
attempt was made by abolitionists, who in 1792 founded Freetown in the
same area. When the British outlawed the slave trade for British citizens in
1807, they saw Freetown as a desirable base for naval operations against
such trade, and in 1808, Sierra Leone was made a crown colony. The
example of Sierra Leone appealed to Americans interested in black
colonization, and in early 1822 the American Colonization Society succeeded
in establishing its colony, Liberia, at nearby Cape Mesurado.
Then France and Great Britain
The Portuguese established a chain of trading
settlements along the West African coast.
Elmina, founded on the Gold Coast in 1482,
was the most important; in fact, it was only
on the Gold Coast and in the Congo and
Luanda areas that trade was really lucrative.
African gold, ivory, foodstuffs, and slaves
were exchanged for ironware, firearms,
textiles, and foodstuffs. The Portuguese trade
attracted rival European traders who, in the
16th century, created competing stations or
attempted to capture the existing trade. In
western Africa the new trade had profound
effects. Earlier trade routes had been oriented
northward across the Sahara, primarily to the

76 | P a g e
Islamic world. Now the routes were reoriented
to the coast, and as the states of the savanna
declined in
economic importance, states along the coast increased their wealth and
power. Struggles soon developed among coastal peoples for control over
trade routes and for access to the new firearms introduced from Europe. In
the 19th century, contact with the Europeans began when the first
European explorers--notably Mungo Park (British) and Heinrich Barth
(German) Rene Caille.
Partitioning Africa
As European private interest in Africa
grew, the involvement of their
governments multiplied. The French
began the conquest of Algeria and
Senegal in the 1830s, but the
systematic occupation of tropical
Africa did not occur until the second
half of the century. As European
citizens and administrators
penetrated inland, they encountered
resistance from dominant peoples
and welcome from subordinated
peoples seeking allies or protectors.
From about 1880 to 1905, most of
Africa was partitioned among
Belgium, France, Germany, Britain,
Italy, and Portugal (see Scramble for
Africa). In 1876 King Leopold II of
the Belgians established the
International Association of the
Congo, a private company, for the
exploration and colonization of the region. His principal agent for this task
was Anglo-American explorer Henry Morton Stanley. By 1884 the intense
rivalry of the European powers for additional African territory, and the ill-
defined boundaries of their various holdings, threatened their international
relations. A conference was then called at Berlin, Germany, to which the
nations of Europe, together with the United States, sent delegates.

At the Berlin West Africa Conference in 1884 and 1885 the powers defined
their spheres of influence and laid down rules for future occupation on the
coasts of Africa and for navigation of the Congo and Niger rivers. Among the
important provisions of the General Act of Berlin was the rule that when a
power acquired new territory in Africa or assumed a protectorate over any
part of the continent, it must notify the other powers signatory to the
conference. During the next 15 years, numerous treaties were negotiated
between the European nations, implementing and modifying the provisions
of the conference. Two such treaties were concluded in 1890 by Britain. The
first, with Germany, demarcated the spheres of influence of the two powers
in Africa. The second treaty, with France, recognized British interests in the
region between Lake Chad and the Niger River and acknowledged French
influence in the Sahara. Other agreements, notably those between Britain

77 | P a g e
and Italy in 1891, between France and Germany in 1894, and between
Britain and France in 1899, further clarified the boundaries of the various
European holdings in Africa.
British Expansionism
The British desire to suppress the slave
trade found expression in attempts at
redirecting African commerce toward other
exports, such as palm oil, in heightened
missionary activity, and in the imposition of
British government jurisdiction over
properties previously held by British
merchants. Such developments frequently
involved Britain inadvertently in struggles
with African states and led to its
assumption of sovereignty over certain
African territory. On the Gold Coast, the
British government took control of a series
of forts in 1821. Through
misunderstandings the first of a series of
Ashanti-British wars occurred from 1823 to
1826; these conflicts were to continue
intermittently
until the end of the century. Although the government gave up control of
the forts in 1828, it again assumed jurisdiction in 1843. British authority
over the Ashanti, however, was not firmly established until 1900. In the
Niger Delta of Nigeria, the British abolition of slavery brought about a shift in
trade from slaves to palm oil, and in pursuit of this commodity Britain
required a nearby port; in addition, the British were eager to eliminate the
middlemen in delta states such as Calabar, Bonny, and Brass. In 1852,
therefore, they forced the ruler of Lagos to accept British protection, and in
1861 Lagos was annexed as a crown colony.
African Resistance
No African states had been invited to the Berlin
conference, and none signed these agreements.
Whenever possible, the decisions made in Europe were
resisted when applied on African soil. The French faced
a revolt in Algeria in 1870 and resistance from 1881 to
1905 to their efforts to control the Sahara. In the
western Sudan the Mandinka ruler Samory Toure and
Ahmadu, the son and successor of al-Hajj Umar of the
Tukolor state, attempted to maintain their
independence. Both were defeated by the French,
however, Ahmadu in 1893 and Samory five years later.
Dahomey was occupied by French

78 | P a g e
forces in 1892, and the Wadai region was the last area to fall to the French,
in 1900. British administrators encountered similar resistance from the
Boers in South Africa during the periods 1880 and 1881 and 1899 to 1902.
British and Boer settlers conquered Matabeleland in 1893, and three years
later both the Matabele (Ndebele) and their subordinates, the Shona,
revolted. Revolts broke out in Ashantiland in 1893 and 1894, 1895 and
1896, and 1900 and in Sierra Leone in 1897. The British conquest of the
Fulani Hausa states was resisted from 1901 to 1903. Sokoto revolted in
1906. The Germans faced the Herero insurrection in South-West Africa from
1904 to 1908 and Maji Maji revolt from 1905 to 1907 in Tanganyika. Only
the Ethiopians under Emperor Menelik II were successful in resisting
European conquest, annihilating an Italian force at the Battle of Adwa
(Aduwa) in 1896.
Changing of a Continent
Once the territories were conquered
and pacified, the European
administrations began to develop
transportation systems so that raw
materials could be shipped more
easily to ports for export, and to
institute tax systems that would force
subsistence farmers either to raise
cash crops or to engage in migrant
labor. Both policies were well under
way when World War I (1914-1918)
disrupted these efforts. During the
course of the war, the German
territories in West and South-West
Africa were conquered and later were
mandated by the League of Nations to
the various Allied powers. Thousands
of Africans either fought in the war or
served as porters for the Allied
armies. Resistance to the war was
limited to the short-lived 1915
rebellion of John Chilembwe, an
African clergyman, in Nyasaland (now
Malawi).
After World War I, efforts for the exploitation of the colonies were tempered,
and greater attention was paid to providing education, health services, and
development assistance and to safeguarding African land rights.
Nevertheless, the white settler colonies, such as Algeria, Southern Rhodesia
(now Zimbabwe), and Kenya, were given considerable internal self-
government. Southern Rhodesia was made an internally self-governing
crown colony in 1923 with virtually no provision for African voting. During
the interwar years, various types of African-organized protest and nationalist
movements began to emerge. On the whole, however, membership was
limited to Western-educated African groups. Mass parties developed only in
Egypt and Algeria, where large numbers of Africans had abandoned their
traditional way of life and were developing new identities and allegiances.
Ethiopia, which had earlier successfully resisted European colonization, fell
to an Italian invasion in 1936 and did not regain its independence until

79 | P a g e
World War II (1939-1945). With the coming of the war, Africans served in
the Allied armies in even greater numbers than before, and the colonies
generally supported the Allied cause.

Diaspora

Diaspora is the migration or the mass dispersion of peoples of a common culture.

Historically, these movements tend to be for survival, or involuntary. They may be
the result military occupation, systematic persecution, servitude, enslavement, or
laws by which the dominant society defines an ethnic group as marginal,
undesirable, or subordinate. In a broader sense, Diaspora is an understanding of
peopleness, their intergroup relations, and resulting social changes due to
geographical mobility and geosocial displacement. For Fulani people Diaspora is and
has been an integral part of their lifestyle throughout History. First, their nomadic
style of cattle herders required them to move across vast expanses of lands. Then,
they carried the banner of Islam in many parts of West Africa. Their holy wars
stopped only when Europeans came to Africa, conquered them and took them with
others Africans into slavery to the Americas and the Caribbean.

Current Fulani Diaspora

Social and cultural changes cause first by the European colonization, and then by
economic hardship and drought provoked a no less significant migration toward the
other parts of Africa, Europe and America. There are significant number of Fulanis in
non-traditional Fulani areas including Gabon, Congo, Egypt, Marroco, France, Italy,
England and USA.

80 | P a g e
Historical Diaspora in the Americas2

Africans who came to the Americas and the

Caribbean were from the Great Empire of Ghana,
Mali, Songhay and the kingdoms of Fuuta Jalon,
Fuuta Tooro, Massina and Bhundu. They were :
Mande, Fulani, Khassonke, Sarakhule, Yoruba
etc.., see box: Where in Africa did African
Americans Originate. African tradition and culture
has not died out among black people in the New
World, despite many attempts to extinguish it.
Many captives, who came to the New World, came
from proeminent and powerful families. They were
teachers, religious leaders, cavalries leaders,
artists, artisans and students of law.
The Africans continued to promote their culture and to use their language
(Gullah) to help facilitate the communication among various tribes. The
impact of Africans in the New World is most felt in art and culture from five
African groups - Yoruba, Kongo, Ejagham, Mande and Fulani. A significant
part of these cultures have maintained in the New World, which includes the
United States, Cuba, Haiti, Trinidad, Mexico, Brazil and other places.
Diaspora invariably leave a trail of collective memory about other times and
places. But while most displaced peoples frame these attachments with the
aid of living memory and the continuity of cultural traditions, the memories
of those in the African diaspora have been refracted through the prism of
history to create new maps of desire and attachment. Historically, black
peoples in the New World have traced memories of an African homeland
through the trauma of slavery and through ideologies of struggle and
resistance.

8 Africans taken into slavery who became well known in America are: Ayub
Job Djallo, Kunta Kinte, Yarrow Mamood, Ibrahim Abdul Rahman ibn Sori,
Umar Ibn Sayyid, Sali Bilali, Ben Ali-Bilali

81 | P a g e
Where in Africa did African Americans Originate?

Lists the demographics

of identifiable regions
providing slaves for
export between 1711-
1810. Taken from P.D.
Curtin's, "Atlantic Slave
Trade."Some people
complain that the term
"African American" is a
little vague because it
refers to such a huge
and diverse continent.
The question is
sometimes asked,
"From where in Africa
did African Americans
come?" Many people in
my parents generation
(born 1920-40) thought
that this question could
not be answered. Then
came "Roots." Here is
some more information
that might help African
Americans develop a
more personal
connection with the
regions
that this question could not be Projected exports of that portion of
answered. Then came "Roots." Here the french and english slave trade
is some more information that having idenfiable region of coast
might help African Americans origin in Africa 1711-1810
develop a more personal connection
with theregions and peoples of Senegambia (Senegal- 5.8%
Africa. This information comes from Gambia)*
P.D. Curtin's book, "Atlantic Slave Sierra Leone 3.4%
Trade" p. 221. Obviously, this is not Windward Coast (Ivory 12.1%
the only version available, but Curt Coast)*
in is a heavyweight on the subject Gold Coast (Ghana)* 14.4%
(along with W.E.B. DuBois, R.R.
Kuczynski, E. Donnan, Davies, H.S. Bight of Benin (Nigeria)* 14.5%
Klein, etc) and I like the way the Bight of Biafra (Nigeria)* 25.1%
data is presented Central and SoutheastAfrica 24.7%
(Cameroon- N.Angola)*
Other possible groups that maybe
should be included as a "Ancestral Wolof, Mandingo,
group" of African Americans, and in Malinke, Bambara,
what region:Fulani, Tuareg, Senegambia Papel, Limba, Bola,
Dialonke, Massina, Dogon, Balante, Serer, Fula,
Songhay, Jekri, Jukun, Domaa, Tucolor

82 | P a g e
Tallensi, Mossi, Nzima, Akwamu, : Temne, Mende, Kisi,
Egba, Fang, and Ge.I've long Sierra Leone
Goree, Kru.
associated some of the above Winward
names with political divisions, Baoule, Vai, De, Gola
Coast (incl.
cultures, regions, languages, and/or (Gullah), Bassa, Grebo.
Liberia)
dialects. If you have information
that would remove, add, or move Ewe, Ga, Fante,
Gold Coast
one of the above, please post it and Ashante, Twi, Brong
we'll all be better informed.I'll admit Yoruba, Nupe,
some of my biases and motives Benin & Benin,Dahomean (Fon),
now. I hope this discussion will lead Biafra Edo-Bini, Allada, Efik,
many African American to feel Combined Ibibio, Ijaw,
proud of the achievements of these Ibani,Igbo(Calabar)
groups, to feel angry towards BaKongo, MaLimbo,
governments and agencies that Ndungo, BaMbo,
exploit them, and to feel sympathy Central & BaLimbe, BaDongo,
towards their suffering. If that leads Southeast Luba, Loanga,
to political action and realignment Africa Ovimbundu, Cabinda,
of American resources and polices Pembe, Imbangala,
towards the region, then it could Mbundu,BaNdulunda
become important for some groups
to get on this list. Nevertheless,
Kwame Bandele
Fulani Time Line
Fulani Chronology

6000 BC The River People emerge along Nile, Niger, and Congo Rivers
(West-Central Africa); the Isonghee of Zaire (Republic of
Congo) introduce mathematical abacus; and Cyclopean stone
tombs built in Central African Republic area. Spread of
agriculture south of the Sahara Desert supporting a growing
population, which mastered animal domestication and
agriculture, and forced the San groups into the less hospitable
areas.
4000 BC Ancient African civilizations of the Nile Valley are established &
flourish
300s AD Empire of Ghana emerge (in present-day Mali)
400s AD The Ghanaian empire becomes the most important power in
West Africa
400s Fulani migrate southward from present day Morocco and
Mauritania
610 AD Beginning of Islam
639-641
Khalif Omar conquers Egypt with Islamic troops
AD
750 (circa) Kingdom of Kangaba, from which the empire of Mali emerges, is
AD founded (Present-day Mali). Songhai state emerges (Present-
day Mali)
800
Kingdom of Kanem emerges (present-day Lake Chad region)
(circa): AD

83 | P a g e
800s AD Tekruur founded (Present-day Senegal)
1000s AD Kingdoms of Tekruur and Gao flourish in West Africa due to
gold trade
1050 AD Islam introduced to West-Africa
1050-1146 Almoravids, Berber/Fulani Muslims from Southern Mauritania/
AD Northern Senegal , take over Morocco, Algeria, and part of
Muslim Spain; they invade Ghana in 1076, and establish power
there.
1062 AD Almoravids found capital at Marrakech
1100 AD Ghana empire in West Africa declines
1147 AD Almohads, Berber Muslims opposed to Almoravids, seize
Marrakech and go on to conquer Almoravid Spain, Algeria, and
Tripoli
c.1150AD Empire of Ghana at its height
1230 Kanem at its height
1235 Great warrior leader Sun Diata founds Mali empire in Present-
day Mali West Africa; it expands under his rule
1240
Mali absorbs Ghana and Songhai
(circa)
1250 (circa) Tekruur absorbed by Mali
1324 Emperor of Mali, Mansa Kankan Musa, goes on a pilgrimage to
Mecca, Arabia
1325 (Circa) Empire of Mali at its height

1340 Songhai independent from Mali

1352 Ibn Battuta, Berber scholar, travels across Africa and writes an
account of all he sees
1386 State of Bornu established (present-day Lake Chad region)
1400s Wolof Empire founded (Present day Senegal)

1420s Portuguese sailors begin to explore west coast of Africa

1439 Portugal takes the Azores and increases expeditions along
northwest African coast, eventually reaching the Gold Coast
(modern Ghana).
1441 Beginning of European slave trade in Africa with first shipment
of African slaves sent directly from Africa to Portugal.

c.1450 Nomadic Kunta Arabs began to preach and spread mystic Sufi
Islam throughout the western Sudan. The Fulani, a nomadic
pastoral people, moving slowly eastward from Senegal, also
gain converts for Islam through mid-16th century.
1462 Sonni Ali becomes ruler of the Songhai and goes on to build an
empire
1490(circa) Mali eclipsed by Songhai Empire
1500s Songhai empire in West Africa enters period of greatest
expansion and power under Askia Mohammed Toure

84 | P a g e
1510 Start of Atlantic Slave Trade
1515 (circa) Songhai at its Height
1526 Bornu controls Kanem
1550
Wolof Empire dissolved. Mali ceases to exist
(circa)
1560s First Portuguese embassies in Timbuktu, West Africa
1562 Britain begins its slave trade in Africa. Slave Trade increases
significantly with development of plantation colonies of the
Americas, especially in Brazil. Other countries involved in the
European slave trade included Spain (from 1479); North
America (from 1619); Holland (from 1625); France (from
1642); Sweden (from 1647); and Denmark (from 1697).

1590 Songhai defeated by Moroccans

1591 Kanem-Burnu at greatest extent
1670 Fulani people gain control of Bhundu in Senegal with Malick
Sy,and Sissibhe
1670 French settle in Senegal
1650 Fulani migrate into Fuuta Tooro and Fuuta Jalon
1673 Unsuccessful Fulani Holy war in Fuuta Tooro
1725 First successful Fulani holy war in Fuuta Jalon
c1775. Fulani Muslim cleric Alfa Ibrahim appointed Commander of the
Faithful in Fuuta Jalon in West Africa
1725 Second successful Holy war launched in Futa Toro
18th Century Between 1450 and 1850, at least 12 million
Africans were shipped from Africa across the Atlantic Ocean--
the notorious "Middle Passage"--primarily to colonies in North
America, South America, and the West Indies. 80% of these
kidnapped Africans (or at least 7 million) were exported during
the 18th century, with a mortality rate of probably 10-20% on
the ships enroute for the Americas.

1832-3 British abolish slavery in West Indies.

1863 Emancipation of slaves in the United States in midst of Civil
War.
1800 Fulani Islamic Holy war : States of Futa Toro, Futa Djallon, Wuli
and Bhundu in existence
1804-1809 Fulani Holy war in Haussaland led by Usman Dan Fodio; Sokoto
Khaliphate established
1804- Haussa states defeated by Fulani Holy war. Sokoto Caliphate
1809 founded by Fulani (Present-day Nigeria)
c.1820 Fulani emirate founded in Adamawa, West Africa

1820 Fulani in Mali, West Africa, found and rule Hamdallahi caliphate
1827 Independent Islamic state of Massina Eshtablished
1830 Sokoto Khaliphate reaches the greatest extent
1852 Fulani leader al-Hajj 'Umar launches holy war along Senegal

85 | P a g e
 and upper Niger rivers to establish Islamic state
1862 Macina conquered by Fulanis from Fuuta Tooro
1863 El-Hajj 'Umar takes Timbuktu
1870s- Second Mandinka Empire established (Present-day Senegal) as
1880s successor to the Empire of Mali
1871-1912 Global European Imperialism at its height: The "scramble for
Africa" proceeds.
1879 Rabi B. Fadl Allah begin to build Empire (Present-day
Chad/Nigeria)
1880s
European imperial scramble for Africa begins
(circa)
1884-5 Berlin Conference: Intense rivalries among Belgium, France,
Germany, Great Britain, Italy, Spain, and Portugal for additional
African territory, and the ill-defined boundaries of their various
holdings, instigate the Berlin conference.
1893 Kanem-Bornu defeated by Rabih b. fadl Allah

1893 French defeat Fuuta Tooro Empire

1895 France forms federation of colonies that become French West
Africa.
1903 British conquered the Sokoto Caliphate
1904 French create federation of French West Africa
1914-1918 West-Africa troops fight on both side in World War I.
1920s Pan-Africanism and the Diaspora. Pan-Africanist ideas of unity,
shared identity and roots among Africans and their descendents
of the Diaspora* .
1920 Pan-African Congresses meet in Paris, fueled by anti-colonial
unrest and African nationalism esp. among black missionary-
and Western-educated elites. This unrest is expressed in strikes
in Sierra Leone, the Gold Coast, and Nigeria of British West
Africa
1930s Negritude, a French-language literary movement, began in
1930s Paris of modernism, surrealism, and jazz among French
colonial subjects most in Paris to finish their educations.
Leopold Sedar Senghor, was a leader and militant
communicator of the concept of Negritude, Poets Leon-Gontran
Damas, Birago Diop, David Diop, and Martinique-born Aime
Cesaire also associated with the movement
1950s Cheich Hamidou kane (Senegal) , with Ambiguous Advanture,
and Camara Laye (Guinea) alomg with Cameroon's Mongo Beti
and Ferdinand Oyono are remarkable writers on cultural chocks
and psychological insights resulting from the influence of
colonization.
1939-1945 West-African troops fight on allied side in World War II

1950:- West-African Nations become independent from European

1970 Colonial rules

86 | P a g e
1960s-
Recurring drought causes famine in Sahelian countries
1980s
1963 Organization of African Unity founded
1974 Nigeria becomes leading oil producer in Africa
1976 Cheikh Anta Diop (Senegal, 1923-1986), publishes the
influential and controversial book, The African Origin of
Civilization.
1990 Dramatic freeing of long-time black political prisoner Nelson
Mandela by Afrikaner President de Klerk in South Africa.
1994 Wide spread unrest and economic hardship in Francophone
countries after CFA franc is devaluated.
2001 The African Union (AU) replaces the Organization of African
Unity (OAU) after 38 years in existence.

---------------------------
Time Line Charts

Africa in Antiquity, 500 B.C. - 400 A.D.

Nok Culture 500 B.C.-200 A.D.

Africa in the Middle Ages

ANCIENT KINGDOMS & EMPIRES

Ghana Kanem-
Tekruur9th- Almoravids11th-
7th-13th Bornu11th-
16th c. 12th c.
c. 12th c.

13th- 16th Century

Songhay 15th-16th
Mali 13th-16th c.
c.

17th- 18th Century

NEW KINGDOMS
Fuuta
Segou Kaarta
Tooro Bhundu17th- Fuuta Jalon Massina1818-
1650- 1753-
1770- 19th c. 1725-1899 1853
1818 1893
1900

19th Century

Sokoto Adamawa19th- Ashanti 17th Liberia 1821- Sierra Leone

87 | P a g e
1804- 20th c. c.-1901 1847 1808-1880
1903

Colonial Period & Independence

Burkina
Niger Nigeria Togo
CameroonSince Dahomey/Benin Faso
since since since
1960 since 1960 since
1960 1960 1960
1960

Cote Chad
Ghana since Mali since Sierra Leone Guinea
D'Ivoire Since
1957 1960 since 1961 since 1958
since 1960 1960

Guinea Chad
Cape Verde Senegal Gambia since Mauritania
Bissau since Since
since 1975 since 1960 1965 since 1965
1975 1960

Introduction to the Fulani Family

It is important know that all

African cultures are characterized
by their fluidity. Sociologically,
acculturation, assimilation and
adaptation are always taken place
among Fulani. In addition to the
changes brought about by human
survival needs, and changing
times, the local African
governments are constantly
effecting changes among the
people. These changes are placing
on the Fulani forces that
significantly affect their lifestyle.

Traditional occupations such as: farming, fishing, artisans, jewelers,

weavers, pottery makers all introduce variations in the basic family living.
It is important first to understand the social group which each family
belongs to, in order to truly be able to appreciate the family structure.

Therefore, generalization about any aspects of Fulani culture is not easily

88 | P a g e
made. However, traditionally, the foundation for the basic unit of social and
economic life is laid with the legal union of man and wife in marriage. Through
their offspring and through possible subsequent marriages, the household will
continue its expansion and may form a compound family consisting of the
household head, his several wives and their respective children.

The Fulani family is patriarchal. The husband is Jom Galle, head of the family,
while the wife is Jom Suudu, head of the household. The husband/father is the
one to make all the important decisions and represent the family. The
decisions of the father can be discussed, but the father is always to be
respected and never to be proven wrong or embarrassed in front of his wives
or children. The father/husband is considered the provider of food, clothes,
shelter, and medicine.

Women exert a certain amount of power in the day to day running of the house
especially during the frequent absences of the father. It is frequent to have
husband and wife jointly assume full responsibility for the household in such
matters as herd and land that is sufficient for their sustenance. Often, it is the
wives who get involved in various money making adventures to make ends
meet.

This section will introduce the Household, the Daily Life, the Social Life, and
the Family relations. The Elders, Women and Youth and all aspects of Village
Life will be described.

Additionally, cultural notes highlight important aspects which are not readily
recognized and appreciated by non-Africans.

Kinship-Enndham

The idea of family and kinship bonds IS Cherished by all Fulani. This idea
revolve around the lineage legnol, Kinship jiidugal, Relatedness bandiraagal
And Many Other terms of endearment Which are Held in high regard by the
Fulani. The basic elements of kinship Among Fulani are based on generations,
age and gender. The Seniority and kinship are vital to the structure of Fulani
ménage. Being patrilineal and patrilocal, celebrities gain Their last name
Yettore, By Which They Are Identified first. The Summary of Organizational
lineage IS Traced from a common ancestor and His descendants. They Live In
The Sami compound and members Cooperate in daily life activities. A cluster of
lineages constituted a clan. Kinship and regional groups Regulate Conflict
Within and Between groups.

Politically a leader of a territorial ARDHO group plays a major role.

Patrilineages serie important part in Regulating, a day to day matters, and
control of cattle, marriages, and inheritance. All activities related to kinship are
seen in the nature of the steady state Fulani culture, and are summed up in
the label of Pulaaku. The code of conduct Pulaaku stresses the symbolic
importance of cattle, the respect of senior citizens and the love of mother. It
Also Portray the perfect Fulani have one who's stoic, reserved, patient and
gentle in Demeanor.

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Kinship Terminology

Fulani kinship term could "ambiguous prononcer to People of Other Cultures,

Because The kinship terms can Be Used to Refer to Specifying a range of
personal gold person. Fulani preferred to call someone by a kinship term
whether or not related They Are. For example Baaba IS father goal it is
Possible to Call Also Baaba all related and friends of the father. Same goes for
Neena gold mother brother / sister migniradho Gold's / daughter bhidho.
Another interesting aspect Is The use of the diminutive el and the possessive
pronoun am, Which are combined as Elam and added at the end of a word to
stress kindness and good feelings about somebody or something. For example
mignelam Which mean my dear little brother / sister. The Use of el by Itself IS
diminutive and am by Itself IS possessive. Purpose and consoling the MOST
interesting kinship terms are kawiragal and dendhiraagal

Kawiragal

The terms kaaw gold Gorgol Relationships are very special in the Fulani
society. Kaaw Is The brother of the mother or the Maternal Uncle, "whereas
Gorgol IS Used for the sister of the father or paternal role of a aunt.The Gorgol
Becomes more apparent at the time of marriages. She organizes and
arrangement Many aspects of the wedding. As the chief confidant, she Gives
advice relevant future flange. The Gorgol Also Does the final preparations
Including bathing and clothing, Before the flange moves to the home of the
groom.
A kaaw IS regarded one of the dearest mum on Which a child can have. This IS
leap Further Strengthened by the fact That Has the birth name for the phrasal
Child Is Often the Name of Loved uncle. The uncle Becomes Therefor the
tokora Child Of The Golden Loved namesake. A tokora IS responsible for
buying gifts is the day of the naming ceremony, as well as "for-fulfilling certain
droits THROUGHOUT the life of the child. Many in this respects The
Relationship Between Uncle and His nephews IS Closer Than That Between the
Children and Their biological father. This uncle Has Many Responsibilities and
obligations nieces and nephews Towards Loved. He Contributes to Their
naming ceremony and later to Their wedding. Often drake Their main adviser
and initials' em in Many Aspects of Life. Theys May inherit cattle-through Him.
Theys May go to Him in time of Need, and Move event has been "Into Loved
compound.It Said That It Is The Loved uncle Who Will Guide nephew or niece
to Paradise in the here after.

Dendiraagal

Is very Valued Dendiraagal relationship to Fulani society. Usually the term

translated as cousin in dendirabhe Fulani Has A Broader Meaning. The Meaning
Can Be Explained in Three levels: the first level IS dendiraabhe kosam. The
first level Concerns particularly the link Between the respective offspring of a
brother sister gold. In this society the term cousin IS applicable to the Children
of the brothers of the sisters of the mother or father ET. The Children of the
sisters of the mother and the brothers of the father are brother and sister
Called, not cousin in Fulani. The respective descendants of the uncle and aunt
are the Called, Collectively dendiraabhe gold cousins. The second level of
Dendiraagal includes people Who are not related purpose Biologically Have

90 | P a g e
Their last name dendiraagu relationship. Finally, The Third Kind of Dendiraagal
Is The Relationship Between clans or ethnic groups. See Cousinhood.

Family Relations

Cousinhood: Relationship Between Last Names

An interesting custom in the Futa IS sanakuyaagal (Dendiraagal) Or joking

Between clans. Here's how it works: the tease the Diallos Baldes gold Bahsas
And The Sows joke with the Barrys. For example, a Barry Might call a thief Sow
(gujjo) Gold Donkey (Mbaba) And Otherwise ridiculous Their character and
lineage, all in good fun. The cross-cousins do not Have to Know Each Other
well-to-play start insulting Each Other.

Family terminology

The words brother, father, mother, uncle, etc.. are Applied e loosely in Fulani
society. Someone's brother May in fact Be Loved half-brother, cousin, a distant
relative, someone from the Sami village, or just a good buddy. Father can
mean uncle grandfather gold; my child "could be my sound, daughter, nephew,
grandchild, etc..

If you want to Establish the exact genealogical relationship, You Need to ask
questions Specifying: Do You Have the Same Mother? Is he your mother's
older brother?

Family Relations

The Principles for Organizing Family Relationships are quite different from That
of the Western countries. Howeve, There are a few "general principles Which
Will Help You Understand how families are arranged.

In the first place, Family Relationships are arranged to LUKAS classificatory

lines, Rather Than Simply biological lines. This Means That There ya une CF
firefighters group or class of people "Who can fill" any relationship slot. For
example, one Does not Say Baaba (Father) only to one's biological father. All
of the father's brothers are Also Called Baaba, And They Have Special
Privileges and Responsibilities visa vis Their Niece and nephews. This title of
Baaba furthermore May Be Extended to include all of the father's cousins, all of
Loved And Then age-mates!

One says neen (Mother) to one's biological mother and all of Her Sisters. If It
Is Important to Distinguish the biological parents, you can say Baaba am tigi
(My real father), etc..

Secondly, relationships are Distinguished Between the mother's side of the

family and the father's side.

Importance of Names

Names are more Than What goes Into annum Identity Card. Names are Given

91 | P a g e
to Strengthen family, friendship and community. Also Reflect Naming Practices
in the sense Which IS EACH person Understood, at a "fundamental level, to Be
a living manifestation of the cumulative force of paternal descent Loved. Men's
and women's names Consist of Their Given names Followed by Their father's
last name Yettoode. This Is Usually the Extent to Which a Given name is for
social or legal purposes. Purpose is personal Understood's full name is to go on
and on, from father to father ad infinitum.

Communities in West-Africa, the Fulani have SUCH, Often people ask

Foreigners to choose a local name by Which They Will Be Called. It Is very
important to people "That They Be Able to remember and use your name.

This helps Strengthen the friendship Between the foreigner and the local
population.

The importance of names and naming Shows Up in Several Ways. The first
event in a Child's Life Is his or her naming ceremony. This is the underinsured
motorist seventh day after a child's birth. Children are named after the
parents' brothers, sisters, mother, father, or in Honor of someone else. Both
mother and father choose a first name to "give to the child. Howeve, in the
patrilineal society, the last name of the father Is That. For example, for a boy,
the mother can choose Demba, and the father Yero. The Mother's Side of the
Family and Her Friends Will Call the child Demba, On The Other Hand, the
father and His Family and Friends Will Call Him Yero. The person from Whom
the name is phrasal and all the persons of the same first name are the child's
tokora, Or namesake. A tokora IS responsible for buying some gifts are the
day of the naming ceremony, as well as "for-fulfilling certain droits
THROUGHOUT the life of the child. Sharing a common name Creates a special
bond.

The family name of An individual "Often Will Tell You Which ethnic group from
HE IS. A sample of Fulani names is: Jallo (gold Kah), Soh, Bah (gold Balde),
Ban, Sih, Dem Kaan Njaay, Sekka, Caam, An, Jaaw, etc.. One of inmate
admitted Showing respect for Another person Loved Is To call out a greeting
family name When did you meet and have a good-bye as you are leaving. For
examples of Fulani first names click here.

We are related, you and I.

When you meet someone, after the Preliminary greetings, you Will Be Asked
your last name and your town of origin. The Hand Reason For That Is To
Identify a Potential Relationship Between Gold Lineage celebrities. Genealogy
Is a Highly Valued tool for this kind of exchange. In the olden days people
Knew Their genealogy and very well could "Quickly Identify Relationship
Between families. Howeve, then this is now a dying art.

Sending Kids we Errands

In MOST African cultures, a year can ask "any adult child to run for a year
Errand Them, Regardless Of whether or not the Child Is related to 'em, or

92 | P a g e
whether They Know the child at all. Child in this context means clustering
anyone younger and / or lower in status "clearly Than militaire armes. In the
absence of telephones, faxes, vehicles, etc.. Often then this is the MOST
effective way to send a message, gold candles Obtain sugar at the last minute,
transport heavy objects, etc.. A lot of Some reward 'may be appropriate "Is
Not Obligatory goal.

Visiting the sick

The Fulani, like MOST people, like to Be When They Are Sick visited. It is nice
to Bring food gifts ou autres. In Case of Illness Involving year has extended
hospital stay and / or the purchase of medicine, a gift of money IS appropriée.

Are you better?

When you tell someone you're sick, They Will ask you: Are you feeling better?
If you answer That, no, you're not at all Better yet, They Will sponds: OK. But
are you feeling better? The correct answer is yes,

Regardless of how you feel.

They Are Wishing You well, not really inquiring as to your health. By Saying
Yes you are Really Saying If God wills it I Will soon be better.

Fulani Household
The family constituted the foundation of the society. The legal union of man
and wife in marriage Is a moral and social act Highly RespectEd by Fulani.
Marriage therefore Generally Within The IS group or clan. Through Their
offspring can Subsequent marriages and-through, the ménage Will ITS
continues expansion and May form a Compound Consisting of the family head
ménage, Loved Several Wives and Their respective children. When the first
child gets married, the ménage Enter a new phase. It May Still expand as the
result of new births to junior wives Mainly, the goal at the time même ménage
Will Be subject to reductions. Eventually, complete dissolution underinsured
motorist When All Have married offspring. Man and Wives Then take up his
residence with Their Eldest Usually Which Will mean Several homesteads and
distribution over the separation of a Man from Loved junior wives. The elders
Will Spend Their Last Days On The Periphery Of The homestead of Their Sons;
est aussi cette WHERE They Are Buried.
It Is of great Interest to see What Happens Between the Two extremes of the
Life History of simple and compound families, the major hazards to ASSESS to
Which They Are Exposed DURING Their growth to maturity and Subsequent
dissolution. For a ménage a year to act as independent self unites That Is
Sufficient for Labor and food at all seasons There Should Be a particular
Balance Between the human group and the herd associated with it. While the
large herd Should Be Enough to Meet the Needs of the subsistence group, It Is
Equally clear That There Should Be Sufficient Humans tend to the cattle and to
take full advantage of Their Resources.

93 | P a g e
Status of Women

Fulani Women

Celebrated for Their beauty and grace, the Fulani women are the pride and the
gem of the

Celebrated for Their beauty and grace,

the Fulani women are the pride and the
gem of the Fulani society. With Their
thin, aquiline facial features, Fulani
women are Known for Their attractive
dress and hairstyles.

Their exquisite gold earrings off

Adornments of Known As kootone
kang, heavy silver rings and bangles,
and hairdos That Incorporate large
amber beads are well reconnu Beyond
Their traditional borders.

Their clothes Often Have a background

color of yellow and / or red. Their hair
IS long braided am and is 5 long braids
That Into Either hang from gold
Sometimes Their Heads are looped On
The Sides. It Is common for the women
and girls around new serie Attached to
Their braids. Some corners of
contention are very old and Have Been
Down In The PASSED family.The
women enjoyMany are wearing
bracelets Their Wrists.

Like the men, the Women Have Their faces around you Markings Their Eyes
and Mouth That They Were Given as children.

Marriage

Fulani women enjoy Greater Independence and Freedom of Movement Than

Surrounding women of Muslim populations. Women are segregated
"Sometimes men from you as far as Circumstances Allowed.

Traditionally, When Being MOST marriages arranged by the families or the

clan, A Woman Has Little Selecting a choice of husband in Fulani Traditional
Societies. Howeve, There are a few "exceptions.

In the "celebrated well Wodhaabe, Women Have a Choice in Selecting Their

Gerewol husband" during the dance. In the western cities WHERE IS influences
prevalence, women are increasingly Choosing Their husband Without the

94 | P a g e
assistance of the family. Although Divorce Is Easy to Obtain if the marriages
Does not work, Marriage Is a Highly Valued social act. Couples and Their family
to go to plan weddings Much length, commits wide dépenses and Performance
elaborated wedding ceremonies. Marriages are arranged and Organized largely
by women. In fact, women take care of the great majorité Of The Family And
The village activities. In Addition To Her ménage SUCH're cooking chores,
fetching water cleaning, milking and butter and milk product preparation, Often
she hold to have basketball SUCH Specifying specialty weaving, calabash
decorating, cloth dyeing. Their product selling at the market place is well
activité économique year Appreciated by the family. Traditionally women do
not Own cattle, howeve this is changing. The family supplemental revenu IS
MOST of the time in the control of women. Perhaps women Is The MOST
important? S role as custodians of the family traditions, history and lineage.

Aspects of Polygamy Fulani

Polygamy ya une ancient form of marriage practiced by Many societies. Many

religions Have Encouraged the practice of polygamy, the Hindu religion DID not
set limits to the number of wives a man May have. The Muslim religion is the
Other Hand, allow a Man to Have Many have as four wives. As Fulani Muslim
men can marry up to oven wives.

Status of Women

Several studies That Have shown, although women Represent Half of the
World? S population and one Third of the official Labor Force, THEY RECEIVE
only 1% of the total global income and less than 1% Own of the World? S
property.

In a ménage Given, A Woman Has Often revenu less, less and less nutrition
Wealth Than a man, and yet the ménage IS Mostly, if not Solely, we depend
That Woman? S Labor for the generation of products and income. Cette est
aussi true in West African Society Including the Fulani. The status of women
can Be Understood in Two point of views: Islam and Modernity.

Since MOST Fulani are Muslims, the status of Fulani women can Be Better
Understood from an Islamic point of view. Before the arrival of Islam, women
in nomadic societies Most Likely Did Not occupy a high social status. Against
Injustice Was Probably more women Pronounced DURING pre Islamic times,
When Were the worst conditions Their THEY "could be. Women Were Deprived
of Everything: The Right to Life (as a daughter), to honor, to Fair Treatment,
to protection, to ownership and so on., Mothers and wives have. Then IS
regarded Islam as a religion That Significantly Improved the condition of
women.

First of all, female infanticide and Islam Abolished Equal Rights Gave women to
men. Malthus, have a daughter, wife and mother, a woman Was Endowed with
SUCH Many rights have the right to inheritance, maintenance, education,
protection, freedom of speech, the right to take part in activities SUCH Many
have wars and so on (see table below: women and Islam). Islam grants the
wife the right to dissolve the marriage-through What Is Known As Khulaa and
she can sue for divorce in a case of cruelty or desertion Without Any Other

95 | P a g e
reasons. Among the rights attributed, to women in Islam are the right to
choose a husband and the right to education. Women are free to choose Their
Religion in Islam and are Encouraged to contribute "With Their opinions and
ideas. In short, Islam Gave 'em all human, civil, social, politique and Economic
rights.

Practical Knowledge

African Women Have a deep and concrete KM of their Environment. In pastoral

societies have SUCH the Fulani, Women Have Detailed KM of the dynamics of
Their ecosystem and of the influence of livestock on it.

THEY can monitor the condition of range-through milk production, animal year?
S Appearance, wool production, manure production, etc.. Women Have A
detailed frequently KM of Water Resources, Including Their quality and
quantity. Theys Understand certain animal diseases, symptoms, treatments
and pharmacology, and herding practices Designed to Reduce disease
incidence.

Poverty and Marginalization

Poverty and marginalization of Even male-headed Households HAS year added

adverse effect on women. In the Case of Marginalized pastoralists Recently,
Many of the traditional systems of Wealth Redistribution Have Broken Down,
and social networks are not as dependable As They Once Were.

Issues and Obstacles

The recognition of the human rights for all: rights to life, Dignity, Justice,
freedom and Equal Access to public goods and économiques Including
education, health-care and banking are the "fundamental Prerequisites To The
Successful development of the continent.

Yet, African Women Still Do face particularly great challenges. Adult female
literacy in 1992 Was Only 45% in sub-Saharan Africa, as Compared to a 59%
average for all Developing Countries. Maternal rats mortalité Averaged 606 per
100.000 live births over the period 1980-1992, as Compared with seven for
the U.S. and 351 for All Developing Countries. African Women's Work For
Some accounts to 80% of food production, little benefit derived THEY goal from
government programs favoring international gold cash crops for export.
Women are particularly vulnerable Victims of the continent's internal Conflicts
and Natural Disasters Drought and floods have SUCH. Levels of domestic
violence against women are very high, and Even less well Reported Than in
Many Other Parts of the World.

Howeve, In some areas, African Women Have Made Significant advances.

Women's groups Focused on legal reform, violence against women, conflict-
resolution, economic empowerment and Other exits are Growing around the
continent. Over the decades Since 1960, the gap in primary school have
narrowed rats Enrollment Enrollment Grew Much More Rapidly Than for Boys
for Girls. For sub-Saharan Africa as a Whole, by 1990 primary school female

96 | P a g e
HAD Enrollment Reached 85% Of That of boys. In government, African
Countries are ahead of the rest of Much of the world. Five African Countries Are
Among the top 15 in the world percentage of women in National Parliaments
Their ranking ahead of Many Developed Countries. Have women benefited too
Fulani of the progress to Some Extent.

Fulani Women Have Occupied high government and business jobs.

Nevertheless Still There Are Problems persist Including land tenure system,
education, transition from pastoral life to urban life and access to government
facilities.

. Women and Islam

"Full Person -A Woman's Testimony Is Worth

Half of a Man? S, Especially In Civil
"Spiritual Equality boxes.

"Can Initiate Divorce -A woman's share of inheritance

Year Is One-half of a male relative?
"Right to Inheritance S in the Sami category. Polygamy
Issues.
"Freedom to Own property
The husband-Is The head of the
ménage, Is The Final Authority, and
"Freedom to Own and Operate Business
Obedience Has due and cooperation
from Loved wife.
"Equal Pay
-Men must pay a dowry to Their
"Their Freedom to use money as THEY Wives. This money goes to the wife,
please not Her Father, and It Is Her
private property to do with As She
"Total Control of Their Wealth Sees said. Moreover, She is Able to
keep it Even after a divorce.
"Right to vote
-Women can inherit property from
"Right to keep name after marriage Husbands, fathers, brothers,
Their Own Mothers, and sons, and It Is Their
personal property to keep and use
"Women Have the right to remarry and as THEY see fit.
are Encouraged to do so

"A Woman Has final approval" was

arranged by marriage partner Her
parents.

Adapted from:

Women Livestock Managers in the Third World

by M. Niamir-Fuller (IFAD, 1994) and Other Sources

97 | P a g e
98 | P a g e
Role of Women

Traditionally, the Fulani woman's roles included the care Have all of ménage
tasks. Several hours Theys Spend Preparing the evening meal. Theys retrieve
water from the well has bucket or Two at a time and Often must carry it on
Their Heads over long distance back to Their home.

These women gather firewood Also, milk shake in numb to make butter and
pound millet by hand as part of labor-intensive cooking practices.

Also responsible for ltr laundry, Collecting wood, caring for small children and
shopping for ingredients for Their cooking. In addition to the thesis tasks Also
Spend time working women batik and tie dye, and weaving with dried grass to
make mats or Other Useful Items. Many of 'em sell milk or milk products in
order to make money and purchase personal and family needs.

Fulani women, Who are in charge of building Often the family tents or
temporary shelters, weave wall and floor mats. Beside nomadic architecture,
They specialize in the decoration of wooden bowls and Calabash (lahal kosam).
Often seen They Are Carrying Their milk products are stacked in thirds Their
Heads in calabash bowls.

Calabash are pyro-Engraved with a combination of figurative and abstract

motifs and colored with pigments. In the Fulani cow-centered culture, milk
bowls Also important are the objects for ménage. They Are Used as storage
containers for fresh, curdled milk and grain. An artifact, symbol of the pastoral
life and of the cooperation Between Men Who keep the herd and milk the cows
Who women, the lahal kosam Encapsulate Fulani identity. Because Of Their
delicate chiseling and exquisite decorative Treatment, and calabash bowls
Could Be regarded as the true focus of aesthetic efforts of the Fulani people

The men take care of the cattle and the women take care of the dairy
products, all ménage chores, meal making, milking cattle, selling milk products
And They Are not Allowed to get involved in grazing, movement or selling the
cattle. The division of work IS very strict Used To Be Between Men and women.
Howeve Things Are Changing Fast.

A study cited the Case of the Fulani in northern Nigeria. Here Traditionally
Women Have Dominated the dairy production and marketing system, although
men milk the animals. Fulani Women Have considerable milk-processing
expertise. THEY can transform milk at least six Into different products and are
Constantly Experimenting With New Ones.

Their role prononcer Though May did menial Times, They Always Have Carried
On The Burden of the family survival. These elusive, delicate, and Frail looking
women are the backbone of the Fulani culture. THEY carry the family Wealth
Literally, traditions and aspirations are Their Heads. One em is the tradition,
the prosperity, and the survival of the group. Despite Countless barriers, Fulani
women and Their African sisters are responsible for over 80% of the food
production, 80% of the water management and 100% of child rearing in Many
Parts of West Africa.

99 | P a g e
100 | P a g e
Youth

Children Are The recipient of

the cultural legacy of all
societies. Theys representing
The pivotal and crucial
gateway for cultural survival.
Howeve, for African children,
and Specially Fulani, There
Are Competing and
relentless forces bearing on
Their Bringing up.

Traditional Way of Life Is

Competing Against, foreign
religions, foreign

Cultures and Modernity and Not Always winning. All thesis influences to fight
African children live in Contradictory and Confusing paths ways. In Some boxes
are assimilating well the Children of thesis Many signals, goal MOST of the time
Have Been weak results.

The life style of Fulani, nomadic gold Settled, by and large Has changed
Because Of The Effects of Several external events and pressures. It Is Difficult
to Pinpoint exact causes and times of change, Since It Has Been Generally a
gradual process instigated by the Interplay of Several different factors
"Applying pressure on the traditional Sami child education at the time.

Education of the Young in Traditional Knowledge is based on on-the-job

training, lessons Given any rights of initiation, and children's games.
Traditional Education in General Than Costs less modern education, and That
Has the advantage are not the Children Withdrawn from the work force. Formal
Schools Provide the needed literacy in modern times, Their goal is Too foreign
content to the Pastoralist. Mostly irrelevant Theys teach values, Rather Than
the Value of Land, traditions and cultural survival. Educational Traditional
techniques May Still Be intact strength goal IS ITS Rapidly Diminishing. In this
section, Their conditions, Their Education and initiations are Examined.

Family Education

Fulani children begin to learn Their roles very early. While Fulani Their families
would prefer children to Islamic schools expected to study and memorize
Koranic verses, Many Can not AFFORD the fees of the schools.

Boys Follow Their fathers to learn how to tend the cattle or work in the millet
field. When the boys Reach the age of about 10 They Are in charge of could
Following The cattle. Girls Also help with the cattle if only aim Until about the
age of 9 or 10. Other common jobs for young girl is gathering firewood and
Helping to look after Their younger siblings. The traditional rites of passage for

101 | P a g e
girls HAD largely fallen out of practice by the time African Countries Gained
independence in 1960. Howeve, Girls Are Taught By The older women how to
take care of the home and how to Be a good wife When They Are Married.

Character Building Vocabulary

As part of the training Pulaaku for character building, some concepts are
Introduced to the young early in life:

Courage: (Jaambaraagal)

The sense of courage and Chivalry IS Most often illustrated in Legends

(Daarol). This ideal form of behavior in the society IS Known As jaambaraagal.
It Is a spirit or ethic of Behavior in Which one shows courage, reserve,
hospitality, and Generosity. To Be Called a jaambaro someone Who Is To Be
Admired thesis possessive traits.

Hospitality: (Teddugal)

To Treat someone with respect, high regard, to respect someone, by

extension, to show hospitality

(In this context, means clustering Showing hospitality Providing the guest
(kodho) with the best possible accommodations, killing a chicken, sheep, gold
bull for Him, and giving him / her a gift of money, clothing, grain, etc.. When
ET leaves. One of the true marks of a noble and unfailing hospitality Was Loved
Generosity.)

Shame: GACC

GACC ya une action WHICH IS shaming gold Shameful. That is: to show
cowardice, to fail to Properly welcome a guest, to fail to Be Generous Towards
someone of a lower social rank, to Be selfish, or to be jealous.

Self-Control: Kersa

To Have a Proper Sense of Shame, modesty, reserve, stoicism Kerse, shame,

modesty, reserve, shyness, self-control. This is a quality of character WHICH
IS Much Appreciated Ful6e in culture. It Implies a sense of self-control and
self-restraint, "as well as a sense of Pride and Dignity. Someone with Kersa
never begs From Another, goal Is Always Ready To Give When To Him Another
edible. Through a high degree of self-control ET can hide fear, bread, hunger
and thirst, fatigue, etc.. It Is a quality associated with WHICH IS and
Demanded from the noble class Toorobhe and Fulani). One of the worst insult
That can Be directed towards a new noble born person Is To Say 0 hersataa
(He has no shame). It Implies A Lack of Dignity and proper decorum, or
someone Who Can not Withstand pressure (social or physical).

Traditional Education

Children begin to Acquire KM of Their ancestral ties to Fulani family When THEY

102 | P a g e
Accompany and assist in Their parents work and social interaction.

Theys family follow the cattle; THEY travel to the farm, to market and to the
compounds of friends and relative. Ltr feels Running Errands are Deliver to
food, to fetch water, to bid a neighbor visit, TO PERFORM Countless tasks
Assisting in the progress of daily life and sociality. Through this participation in
quotidian existence THEY year gain Emerging sense of the cultural
environment. Theys discover the names of places and in doing so learn That
residential compounds are Known by reference to the Men Who Originally
cleared the bush and the site Established as cultural space.

It Is a Reality Lived Which Develops over time-through everyday experience.

Have the child Navigates this field, Tending to the small Responsibilities
Assigned to him or her, this landscape of names Begins to take shape: the
names of the dead, Of Those Who herded the cattle people, cleared the land,
built the compound, Farmed Conceived the land and the people. The
descriptive KM, Technology and Organizations Used by pastoralists to manage
natural resources Their, Have Been PASSED Evolved and down the
generations.

In general, young children start to learn About their physical environment as

soon As They learn to play games with clay or wooden animals, twigs, fat, etc..
The games Usually Reflect real-life experiences, Being Chased by're SUCH lions
guarding imaginary golden cows Against raiders. As soon as They Are Old
Enough, and Pastoral Between the age groups varied, They start the long
process of apprenticeship and learn-by-doing, "under the guidance of Either
Their father elder brother gold, gold Under griots, Blacksmith, and Other
Specialized younger craftsmen (see BOX).

When a boy Reach The Age of seven gold eight Loved father Will Provide Him
With A sawru a polished long stick.

These ET learns to use in contests with Other boys, to use in games of Koora
gold bugaal katti. He Also May Develop Loved hunting skills using the stick,
Because ET must Eventually kill a small pray.

Boys over 15 years old do Their Work "under the direction and supervision of
Their fathers. THEY dig wells and water the herds, while younger brothers
Their help by running Errands for em.

Others rituals, Which mark the coming of age of young Fulani boys include
initiation ceremonies have SUCH the gerewol, The Sharo and Other herding
events.

"During the Sharo, boys are hit with a thick stick, and are not allowed to show
signs of pain. Masina Fulani transhumance "during the young adults must leave
home to take Their family's cattle Hundreds of miles away and return for
grazing Successfully and Safely home after Several months in the Sahel.

Children's plays Reflect the adult world. For example, Fulani children play a

103 | P a g e
game of hyena, sheep and shepherd ², or play with clay or wooden toys and
animals Representing plants3. In West Africa, Traditional Education is based on
informal apprenticeship with kin and early participation in the work force.
Special skills, SUCH as medicine, music, crafts, etc.. Acquired-through are
more formal apprenticeship with Specialized persons. Other special skills, tree
felling have SUCH, hunting, and metallurgy are Taught by Religious Leaders
DURING ceremonies4 initiation. Among the Fulani of northern Senegal, children
start at a very pastoral droits young age (5-6), Naturally Progressing from
their play to Actually guarding calves in the compound5. Almost in all groups,
the father Teaches Loved sounds by going out first with 'em either' giving
hands-on responsibility ", and the Knowledge is firmly Already Established by
ages 9 or 10.

The Knowledge of range and livestock husbandry Among the Fulani IS PASSED
we have young boys (7-8 years) are Taken to camp and learn from first hand
experience Which fats are good, noxious, etc..

At 8-10 years old, children start to learn Wodaabe about herding by Being
Assigned to watch over the calves near the camp. Between 10-12 years THEY
start to herd Shoat alone in the bush, and at 15 THEY herd cattle on Their
Own. Wodaabe girls start at 9-10 years to make butter, at 11-12 years to
pound millet, and at 14-15 years to milk cows. The Fulani of Mauritania Say
That the initiation of the Pastoralist begins at the entrance to the livestock
kraal, and ends "at its exit, ie at age 63. Consider Theys pastoral education to
Encompass Three phases: initiation Which Takes the first 21 years, Which
Takes the driving range next 21 years, and teaching Which Takes the last 21
years11.

Formal Education

In West Africa There Are Three Fundamentally separate education systems:

the indigenous system, Quran schools, and formal European-style education
institutions.

In the Rural Areas the WHERE majorité Lived, Learned children the skills of
farming and Other work, "as well as the droits of Adulthood, from participation
in the community. Often this process Was Supplemented by age-based schools
in Which groups of young boys in community Responsibilities Were instructed
by mature men. Apprentice Systems Were Widespread THROUGHOUT all
occupations, the trainee Provided service to the teacher over a period "of years
and it Loved Eventually Struck out own. Herding, cultivation, building trades,
and all indigenous crafts and services from leather work to medicine PASSED
Were down in families and Acquired-through apprenticeship training as well.

Islamic Education Was part of Religious Duty. Learned Children up to one or

Two chapters of the Quran by rote from a local gold Čierno mallams, Or
Religious Teacher, Before They Were Five gold six years old. Religious learning
included the Arabic alphabet and the UK & to read and copy texts in the
language, Along with giving further texts required for daily Prayers. Any
Islamic community Provided instruction in SUCH a teacher's house, was sold to
a tree Thoroughfare, or in a local mosque. This primary level Was the MOST
widespread. A smaller number of young Muslims giving further wished Who,

104 | P a g e
Who cam gold more gold from wealthier homes Educated, Derwent is to
examine the meanings of the Arabic texts. Later, grammar, syntax, arithmetic,
algebra, logic, Rhetoric, jurisprudence, and theology Were added; thesis
subjects required specialist teachers at the advanced level. After this level,
students Derwent Traditionally it to one of the famous Islamic centers of
learning.

For The Vast Majority, Muslim Education Was Delivered "under the tutelage of
informally ciernos, Mallam gold ulama, Religious Scholars Who Specialized in
learning and teaching. THROUGHOUT the colonial period ", a series of formal
Muslim schools set up and run Were on European lines. These Schools Were
Established in Almost all major cities. These Were notable in Kano, WHERE
Islamic brotherhoods year Developed impressive number of schools. Theys
catered to the Children of the Devout and the well-to-do Who wished new serie
Their Children Educated in the New and Necessary European learning, goal
firmly Within a Religious context. Suche Were Influential schools have a form
of local private school Retained That the predominance of Religious gains
Modernized Within a school system.

Western-style education Came to West Africa with the missionaries and the
colonial administration in the mid-Nineteenth Century. Progress in Education
Was slow steady aim THROUGHOUT the colonial era Until the End of World War
II. By 1950 Many Developed Countries HAD a three-tiered system of primary,
secondary, and higher education based on the British, French, Spanish or
Portuguese models of wide participation at the bottom, sorting and Vocational
Training Into academic at the secondary level, and Higher Education for Small
Destined for elite leadership. The languages of instruction in local languages
Were not aim en français, French, Spanish and Portuguese Universal Primary
Education policy in official Became Many West African countries. Secondary
and postsecondary Levels Also Grew dramatically.

The Almudos

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As with all Moslem boys, Education Begins
with the study of the Koran WHICH IS
Taught by Either the father or by the Čierno
(also Called marabout). Students in Islamic
schools, are Called gold Talabas Alumdos.

Almudos are young boys, Generally Between

8 to 15 of age. The boys learn the Koran
from the marabout and pay for Loved Him
by sharing the Teachings Proceeds of Their
daily begging. Almudos are found in all West
African cities with large Muslim populations
Perhaps due to the marginal nature of the
land THEY occupy It Has Been a long
tradition of the Fulani men and young boys
That leave the village soon after the harvest
in November and support Themselves
Elsewhere Until They Are needed for the
next farming season. When a Village Has A
bad harvest Many of the young boys will be
a sealed envelope Their Parents to the
village marabout Who Will take a year to
urban area em Where They can survive by
begging Until Conditions Improve in Their
home villages. That the almudos stand out
as the MOST Disadvantaged Children in
Urban environments IS Because They Are
Made Visible Rural Poverty in the city.
Children in the almudos' home villages are in
Generally no purpose if They Are Better not
visible in the city streets Where They Can Be
seen by the urban population .. These
Children Who Live Mostly in the street do not
SEEM to Be Affected By The Typical street
kid SUCH Problems have Criminality

cynicism and Other Bad Behavior. THEY SEEM Goal To Be Remarkably well
balanced, Resourceful and hardworking. Nevertheless, the 1970s and 80s
Years of Drought Has created annually in the numbers of grandir talibes. Ltr
REDUCED TO begging and living harsh realities. The marabout That argues The
Guiding Principal of the education of the talibe Is To learn the purpose Quoran
Also to learn the Meaning of Suffering in order to Be Ready to Face Life's
Circumstances. Howeve, THEY APPEAR to Be Problems related to child abuse
and neglect.

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Wisdom Voices

The Ancestors

Africans in general and in Particular Fulani are

Strongly Attached to the idea of Ancestors. With a
deep hunger to Know Their heritage, They cherish
Their ancestry to the facts of divinizing. The
Ancestors are seen as the link Between the past and
present, the vehicle Between here and infinity and
the holder of all That Is Learned. During, Conflicts,
the Wisdom of the Ancestors Sought after IS to Bring
Back Peace. During, Period of hardship, the acumen
of Ancestors IS Invoked to Bring Back abundance.
Ancestors teach practical ways of transforming
Difficulties Into endless possibilities, the purpose of-
fulfilling of life, and of Showing the way to happiness
and peace.
The Living Wisdom of African People is practical, feet-
on-the-ground and concrete. It's a beautiful and
simple philosophy
day to day based on experience and grounded in practicality. The Ancestor
Teach That It Is essential to learn to Communicate with Each Other, about the
basics of life, about culture and Its Practices

Older Relatives

For African people in Much Has the family "wider circle of members Suggests
Than the Word in Western cultures. In traditional societies, the family includes
children, parents, grandparents, uncles, aunt, brothers and sisters Who May
Have Their Own Children and Other immediate relative. This extended family
can from few "Have to Several dozen of persons. It Is The Practice in Fulani
society "as well as others to send children to live for months or years with
Some older relative. Of all the family members are the MOST RespectEd the
grandparents.

Tano Is a word for grandparents in the Fulani language. The word Refers to
the grandparents as well as "direct to Their siblings and Their fellow age-
mate. Are knowledgeable about the elder of the family history and history of
the lineage. In practical terms he / she Has a great role to play in Educating
the child, as well as "in Cultivating Peace and Harmony Within The Family and
the community.

The legendary Amadou Ba oz Hampate Said That Every Man That old Died in
Africa IS equivalent to a library Being burn.

In Many Parts of Africa, elders Have mastered memorization techniques and

Have Become the living repositories of the Collective Wisdom Accumulated by
the community. Ltr human like walking libraries, and are Able to put
something of extraordinary Feats In A Surprisingly Accurate Manner. They Do

107 | P a g e
so for the benefit and survival of the People and of Their Culture.

The old Fulani Has KM and the Wisdom of the ages. He Is The guardian of the
family kinship and connoisseur of the clan history. He Is The taking of the
Ancient secrets of the village management practices, of the traditional healing
practices of the list overall and authority "of the laawol Fulbe (Fulani the way
of the Wisdom).

Every Story Has a older relative to tell. When THEY tell stories about Their
Own Lives and stories are giving further and Preserved for future generations
PASSED Down, It Is Called oral history. In the Fulani society, older relative
can Be very helpful in piecing together the family history. Often There Is At
Least one person in a family who's very knowledgeable of the family history
and genealogy.

Inauguration of Čierno Wan Wanve from Mboumba, Senegal

The inauguration of Mr. Mamadou Wane

Hamat have the Čierno Wan-Wanve
who performed in July 2000, in
Mboumba, SenegalWest-Africa. The title
of Wan-Čierno Wanve Is The very
special to the Fulani of Futa Toro in
Senegal. Čierno IS teacher, has
knowledgeable personality in the
Islamic Religious Society of Senegal.
The Corresponding terms in Other Parts
of the Muslim word are: malam,
modibo, ustaz, etc. ulama. Whereas
year Almamy Is a Religious Leader Who
has Originally leads at prayer times and
allow extension of the term Took A
more and Secular Meaning politique.
Malthus almani of the Futa Toro and
Futa Jalon of giving further Assumed
not only the title of defender of the
faith's goal of political leaders Aussi.
The Wan-Wan gold Wanve clan as well
as "Other notable families in Futa Toro
could" Provide Both titles of Čierno and
Almamy..

The selection of the Wan-Čierno Wanve Is Done by a select group of wise men
from the village of Mboumba. The Selection Criteria are based on a number of
Factors Including Wisdom, Character, Knowledge, Contribution to the
Community, Social Rank and Age. This long tradition has been "Honored In
The Wan Family and Other families in West - Africa, Including Senegal, Mali,
Mauritania and The Gambia. The ceremony, Which last up to Two Weeks who
performed in a dignified and formal inmate admitted. Before the ceremony, a
special individual "From Another Known Whose Family Is To function
organizes the opening of the Čierno IS selected. The ceremony IS Witnessed

108 | P a g e
by community and by the Whole "responsible authority" figures. The Čierno IS
seated on a specially made carpet with two hands Loved it the Quran. Drake
dressed in a special gown with head wrapped in a Loved large white turban
and heavy Symbolizing Responsibility, Honesty and Justice. The Čierno,
personifies all That Is noble, good, and wise in the Fulani People. His
functions, HE IS Still dutifully performing are Vast and Varied. All Individuals
from the Wan Family, Their Affiliates and all the notables and prominent
families can call on Him for advice, naming ceremonies and weddings, conflict
mediation and special blessings. Will He keep the title of Wan-Čierno Wanve
for Life. It Is important to note That There are Also SUCH titles Elsewhere in
Futa Toro, for example Čierno Barov. See Picture

Notion of Person in the Fulani and Bambara Traditions

In the Fulani and Bambara Traditions (the only traditions to make reference
Which I Will Because I Know I Believe Them) Two terms are Used to
Designate the person. For the Fulani, and They Are Neddo neddaaku; for the
Bambara, They Are Maa and Maaya. The first word means clustering the
Person and the second the People of the person. MONSTER, tradition Teaches
That There Is INITIALLY Maa, the Person-receptacle either 'Maaya, ie, the
various aspects of Maa Maa-Contained in the receptacle. As the Bambara
expression says: Maa ka ka ca Maaya has kono Yere. The People of the person
are in the multiple person. One Finds desired exactly the concept Sami Among
the Fulani.

The concept of the person IS Malthus, from the outset, very complex. It
Implies year multiplicity interior - gold concentric superimposed plane of
existence (Physical, Psychological and spiritual at various levels) - as well as a
constant dynamism. Existence, Which Begins with design, IS Preceded by a
cosmic pre-existence WHERE IS man reputed to resides in a kingdom of love
and harmony Called Benke-so. The birth of a Child Is Regarded as tangible
proof That a piece of detached and anonymous existence Was incarnated in
order to Accomplish a Mission On Our Earth. The naming ceremony or Baptism
DURING Togo golden Which has first name is Given to the newborn Has a
special importance. The Togo defines the little individual ". It Locates Him
Within the larger community.

Three types of birth can take place: an abortion or good-ji, Literally Spilled
water, Regarded as unfortunate, a birth That has been "Carried to full term,
Called banngi, regarded not only a happy event for the parents, aim for the
Village , and the tribe was larger plane for Humanity as a Whole; finally, a
birth after nine months more Than, Called menkono, gold nyanguan, Literally,
long time belly, prelude to the birth year of extraordinary Being, the
nyanguan , the super-sorcerer, Who Comes Into the World Powerful rich with
potential. The development of the personal Will take place at the Rhythm
Established by the Period of great bodily development, Each Of Which
matching to a degree of initiation. The purpose of induction Is To "give the
person a moral Psychological and mental power and aids Which conditions and
sum the perfect realization of the individual".

According To Tradition, the Life of a Normal Man Is Composed of Two great

phases: one ascending to sixty-three years of age, comme au descending to

109 | P a g e
one Hundred and Twenty-six years of age. Each phase of thesis IS made up of
Three broad segments of vingt-one years Comprising Three Periods of seven
years. Each segment of vingt-one years defines a degree in initiation, and
seven years of EACH period "marks a threshold in the evolution of the human
person. Malthus, for instance, in the first seven years of existence, During
Which the person-in-training Requires the Utmost care possible, a Child Will
Remain Closely connected to Mother Loved it Depends Whom ET for all
aspects of life Loved. From seven years to Fourteen years, hey sides around
the middle Him am and is Influenced by it, goal ET Every Day Feels the Need
to Refer back to Mother Who Loved Loved Remains point of reference. From
Fourteen to Twenty-one years of age ET expect the School of life and studies
with Masters ITS, and gradually moves away from the influence of Loved
mother.

The age of Twenty-One marks a very important threshold, Since It Is the Age
for ritual circumcision and initiation Into the ceremonies of the gods. "During
the second Twenty-One Years of His Life, A Man Will Mature The Teachings
That He Received" during the previous period ". THROUGHOUT That Time, HE
IS Expected to Be on the lookout for wise men, and if it should "That One Of
Them Happen grants him / her a word, It Is a favor gold as a test and not
Because ET Has a right to it. At forty-three years of age, On The Other Hand,
HE IS Supposed to Have Reached maturity, for all intents and Purposes, and
to figure Among the Masters. Having the right to speak, ET uses it to teach
others That Which Has Learned ET and matured "during the first Period of Two
Loved life. Finally, at sixty-three years of age, the great ascending phase
ends. Regarded as drake HAVING Completed Loved active life and is No
longer constrained by "any obligation to continue to teach. He Is Not
prevented from doing so howeve, if then this is gold Loved Loved calling
capability ...

The Entire Body Has A symbolism WHICH IS has quite precise. The head, for
example, represents the level of the Highest Being, pierced by seven wide
opening. Each of contention Is The port of entry to a state of Being gold
world, am and is Guarded by a divinity. Each entrance Provides access to a
new interior door, and so on to infinity. The opposite IS regarded the primary
facade of the deeper habitat of the people of Maa, and exterior signs
(gestures, expressions) allowed one to decipher the persons selected from a
lot of contention. Show me your face, and I will tell you the Manner of Being
interior of your people, says the proverb. Each matching interior to Being a
world rotates around Which year central axis or point ...

.... The concept of the unity of life goes hand in hand with the "fundamental
concepts of balance, exchange, and Interdependence. Maa, Who contains in
Himself all year element of Existing Things, IS Called to Become Guarantors of
the equilibrium of the exterior world, & Events Of The Cosmos. To the Extent
That He Loved returns to true nature (That of primary Maa), man APPEAR in
the world, as the axis Whose It Is intended to keep the external multiplicity
from falling Into Chaos ...

.... To Conclude, I draw attention to the fact That tradition IS Concerned with
the human person as multiplicity year interior, unfinished at The Beginning,
Called to order and Unify Himself For The Purpose of Finding Loved Right Place

110 | P a g e
Within unities more Vast Than the human community and the Whole "cosmos.
Synthesis of the universe and the forces of Crossroads of Life, Man Is Therefor
Called to Become The equilibrium point Where It Will Be possible to combine,
Him-through, the various dimensions of Which Is The bearer ET. Then ET Will
Truly Deserve the Name of Maa, Maa-Ngala interlocutor of Guarantors and of
the balance of creation.

By Hampate Ba
ENDNOTES
For a more Detailed discussion of the creation myth, see Bâ Hampate. 1981.
The Living Tradition, General History of Africa, Vol. 1, Methodology and
African Prehistory, J. Ki-Zerbo, ed. (Berkeley, CA: University of California
Press and Unesco): 168-170.

111 | P a g e
Village Life

As opposed to the true Nomads, They

Once Were, Constantly on the Move
With Their large herds of cattle, a
larger number of Fulani are
increasingly Settled Leading a lifestyle.
Theys May Send Their transhumance
with cattle in Specialized livestock
herders Who take Between Mountains
and lowland pastures in search of
green pasture FOLLOWING exchange
in climate and vegetation. By and
large, Settled Fulani are pastoralists
Becoming Who tends to
Their farms haveas well as animals SUCH keep cattle, sheep and goats. The
Fulani majorité of today live in villages with the traditional mud-walled huts or
straw Replaced by brick and cement houses with corrugated metal roofs. Often
houses are walled compounds Located in WHERE and one man has more wives
or live with Their Children and Other extended family members of An

For example, the Fulbe Futa are patriarchal, order the mother has some
exertion Amount of Power in the day to day running of the house "during the
frequent absences Especially of the father. The husband / father Is The one to
make all the important decisions and representing The family. The decisions of
the father can be discussed, the father goal Is Always To Be RespectEd and
Never to Be Proven Wrong or embarrassed in front of wives or Loved Children.
The father / husband IS regarded the provider of food, clothes, shelter, and
medicine, intended Often the wives are the ones Who get involved in various
money making adventures to make ends meet.

Socializing in the Village

Village Life Is Tied Together Through

cooperation and socializing. The
survival of the village depends on the
villagers sharing and Helping Each
Other. Everyone is related in Some
Way, so the Whole "village is Like a
big family. People help Each Other
With Their work and when to not
working They Are, They Spend Most
Of Their Time socializing and joking
and talking-telling.

Neighbors share meals by Bring Their

meals together in What is similar to a
pot-luck.

112 | P a g e
THEY take turn in doing so What is Called tumbudu. Neighbors help Also Look
after Each Other 'children. Children Often Spend the night in Their House of
Their Friends Children Behave Badly gold relatives.If Outside the home, "any
adult can discipline Them and Will carry the misbehavior to the parents.
Children and young adults form age group of Sami Called Fedde. Furthermore,
HAVING gone-through circumcision and Other initiation rites of the same
people are tied together by Fedde bonds of friendship and Solidarity
THROUGHOUT Their Lives.
Celebration

The villagers gather together to Celebrate holidays, to Celebrate Weddings and

births, deaths to mourn, to bid farewell to travelers to greet 'em and Their
upon return. The Whole Village participate way in contention events. In large
gatherings, men and women tends to Socializer separately.
A wedding celebration in the Village can last anywhere from 3 to 7 days.
Everyone join in Preparing the food and decorating the bride's and groom's
houses. For more information click on Ceremonies.

Village Housing

Fulani villages are Several types of

Ranging Some hamlets to big towns.
While the hamlets Have huts, tents ou
autres simple structures, the big village
can exhibit graceful style of the housing.
The thick walls Have houses made of
mud mixed with straw and cow dung.
The thick walls keep the house cool in
the summer and warm in the winter.
Each House is Surrounded by high mud
walls That was fenced off courtyard.

Enters One-through a tall, majestic

gateway WHICH IS Usually decorated
with colorful designs and symbols. The
spacious courtyard Has year
earth floor. Children play There and adults sit on elevated wooden decks,
Called danke, gold THEY sit on the ground is colorful mats Called daago, while
THEY relax and Socialization. During, hot summer nights, the family sleeps CF
firefighters "under the stars in the fresh air of the courtyard.
A typical house includes a living room for guests, bedrooms, a storage room,
and a large kitchen. The outdoor courtyard Also includes year for summer
living room, kitchen and baking year outdoor area, and in a shady spot, the big
clay jars for cooling drinking water.

A house includes a big kitchen with plenty of room for a lot of women together
to cook and visit. For social occasions, women gather in the kitchen and the
courtyard to help in the preparation of food for large numbers of guests, male
and female

113 | P a g e
While women work in the kitchen Preparing food for guests, a few "women
tended the children in a room nearby. This room opens onto the courtyard, so
It Has Plenty of light and fresh air.

Arts and crafts

During, down times, When the bulk of the farm work and herding Is Done Is
Not a major concern, Generally village artisans at work Their arts and crafts.
Theys Produce: Sneakers, Leather goods, handmade pots, and blankets woven
from sheep's Tunics wool. Artisan work Is Done To The cast system LUKAS am
and is Often based on gender. For example do Maabubhe cloth weaving, wood
carving and lawbhe waylubhe jewelry and metal work. There Are Also The local
tailor can sew beautiful Who handball gold machine embroidery, the traditional
healer, the teacher and the merchants.

Food

Much of the Food That people eat in

the Village Comes from Their farms or
nearby villages. Theys grow sorghum,
millet, maize and rice, "as well as
vegetables, beans, fruits, and dates.
Most families raise chickens, ducks,
goats, sheep, and cattle for meat. In
addition, chickens and ducks Provide
eggs, while goats and cows milk for
drinking and Provide for making butter
and yoghurt. The villagers buy sugar,
coffee, spices, cooking oil, and rice
from small shops in the village or
nearby
markets.
In the kitchen, girls and older women cook Other foods. Any event or social
gathering in the Village includes a feast, so part of the event for the women
includes gathering to help with the cooking while THEY Socialize. Meals Consist
of whole grain millet gniri made from sorghum with sauces made from
vegetables and lamb, beef, chicken or fish. The women arranged the food on
trays Which are Carried out to the guests. People love to share Their cooking,
so you see Before meals Children Carrying Their Mothers from food to Other
families, Especially to old or sick Neighbors. Theys Also carry food out to the
farms, people working in the WHERE Stop Their Work fields to gather and eat.
Until a few years ago, charcoal, wood and cow dung Were the only fuels for
cooking. Now the villagers Have access to bottled gas and the women enjoy
using gas stoves for the sacrifice part of cooking.

Cattle

Traditionally the Fulani are MOST important Amongst the group of cattle
herders in West Africa. Because Of Their Migratory Movements With Their
herds, the Fulani are Scattered across Presently West Africa, From Senegal to

114 | P a g e
Ethiopia. In Many areas ", They mix farming with herding. This is true for Many
of the Fulani in Senegal, Mauritania , Mali, Burkina Faso and Niger who. Who
Farm "during the rainy season, goal depends upon Who Primarily for Their
cattle Their subsistence.

There Are Three Ways in Which a family can Be Supported by Their animals.
First, the milk from the TOWS Is a staple food am and is Consumed in large
quantities. Secondly, the Milk Consumed IS WHICH IS not traded for a
measure of millet Sometimes gold for cash. This activity of the women IS
cippal Known As (to trade or sell milk). THEY walk to the town in the mornings
curateur in order to trade Either soured milk (Kossam kaadham) or fresh
butter (nebbam keccam) or a form of heated butter WHICH IS nebbam sirrnëj
like oil. Normally THEY do not sell fresh milk bhiradham What They earn in this
way Often Provider Major portion of the revenu familial. In fact, They May Be
Able to supplement the grain Needs of Their family for a "substantial part of
the Year in this way. Finally, a family Will sell year animal (preferably a sheep
or goat Before a cow) When THEY must make a large purchase. For example,
They Will Probably Need to buy a few "sacks of grain (millet and rice)" during
the year Since They Do not cultivate a Sufficient Amount "during the rainy
season. The money to buy grain, cloth, sugar, tea, etc.. Usually Comes from a
year selling animals. Rarely are Animals Killed for Meat. Traditionally year
animal Killed Was Only ritual occasions we have SUCH a wedding or naming
ceremony, or in order to welcome a guest. Because of this, people eat meat
very Rarely.

Crop Cultivation

It Is a form of agriculture in Which crops are Produced only Enough to Meet the
Requirements of the family. In good years, There 'may be a surplus to sell and
put aside for hard times. Subsistence farmers "Primarily Rarely use fertilizers
and the sizes of Their farms are very small. The Whole System is farming
based on human and Labor draft animals. The key implements are the hoe,
Jalo, the ax, jambere, and the Matchette jasi. Type of crops grown depends
upon the climate and environment. Whereas people in the forest belt grow root
crops like yams and cassava, plantains, palm oil; Their Counterparts in the
savanna grow millet, sorghum, maize, cassava cassava, peanuts, beans, sweet
potatoes.
Today, a large proportion of Fulani life revolve around the river or water points.
The rivers Provide water for drinking, cooking, and washing "as well as for
irrigation. The rivers' flood yearly Provides Fertile silt for agriculture. The Fulani
cattle herders are Traditionally Turning Into more and more farmers ", Who
work the land with the help of Their Families. Everyone, Including the Children,
Has a Job to Do, Especially in times of heavy work like planting or harvest.
Animals like cows, donkeys, camels and work Along with the People, Preparing
the land, plowing, and harvesting the crops. Theys Also carry people and Their
crops Between the village and the fields.
In the Midst of the Sahel, the rivers' yearly flooding not only Brings Abundant
water, drank Also Renew the soil by depositing banks ITS Along a rich load of
silt from upstream. In the fields flooded by the rivers, the villagers plant crops
like quick-Growing beans, sorghum, and vegetables.

Fishing

115 | P a g e
Fishing, wandade, IS Among common dwellers and giving further coastal living
around rivers, lakes and creeks. In the Senegal river, The cast engaged in
fishing Is The Subalbhe. The cast Methods Used dug-out canoes include, net,
hooks, spears etc.. Modern Technology Has Brought the outboard motor, order
the Use of large trawlers not common.

The Market Place

The market plays a very important role in the Life of the Fulani men and
women. They Will take and Their Donkey carts, taxis or walk the bush Several
kilometers to the various weekly markets. Many Fulani women sell milk
products Their, straw mats, calabash bowls, homemade soaps and Other
assorted marchandises. Theys Meet with the women from villages comme au
and catch up on the latest births, deaths, marriages and Other Important
News. Others come to, like the women, catch up on the latest news from
around the Greater area. The men Congregate Around the comité Called the
Daraal. The site location is Daraal IS Usually the Outskirts of the larger towns.
Many come to buy or sell There cattle, goats or sheep. That est aussi WHERE
ITS gets the meat market supply. Markets in between men women gold May
occasionally visit One Another In Their Homes.

Schooling

When They Are Seven years old, children go to public school. Generally, There
Is only one elementary school in the Village. For middle and secondary school,
students Have to go to boarding school in a nearby town and only come home
one weekend and holidays.
In the past, children to Islamic schools Derwent Mostly, parents and schools
with suspected viewed: Western. Howeve Nowadays, everyone is happy in
school has a new serie Their village. Parents take the Education of Their
Children gravement, and When They Are Proud Their children do well in school.
Students respect the teachers very much. When the teacher Enter the
classroom, the children stand politely with Their Hands Behind Their backs.
Also Theys Stand When They Ask golden answer questions.

For the MOST part, children walk to and from school Every Day.
There are No day-care centers in the Village. While the parents are working,
children are cared for by sisters and brothers Their, Their grandparents, ou
autres on. Children learn Many Things Outside of school. Theys learn from
watching older people As They Work. Also learn from Theys Helping Their
parents work in the gold fields in the house. All the adults in the Village
participate way in Teaching young people how to Behave and how to Cooperate
in the Life and Work of the village community.

Religion

As Highlighted by A Mazrui, in the popular TV series Africans, Most people in

West Africa Have a triple Religious heritage. People are Muslims, Christians,
and believe in Some African traditional religions. The Fulani people in villages
are Muslims. Their Religion is Called Islam and Their holy book Is The Quran.
THEY believe in one God, Allah in the Arabic language, and That Was
Muhammad the Last Messenger from God.
Muslims pray five times a day. On Friday at noon, The villagers go to the

116 | P a g e
mosque to pray together. After THEY pray, celebrities and friends on Their visit
and eat together.
Religion is the core of life in the Village. It's everywhere. It's life itself.
Once a year, "during the month of Ramadan, Muslims fast from dawn to dusk.
They Do not eat or drink Anything "during the daytime for the Whole" month.
During, Ramadan, the days are very quiet in the Village. At sunset, people
gather to eat Outside Their houses and share food with Their Neighbors and
passers-by. At the end of Ramadan, There Is a special four-day holiday, Eid al-
Fitr Called. Everyone dresses up in new clothes, Visit their relative Exchanges
gifts, and shares in special holiday meals. Theys Also go to the graveyard to
visit the grave of Their Ancestors and on.
Once in a Lifetime, Every Muslim IS Supposed to make the Hajj pilgrimage
gold, to Mecca, The Holy Place of the Muslims. For a community member
RespectEd, It Is a dream come true to make this trip to Mecca. The Whole
village gathers to say farewell to People Who we leave the pilgrimage. At
pilgrimage time, There Is a four-day holiday, Eid al-Adha Called. Every family
sacrifice a sheep and shares the meat with others.
The importance of Islam in the IS villages underscored by The Tremendous
role Played by Religious Teachers and cleric. Theys KM impart to the youth, the
divine and interpret the daily Laws. Even THEY get involved in the mental and
physical healing.

Traditional Medicine

The medicine in the Village IS made from plants and minerals found in the
area. Roots, seeds, leaves, and flowers are Used to prepare remedies for
Ailments and Illnesses. The Fulani Have Tested and Developed thesis remedies
over Thousands of years. A large percent of villagers use traditional medicines
Still That Which They Know and Trust. Learned Religious persons, sernabhe
(singular Čierno) Also Provide health related advices.
Relatively Recently, health center, with modern drugs, Have Been Built in
larger villagers. Hospital Also can Be found in the regional capital. Spice shop
in town markets sell traditional medicines as well as herbs and spices.

Transportation

Transportation Within The Village and Its surroundings Remains In Some Ways
the way it has-beens for Thousands of years. Often people walk, ride horses,
donkeys, bulls, camels gold. Donkeys, camels and Bulls carry heavy loads from
place to place. A simple wooden sailboat or dug-out canoe IS Carrying Used for
people, animals and marchandises Across the rivers Where They exist.
Villagers ride donkeys to travel short distances in and around the village.
More modern transportation moyen de Aussi are used. These include simple
donkey and horse carts, "as well as small pickup trucks. There are no regular
buses, Because of the few "Paved roads are. People travel to nearby
marketplaces to gold in the regional capital of contention pickups gold in
nozzles.

Village customs

Traditions Overview

117 | P a g e
Greetings Greetings in Pulaar are Formed from a series of questions
from What we call the greeting sequence. The questions'
may be about family, health, work, the weather, etc..,
And Will vary Slightly DEPENDING upon the time of day.
The usual greetings are: no Mbadha? Jam Wone e ma?
Meaning how are you? Are you in peace? The questions
from the greeting sequence require "Always one of the
standard replies: Jam tan, Jam solo gold Ko mawdhum.
Greetings are Highly ritualized, and at this point in the
conversation no one Expects to Hear the truth about you
health, Family Problems, or whatever.

All encounters with everybody should "Always begin with

a greeting Meaning appropriée Several questions from the
sequence and a handshake. It Is Normally the person
arrived Who Who should "begin the greeting. In fact,
greetings "could have viewed: Be the Pulaar au français
equivalent expressions have SUCH Excuse me or sorry the
interruption. In Other Words, greetings are the mark of
Politeness Themselves. Foreigners Who are customarily
fail to greet've viewed: Being very impolite.

Greetings Normally take the form of one person Asking

Several questions. When ET breaks, comme au person
Asks in His turn. Then There 'may be a slight pause and
the Whole "Thing Will begin again. The length of the
greeting depends upon how well Will two people know
Each Other, how long it has been "Since THEY Have Seen
Each Other, and upon the respective age and status of
the persons Involved.

Finally, you should "sacrifice part of the record body

language, gestures, and tone of voice Which go with
greetings. When you are meeting a stranger or someone
older Than Yourself, It Would Be regarded impolite to look
him or her in the face Directly. Instead, greetings are
mumbled Quickly and Often in a low tone of voice, with
The Two participants looking at the ground. To
Westerners this attitude Seems to signal disinterest in
What One Is Doing. Purpose in this case it means
clustering Actually the opposite That You Are Showing
respect for the person you are greeting.

Respect
As in Many languages have SUCH French, older people,
authority figures, and strangers are Referred to in the
plural. Also in this Pular fixe When Referring to someone
in the Third Person; When Referring to your father, for
instance, would you say Respectfully: theyare sleeping
Rather Than HE IS sleeping.That 's the easy part. Things
To complicata Furth, There Is aspecial vocabulary of

118 | P a g e
 respect, verbs like to come to sleep gold gold gold head
nouns like handball Have Completely different forms
When Applied to someone of status.
Body Language Shaking hands with Both Hands, and holding your
forearm or elbow, are signs of deference. SO IS looking to
the ground or away from the person you are greeting.
Looking someone straight in the eye, can have construed
Be Aggressiveness
On Being Polite You Will Find the concept of Being polite IS something
quite different from what you with are accustomed to. For
example, There is No real equivalent for the Pulaar
Français expression thank you. A jaaraama can Be Used
as thank you, drank It Is Used Much More Than the
sparingly Français expression. In your day to day contacts
with people It Is not Necessary to Automatically Simply
use expressions have SUCH excuse me, please, excuse
me, thanks, I'm sorry to bother you but ..., etc.. The
nearest equivalent to Pulaar thesis expressions tends to
Be reserved for a more serious and important context.
They Are Not Used Every Time Another person one
interrupts. In fact, the concept of interrupting the Whole
"Is a Westerner in Which concept we express the cultural
value That Time is money, and we try in Which daily to
minimize human contact to a business report.

We must show comme au That person we know we are

interrupting Him, Even bothering Him with words of
deference and Politeness. That is our way of Being polite
formulaic.

On the Other Hand, It Is Perfectly in Pulaar Simply polite

to state a request. People expect all sorts of human
interactions "during the day. There are, however, some
very significant signs of compliance and Politeness Which
tends not to Recognize Westerners at first. Most
important is handler, oz again, the greetings. Correctly
greeting people Is One Of The MOST important signs of
respect That you can show 'em. You should "never ask
anybody for something Without greeting em first.

In order to Develop the complex web of Social

Relationships Which Will make your stay in "any village or
town enjoyable, you should"

get in the habit of greeting not only the people you run to
Happen on the Street Into Gold in business, purpose of
Deliberately Also going to visit someone you have not
seen for a while for no purpose Other Than to greet 'em.
Passing by someone's house for only five minutes Even
Will please em enormously.

119 | P a g e
 Secondly, It Is not impolite to interrupt others regarded
by greeting Them When You come, Even If They Are
Themselves Between talking. In fact, to enter a room and
fail to greet everybody (Including shaking hands) would
have seen Be tough. Also, always ACKNOWLEDGE the
presence or arrival of someone else. You should "Simply
not walk past people, Even If You Have Them Already
greeted earlier. When someone else regulation comes into
your presence You Can Always Say A? Articles. When you
arrive, You Can Always Say Mi? Artii (I Have Returned).

Honoring Teddingol Teddungal gold is literally to make heavy and

Someone means clustering to take

gravement, to respect, or to honor. Teddungal Is The

Corresponding noun, Gold compliance Meaning honor.

A useful phrase to indicate where and That IS a gift,

made in the spirit of friendship and respect, and not as a
payment or business transaction, IS Ko teddungal mo? It.
Out of respect to you.

You Can Always Give Thanks by Saying it jaraama Albarka

gold.
Although this sequence of Particular Saying good-bye May
Saying Good- sound strange to you right now, you Will Find yourself
bye repeating words exact thesis Many Times. When you
announce your intention to leave (by Yehiya Gold Saying
Mi Mi hootii, People Will Normally protest, insisting That
You stay longer. It Is a sign of Politeness to ask a guest to
stay longer to wait for the next meal, to OR Events Spend
the night if HE IS away from home. When this Happens
You Can Simply repeat your intention to leave.

As you leave, you have someone Will Accompany short

distance. This sign of respect and pleasure at the visit
Which IS something you should "Also show to your
guests. Never Say Goodbye Simply inside of the house
and let your guests depart alone. Walk em at least you as
far as the front gate, and offer to carry "any packages.
When You Have gone as far as you "intend to go You May
Say: Mid haadhii dho I? M Stopping here. At this point,
Will Be felt greetings to the others and blessings
Withdrawals.

Waynade IS Saying good-bye or farewell for longer trips.

Significance of Kodho Comes From The Word Meaning to resident hotde
Kodho, Guest gold to Inhabit. When someone with horns to a family
resides where, he / she IS Their kodho. The Concept of
kodho Is One Which Does not Have An exact translation

120 | P a g e
 Into Français. It Is a concept rooted in the WHICH IS
WHERE Culture Is Not emphasized individuality. In this
culture, everyone Is a member of a family, a clan, a
village.

Imagine a stranger who's traveling. He arrived at a village

for the first time. It Is late in the day, and ET Wishes to
Spend the night before traveling Furth. The first thing
should "do ET Which Is To contact the head of the village,
Known as the ARDHO Farba joomwuro gold. Since There
Are No hotels, It Is The Farber Who will tell Him Where He
can Spend the Night. He Also Will Instruct someone to
prepare food for the kodho. In this sense, can mean
kodho Both stranger and guest. In Spite of this fact, ET
Has Entered Into a Relationship Somehow with the
village. He Simply Can not pay money for services and
intransitive independent and anonymous.

Furthermore, if a family migrates Into a new area looking

for new pasture for cattle Their land to farm gold, It Is the
ARDHO, arba gold Joom Wuro Who Gives Him permission
to stay, permission to draw water from the well, to build a
house was piece of land, to farm a certain plot. A stranger
arrives and Simply Can not start using the resources of
the village. He Must Be the kodho of someone who's
Already in the Village we Westerners tend to think in
terms of Arriving in a "town and renting a place to stay,
have individuality. Although this can Happen in larger
towns today, This Was Traditionally unimaginable. And It
Still Can not Happen in a smaller town.

Furthermore, It Is not really the preferable way to

Proceed. A newcomer should "Always Be the kodho of
someone in the Village Who Then Becomes Loved njaatige
host. THROUGHOUT Loved stay ET Will Be Known As so
and so? S guest. When people ask you Who are you
implying What is your relationship to the village to explain
Them That You Are The kodho of SUCH and SUCH a
njaatigi. You Have a Role thereby place with gold THE
ENTIRE village. You are no longer individual "year, by
order of the Social unit linked to the rest of the
community. This is a very important concept Since no one
can imagine year existence alone in a village setting.
Village Life is communal, and Being by someone? S
khodho you enter Into That community
Taboos In the Fulani culture There Are Numerous taboos. Taboos
Regarding When to wash clothes, When to get a hair cut,
getting up in the morning from the left foot, etc.. Taboos
related posture and body languages are The Foremost
Also numerous.One of taboos has married woman says
"should never speak the name of Her husband, Her in-
laws or her first born child. Even If There Is Another

121 | P a g e
person by the name Sami, She is forbidden to call Them
by Their name. Another taboo In Some Fulani groups IS
Against eating goat's meat. The Fear Is That if someone
eats goat's meat he or she Will Become a leper. Yet
another taboo IS an Infant Against drinking goat's milk. It
Is Believed Will the child itch if he or she drinks the milk.

122 | P a g e
The Habitat

Here too, One can not speak of homogenous habitat. Fulani are Often
Identified by Their rental. For example, one can find in Senegal Fulani Jeeri, In
the desert as opposed to Fulani Waalo Who Live Along the Senegal River and in
Nigeria, the Fulani Jos, Jos Plateau from the IS Differentiated from the Fulani
Katsina, Katsina from the province. Their housing and living conditions
depends on influences from the immediate environment and Surrounding
crops.

For the Fully nomadic Fulani is the practice transhumance, the seasonal
movement in search of water, Strongly influenced settlement patterns. The
basic settlement Consisting Of A Family and Their Dependence IS Called
Wuuro. Those Who Remain nomadic Fulani gold semi-nomadic Have Two major
types of Settlement: dry season, October to May, and wet season June to
September.

Howeve, a large number of semi-gold Settled Settled Fulani live in rural

settings. Due to tradition and Their reserved nature tend THEY new serie Which
Communities are spread out. Each Village May Have a population of as Many as
100 or more, or order the homes are huts in Scattered groups of Two Three
gold.

In the Typical family compound THEY Have a grass hut with room for as Many
as Three beds inside. These beds are Raised off the ground, with a firm
foundation wooden Covered by a millet stalk mat. Ltr very hard, do get one
goal off the ground away from the sacrifice part of bugs.

Nowadays, the traditional homes built with mud walled hut are Replaced by
brick and cement houses with corrugated metal roofs. Often houses are walled
compounds Located in WHERE and one man has more wives or live with Their
Children and Other members of An extended family.

Outside a fire or fire place IS WHERE IS made centrally located Between the
huts as the women tended to work together. A very large pestle and mortar for
the Are Always nearby pounding of the grain gold sauce ingredients. A matte
gold Possibly found a small stool IS Outside the hut for just sitting. Some Have
Reasons to be a straw shade shelter

123 | P a g e
Food

Dinner's Almost Ready

The Fulani are sacrifice part of the MOST hospitable people you'll ever meet,
and it's hard to go anywhere Without Being Fed. Hour Before Dinnertime,
you're bad at having to Be Told to stay and eat (it's Almost ready). Feel free to
accept or turn down invitations argument as you see him, drank Always Find
Some polite ways to decline.

Meal Time

Meals are Normally Served in one large bowl. At meal time everyone gathers
around the bowl. Before and after meal was a bowl of water for washing Will
Be Provided your hands. Always eat with your right hand only! The host or
hostess Normally Will Say bismillah in the Name of God as a signal to begin
eating.

Usually Conversation Is Kept to a minimum while eating. You should "eat only
from the square in front of you Directly. If you want a piece of vegetable or
meat from the center of the bowl, break off a small piece and put it in the
square in front of you. When You Have finished you should "move away from
the bowl, Rather Than Waiting Until everyone is finished. People That You Will
Always protest "should" eat more, in Which box Mi haarii Is The appropriate
"reply. Something to drink only after Provided IS the meal.

In a large village compound and the men women eat separately. The Children
May Also Be Given A Separate Bowl, DEPENDING upon how many years people
live in the compound. As a guest Often You May Be Given A Separate bowl to
eat from in a room by yourself, as a sign of respect. People are, however, if
you want Often Pleased to eat with 'em. (Although You Should not INSIST on
this if you are only a guest for a day or two. In That Box, let 'em decide upon
the arrangements.) Male guests "should only eat with the men not given if
They Are A Separate bowl. Female guests eat with the women alone gold.
When the food is Served, everyone Will Automatically invites you to eat with
'em at Their bowl. I'm his box, Simply say Mi haarii Proper and wait for the
group to eat with gold for your Own bowl.

If you enter a compound at meal time you Will Always Be Invited To stay and
eat. In turn, you should "Always invite people to join you if THEY find you
eating. People Never Consider How Much There Is food to feed over how many
people. They Are Concerned only to share with What They Have everyone
present. If you do not want to eat, say Mi haarii. If people are stressed, eat
only one or Two handfull of Food and Then say Mi haarii. It is more polite to
taste a little bit to Than refuses to share in a meal Entirely.

Sharing a meal

In Rural Areas "as well as in the Cities, meals are Eaten together in one large
bowl. In a small family, everyone eats together in a large dish. Howeve, for
large family holidays gold DURING There Are Separate dishes for men, women

124 | P a g e
and children. Before eating people inside thoroughly wash Their hands. Here,
There Are No lengthy Prayers Before eating, a simple Bissimilay Would Be
Enough. People eat in front of 'em and are considerate of the others. After the
meal people washed Their hands and "give thanks: Attaya. In this society It Is
not impolite to burp Witch Is The sign somebody That Has Eaten well. The
family share cola nuts May gold tea Attaya Afterwards. Cakra IS Often Served
as dessert.

Drinks

Muslims areas in contention There Are No Elaborate drinks. Meal "during the
time the only available drink water IS. Served in golden calabash gourd. In
addition to the proverbial tea daily, and the morning coffee, sauf drinks are
Offered Tuffam Has Watered down milk sour Served With or Without sugar,
ginger , A ginger drink and Roselle follere, A drink made from hibiscus
flower year. In the larger towns, soft drinks, and Other Modern Beverages are
Served Also at special occasions.

Tea ceremony

Drinking Tea Is an important social function. A great deal of ceremony

surrounds the making and serving of tea. Every day, families or tea-drinking
groups to take part in Meet the ceremony of The Three teas. It could "Be done"
any time a day, drank usual in the Afternoon. As The Saying Goes: The first
cup IS strong like life; the second is sweet like love, And The Third is sweet
with mint. The ceremony Is very formal, and serving tea is important way of
welcoming year someone: if strangers visit, They Will Always Be Offered tea
and dates.

Making tea

Empty a bag of tea leaves Into the teapot, and add appropriate "Amount of
Water. Bring it to boil in a special tea pot. Then put fresh mint and sugar in the
tea pot Directly Into a second gold teapot for a Better Mix. To serve, hold the
pot to high and it Into a series of small glasses. Holding the pot high foam And
Also Creates cool the tea so That It Can Be Quickly drinkable. People take time
over the tea, chatting around the teapot on the stove. Both young and old
enjoy drinking tea.

The Cola Nut, Goro

After a copious meal, holidays and ceremonies DURING Especially, a cola nut
IS Used to complete the meal. The kola nut is broken Into small pieces and
shared Between family and friends.

The kola nut Has A Very Special Meaning in West African cultures. It Is Used to
seal agreements and contracts. For example, It Is Widely Distributed at
weddings, naming ceremonies, and conflict mediation.

The kola nut symbolization understanding, friendship and unity. (See Pictures

125 | P a g e
126 | P a g e
Ceremonies

Age & Birthdays

Traditionally, the Fulani do not make a big deal out of birthdate, and It Is not
unusual for someone Not to Be When They Were sour desired exactly how old
or born They Are.

Bringing gold Sending Gifts

The concept of Addenda Hunde Golden Neldal Bringing gifts extends to coming
back When gold from a trip abroad while Sending a gift. It Is Not a bad idea to
pick up a few "inexpensive gifts or trinkets for your friends and family while
you are away in the big city gold Some foreign land. It Is like sharing your
experience and Remembering the person.

When you come back from somewhere, You Will Often beasked won ko
ngaddan dha me? Did you bring me Anything? Do not take this too gravement,
and do not worry That You Should Have Brought 'em something. KB weltaare
ngaddumi. Brought happiness.You I can just make something up Also if You
Did not Bring Anything.

Gifts and hospitality village

Gifts are important year of hospitality part on Both ends: the guest with gifts
May Bring 'em to present on arrival (neldugol; the gift IS neldaare nden), And
the host May offer the visitor a departing gift to take home with them
(fandugol; the gift IS fandaare nden)

If you are going from a town to a village, take That Are not readily available
items: bread, tea, sugar, cola nuts, and candy. Canned sardines and Other
Things are well received; N IS cash. In return You May Be Given peanuts,
fonio, rice, gold Even a chicken gold goat If They really like you.

Gifts at ceremonies

You should "bring a gift to naming ceremonies, weddings, funerals, etc..

Usually cash is your best bet: it's easy to carry, it's Always welcome, and you
do not Have to worry about Unintended symbolism.

Naming Ceremony

Living in a village or town, Often You Will Participate In The kinds of family
events are regularly Which "celebrated by everyone. Naming ceremonies are
one of the major family events for families and Which Neighbors get together.
Naming ceremonies follow Muslim practice, and take place seven days after the
birth of a child. The day of the ceremony naming the imam from the mosque
horns early in the morning. Heb listings the Name of the child for the first time.
A sheep IS Killed Usually, preparations and get Underway to cook for all of the
People Who Will Spend the day at the compound. If you are Attending a
ceremony naming, you should "plan to arrive in the morning. You Will Be

127 | P a g e
Served Usually a bowl of millet and milk first. Later, There Will Be Budhi (Millet
patties) or fritters (WHERE French influence exists), and grilled meat, lunch,
and ataaya (Tea). Although People Will pass by all day long, the family MOST
Receive the guests in the morning and over the lunch hour. You should "bring
a gift of money for the parents.

The Child Is Always named after someone. Then this person Becomes the
child's tokora, gold namesake. The bonds are special tokora Has the day of the
naming ceremony. Beside Contributing to the share of the Day for dépenses,
the tokora Will Also distribute money and cola as a Way of Celebrating the
honor.

Holidays

The Most Important of the Year are holidays Religious holidays. Of the furnace
discussed here Koorka Korite gold "during the Islamic month of Ramadan and
gold Taaska Tabaski" during the month of. Tabaski and Korite Are The MOST
important. Koorka From The verb Hoora, To fast Is The month of fasting
prescribed by Islam. The month ends with a day of celebration. Called Juulde
Koorka. Haaraan, or the New Year, not only Is The Religious holiday we
discuss. Maawluudu commemorates the birth of the Prophet Mohammad.
Taaska Is The Day of Atonement Muslims Which Reminds Of The Covenant
Between God and Abraham. Generally meals "during the holidays are: Caakri,
Grilled meat Michou SALTE bassi. Caakri IS millet flour cooked with milk.
Bassi Salte IS millet couscous with meat sauce and vegetables. Click here for
Recipes.

The Habbanaya

The cows are treasured Certainly the MOST of the animals the Fulani herd. The
cows are so special, Many People Can not Say That a person speak Fulfulde If
He Does not Own a cow. The Fulani tradition of giving to Have a habbanaya -
That Is a cow WHICH IS loaned to Another Until She calves. Once the calf
weaned IS It Is Retained and the cow IS ITS Returned to owner. This
habbanaya Is a Highly prized animal. Upon receipt of this gift, There Is a
special ceremony in Honor of the gift. The recipient buys and special treats for
guests Neighbors Loved this event in Which the habbanaya IS Given a name.
The habbanaya Is Never To Be Struck Under Any Circumstance.

Gerewol Has the Cure Salé

The Cure Sale Is One Of The brightest and biggest celebrations in West Africa.
It underinsured motorist Just Before the rains come, and Is a of socializing and
catching up, as herders Meet Around the rich salt deposits Located Between In
Gall and Tegguiddan Tessoumin. year in area west of Agadez in Niger. Theys
rest and wait for the blessed rain. One of the highlights of the Cure Salé Is The
famous men's beauty pagean the Gerewol, a festival by the nomadic Fulani
Held Wodaabe.

This Much Anticipated gathering Takes place at the end of the rain season,
around September / October. Gerewol IS first and Foremost a marriage

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market. The men make up Their Lips, Eyebrows, Cheeks and with natural
cosmetics. Theys fantastic wear jewelry in the form of feathers, pearls,
amulets. Young men dress in ostrich-feather capes, leather belts trimmed with
Cowry shells, ceremonial axes.

The gerewol Is a contest, a Dance of Youth Before elders. A delegation of girls,

Picked by the elders, jointly decided EACH year on the MOST beautiful man.
Young men dance together, arm in arm, in a line, to lavish the attention of
girls with comic expressions and songs. Theys a slow dance, stamping rhythm
in song while praising the charms of the young women. These young women
are graded in order of beauty. No drum-ming the dance accompaniment.
Meanwhile the young women dance nearby, by Way of Choosing Also song the
MOST handsome and best-dressed youth. The best gold oven Three young
men and women are paired off I'm his order, while the rest got off together
They Will. Each pair IS Expected to Spend the evening together. Although a
reconnu form of courtship, the dance gerewol Does not Necessarily Lead to
marriage. Since different lineages Bororo Celebrate Their Gerewol At The Same
Time, Several Gerewol Occur over a six-week period ".

Sharo

The ceremony Sharo Demonstrates The Greater community to a Young Man

That Has Come of age. In it, young boys take turns hitting One Another With
Their walking sticks across the chest. No outward show of pain can Be shown.
It Is common for the boy to shout Being hit gold laugh after HE IS stricken.
Although adolescents Have Died in this ceremony, young men are Eager to
Participate and display Their scars with pride. In Some boxes Fulani man has
regarded Is Not a true Fulani UNLESS ET Has Participated in this show of
strength. In Niger the ceremony IS Against the Law aim Will Young men gather
at a local market and Have the ceremony away from the eyes of the Local
Authorities.

The naming ceremony unlikable, no special activity associated with this

opportunity IS. It Is Meant to mark the end of puberty and the introduction of
the Initiate Into Young Adulthood and the added responsibility "of looking after
the herd.These traditions are Meant to Ensure That the functions of the family
and lineage are Fulfilled and Its norms of conduct have bewitched and
perpetuated gains. Few of contention practices are now Observed by the Town
Fulani, Representing What May Be Described As A Cultural Difference between
the nomadic and Settled Fulani.

Festivals

There are Many local festivals That dates back to the Time Before the arrival of
the major religions, and Which are Still occasions for masquerade and dance.
The local festivals cover year Enormous range of events, from harvest festivals
and festivals Betrothal, to the chief of a New Investing and dances funerals.The
oz That Were Performed by members of Each village now Have Been Taken
Over by professional troops, Who round villages EACH performing at local
Muslim festival.The year revolver Around the Three Major festivals, Id Al Fitr,
Id al-Kabir and Id al Maulud.

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Fifire

In the Futa Toro Fishermen Participate in the Fifire Which highlight the alligator
hunting season. Fishermen decorate Their canoe and Their spear in vivid
colors. At the beat of the calabash in the water the crocodile are attracted by
the sound of the beat. Their emergence from the water signals the Beginning
of the fifire. All the events are punctuated with the songs of Pekan and
Gunshot.

Daydare

Daydare IS similar to fifire Without the crocodile hunting. The colorfully-

dressed groups of fishermen, decorate and race canoes Their Along the river
Accompanied by songs and drumming.

Guri Baali

Guri Baali IS Performed When All the Fulani shepherds get together to show
how well groomed THEY Have Their flock. Theys ran Followed by the animals,
jumping over bushes and Other Many obstacles and Performance acrobatic
moves.

Circumcision

When A Child Reach The Age Between 8 and 15, ET goes trough the special
ritual of circumcision. In the Fulani society, the traditional ritual of circumcision
That Is a big event required the participation of all the segments of the society,
social class EACH, and EACH member of the family role LUKAS Specifying Has
A Relationship With The Loved to candidate to the circumcision . See Initiation

Marriage

The process of getting married can Be

Divided Into Several steps. The initial step
Called the IS djamal, the commitment. At
this stage the man's family Approaches the
family of the woman to have the Chat
Desired marriage. The Next Step Involves
the older male members of Both families
Who Will Go To The golden mosque to the
woman's family compound, to the marriage
tie. This step IS Called the Kumala, from the
verb to tie humde Meaning. The symbol of
this Step Is The Sharing of Cola (feccugol
goro) WHICH IS Provided by the man's
family. Once this step has been "Taken IS
regarded the couple married. But It Still May
Be Several months, or long-lived event,
Before the woman moves Actually Into Her

130 | P a g e
Husband's compound. Here, the real
wedding ceremony starts Called yangge. In
Senegal, the IS Kumal Generally in

the late after-noon. At That Time the bride's party starts Her Yang, WHICH IS
similar to the bridal shower. That evening, friends of the groom take the bridle
away in What Is Called ndiftungu. The friends of the groom Will take the bridle
at the groom's mother to show Her Allegiance. There she learn about the May
customs and dress of Her new family. She gets prenuptial counseling and
Other advices Regarding family life. The Whole "ceremony of the flange to the
grooms house moving IS Called kuurtungol Then start the dambordu, WHICH
IS annum expensive step, and Involves many days of festivities. Which "during
the wedding up seven days, the flange IS dressed in beautiful gowns, Her
braided hair IS in special way with gold, amber and Other jewels, and finally
Her hands and feet are painted with henna. (See pictures)

Bargaining
I Have No Change

In Western Countries, merchants are expected to change the time

Have THEY open the door for business. It Is Not Generally n in
Developing Countries of West Africa. There Are Not Enough small bills
to go around. Has no one ever changes. Even a merchant in His shade
May Be Unable to take well to 5000Fcfa bill for a 1000Fcfa item. It's
worse things in the market, WHERE Even a gold 1000Fcfa 500Fcfa Bill
Can Be Hard to break.

So, it countries to Be prepared. Get enough small bills Before you leave
home. There are no credit cards, yet, in villages and small towns.

How to bargain

When you are quoted a starting price That Is Two Gold Three Times
the normal price for the item, do not get angry and assumes the
vendor IS Trying to rip you off. The first price is Usually high. Before
the bargaining starts It Helps If You Know What the cost item is
Supposed to ask around and What It's Worth To You.

Take Into account your time and energy What Is Worth To You. Is it
really worth a half hour of to get Arguing from FCFA 11.000 to FCFA
10.500?

Walking Away Is The surest way to find out if the vendor can not really
come down "any Furth. Do not start bargaining UNLESS you're serious
about buying the item.

Go shopping with a Pullo and see how it's done. Take it easy. Keep it
friendly and fun. It Does not Have to Be adversarial.

When not to bargain

131 | P a g e
You must bargain for Some Things, but not for everything.

You do not bargain Generally For The Following:

 Anything costing less for less 500F Than Than a U.S. $ 1.

 Already Items Grouped Into little batteries: most items in a
store mayonnaise, sardines, Coca-Cola
 cooked food.
 Other Items That Have Agreed-upon Generally Prices Rice, Salt,
Sugar, Powdered milk, meat, bread, etc..
 Public Transportation Bus have SUCH There Are A Few
Exceptions
 Official Prices set by the government.

It Is Generally appropriate "to bargain for tourist items and

handicrafts large quanties of Anything big, expensive house Things
Delawares and someone's services

Bush-taxi travel

No Amount of advice here could "Properly prepared you for the

experience of traveling in West Africa. Here are a few "basic pointers:
Your options are minibuses minibuses kaar, small vans and station
Berlin

family cars. The minibuses are cheaper, the taxis are faster and
marginally more comfortable.

Most taxi parks Have a syndicate of Drivers That Which controls for
first leaves. UNLESS you want to hire because you can not CF
firefighters annually choose Between coaches. All vehicles leave Only
When full (and we do mean full). You May Also Have goats, sheep or
chicken live as fellow passengers. Passengers are Generally
Accommodating and friendly. There are no fixed schedules.

Most vehicles are old and Poorly Maintained; breakdowns are the rule,
not the exception. Expect to stop Often to push for the golden sandy
from muddy road.

The worst roads get the worst taxis. As a rule, fares are fixed. You
Will, howeve, need to bargain with the boys at the station For Who
handle your bags, the price is unusual for oversized luggage or bikes
eg. A single reasonable sized bag "should cost nothing.

Begging and Asking for Money

You Will see a large number of beggars in the streets of the big cities.
You are Also Most Likely to Run Into celebrities Asking you for money
for One Reason or Another. One can Identify Three types of groups:

132 | P a g e
the gnaagotoobhethe, the talibe Almudos gold, and the poor.

First, There Is a cultural aspect That Gives right to a category of

people have SUCH the griots and gnaagotobhe gnegnbhe to ask for
money. They Ask money to noble families DURING weddings, naming
ceremonies etc.. Then, There Are The Almudos. The Almudos are
permitted by Their school to beg for subsistence and Their For That of
Their School. Does Islam allow begging as part of the charity or alms
giving a fellow Human Being That can give-to a less Fortunate brother.

Finally, There Is the Poor. Whether or handicapped Simply bankrupted

by économique hardship, the poor make up the Majority of the
beggars. As Drought, civil strife and wars in the continent multiply,
Displaced People flock in large numbers to the cities searching for a
better life.

Someone coming from the Developed Countries "should expect to Be

Often Asked for money. After All There Is That the presumption has
everyone from Wealthy Wealthy Country is Himself.

Common Sense Should Be the Guide thesis in boxes. It is OK to "give a

tip for a service, or if one feels like it. One should "take the fact of
Being Asked for money in stride and not Bring Forth the Whole" theory
of political economy, nor engages in a full fledge Psychological
Analysis of Cultural Gaps. The good counsel Is To Be prudent in
managing one's money in a foreign country and enjoy one's travel.

Religious Activities
God Willing

The Will of God Alla jabhii So God Willing Literally means clustering, If
God accepts and Is a common response to see you tomorrow ou autres
assertions about the future. Even the firmest of arrangements Will
Always Have someone with this caveat.

Women and Islam

The Fulani people are not as strict with women as Other Islamic
societies, women are not segregated "from men in day-to-day Life, and
They Are not required to cover general faces.In Their Heads gold, as in
MOST of the World, Women Have a Harder Time Than Men getting
respect and Being Taken Outside traditional female roles gravement.
Although foreign women Receive more respect for Being Simply
Foreigners, and In Some boxes are Treated as honorary men, They Will
Still Find That They Are Likely accorded less respect Than Their male
peers.

Polygamy

Many Men Have two, three or oven wives. This complicata Family

133 | P a g e
Relationships from a Westerner's point of view co WHERE wives, half-
brothers, etc.. are new concepts.

Ramadan Fasting

"During the month of Ramadan (Sumayee) Which falls at different

times of the year, Since the Islamic lunar calendar IS, Muslim adults
fast" during the day and eat only at night. To fast IS hoorde hoorugol
gold.

Some Foreigners choose to fast for One or Several days, as a gesture

of Solidarity. If you're not fasting, be as discreet as possible about
eating or drinking "during the day.

Prayer Times

One of the ritual obligations of all Muslims pray five times Is To a day
at specified times:

 Dawn Fajir,
 tisbar noon,
 Afternoon takussan
 sunset futuro,
 geye evening.

People Will Therefor use points of contention have a time reference.

Telling Time

Punctuality

Except for Religious droits, punctuality Is Not a particularly important concept

in West-African societies. Nevertheless you Will Find people in the remotest
villages That Carry watches as a decorative item. Nowadays, watches are part
of the Even Panoply of ceremonial gifts ie weddings, etc. Tabaski.

Marking Time

Telling time by the hour and the minute something IS Which Probably you will
not Have Much for use in Pulaar. Howeve, people mark the times of the day by
noting the position Either of the sun or by the Five Muslim Prayers Which are
Called out from the mosque. In addition to e gnalowma jamma, Day and night,
the times of day are as Follows divide:

"During the day time: Subak (Morning) fegnange (Mid-day) kikidhe (Late after
noon)

At night: kikidhe jamma (Evening) nder Jamma (Middle of the night) weendogo
(Dawn). These are the units of time more or less Measured by the position of
the sun. Other units are: weet , Day time, hiiri, Evening time, nang fudhi sun

134 | P a g e
rise, nang muti, Sun set. The cardinal directions Subsequent are: was nang,
East, towards the sun rises and from Which hirr nang, The west, the sun sets
WHERE. In the Case of Specifying Futa Toro Rewo Is The north and worgo the
south. Factors That It Is thesis divide everyone's day, and people make plans
accordingly Their.

Daily activities LUKAS changes to the season of the year. Being part of a rural
farming community Will Make it important to know the yearly seasonal cycles.
Daily activities for Both Men and women change with the season.

Seasons

Life in a village revolve around life sustaining Two farming activities and / or
herding cattle. These activities change periodically with the seasons of the
year.

There Are Three major seasons in the year. They Are Known As Ndungu,
ceedhu, and dabbunde. Ndungu, Is The rainy season. It extends Roughly
Between the months of July-through late September. In a good year, the Sahel
region May Receive 300-400 mm. of rain water, and Rain Will Come Every
week or so. In bad years it has rain May only couple of times THROUGHOUT
THE ENTIRE season. Ndungu, IS dabbunde Followed by, or the cold season.
Dabbunde runs from October to February. For Westerners, it IS by far the
pleasantest season. in Futa And The Easiest to work in. It gets quite chilly at
night, and at Noon Even the temperatures are pleasant. Ceedhu, Or the hot
season, in February or March Begins and continuous Until the rains begin. It Is
a Time Marked by hot, drying winds from the North. Farmers Have DURING
few "activities this time of the Year," whereas herders must work very hard to
find water and pasture for Their animals.

In Fulani areas, LUKAS daily activities changes to the season of the year. In a
rural farming community It Is important to know the yearly seasonal cycles.
Daily activities for men, women and children changed with the season. This'
may be important in project planning Since people are Much busi DURING
certain seasons Than others. To be effective in one's own work, It Is Better to
divide up the Year Into Periods of Time Which Can Be Effectively Exploited for
various Purposes DEPENDING upon the seasonal flow of work, seasonal
migration patterns, and times of the Year When money and leisure time are
available. In a sense, has seasonal work plan would make more sense Than
Any kind of daily schedule, and Work Should Be Set goals accordingly

Farming

From the point of view of the farmer, the region of northern Senegal IS Divided
Into Two very different ecological zones: the waalo And The jeeri. The waalo
Which Is The land lies next to the Senegal River and flooded WHICH IS Every
year "during the rainy season. In dabbunde, When the floods retransfer, This
land is planted with millet, rice, vegetables and Some. The jeeri Is All the land
to the south of the river WHICH IS not flooded. Water in the jeeri Comes from
very deep wells, or from pools of water slowly evaporate Which after the rainy
season. The jeeri IS planted with millet "during the rainy season.

135 | P a g e
For people living near the river, The year is Divided Into the season for the
farming jeeri (During the rains) and the season for the farming waalo (After
the rains). The jeeri Does not Produce Enough to sustain a family agriculturally
THROUGHOUT the year. Those Who are Not Able families to plant a second
crop in the waalo Their herds depends upon for a major share of Their
Livelihood. I'm his first box depends upon the THEY milk to drink and secondly
upon milk products to sell or trade for millet and rice. Finally, They May
occasionally sell animals in order year was Staff to Meet Need for cash.

136 | P a g e
Evolution of Fulani Communities

Numerous writers of The Work On The Fulani Makes it Clear That No simple
formula for the evolution and differentiation of Fulani Communities can Be ugly
down. Communities of pastoralists persist, and Will continues to do so in Their
present form in regions of the savannah belt WHERE sedentary populations
reposer at a low density. Administrative action coupled with ecological réforme
May create demarcated areas "WHERE cattle-raising Will it flourish more akin
to a Basis ranching; Enclosure May lead to mixed farming. Communities of
semi-sedentarists do not Represent year internship in the inevitable process
towards a new sedentary way of life; THEY ARISE May-through Poverty in
cattle, gold ITS reverse.

It Is Believed That nomadic Fulani started "to leave Futa Toro in Senegal,
looking for new pastures and water for Their herds around the year 1000.
Following The next four-five centuries, THEY HAD MOST spread over the area
of the Sudan-west of Lake Chad. By the 16th century THEY HAD Established
Themselves at Massina (upstream from the Niger Bend) and Were Proceeding
Eastward Into Hausaland. Some Settled in the 19th century at Adamawa (in
the northern Cameroons). Many of the Fulani continued to Pursue a pastoral
life; some, howeve, particularly in Hausaland, Gave Up Their nomadic pursuits,
Settled Into Existing Urban Communities.

The Oldest Plantagenet sources mentioning the Fulani Empire in the Baghirmi
(Southeast of Lake Chad) are dated to the 16th century. Most Probably, the
Fulani Were Welcomed by the local ruler, As They Brought 'em with cattle and
constituted a market for Agricultural Products. The groups of nomadic Fulani
Had to pay a tribute in cattle to the local ruler, Malthus recognizing Loved
autorité. With time, a group of sedentary Fulani Began to emerge. These Often
Educated Muslims have Distinguished Themselves Were Highly Appreciated and
by the local rulers for Their services have civil servants, teachers and legal
advisers.

The Fulani cam Into contact with Islam Already Before Their emigration from
Senegal. Conversion to Islam Was Widespread Especially Amongst The
sedentary Fulani, while the Bororo (nomadic Fulani) Were less receptive to
Islam. Amongst the Bororo, Islam never created Profound exchange of
mentality, ugly goal as a thin shell above-the traditional cultural heritage, and
this is pretty Much Remains how the situation today in the small societies of
Bororo = remaining. The sedentary Fulani in Futa Toro, Futa Jallon, Masina, "as
well as giving further in Haussaland, Were Strongly Influenced by Islam.

Although Fulani are all over West Africa and Other Parts of Africa, the website
will focus only Jamtan we Fulani areas WHERE HAD Historically Significant
impacts. These regions intersect Which Almost all new West African nations
include: Adamawa, Kano, Katsina, Masina, uta Jallon, Futa Toro and the Bororo
/ Wodaabe.

137 | P a g e
The Adamawa Fulani

The ancient Emirate of Adamawa Was a proportion of

the Sokoto Caliphate, the politically dominant empire of
the Central Sudan in the 19th century. Adamawa Was
Known As The wild east of the Caliphate, Fulani
Settlers Were Occupied The Vast highlands of Northern
Cameroon and Provided for the Slavic empire from the
Neighboring areas.

One nomadic Fulani started "That suppose to leave

Futa Toro in Senegal, looking for new pastures and
water for Their herds around the year 1000. Following
The next four-five centuries, THEY HAD MOST spread
over the area of the Sudan-west of Lake Chad. By the
16th century THEY HAD Established Themselves at
Macina (upstream from the Niger Bend) and Were
Proceeding Eastward Into Hausaland. Some Settled in
the 19th century at Adamawa (in the northern
Cameroons). Many of the Fulani continued to Pursue a
pastoral life; some, howeve, particularly in Hausaland,
Gave Up Their nomadic pursuits, Settled Into Existing
Urban Communities.

The Oldest Plantagenet sources mentioning the Fulani Empire in the Baghirmi
(Southeast of Lake Chad) are dated to the 16th century. Most Probably, the
Fulani Were Welcomed by the local ruler, As They Brought 'em with cattle and
constituted a market for Agricultural Products. The groups of nomadic Fulani
Had to pay a tribute in cattle to the local ruler, Malthus recognizing Loved
autorité. With time, a group of sedentary Fulani Began to emerge. These Often
Educated Muslims have Distinguished Themselves Were Highly Appreciated and
by the local rulers for Their services have civil servants, teachers and legal
advisers.

The Fulani cam Into contact with Islam Already Before Their emigration from
Senegal. Conversion to Islam Was Widespread Especially Amongst The
sedentary Fulani, while the Bororo (nomadic Fulani) Were less receptive to
Islam. Amongst the Bororo, Islam never created Profound exchange of
mentality, ugly goal as a thin shell above-the traditional cultural heritage, and
this is pretty Much Remains how the situation today in the small societies of
Bororo = remaining. The sedentary Fulani in Futa Toro, Futa Jallon, Masina, "as
well as giving further in Haussaland, Were Strongly Influenced by Islam.

The Sokoto Caliphate of

Adamawa 'may be seen as the last link in a chain of empires Being Islamized in
the Sudan-belt "during the last grand movement of Muslim expansion in Africa.
With the Outbreak of Jihad in the West African Futa Jallon (in modern Guinea)
in 1725 Stated the Age of An Islamic Fundamentalist and more militant,
Promoted by the Fulani, sharply contrasting Earlier the spread of Islam by

138 | P a g e
peaceful Muslim traders.

Haussaland (in modern Northern Nigeria) Was Loose Groupings of nominally

Muslims, small kingdoms shrugged. They Were united by a common language
and culture, and the large center area Was year of trade and education,
politically and Highly Economically Developed. It Is Assumed That Began to
Settle the Fulani in the 15th century here. A Relatively high proportion of
contention Fulani Establishing Themselves in the towns Haussa Were Educated
Muslims, assimilating well Into Haussa culture.

In 1804, Fulani in Haussaland rebelled Against Their Rulers Haussa. Was the
rebellion led by the Fulani Uthman dan Fodio, One of the MOST reconnu Muslim
Intellectuals of the region. It Originated in the public denunciation of the
Administrative and Religious Haussa Circumstances in the kingdom of Gobir by
dan Fodio. Shrugged aristocracy, Claiming to Rule in Accordance with the
principles of Islam, in reality only nominally Were Muslims. As Dan Fodio's
denunciation only led to Further Oppression of Faithful Muslims, hey Called was
rebellion. As the appeal for conquest spread all over Haussaland, Fulani
Muslims and Other Gathered around dan Fodio and Participated in the fighting.
Dan Fodio led em to success. Already in 1810, Almost all the kingdoms Haussa
Were subjugated. Muslim Fulani empires Were Established and call emirates.
The caliphate of the Fulani Was To Become The biggest and most influential
empire of Central Africa in the 19th century.

The Emirate of Adamawa

Independently of the conquest in Haussaland, a local Fulani rebellion Took

Place in the so-Called Fombina - the southern country (Referring to the lands
in the south of the Bornu empire Nowadays Northern Adamawa). For Some
Time, a modest group of Fulani HAD Been Settled in towns and villages Ruled
by non-Muslims, so-Called Kirdis. The areas "of the Diamare pity and the
Benue lowland pastures were excellent and attracted more and more Bororo.
Around 1800, the local Fulani rebelled Against the ruling GISIGER-Kirdi, and
Were Sustained By The Muslim Sultanate of Mandara Neighboring. Based on
Their strong Cavalry and Their Strategic methods, They Conquered the urban
centers soon, and about 1810 the hand of the town GISIGER, Marva (Fulfulde:
Maroua) Fell Into Their Hands. As early as one year after the appeal of holy
war by dan Fodio, in 1805, the Mobido Adama Ba-clan of the white flag of the
Received the jihad, and the title as chief of command in Against the Kirdi
Fombina. Adama Malthus Received the title of emir Lamido Fombina gold, have
IS ET Normally Called in European literature. He Loved Established
headquarters in Gurin by the River Faro purpose to it later "Moved by the River
Benue Yola in 1841. Fombina later "Became Known as Adamawa, named after
founder ITS Adama.

The new alliance with the Fulani from Haussaland And The Religious Dimension
of dan Fodio's jihad Gave new strength to the rebellion of the Fulani Fombina ..

About 1850, the conquest of Adamawa in general Was Fulfilled, Some with 40
Established lamidats and MOST of the indigenous population subdued by
golden rule Fulani living as Refugees in marginized areas.

139 | P a g e
The large number of lamidats Were to Develop in the European colonial
conquest Before decades.

From the 1850es onward, European explorers visited Adamawa; in the 1890s,
the British ROYAL NIGER COMPANY, French and German explorers competed
for Obtaining treaties with the Emir (Lamido). In 1901 Germany and Britain
partitioned the Emirate, the larger part of It Became part of German Kamerun,
the smaller western part, with the capital Yola, part of British NORTHERN
NIGERIA. The Germans had MILITARY RESIDENTURE Established in Garu, close
to Yola, Where They stationed a company of soldiers, to Discourage Obviously
the Adamawans from rising in revolt.

After 1901, the emirs Yola Has HAD to accept British domination Bobo Ahmadu
Ahmadu Was deposed and exiled in 1909. The larger parts of their territoire,
Now Located in German Kamerun Was Lost to Their influence was only part of
it Being Granted to Britain by the League of Nations in 1922 as a part of the
mandate of British Cameroons.

Adamawa's Emirs

Independent Emirate Emirate of Yola Under British Protection

1848-1872 Lawal 1901-1909 Bobo Ahmadu

1872-1890 Sanda 1909-1910 Iya
1890-1901 Zubeiru 1910-1924 Abba
1924-1928 Muhammadu Bello
1928-1946 Mustafa
1946-1953 Ahmadu

Lamidos

House of Modibo Adama

1848 - 1872 Bin Hamman Adama 1797 - 1872

1872 - 1890 Sanda bin Adama, brother

1890 - 1901 Zubeiru bin Adama, brother, deposed by the British, Killed while
fighting the Germans (2) 18 .. - 1903

1901 - 1909 Bobbo Ahmadu bin Adama, brother, installed deposed by the
British and 18 .. - 1916

1909 - 1910 Iya Mohammed bin Sanda, Sanda of its bin Adama (s.a.),

140 | P a g e
abdicated.

1910 - 1924 Abba Muhammad bin Bobbo Ahmadu, his Bobbo Ahmadu bin
Adama of 1 ... - 1924

1924 - 1928 Muhammad bin Ahmadu Bello, great-grandson of Adama Modibo

(1771 - 1848; st 1806 - 1848) 1 ... - 1928

1928 - 1946 Muhammad Mustafa bin Muhammad Abba (sa) 1900-1946

(1) Most of Its territoire howeve Became part of German Cameroon.

(2) In order to escape French influence, accepted protection ET Of the R.N.C.

as early as 1893.

Notable Adamawa Fulani: Modibo Adama and Ahmadu Ahidjo

Modibo Adama

In the early 1800? S Modibo Adama Brought the news of Usman dan Fodio? S
jihad in Sokoto in northern Nigeria What is now. At That Time, It Was regarded
Hausaland. Encouraged Modibo Fulbe from the area to join in the jihad or holy
war. Dan Fodio Was Asked to come and help, and Fulani families in Joined the
Fight. Theys enslaved or drove out all non-Fulbe. The ruler of the area Lived in
Yola (present-day Nigeria), Was Called a laminate, and heads of families have
HAD chiefs Under Him. This made the Fulani jihad the rulers of the area, And
They named it after Modibo Adama Adamawa, Their first leader.

Ahmadu Ahidjo

Ahmadu Ahidjo Was a Pullo (singular for Fulani) of Common Origin. He HAD
Been to Western schools and tried to get northerners from Cameroon to Be
more active in politics.

In 1946 He Was Elected to the Territorial Assembly.

ET Founded in 1948 the Friendship Association of Benue.

When a coalition government Was Formed, He Was Deputy Prime

In 1958 ET Helped create the Union of Cameroon.

By the time Cameroon ITS got independence on January 1, 1960, Ahidjo Was
Already head of state, to lead the first after independence. Ahidjo
Strengthened the Muslims, the north section of Cameroon, the Fulani and
Especially

Languages

One could "Malthus say, That There Was Many of Languages Before the arrival

141 | P a g e
of the Fulani. To contribute "Even more to the confusion, the Muslim
conquerors Brought with Them Even More, Differing languages, Fulfulde,
Haussa, Kanuri and Arab. There was an Obvious Need for a lingua franca for all
of the new entity have Adamawa Was shaped. In general, Fulfulde Was To
Become The new lingua franca of the region, although different languages Kirdi
Were prevail in certain areas. This have a contrary to the rest of the Sokoto
Caliphate, WHERE Haussa Became the pre-dominant language, ALSO Among
the Fulani. In the lamidats of Ngaoundere and Tibati, the language Mbum
Became Widespread've got the Fulfulde, Even in the royal courts. Nowadays,
French, and to a certain degree, Français Has Taken Over the role as lingua
franca in Adamawa.

Traditions

The Fulani nomads live in camps while wet season planting and harvesting. The
pastures are lush and green, and the cattle graze freely. These camp consisted
of beehive-like huts made of woven twigs, leaves, and grass. "During the dry
seasons THEY camp in portable huts, moving the cattle or sheep to well-
Watered lands in the flood pity.

Adamawa Fulani men hunt, trade livestock, and tending to the herds. While the
older men exercise the leadership of the tribes, It Is the duty of the younger
men to move the herds. Young boys are responsible for Helping Their older
brothers with the herds. The women milk the cattle Usually butter and sell in
the markets.

The Fulani are a Proud People Who Teach Young Children To Have Their Tribal
Dignity. Fulani children are required to Love Their Mothers and Their respect
for elders. They Are Also Taught to hold on to Strictly Pulaaku important gains
have SUCH Generosity, honesty, and modesty.

While Fulani children are infants Still, marriages are arranged for Them by
Their Parents. When A Boy Is Initiated Into manhood, hey moves Into A
Separate hut. This hut Will Eventually Become The Loved home of bridegroom.
Young girls look forward to Being married, Since This Will Give Them A Higher
social status. Having Many children Will Also Bring Them honor.

The Fulani serie unusual way of Initiating Boys Into manhood. The young boys
must beat Each Other Across the chest with walking sticks while Showing no
signs of pain. THROUGHOUT the Rest of Their Lives, thesis scars are proudly
have shown signs of courage.

There are Many taboos Within The Fulani culture. For example, They Are a first
forbidden to call his daughter by name gold. When in public, wives must stay
at a distance, are intended Watched over by Their Husbands. Goat Meat May
Be Eaten and not only beef IS Eaten at formal ceremonies.

Culture Shock (nderkaaku)

The Revolt of Young Fulani herders in Adamawa

With the exchange Introduced by the modern currents, the Fulani of Adamawa

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in the Ngaoundere area are increasingly distraught by The Changing
Relationships between parents and children. When young adults THEY Become,
boys do not obey Their fathers anymore. Theys escape for a life of adventure,
in Called nderkaaku the local Fulani language. The parents are Offended by this
situation, Even Though It Has Taken Many place for generations. This is
Especially true for a family Without cattle. To seek fortune Their Own
Elsewhere, the Young Men Have to leave home. The Inheritance Law Which
Favors The Eldest est aussi Another source of rebellion.

The pervasive influence MOST Purpose Is The City Life. When the young men
take the cattle to the urban markets, They learn about modern life and Become
Their Further remote from rural families. Though Overall, despite the family
Disapproval, this rebellion IS seen as inevitable Exchange Which May Events
Contribute to the Enrichment of the family to a dynamic and Fulani diaspora.

Glossary of Terms

acephalous

From Greek, aképhalos, Meaning headless, or Without head. Term Used for
Societies Without defines leaders. Acephalous societies Were the norm in Many
Parts of Historical Africa, in Particular in the tropical rainforest areas.

ardo

Fulfulde ar'do, plural ar'du'be. In Adamawa, ardo Could Be translated as chief

of the district. Mostly a term of a clan leader of the Bororo. In Several dialects,
ardo means clustering leader of a group of Fulani, gold Simply leader.

Bororo

Fulfulde Mbororo. Originally a condescending term, the nomadic Fulani

Describing. Alternative terms are Cattle-Fulani Fulani gold-Bush.

Emir

Arabic amiir: Actually Meaning Commander, Leader, Prince, Emir. Emir Is The
MOST common term in European literature for rulers in Adamawa ou autres
places Being direct subjects to the Sultan of Sokoto. The correct term in
Fulfulde would Be laamii'do (Contrary to laam'do, WHICH IS Called Lamido in
European literature).

Emirate

Imaara Arabic, plural imaaraat: Actually Meaning Power, Emirate. In this

context it IS Referred to as a Fulani empire, headed by Emir year.

Fombina

Fulfulde Fommbina: Actually Meaning The South. Early term Referring to

143 | P a g e
Adamawa.

Jihad

Arabic. "Jihad Has Two meanings: one, non-violent Within militaire armes
Struggling For A Life of Virtue, comme au, fighting for justice, a supreme goal
in Islamic Teachings.

Kanuri

Kanuri Kanuri: Actually Meaning a person of the Kanuri people, or Kanuri:

Language or culture of the Kanuri people. Important people and language of
the central Sudan. The Kanuri Were the people heading The Powerful Bornu
Empire.

Lamidat

This Word Is a European construction and does not exist in Fulfulde, WHERE IS
Called Laamu this unit. The Word Is Constructed Of The Fulfulde word and the
Arab emirate laamii'do. Malthus, Lamidat means clustering Fulani empire
headed by a Lamido.

Lamido

Fulfulde laam'do, plural laamibe. Originate in the verb laamaago; governance /

head, and Is a term Describing the ruler of the Gutman Of A Lamidat, Which in
turn IS subject to year emir.

Mayo

Fulfulde maayo: River.

Modibo

Fulfulde moodibbo, plural moodi'b'be: loanwords from the Arabic mu'addib:

Term Describing year Educated Man, Normally a Koran teacher in school.

Sokoto Caliphate

The Sokoto Caliphate term Is The European form. It Has Its origin in the
capital of the empire, Sokoto. The term caliphate in reality IS Misleading. The
ruler of the empire Called Himself musulmi Sarkin, or ruler of the Muslims.

Sufism

Within Islam, the Sufism IS Characterized by mysticism. While Islam Normally

Emphasize the great distance Between God and man, and thereby Often Does
not Meet The Needs of the Faithful to Come Into Contact with the
transcendent, Sufism opens a door-to-the unity with Allah. For example-
through the Leading Life Of An asceticism or suggestive Practicing exercises,

144 | P a g e
Each and everybody could "get to feel the closeness of Allah, howeve after
going-through a long process. Sufism, Malthus, WAS more popular Than
orthodox Islam, and more suited for Therefor the spread of the religion or
mission. From the 12th century, Sufism has Widespread Became popular
version of Islam Amongst ordinary people, the poor and the illiterate. In Africa
it Gained great popularity and Became widespread.

Abstract from: Rise and Fall of the Adamawa Emirate

By Rainer Chr. Hennig (translated introduction to thesis, 1993)
The Bagirmi
People name: Bagirmi Fula
Language: Bagirmi Fulfulde
The Fulani are Bagirmi sub-group of The Much larger Fulani tribe has spread
across That Is Much of West Africa. The Mostly Bagirmi are found in the
Countries ofChad and Central Africa. (See statistics below) The Fulani are
named and Grouped According To Their locations and occupations. The Fulani
are a Bagirmi branch of the Fulani Who occupy the region of south Bagirmi-
central Chad. Theys Have Also Eastward spread and are now in shares of the
Central African Republic. Their language, Fulfulde Bagirmi, Belongs to the West
Atlantic branch of the Niger-Congo language family.
The Traditions of Bargirmi Fulani
Combining agriculture with herding, the Fulani are semi-Bagirmi sedentary
herdsmen. Some Other Fulani groups unlikable Whose families travel with 'em,
the home has Bagirmi Fulani hairpins Where They live for half the year.
"During the dry season, grazing ground and water When are scarce, They take
Their cattle from the homestead in search of greener pastures.
The head of the family, Loved Along with wives and younger children, stay at
home and Usually tends to a small herd and the crops. The young married
sounds and Their families leave with the rest of the cattle. Hence, the Fulani
can move and desire When THEY can pay Also Kinsmen and tends to Laborers
to the home vegetable gardens. In this way, They Can Be Rewarded and
enriched by the spectrum of Both ENDS: herding and agriculture.
At the homestead, agriculture Provider for the Livelihood of the People, with
pearl millet and sorghum as the staple crops. Corn, beans, peanuts, melons,
and cucumbers are grown Aussi. Horses, sheep, goats, chickens, and dogs are
Kept at the family farm, and Wild Rice is Gathered from the fields by the
women. Family lineages Settlements in the Sami village and family form
compounds. Polygamy (the practice of wife HAVING More Than One) IS
Commonly practiced. Saddle LUKAS IS Sometimes Picked to the number of
cattle she possessive Since cattle are a symbol of Wealth Among all Fulani. At
the markets, the trade Fulani Bagirmi Their dairy products for grain, farm
equipment, and cloth. Also the market place has got reservations for social
gatherings. Village dances and ceremonies are Held in the Market.

The Fulani Were one of the first groups in Africa to convert to Islam. Today,
the Bagirmi are 99.9% Muslim. Howeve, They Still continues to Practice Many
of Their old Fulani traditions. To a Fulani, the important Things in life are
family, cattle, strong morals, and beauty. Also Theys year value excellence in
poetry, singing, and dancing. To the Fulani children are symbols of the future.
For this Reason, a special ceremony Authority or to Celebrate the birth of his
firstborn was and the naming of a sound. The Fulani do not believe in afterlife
year. Instead, They Believe That a person lives from generation to generation-

145 | P a g e
through Loved Children. With a sound man's name was Will and features
remain.
Chad Statistics
Country: Chad
Capital: N'Djamena.
Official languages: French and Arabic.
Official name: Republic of Chad (Republic of Chad).
Area: 495.755 sq. mi. (1.284 million sq. Km). Greatest distance: east-west,
640 mi. (1.030 km) north-south, 1.097 mi. (1.765 km).
Elevation: Highest : Emi Koussi, 11.204 ft. (3.415 m.) Above sea level.
Lowest: Lake Chad, 922 ft. (281 m) Above sea level.
Population: Estimated 2000 population - 7,307,000; density, 15 persons
per sq. mi. (6 per sq. Km) distribution, 78 percent rural, 22 percent urban.
1993 census - 6,279,931.
Chief products: Agriculture: cattle, cotton, millet, peanuts, rice, sorghum.
Manufacturing: beer, cigarettes, textiles.
National anthem: The Chad (The Chadian)
Flag: The flag Has vertical blue, yellow, and red stripes. Blue symbolization
the sky and hope. Yellow stands for the Sun. Red Represents fire and unity
Money: Basic unit, frank. One hundred cents EQUAL one franc.
Central African Republic Statistics
Country: Central African Republic
Capital: Bangui.
Official languages: French ..
Official name: Central African Republic (Central African Republic).
Area: 240.535 sq. mi. (622.984 sq. Km).
Elevation: Highest :
Population: Estimated 2000 population: 3,731,000; density, 15 persons per
sq. mi. (6 per sq. Km) distribution, 39 percent urban, 61 percent rural.
1988 census: 2,463,616
Chief products: Products: Agriculture: bananas, coffee, cotton, livestock,
palm kernels, peanuts, rubber, sesame, yams. Forestry: timber. Mining:
diamonds, gold.
National anthem:
Flag: Horizontal blue, white, green, and yellow stripes are at the center
Divided by a red vertical stripe. A yellow star representing The Guiding Light
of the future. Red, white, and blue recall the UK flag. Green, yellow, and red
are for the People and Their unity.
Money: Basic unit, frank

Ref: The World Book

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The Bauchi Fulani

Some of the Fulani herds with Their travel, Some Are Settled, Some mix and
herding with farming. The Bauchi Fulani are nomadic herdsmen. A few
"hundred years ago, the Hausa Fulani of Conquered the northern Nigeria.
Though THEY continues to Dominate the Hausa, Fulani, the language and the
ADOPTED Have Some customs of the Hausa. The area Is a grassy THEY
occupy savanna with hot temperatures and high humidity. Lions, giraffes,
elephants, pigs and wild animals Are Among The Many That Inhabit the
region.

Traditions of the Bauchi Fulani

Because the Bauchi Fulani are nomadic herdsmen, gold Bororo, Their
Livelihood IS Based on Their cattle. Owning cattle Is a symbol of health and
well-being Among all Fulani. In fact, a Man LUKAS IS RespectEd to the
number of cattle ET owns and He Knows How Much about herding. Will choose
Sometimes a man Loved LUKAS flange to the number of cattle she owns. Milk
from the cattle Is The staple food of the Fulani. Their daily diet includes
Usually milk, butter, and cheese.

Although the Fulani herds travel with Their, They Also Live With The Hausa
farmers "for part of the Year. Together, They make use of the fertile land
"during the rainy season. Many Hausa Become frustrated Because sacrifice
part of the crops' may be Eaten gold Trampled by the herds. Howeve, no ill
feelings linger, Since the manure left behind Provides fertilizer for the next
season's crops.

A typical Bauchi Fulani family consists "of a Man, His Wife, and His Wives and
sounds with Their Children. THROUGHOUT the year, the families travel from
place to place with Their herds. Each member of the family Has Specifying
droits. The men's Responsibilities include herding the cattle, Tending to
politique affairs, Treating Illness, and making plans for traveling. The women's
milking the cows droits include, Preparing butter and cheese, making the
clothes and blankets, and Preparing the daily meals.

The younger boys help Their older brothers with the herds, while the girls help
Their Mothers. When a boy Reach the age of 12, hey Enters Sukaabe, Young
Adulthood gold. At That Time, HE IS Taught the rules of respect, courtesy,
and justice to the strong LUKAS moral code of the Bauchi.

The Fulani Were one of the first people groups in Africa to Be Converted to
Islam, and today, Almost all of the Bauchi Fulani are Muslim. In Spite of Their
devotion to Islam, howeve, Many Fulani continued to observe Their sacrifice
part of pre-Islamic practices. The Bauchi Fulani feel very Strongly about
Morality. Their lifestyle embraces a high code of ethics, Which include
compliance, Generosity, modesty, and kindness. This code of moral behavior,
Called Pulaaku, Must Be Strictly Followed for the Fulani to Be regarded part of
the Bororo, Who are the purist regarded Fulani group.

To the Fulani children are the future. They Do not believe in afterlife year, so

147 | P a g e
children are the only means clustering by Which THEY can live on from
generation to generation. Theys Believe That Their sound-through, Their
names and features Will remain. If a Fulani dies with no children, 'as if It Is ET
dies fewer spectators.

Nigeria Summary background

Most of Nigeria's people live in rural areas. Since the mid-1900's, Many
Nigerians Have Moved to the cities. Lagos Is The nation's commercial center.
Nigeria's other large cities include Ibadan, Kano, Ogbomosho, and Uyo.

The Country Has More than 250 different ethnic groups Hausa 18.5%, 18.5%
Yoruba, Igbo 14.1%, 4.9% Toroobe Fulani, Kanuri Yerwa 3%. These ethnic
groups Differ from One Another in language and in Their sacrifice part of
customs and traditions. The Three Largest ethnic groups are, in order of size,
the Hausa, the Yoruba, Igbo and the (also spelled Ibo). These ethnic groups
account for Three about three-fifth of the total population of Nigeria.

The Hausa people live in northern Nigeria and Primarily in the Neighboring
Countries of Niger and Chad. Most of em are farmers ", And Many Also
Craftworkers and work as traders. The Hausa Have Lived in the area for more
Than a Thousand Years. "During the 1200's, the Fulani, a people Who
Originally from cam What are now Senegal and Gambia, Began To Settle In
The Hausa territoire. The Fulani Took control of the region "during the early
1800's. Because of the intermixing of the Two Peoples, the group IS
Sometimes Called the Hausa-Fulani.

The Yoruba live in the southwestern part Mainly of the country and in Benin
and Togo, Two Nations That lie to the west of Nigeria. Many of the Yoruba live
in cities and farm land in the countryside The surroundings. Several Yoruba
cities, Including Lagos Were Founded Hundreds of years ago.

The Igbo has majorité form of the population in southeastern Nigeria. In

addition, a large number of Igbo live in Other Areas of the country. "During
the period" of British rule in the 1900's, Many Igbo accepted Western
education and ways of life more Quickly Than Nigerian ethnic groups comme
au. The Igbo Were Also more Willing to travel. As a result, the Igbo Held Many
important positions in business and government "during the period" of colonial
rule.

Other ethnic groups in Leading the country include the Nupe and Tiv of central
Nigeria, the Edo, Urhobo, Itsekiri and of the Edo and Delta states, the Ijo of
the Rivers state, the Efik and Ibibio of the Cross River State, and the Kanuri of
northeastern Nigeria.

Français Is The official language of Nigeria am and is Taught in Schools

THROUGHOUT the country. Howeve, Français Is Not the Country's Most
Commonly Used Language. Each of the 250 ethnic groups more Than That live
in Nigeria Has Its Own separate language. The Three Widely Used languages
are MOST of the Three Largest giving further ethnic groups: Hausa, Yoruba,
Igbo and. A majorité of the People of Nigeria speak more Than one language.

148 | P a g e
Theys May use the language of Their ethnic group on MOST opportunities, and
use another language Français gold at Other Times. In addition, Nigerians are
Muslims Who uses Arabic while Taking Part in Religious various activities.In
the cities, Many Nigerians wear Western-style clothing. Purpose other city
dwellers and people in Rural Areas MOST wear traditional clothing. Traditional
garments for men and women in Nigeria include the long, loose dresses made
of white gold brightly colored fabrics.

The chief of Nigeria foods include yams, corn, rice, and beans. Also The
People eat plantains (a kind of banana) and the roots of the cassava plant.
Nigerian Food is cooked in palm oil Often golden peanut oil, and it 'may be
seasoned with red peppers Highly. Some Nigerian meals feature beef,
chicken, fish, or lamb. Aim in general, Most Nigerians do not eat meat Much.
Popular Beverages in Nigeria include beer and wine was made from That Is
the sap of palm trees. Some city dwellers Also drink coffee and tea. Nigerian
Muslims Who obeyed the Laws of Islam May not drink alcoholic beverages.

Nigeria Statistics

Country: Nigeria
Capital: Abuja.
Official languages: Français
Official name: Federal Republic of Nigeria
Area: 356.669 sq. mi. (923.768 sq. Km). Greatest distance: east-west, 800
mi. (1,287 km) north-south, 650 mi. (1,046 km). Coastline: 478 mi. (769
km).
Elevation: Highest : Highest: Dimlang Peak 6.699 ft. (2.042 m.) Above sea
level. Lowest: sea-level.
Population: Estimated 2000 population: 128,786,000; density, 361 persons
per sq. mi. (139 per sq. Km) distribution, 84 percent rural, 16 percent urban.
1991 census: 88,992,220.
Chief productsAgriculture: beans, beef and hides, cocoa, cassava, corn,
cotton, millet, palm oil and palm kernels, peanuts, rice, rubber, yams.
Mining: columbite, limestone, natural gas, petroleum, tin. Manufacturing:
cement, chemicals, clothing, food products, textiles.
National anthem: Arise, O Compatriots.
Flag:
Money: Basic unit, the naira. One hundred kobo EQUAL one naira.

Ref: The World Book

The Fulani of Benin and Togo

See also Bororo-Wozaave

Today, the Fulani are named and Grouped According To Their locations,
occupations, and dialects. TheFulani of Benin occupy the northern and
central regions of the country. They Speak Fulfulde, a Niger-Congo language.

149 | P a g e
 Similarly, tET Togo Fulani are giving further Fulani living in the northern
regions of Togo, Who emigrated from Benin. Ltr Bororos, Nomadic
herdsmen gold, Who Their cattle and goats take from place to place in
search of new grazing land. They Speak Fulfuldee, From the West-Atlantic
branch of the Niger Congo language family. The Togo Fulani are very similar
to Their Neighbors in Fulani Benin in life styles and features.

The Benin and Togo are Fulani shepherds Primarily, With Their lives
revolving around the herds. In the rainy season, the cattle and goats graze
on the lush fertile land near the village. "During the dry season, the cattle
and goats are Taken to Other Areas, wells are dug WHERE wide for Their
watering. Other Areas These are crop lands Sometimes Belonging to nearby
farmers. Though Some crops' may be Eaten gold Trampled by the herds, no
ill feelings linger, Since the manure left behind Provides fertilizer for the next
season's crops. For the nomadic Fulani cattle Are Their MOST important
possessions Since THEY symbolization Wealth and status. The more cattle a
man owns, the more respect HE IS Given; and 'may be a flange phrasal
LUKAS To The Amount of cattle she owns.

The Fulani have consumed milk daily Their hand food. Milk Is very important
to Their Diet, eat little meat THEY Since few "and vegetables. Butter and
goat cheese are traded Often at the Markets for Grain and Other items. Millet
IS Used Each Day in a porridge for the evening meal.
"During the dry season, the Fulani live in portable shelters made of flexible
twigs Covered with leaves and grass mats. Temporary corrals for the herds
surround EACH hut. Boys over 15 years old do Their Work "under the
direction and supervision of Their fathers. THEY dig wells and water the
herds, while younger brothers Their help by running Errands for em.

"During the rainy season, the Wuro (village) Is The Center of Fulani society.
Women care for the Children; prepared butter, cheese, and daily meals,
tending to the gardens ménage; and gather wild rice and berries. The men
tend the herds and to make clothes Their Own. Making clothes Is a Way to
Express Himself and man can show Loved individuality and personality.

The Benin and Togo Fulani, Fulani like Many Other groups, Believe That It Is
a sign of Weakness To Be controlled by fear; Malthus, They Seldom show
fear in public. Fulani boys are Initiated Into manhood in a Somewhat unusual
inmate admitted Called Sharo. In the Sharo initiation Friends Who are
Being Initiated Beat Each Other With Their over-the-chest walking sticks. No
sign of pain Is To Be shown, and There Should Be a additional willingness to
Receive more afflictions. Some Have Died in this procedure, the purpose
That Many do live proudly show Their scars as marks of honor. The Fulani
Fear Being Alone Disliked gold. Theys Often talk with friends to Overcome
the feeling of loneliness. Howeve, this company IS Need for Concealed in
public, have tended to hide the Fulani Their feelings. Only Through songs Do
They express love gold Such Thing as The Need for others.

The Bororo / Wozaave

Overview
Language: Kano-Katsina-Bororo Fulbhe

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HiringCameroon, Chad, and Nigeria.

Bororo-Wozaave (read as wodhaabhe) Peoples are acutually a subgroup of the

larger Fulbe-speaking Fulani. THEY prefer to Call Themselves Bororo. Fulani are
nomadic people has Who Have Been Influential in regional politics, economics,
and Western stories THROUGHOUT Africa for over a Thousand Years. Wodaabe
live in northern Nigeria, in shares of Cameroon, And chad. Have TheysPlayed a
Significant Role in furthering Fulani domination in the area. The height of the
Fulani Empire Was Between the early 1900s and early 1800s. Was this power
consolidé Under Usman dan Fodio and centered in northern Wa Nigeria. Dan
Fodio Was a Devout Muslim Who Used Religious fervor to ignite Furini to
Undertaker series of holy wars. Following The early success of Islamic warriors,
non-Islamic Fulani Joined Ranks With Their fellows to form extensive year and
Powerful Empire.

The Two Most Significant Factors in Political Systems Fulani are clientage and
competition. In order to gain office has politique Fulani man would Have to
compete Loved Among Fellows for the right to rule. He could "show politique
Loved Favor by Demonstrating That He Had a wide in the form of FOLLOWING
Individuals and families. By agreeing to Become The Client A Powerful Man of
Gold family, a subject would offer tribute in the form of gifts and support in
exchange for politique security. Often men Wozaave Held considerable
politique Power Within Their Own Communities nomadic, as well as "Within The
Communities in Which THEY Settled.
The Wozaave, Also Known as Bororo Achieved Numerous celebrity status-
through National Geographic articles, film and television documentaries. They
Are Known best for the Festival of Gerewol Which translate as Choosing the
best one. The event Is a show Consisting of a succession of ceremonial songs
and dances by young men Who Performed Parade Themselves in front of
women, Who Then the best thing from Among Them. These tall and handsome
men, dressed in traditional costume, Many Spend hours in front Themselves
Creatively adorning paint and make-up.

Traditions of the Bororo

Mainly nomadic Bororo are herders and traders.The Bororo Fulani follow the
traditions of Their ancestor, and are regarded the purist of all Fulani groups.
These nomadic herdsmen Consider the long-horned cattle to Be a prized
possession and Have Dedicated Their Lives to caring for Their herds. Owning
cattle Is a symbol of health and well-being Among all Fulani. In fact, the level
of a Man's Respect is based on the number of cattle ET owns and He Knows
How Much about herding. The cattle Have Their Own and names are Treated
with affection by the Bororo. Milk Is The staple food of the Fulani. Their daily
diet includes Usually milk, butter, and cheese.

THROUGHOUT the year, the Bororo Fulani travel from place to place with Their
herds. Each member of the family Has Specifying droits. The men's
Responsibilities include herding the cattle, Tending to politique affairs, Treating
Illness, and making plans for traveling. The women's milking the cows droits
include, Preparing butter and cheese, making the clothes and blankets, and
Preparing the daily meals. They Are Also required to obey Their husband's

151 | P a g e
orders. The roads THEY Established in western / centra Africa Provided
extensive links THROUGHOUT the region fostered That Economic and Political
Parties Between Otherwise isolated ethnic groups. Dairy products Produced
from cattle traded to sedentary farmers "Were agricole for products and luxury
items. These items could "Then to Be Traded trans-Saharan traders have SUCH
the Tuareg for shipment north. Fine woven cloth produced by the Wodaabe
Was regarded a luxury item That Could Be Traded on the international market.

The Wozaave are found in Bongor Also, in Western Chad, "During the dry
season and move to the Kanem Prefecture, North of Lake Chad, During the
rainy season for June. At the end of August, or early September, THEY start
Their journey south with cattle, to take advantage of all the new growth of
grass. Some travel 800 km. (500 miles) south as far as the Central African
Republic. As well as cutting cattle with huge horns, the Bororo in Chad Have
long-legged sheep Which Have a black and white hindquarters front half.
Their Art is not only famous for using motifs from Their Way of Life, purpose
Also from the modern world. Celebrations are a time for dancing and singing.
The women are tattooed, and the men dress and make up to dance. Spend
long hours in Theys story-telling, for the Wozaave do not use Fulfulde
Plantagenet. . Children learn values and pride from the Fulani tribal elders,
Who are Eager to pass down the Fulani traditions.

The Bororo feel very Strongly about Morality, and Constantly Strive To Be
Generous, Honest, and Respectful. Ltr very reserved people, Who are shy and
modest in public. Family relationships are Therefor Restrained. Even Mothers
are not permitted to Be With Their infant sounds, Since The Bororo Feel That It
Is to Be Inappropriate for affection shown in public. The Fulani Also Have a
strong concept of beauty. Fulani infants Receive decorative scars on Their faces
have symbols of beauty. The Children Will Receive more scarring and strictures
on Their Forehead As They grow older.

Cameroon Statistics (See Also Chad and Nigeria statistics Statistics)

Country: Cameroon
Capital: Yaounde.
Official languages: Français and French ..
Official name: Republic of Cameroon (Republic of Cameroon).
Area: 183.569 sq. mi. (475.442 sq. Km). Greatest distances north-south,
770 mi. (1,239 km) east-west, 450 mi. (724 km). Coastline, 250 mi. (400
km).
Elevation: Highest Mount Cameroon, 13.353 ft. (4.070 m.) Above sea
level. Lowest, sea level, Along the coast.
Population: Estimated 2000 population: 15,245,000; density of 83 persons
per sq. mi. (32 per sq. Km) distribution, 56 percent rural, 44 percent urban.
1987 census: 10,493,655.
Major peoples in size order Major Religions

Adamawa Fulani 8.6% Christians 63.7%

Ewondo 8.1% Muslim 24.3%
Cameroonian Creole 5.8% k Capital: Yaounde.

152 | P a g e
Bulu Fang 4%
Bamileke-Bandjoun 3%
Chief products: Agriculture and forestry: bananas, cocoa beans, coffee,
cotton, palm oil, root crops, rubber, timber. Manufacturing: Aluminum, beer,
cocoa, petroleum products, shoes, soap. Mining: petroleum.
National anthem: O Cameroon, Thou Cradle of Our Fathers.
Flag: The flag Has green, red, and yellow vertical stripes, with a yellow star
in the center of the red stripe.
Money:
Ref: The World Book

Fellaata

Overview of Sudan

The labor population groups in Sudan are: Arabs, Nubians, Beja, Fur,
Zaghawa, Masalit Daju, and Berti. Howeve There Is a Significant number of
West Africans Including Fulani.

People of West African origin in Sudan over a number one million and a half.
Together, West Africans Who Have Become Sudanese National and non-
national residents from West Africa make up 6.5 percent of the Sudanese
population. In the mid-1970s, West Africans HAD Been Estimated at more
Than 10 percent of the population of the northern provinces. Some
descendants of persons Who Were HAD Arrived five generations or more
Earlier, others Were recent immigrants. Some HAD come in self-imposed exile,
Unable to Accommodate to the colonial power in Their Homeland. Others HAD
Been pilgrims to Mecca, controlled settling Either way gold on Their return.
Many cam over decades in the race of the great dispersion of the nomadic
Fulani; Arrived others, particularly after World War II, as rural and urban
Laborers gold to take up land as Peasant cultivators.

The Fellaata (See also Tekrur)

Nearly 60 percent of people included in the West African category Were Said to
Be of Nigerian origin (locally Called Borno after the Nigerian emirate That Was
Their homeland). Given Hausa dominance in northern Nigeria and the
Widespread use of Their language There and Elsewhere, Some non-Haus Might
Also Be Called Themselves as Hauser and DESCRIBE SUCH. Aim the Hausa
Themselves, particularly giving further along in Sudan, preferred to Be Called
Takari. Typically, the term Applied to the Fulani in Sudan Was Fellati, goal
Sudanese Also Used for Others That term West Africans. The dialect of Fellati
Language is Called Gombe.

The Fulani nomads Were found in Many Parts of central Sudan from Darfur to
the Blue Nile, And They occasionally competed with indigenous populations for
pasturage. In Darfur groups of Fulani origin adapted in various ways to the
presence of the Baqqara tribes. Retained all aspects Some of Their culture and
language. A few "HAD Become Much like Baqqara in language and in Others
respectively, although THEY Tended to retain Their Own breeds of cattle and

153 | P a g e
ways of handling them". Some of the Fulani groups in the eastern states Were
sedentary, descendants of sedentary Fulani of the ruling group in northern
Nigeria. Many Sudanese speak Arabic; Also Some speak Hauser and Songa
have second languages.

Mahdist is group bilingual in Fulfulde and Sudanese Spoken Arabic. Few

Monolingual; MOST are children. Previous migration from Sokoto, Nigeria;
Maasina, Mali, and Liptaako Jelgooji, Burkina Faso, Adamawa and Gombe,
Nigeria, and the lineage Wodaabe Have Settled in Sudan. Some Also from
Cameroon. Predominant Fulfulde in Sudan IS Adamawa. Influenced by Arabic.
Muwalid is group Monolingual in Sudanese Spoken Arabic.

The Sudan diaspora of the Hausa-Fulani

The Sudan diaspora of the Hausa-Fulani people Was Formed, definitively,

around the first decade of this century. The first settlement, in May Wurno is
the right bank of the Blue Nile, soon Became prosperous Enough for a few
"daughter Communities to Be Established in the Gezira area, The Land
Between the Two Niles. Presently, Almost all the population centers in Gezira
and the Blue Nile Along Have a foreign quarter Mainly Inhabited by people of
West African origin, the Majority of Hausa-Fulani Being thesis. Mostly
sedentary ltr.

Beside, Along the pilgrimage road Between West Africa and Jidda-Makka, the
so-Called Alhaji Highway, Every Town Has A sizeable West African quarter,
Geneina and Nyala is from the Chad border and Bor Sudan to Suakin on the
Red Sea. There, Some Of The Gutman Percentages are Constantly on the
move, the way to the gold back from Makkah.

People in the Sudan Hausa-Fulani community call Themselves tàkaarii. Singular

forms are Either gold tàkaarà tàkùruurù, Obviously Derived from year Arabic
denomination (sg. takruur, pl. Takaarii) of the Well-Known Senegalese ethnic
group, Tukulors. The hosts, Arab people, call contention Generally Diaspora
settlements Fellati quarters. The dominant language in the Diaspora IS
takaaranci, /-ANCI / Being Hauser suffix denoting language.

From May Wurno town down south to the Ethiopian border, There are quite a
few "Populous Hausa-Fulani settlements Scattered Along Both banks of the
Blue Nile. Here in this riverine strip, the lingua franca of the Diaspora IS
Filatanci, the Fula language. Members of the diaspora are Mostly trilingual:
Fula, Hausa / Takaaranci and Arabic. On the Other Hand, Alhaji Along the
Highway, the language is Hausa Diaspora / Takaaranci. Transient members are
Hausa speakers Monolingual Usually with various degrees of fluency in Arabic.

The Revival Of The Fula language Along the Blue Nile

At the time of Jihad in Hausaland Around the Beginning of the 19th century,
Fulani jihadists HAD Hausanized Already Been inside thoroughly and Their
mother tongue Was Hausa, Usman dan Though Hodiyo and Their Loved
Children "could express thoughts in Fula. Aim the Fula language soon Became
obsolete in the Sokkoto Empire, and by the time of the last independent
Sardauna, Sultan Muhammadu Attahiru II, the Fulani ruling class Completely

154 | P a g e
abandonné the Fula language.

Therefor, May Wurno When Bello, Sultan of has its Attahiru, and His followers
Wurno Founded in May the town and started "the Sudan diaspora, the
language of the Diaspora Must Have Been Hausa. Purpose in the present, the
dominant language in the Hausa-Fulani diaspora is the Blue Nile upstream from
May Wurno Towner IS Fula Along with Hausa / Takaaranci.

The revival of the Fula language is very enigmatic, Because The Diaspora
people Obviously Did Not Need To Introduce a New Language Other Than
Arabic, the language of Their host people. Also, There Existed No Fula group in
the Sudan to influence the Hausa-Fulani 'newly Established community and to
act as a model. This Question Was Answered ou partly by Mukoshi Ibrahim,
grandson of a Bello Wurno May. On the way to Gezira, the survivors Spent
Some Time in Adamawa, the WHERE Hausanization of the Fulani rulers Was
Not complete yet. There in Adamawa, Bello and His Party Were Given wives
and female slaves have sadaka. Theys continued together with the hijra thesis'
newly Acquired womenfolk. These women Were Mostly Monolingual, and spoke
only in Fula. Therefor, When the second generation Grew Up in the Sudan
diaspora, THEY BOTH Received Their mother's language, Fula, and Their
father's language, Hausa. That Was the Way in Which Fula Revived in the
community.

In the kind of popular history, Many legends of communal foundation Contain

accounts of male members and female members hail from Who Two Different
ethnic groups live together aim to come, due to war, natural disaster or
slavery. Certainly, if the Adamawa women HAD not the language Brought Into
the community, it would impossible to find Have Been source material for the
revival of the Fula language. ..

Ref: Ibrahim Hamza, Sean O'Fahey: Diaspora and Linguistic Atavism; Hausa
Language in the Sudan

155 | P a g e
The Fulakunda

The Fulakunda are a sub-group of the Fulani, on a vast cluster of peoples living
THROUGHOUT central and western Africa. Primarily They Live in Guinea-
Bissau, Senegal and The Gambia in small villages of round, mud, straw-roofed
huts. They Do subsistence farming of corn, millet, peanuts and rice.

As the Fulani migrated Southward to Guinea Bissau and-through "during the

Fifteenth Century, sacrifice part of 'em mixed with the Mandingo in the area.
Those Who Were intermarried with the Mandingo regarded black, gold preto.
These Fulani Became Known as Fula Preto, gold Fulakunda. They Speak
Fulakunda (a Fulani language), Which Belongs to the West Atlantic branch of
the Niger-Congo language family. The area lies THEY Inhabit Between Guinea
Bissau, Guinea, and Gambia. They Live Among the Fulani, Mandingo and Other
Peoples in the forests of southern Senegal.

Although the mixed cultures Fulakunda Have and Have intermarried with Other
Groups in the area, They Still Practice Many of the customs and traditions of
the traditional Fulani. Their lives center around Their herds of cattle or sheep.
In fact, the more cattle one owns, the wealthier HE IS regarded to be. In
addition, Some are Fulakunda Hired as herdsmen for various kingdoms in the
Sudan, just as Their fathers Were Before Them.

Mixing agriculture with herding, the Fulakunda consumes grains and milk as
Their staple foods. Seldom Meat Is Eaten. In fact, only DURING important
formal events, as the naming ceremony SUCH gold at the birth of a first sound
IS beef consumed. Even Then, It Is Usually Eaten only for ceremonial
purposes. Donkeys, chickens, and dogs are Kept on the farms.

The Wuro (village) Is The Center Of Fulakunda Society. It Is There That the
women do MOST of Their Work. Theys prepare the evening meal, Which Takes
about five hours or oven. Theys gather grass and twigs Also for the
construction of Their huts. Milking the cattle and butter are Preparing Other
important chores. The men herd the cattle and dig wells. Sounds over the age
of 15 took Their fathers' work. The young men are directed and Supervised by
Their fathers.

At 15, a boy builds and living in His Own Begins hut, Which Will Eventually ET
Loved share with first wife. Subsequent Wives Will Be Given huts of Their Own.
A girl is Often slow to a man, to see if She Will work well with the first wife.
The prospective husband will visit and "give gifts to the girl's family Until the
marriage IS official.

THEY LACK Although May is a western scholarly grasp KM book, They Are
regarded skilled social analysts. Some elders Have Traveled in Many Countries
and know of the language, people, and culture of each.

The Fulakunda of Senegal are a Muslim people. Theys Strongly adheres to

good morals and Virtues Pulaaku Sucha have justice, honesty, Generosity, and

156 | P a g e
patience.

The Fulakunda think of the village as a place of rules and obligations, a place
for Socially acceptable behavior. The bush, On The Other Hand, Is a place of
freedom, Where They can act to LUKAS Their Own Needs.

The Fulakunda Hate To Feel Alone. Howeve, They tend to hide Their feelings,
and the Need for Love and Companionship Is Not Expressed in public. Only
Need-through songs is this Freely acknowledged.

Futa Jalon

A Brief History

Among the Numerous stories about the origin of the Fulani, the more recent
research in anthropology and linguistics to the day after media FOLLOWING:
The Fulani Originated From The Senegal river region. Theys Traveled Widely;
Some Wandered east, WHERE They Were Became Muslims, and West
Eventually Returned.
The Futa Jalon Was Settled by the Fulani in Two waves: the first, Possibly as
early as the
13th century, consisted of pagan (non-Islamic) Fulani Known As Pulli. The
second
Began in the 16th century and consisted of Muslim Fulani from Masina in What
is now
the republic of Mali.
This group of Fulani Originally shared with the Futa Jalon Other ITS Gutman,
non-
Muslim Fulani and Jallonke. Sometime in the 17th century, holy war on
pagans. Was this jihad and long bloody and featured a number of
atrocities.After the Jihad Around 1725, the Muslim Fulani HAD Established a
Federal Theocracy Under Islamic law, with a ruler in Central Timbo (Near
present-day Mamou), Has holy city in Fougoumba, and Seven Other Provinces
(diwe) with a certain Amount of Autonomy. Labe Quickly Became the Most
Powerful and wealthiest of contention, ITS Expanding borders to the north and
west Until It encompassed Nearly a year as long as area the rest of the
kingdom put together.
From the outset this kingdom Was Plagued by Power Struggle. The
descendants of the first Almaami (Imam / king) Quickly Split Into Two Houses,
the Alfaya And The Soriya, Which Fought more or less incessantly
THROUGHOUT the history of the kingdom.
For a while a system of bicephalism (Dual leadership lives) Was Formalized, in
Which There Were Always Two Almaamis, One from Each house, Who would
trade off power Every Two Years. In practice this didn? T work out very well.
The French Were Able to Establish Themselves in the surrounding areas all
along Before They Made "any Headway in the Futa. They Were Able to finally
capitalize on internal Power Struggle, and we Labe? S Hopes for Greater
Autonomy. In 1896, at the battle of Pore-Daka, The French Defeated the last
Almaami, Bocar Biro said Buubakar.
The colonial Authorities Moved Quickly to Consolidate Their Power over the

157 | P a g e
area, putting chiefs in place, dividing the Futa in order to Strengthen leaders to
support 'em, and little by little Diluting the Role of the Almaami. Ace Alfa Yaya
Watched Loved autorité slip away, hey tried to year organizes uprising Against
the colonists.He Died in a prison colony in the THEN Mauritania.

The People

Futa Jalon, highland region, c.30, 000 sq mi (77.700 sq km), central Guinea, W
Africa. Largely a rolling grassland (average alt. C.3, 000 ft/910 m), the region
IS Grazed by cattle of the Fulani. The Niger, Senegal, And Gambia There rivers
rise. Futa Jalon IS Often Referred to as the head-waters of West Africa. Est
aussi Called It Land of WatersFruits, Faith and Freedom.
The Fulani of Futa Jalon people are a large group Located in the western
African nation of Guinea, Sierra Leone, And Senegal. The majorité live in the
Futa Jalon of Guinea, Year area of mountains and plateaus Consisting. Ltr
semi-nomadic raise crops and livestock as well as ". The high plateaus serve as
part-time pastures for Their herds.
Along the plateaus of the Fouta Jalon There are grassy fields of millet and pity.
Traditionally, the Livelihood of the Fula Jalon IS Primarily based on farming and
shepherding. Gathering forest produce, hunting, fishing, and trading are parts
of their daily Also lives. Staple crops include millet, rice, and peanuts. Cattle
herds, sheep and goats Along with, are the primary livestock. The cattle are
not the usual Fulani humped breed, a native Futa Jalon purpose breed That Is
resistant to the disease-Carrying tsetse fly.
Herding cattle IS Usually a male activity, howeve, the women milk and take
care of the cattle. Women Also Care for the poultry and small livestock, "as
well as cultivate the gardens. Often women carry containers of milk and cheese
to sell or trade in local markets. With Their Mothers Daughters reposer Until
THEY sorry. Howeve, as soon as puberty has his Reaches, ET leaves the family
compound and lives alone in a nearby compound, with Usually Some cattle.
This new compound Becomes the home of the wife's and His Future. The first
marriage of a Man Is Usually arranged by the man's father.
Children Belong To age-sets Until THEY sorry. An age-set IS Grouped At Three
year Gold oven intervals, With Every child born in years giving further
Belonging to That sets. The children in year age-set go to school together and
May Participate in Labor community, or help someone in Their May Set with
clamp-service. Each age-set Has a leader, a deputy, and a judge.
Although Futa Jalon villages are Scattered, EACH Has A Village and a short
central mosque. Houses Belonging To The Settled Fula Jalon are round with
mud walls Typically and thatched roofs. Each year hut Has encircling verandah.
The nomadic Fula Jalon lives in open, beehive-shaped huts without walls or
verandahs. Each hut IS Surrounded by a cattle corral.
The Main Cities in Futa Jalon are: Labe and Mamou. (Map of Guinea)

For more information see www.fuuta-jalon.net

Overview of Futa Tooro

The Fulani People Have Played a prominent role in West African History. As
cattle pastoralists spread across THEY 2,000 miles of savanna land, from
Senegambia in the west to Cameroon in the east, over the last one Thousand
Years. As Muslim Revolutionaries sacrifice part of em Established Islamic

158 | P a g e
regimes over the Last Three Centuries in oven Widely separated areas of the
savanna. It Was in contention areas "That THEY adapted the Arabic script to
the writing of Their language, Fulfulde, Developed and Other institutions for
the dissemination of Islam in West Africa. More Than Any Other single
people, the Fulani in the process Have Led whereby Islam Has Become The
majorité faith of the savanna region.

In Their pastoral and state-building roles, the Fulani Have Been Known by a
Variety of names. In the Français-speaking world They Are Often Called Fula,
a term derived from the Gambia and the Mandinka, Fulani, a term Which
Comes From The Hausa language, Fellati gold, Which Comes from Kanuri in
Nigeria, all use the Reflect Three terms of British colonial rule. In the French-
speaking world THEY Usually go by the expression Fulani, Which Comes from
pulmonary gold up llo, the singular of Fulbe: a speaker up llo Is One of
Fulfulde; this purpose Developed in French colonial Senegal. Before the
Islamic revolutions of contention MOST speakers would Have Been part of a
pastoral and nomadic life-style consists With The Original Meaning of the
likely fullude verb, to disperse.

The traditions of dispersion of the far-flung Peul converges on the area

WHICH IS the subject of this anthology. Futa Toro matching to the middle
valley of the Senegal River. Today the north bank lies in Mauritania, Senegal
in the south bank. Futa Which Is The general name the Fulani Gave To The
Areas in Which THEY Lived, while Toro Is The Oldest region with the identity
in the middle valley, it lies in the western portion, around the towns of
Podoor and Njuma.

The linguistic evidence Also Suggests That this' may be the birthplace region,
close to the gold birthplace of the Fulani people. The comparative linguistic
work of Joseph Greenberg Has shown Fulfulde That Belongs To The West
Atlantic branch of the Niger-Congo family of languages. Within the Atlantic
sub-family, It Is Closely related to the other languages of the northern group,
Which include Serer, spoken by the people living Southeast of Dakar, and
Wolof, the tongue of the people just to the north of the Serer and
increasingly the lingua franca of all of Senegal. All Three Were Probably
languages spoken in southern Mauritania and Senegal River Valley in the first
millennium AD the

The name of the dialect of Fulfulde spoken in Futa Toro and Used in this
anthology IS Pulaar. It est aussi comme au Applied to forms of Fulfulde
spoken in the Senegambian region: the speech of the pastoral Fulbe of the
Ferlo Steppe, the speech of the Gutman Fulakunda of it the south bank of the
Middle, Gambia, and the forms of the Gutman of Futa Jalon in the mountains
of Guinea. The people of Futa Toro, as a year of various ethnic groups
amalgamated attracted to the middle valley over the centuries, Have Come
to Call Themselves Haalpulaar'en, Those Who speak Pulaar, Since the
language is one of the Major Factors Binding Them Together. In Wolof,
French and Senegalese common use, are the Haalpulaar'en Called
Toucouleur, derived from Takruur, the name of the Ancient state
contemporary with the Ghana Empire.

Over the centuries the liaalpulaar'en Have Introduced words and concepts

159 | P a g e
from a number of Neighboring languages. Berber and Arabic borrowing
Hassaniyya Reflect the northern Mauritanian gold influence. Soninke,
Mandinka and Wolof expressions Reflect the long period "of interaction in the
Senegal River valley. Classical Arabic borrowing show the long association
with Islam, while the French loan words Reflect Numerous contacts with the
European merchants and colonial Authorities in the Last One Hundred Years.

The Strategic Setting

The migration traditions and linguistic evidence point to the Strategic Position
and economy of the middle valley of the Senegal River. It just lay Beneath
the Western Sahara and very close to the caravan routes Transsaharan
Which Developed in the Days of the Ghana Empire and the Almoravid
movement. The Mediterranean geographers locate the Muslim state of gold in
Takruur close to the middle 11th century the valley in. From the 16th to the
18th centuries Futa Was Often the subject of raids by Moroccan forces
Anxious to expand the influence of Their state and Acquire the Wealth in gold
and slaves of the Western Sudan.

The middle valley Also Occupied A Strategic Position in Relation to the coast
and European penetration of the interior of West Africa. By LUKAS gold
Denying access to ships ITS leaders "could turn to European Their Own goals
advantage. The Fuutagkoobe, people of Futa, largely Were Successful in this
endeavor from the time of the first Portuguese activities in the 16th century
période Until the expansion of French Under Governor Faidherbe in the
1850s. After the mid-19th century, howeve, the Europeans Held the upper
hand and the river Used As A staging area for the conquest of the savanna.

Closely Correlated with Strategic Position productivité agricole. The rains of

the summer months Watered the highland of the Jeeri crop, Which Futa HAD
in common with comme au Zones of the savanna. The rains Also Raised the
level of the river, Which in turn over Spilled ITS banks in the middle valley.
After the waters receded in December, the moist floodplain gold waalo Could
Be seeded with millet, sorghum and maize for a dry harvest season, just
WHEN OTHERS areas "Were Entering the hungry season. This additional
harvest was made Futa Breadbasket for the Surrounding Region and it drew
immigrants from all directions.

The French colonial concentration on the development of peanut cultivation in

Senegal western Has Overshadowed the central role of Futa Toro
économique. The conditions of near starvation and Drought in the last 15
years are the result of ou partly That neglect, goal THEY Also Have Brought
home to Senegalese, Mauritanian and international experts the centrality of
the middle valley to the Agricultural and livestock productivity of Mauritania
and Senegambia. It Remains to Be seen whether the recent Investments in
dams, irrigation and other projects Will Be Able to restore the Economic
Importance of the river area.

The Organization of Futa Tooro

The settlements of the middle valley in east-west Developed third

160 | P a g e
Corresponding to the main channel and the edges of the floodplain. One line
of related villages close to the southern edge of the average flood. There the
Gutman could "farm the floodplain (waalo) in the dry season and the Higher
gold 'eerie land in the rainy season. Their cattle graze Theys "could, sheep
and goats in the jeeri" during the wet months and in the floodplain after the
waalo harvest in February. Another line of villages lay Along the southern
bank of the river, the Livelihood of contention people cam from farming or
fishing waalo in the main stream and Its tributaries. A similar line of villages
dressed the north bank, while jeeri Some settlements Formed at Fourth and
final tier, in the north Before the land Gave Way to steppe and desert.

The total distance from the southernmost to the Senegalese Northernmost

Mauritanian tier Was Rarely more Than 15 miles. Strong ties of kinship and
Economic Complementarity bound villages in the various third together. In
fact, Some villages in The Two areas waalo Were Completely abandonné
When the waters rose, and the Gutman Moved in with the relative in jeeri.
The larger and wealthier families HAD BOTH waalo and jeeri fields for farm
and pasture. If Mauritanian Moroccan gold Invaded from the north, everyone
would take refuge on the south bank. If some superior force pressed in from
the south, has less frequent occurrence, the People "could move to the north
Side of the River.

This social organization and environment north-south Obviously reinforced

ties at the Expense of east-west linkage. THROUGHOUT The Known History of
Futa, Which Is To Say the Last Thousand Years, immigrants and dynasties
Have Sought Rarely SUCCEEDED goal in controlling the Whole "middle valley.
Theys Often Have Placed Their capitals in the central area, in order to survey
the Better Which stretch 250 miles from Dembac) Kane, at the Beginning of
the upper valley, to Dariana, at the lower edge of the valley, local and
regional chiefs aim Usually Have Been Able to Establish Their Own
relationships with Senegambian societies, Mauritanian confederations and the
European ships.

For the sake of convenience the east-west Expanse Be Divided Into Three
can regions and nine provinces. The eastern area Has Somewhat less
floodplain farming. It blends Into The steppe to the south of Bunndu and Into
the densely Populated villages of Galam Gold On The Gajaaga east. In fact,
Many of Its people speak in addition to the Soninke and Pulaar Sometimes in
preference to; thesis Gutman Entered from the middle valley Gajaaga and
Have Maintained Their Parties With That region. The central zone Is The
MOST densely Populated hand. The arable lands are wide waalo, Partly
Because Two tributaries link up with the river here: the Gorgol is the north
side, the Duke Marigot is the south. The Suitability of area for the central
government reinforced STI Also Has population. The western area contains
the goal the sparsest Largest floodplain housing, in part Because Of The salt
content of this part of the Senegal River Sluggish, en partie Because Of The
pressure of Mauritanian and Fu16e from the north and south, and Perhaps
Because Of The "substantial migration of people for the holy war of Umar
Taal in the 19th century. Just as the Soninke language and culture Often this
IS in the east, and Wolof origins settlement in the region are strong, And
They Become Stronger As One moves Towards the west and the sduthwest.
Toro province Was Often politically dominant in this region and Formed a

161 | P a g e
counterpoise to the regimes in central and eastern Futa.

These dimensions of residence, occupation and origin Formed the Social and
ethnic structure of Futa. Some occupations Provided the class of identity
groups. Was this true for the fishing lineages (subalbe, singular _cubballo)
Who Lived in sacrifice part of The Oldest Along the river villages. It Was Also
The case for the craftsmen (neenbe, sg. Neeno) Who created metal, wood,
clay, leather and cloth Necessary Objects for the Whole "population. These
artisan crafts Their Transmitted to Their Children-through apprenticeship
systems, married Into lineages with the Saami occupation, and together
constituted What are Often Called the Hereditary caste of Fuutanke, and
MONSTER Senegambian Other Societies. Included In Their number are the
traditional Historians and musicians Commonly Known As g riots, politique
Who congregated at the short and Performed Many diplomacy and judicial
functions in addition to Their public performances. Fuutanke include awlube
griots (sg. ag WLO) Who constituted the main group Attached to local
dynasties, the maabube (sg. maabo), Who Usually combined weaving and
praise-singing, and wambaabe (sg. bambaado), Who Were Attached
characteristically to pastoral Fulbe lineages. All Three are Represented in the
anthology texts of this.

Farming Was the occupation of MOST of the rest of the Futa) ke, and
MONSTER Was Pursued by subalbe Many of the craftsman and groups. The
Largest group of farmers "Were the Sebbe (sg. ceddo) year term with
connotations Many Senegambian in use. In Futa it Refers to the persons of
non-Fulbe origin who, "Along with the Fulani, constituted the population of
the Earliest middle valley. By Their residence THEY Became Haalpulaar'en in
time. In a second context are the Sebbe Contrasted with Those Who Practice
Islam. This Was Certainly the original box with the Sebba, And They Have
Never Learned constituted the Muslims of the Society, object in time THEY
DID Become Practicing Muslims like comme au Gutman. A Third In setting
the term Suggests persons Who are Attached to Some Particular leading gold
short, did Officials, soldiers and enforcers. This connotation goes back to the
role of Particular Sebbe Deeniyanke in the diet in the 17th and 18th centuries
and to the role of the famous Sebbe Pillagers At The Wolof short of the 19th
century. By Their great consommation of alcohol, They fused the Second and
Third meanings of the term.

The Fulani of Futa come from a pastoral tradition. Beginning Perhaps 1000
years ago in the Days of Takruur, sacrifice part of Them Became attracted to
the potential of Futa agricole, Settled on the land, and the Religious Faith
ADOPTED Which Has Been Traditionally Identified with sedentary life in the
middle valley. Other nomadic Fulani Remained and continued to move in
regular patterns transhumance, Either in the steppe north of the river and
close to the Sahara, or in the Ferlo Steppe Called Between Futa and The
Gambia. Theys depended upon the Citizens of the sedentary middle valley for
food and water at the end of the dry season, goal THEY Sometimes
Expressed That dependence by raiding "as well as by submission. Theys
Formed the main source of new settlers and New Recruits Into the ruling
classes of the middle valley. The Other Two classes of society are the
Fuutankobhe jaawambe (sg. jaawando), a small group Who Became politique
counselors as well as "farmers", and the tooro66e (sg. tooroodo), Who

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emerged in the late 18th century and constituted the principal Actors in this
anthology.

The Emergence of the Islamic State

Most of the ruling classes of Futa Have Been sedentarized the descendants of
the pastoral Fubhe. Some classes of contention Cam Under external
domination by the Wolof of Jolof the Mandinka of Mali gold of the Soninke
Jaara, while others Were Autonomous. In the early 16th century was the
Fulbe lineage Called Deeniyanke, "under the leadership of Koli Tepelea and
with the support of a Variety of Sebbe From Within and Without the middle
valley, Became dominant. For over a Hundred years the Deeniyai) ke
managed to control not only the valley Highly segmented object has large
portion of Senegambia as well. In the 17th century THEY lost the larger
domain, while in the 18th They Were weakened by Moroccan and Mauritanian
Growing pressure from the north, one the one hand, and Growing Has Their
exacting DEMANDS Resentment from the local people, we comme au.

The local Resentment crystallized in Small Communities bound together by

allegiance to Islamic Piety and Learning. By the 1760s thesis groups, in the
face of the atrocities of the Deeniyanke and the raids from the north,
Organized Themselves Into a resistance movement. Under the leadership of
Sileymaani Baal, They Launched the Islamic revolution Which in turn Gave
birth to the regime Almamaagal Called the Golden Almamate (from the
Arabic al-Imaam, the one Who leads in prayer). In the process Themselves
THEY have constituted a new class, the tooro66e, and added to the social
class That pantheon of Futa. While the term toorobbe IS Often associated
with the province of Toro by giving further living Outside of Futa, It Is
Derived from the verb tooraade, to beg for alms, with reference to the
Koranic School Pupils Who Supported Themselves I'm his way. The original
label of begging Was Probably by the Applied Deeniyanke short, Who made
fun of the earnest Muslims. The pejorative connotation the toorob6e
Transformed Into A Proud new identity-through the revolution of the 1770s
Successful and 1780. Theys Became the new ruling class and Grew Rapidly in
numbers as pastoral and sedentary Fulbe, and others hastened to Sebbe
avail Themselves of the new identity and New Opportunity to rule.

The new regime, Under ITS Almaami gold imaam, endured for over a
Hundred years, aim to control the ITS UK & middle valley Was Spent by the
early 1800s. Until That Time Kaada Almaami Abdul, the first and MOST
effective ruler of the new government, victorious in battle Was. He Was Able
to distributive lands, assign local Imaam to-many villages, and extend
influence Futanke Into the regions of western and southeastern Senegal. The
defeat of forces in Kajoor Loved in 1797 Marked The Beginning Of The
decline of the regime, and His Enemies by assassination in 1807 Marked the
failure of the vision of the toorobhe.
"During the 19th century in the Almamate Survived ITS basic institutions, it
never intended the strength and zeal Recovered Of The Earlier période. It
Was Officially Governed by the Almaami, phrasal from a group of eligible
lineages Who Possessed the Necessary credentials of learning, goal effective
control lay with the regional chiefs of the central provinces Who Possessed of
considerable land, constituents and Slavic. Most chiefs of contention Served

163 | P a g e
in the capacity of electors (jaggorde, sg. Jaggorgal) of the Almaami; Their
electoral council has fixed Contained Fluctuating core and Periphery of
members. Two Who Were families eligible for the post of Almaami, Lih of the
Jaab in Hebbiyaabe province of Wan and the Mbummba in Laaw Province,
ALSO SUCCEEDED in Maintaining considerable power "during the 19th
century. The Wan In Particular Used Their Growing Wealth in land and slaves
to Establish a power base in Laaw, compete for the Almaami-ship, and at
times turn to THREATEN the National Post Into Their Own fiefdom. The
struggle of various coalitions of electors Eligible for power and constituted the
Third Part of the anthology.

In the middle of the 19th century Futa Was Threatened by Two Much More
gravement external forces. The French Began to transform the relations of
Interdependence Which THEY HAD Maintained with the middle valley Into
relations of domination, particularly "under the leadership of Governor Louis
Faidherbe (1854-61, 1863-5). The second intrusion cam from a native's,
Umar Taal. Umar cam from Toro Province, whos Grievances Against the
dominance of the central region Expressed ET DURING Loved Entire career.
He left home early in the century, made the pilgrimage to Mecca, and
Returned with considerable prestige and ambition FOLLOWING. In the 1850s
a holy war ET Launched Against the predominantly non-Muslim Mandinka and
Bambara to the east. Loved to Achieve goals ET or recruited very heavily in
Senegambia, Especially in His Native Land. The recruitment process, in Which
Umar Evoked The Founders of the Islamic regime, ITS Reached climax in a
massive drive in 1858-9. It Had Undermining the effect of the charter and
position of Almaami Even More. The French and the quatrieme Umarian
intrusions constituted part of the anthology.

The authority "of the regional chiefs, and particularly of the electors That,
Was Compromised Much less Than That Of The Almaami. One thesis of
leaders, Abdul Bookar Kan, emerged as the dominant force in the middle
valley Between 1860 and 1890. He Was Able to split off the challenges of
Islamic reformers, Who Evoked now the example of Umar Taal "as well as
Abdul Kaada. He Effectively Challenged the authority "of the Klan who in turn
lineage cam increasingly to Rely upon French support. The period "of
Hegemony Loved constituted the fifth part of the book.

By the late 1880s It Was Obvious That the French would conquer all of Futa
have parts of their subordination of Senegal and conquest of the Western and
Central Sudan. The middle and upper valley Became essential staging areas
for the expansion Into the regions today Known as Mali, Upper Volta and
Niger. Abdul Bookar resisted the conquest, as long as possible and
Effectively, goal succumbed in 1891, the Year Which Marks the End of the
independence of Futa. His defeat and the French takeover constituted the
last part of the anthology.

TechNet Virtual Ref: http://africandl.org/futa_background.php

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The Fulvia Gorgaave

Gorgaave (read as Gorgaabe) are Mostly Concentrated in Western Niger. They

Live has few "hours from Niamey, The capital of country of Niger.The Niger,
Standing at the crossroads the Sahara And The Sahel, Is a crucible of very
different people WHERE Origins Have Lived Together for Thousands of years.
Purpose of thesis EACH although people Maintains ITS Own individuality,
particularly Noticeable In Their Life-styles, Their physical feature, Their
customs, dress, and language. Two distinctions are howeve Remarkable: the
Settled populations and the Nomads.
The Settled populations are Divided Into Several groups: in the west the
Songhai and Zarma, Haus in the center and Kanuri in the east.
The Nomad Mainly people live in the northern part of the country and included:
-The Tuareg (8%), found to Be Within A long strip of land running from the
Mali frontier in the West to Goure in the East.
-The Fulani (8.5%), Who, together with Their herds, are Concentrated in the
Agadez, Dosso, Maine-Soroa triangle. Some Have Also Settled in the West,
around Tera, Say and Niamey. Theys predominate in certain shares of Maradi,
Tessaoua, Mirriah and Magaria Districts. The group include the Bororo Fulani-
Wozaave, They Live and The Gorgaave.Sometimes Tuareg and Tubu alongside.
The Gorgaave comme au and Fulani groups:
Theys form the second group in nomadic Largest Niger. Like the Tuaregs, They
Also Have a long-standing custom and tradition Which THEY keep very much
alive. Purpose In Spite of Their great. Their concern to hairpins Specifying
social structure, They Often Have come Under The Influence of Neighboring
populations So Much That the Fulani in one area May Differ from Those of
Another Slightly, DEPENDING ON WHERE and with Whom They Live. Ethnic
unity, howeve, Is Never Destroyed.
Within this major category, There Are The Bororodjis, more Usually Referred to
as Bororo Fulani living in Dakoro Tanout-region, are all nomadic herders Who
Spending THE ENTIRE year seeking "good grazing. Theys practice the cult of
beauty and pay great attention to bodily care, expending considerable effort
has one Enhancing the Attractiveness of Their faces, Adding sparkle to eyes
and teeth.
Theys serie amazing taste for decoration, Though It Is Mainly the Men Who
Spend Most Of Their Time in SUCH pursuits. Clothing, On The Contrary, IS
Relatively Scanty, Though here again the taste for decoration IS apparent in
the Amount of jewelry worn earrings, intricate hairstyle Interwoven with coins,
bead necklaces and multicolored charms.

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The Fulani Gurma

Gurma Fulani are giving further Fulani living in the Gourma region of
southeastern Burkina Faso. Ltr Fulani-Ladder (semi-nomadic herdsmen),
mixing agriculture with herding. They Speak Gourmantche Fulfulde, a language
from the West-Atlantic branch of the Niger-Congo language family.

Traditions

The Livelihood of the Fulani Gurma IS dependent on the seasons. The wet
season Is a time of cultivation and harvesting, with the herds and the family
living together in a permanent settlement. "During the dry season, the herds
are Taken to marshland or flood water for more pity and Better grazing land.
The Wuro (village) Is The Center Of Gurma Fulani society. Here, the women do
MOST of Their Work. Their hand Task Is The preparation of the evening meal,
a millet porridge, Which can take five hours or oven to make. Theys Also
gather twigs and grass for the construction of Their Homes. Milking the cattle
and butter are Preparing Other important chores. As They work, the women
tended to Their Children, With Their babies Often Carried on Their backs.
Making clothes Is a Way to Express Himself and man can show Loved
individuality and personality. Also, A Man Has Loved year obligation to dress
family. Malthus, Loved a Man Will Make Own and buy cloth and clothes
Handkerchiefs for Loved wives. Children do not wear clothes Many Until They
Are Able to sew for Themselves.
Men Who Have That sounds are at least Fifteen years old must pass it to 'em
Their Work hairpins to a separation of the generations. The fathers act as
supervisors to Their sounds, digging wells in directing em gold watering the
herds. Also handle "any disputes Theys That May ARISE. Young boys Spend
Much of Their Time playing in the bush, chasing birds from the fields, or
keeping "the herds from getting in the fields. Young girls help Their Mothers
with Their chores.

Way of Life

The Fulani Gurma Believe That It Is a sign of Weakness To Be controlled by

fear; Therefor, They Seldom show fear in public. THEY IS Believe That Mental
Illness Caused by Being so terrified That You lose control of yourself. THEY
think of the village as a place of rules and obligations? A place for Socially
acceptable behavior. The bush, On The Other Hand, Is a place of freedom,
Where They can act to LUKAS Their Own Needs.
The Fulani Gurma hate to feel alone. Theys Overcome the feeling of loneliness
by talking with others. Howeve, this company IS Need for Concealed in public,
have tended to hide the Fulani Their feelings. They Are Their only free to
express love for others-through songs.

The Halpulaar-in
Introduction
(See also Futa-Toro)
Although They Are Widely Dispersed Also found THROUGHOUT West-Africa,
tHalpulaar ET, A sub-group of the Fulani people, live in the Mostly Senegal
River Valley in Northern Senegal and Southern Mauritania.

166 | P a g e
The origins of the Halpulaar (sometimes Called Tukolor) are hard to determine,
But That They Are descendants of the Ancient Rulers of the Tekruur Empire are
quite certain.
Although information about There Is Insufficient Their origins, it Seems Likely
That the nomadic, cattle-raising Fulani emigrated from Ethiopia, Or area
adjacent to it annually, and in Their search for pastures and water for Their
animals, Eventually Arrived On The northern borders of Senegal in the 10th
century. It Is now well reconnu That the Fulani Spread From There to different
shares of West-Africa.
Early History Indicates That the Halpulaar Settled in the Senegal River valley in
the 9th century, and "during the period" from the 10th to 14th century, Their
strong state of Tekrur Dominated the valley. The Halpulaar Were Converted to
Islam and in the mid-11th century and Participated in Establishing the
Almoravid state, centered in Morocco. In the 14th cent. the Mali Westward
empire expanded from the upper region of the Niger River Tekrur and
Conquered.
Was accepted Islam as early as 850 AD in the Kingdom of Tekruur, Is situated
"Both banks of the Senegal, By the Dia Ogo dynasty. This dynasty Was the
first West African people Who accepted Islam. It Was That Reason for this Arab
Muslim Historians Bilâd Referred to as al-Tekruur The land of the Black
Muslims. Warjabî ibn Rebates, Was the first ruler of Tekruur, In whose reign
Islam Was firmly Established And The Islamic shariah ic system bewitched.
This Gave a uniform law to the Muslim People of the region. By the time the Al-
gold MurabiÏûn Almoravids Began Their attack is Tekruur CA in 1042, Islam
has made deep impact HAD is the People Of That area. Al-Idrissi CA in 1511
described "the country have Tekruur secure, peaceful and quiet. The capital
town of Tekruur Which Was Also Called Tekruur HAD Become an important
center of commerce Between North Africa and West Africa.

The Society
Traditionally sedentary farmers "in a close-knit society, thesis Speakers of
Pula, Gold Haalpular'en Halpulaar like to have the call Themselves, Were
Possibly the first West Africans to convert to Islam in the 11th Century. It Is-
through and Halpulaar Warriors holy men That comme au Major Population
Groups in Senegal and Elsewhere in West Africa Were Converted to the Islamic
faith.

The Halpulaar Inhabit the FOLLOWING areas: Mauritania, Senegal, Mali,

Gambia and Some in Guinea-Bissau, Guinea, Burkina Faso and Other West
African Countries "as well as numbers of expatriates in Europe, The Middle-
East and America.
The Futa Toro, the Largest area of settlement for the modern day celebrities
Halpulaar Is in the northern St. Louis province of Senegal, In the major geo-
political region have reconnu Officially the Futa Toro, encompassing a wide
area of northern Senegal and southern Mauritania.
This is the birth place of Generally Agreed Fulani people who in the 11th
Century AD, started "Migrating east in search of Better pastures. Theys
migrated as far east as Sudan and Eritrea. In the process, THEY Launched
Jihad in Many Parts of West Africa Including Sokoto in present day Nigeria. The
Fulani-Tooroove of Nigeria Have retain the original sacrifice part of names and
traditions of Their forbearers Futa Toro.

The Futa Toro IS Divided Into two areas ", the one in the west Called Toro in

167 | P a g e
the east and one Called the Futa. Staying in contention Halpulaar Two areas
"are respectively Called Tooroodo (singular) / Tooroove (plural) in the Western
region, and Fuutanke (singular) / Fuutankoobe (plural) in the Eastern region of
the Futa Toro. The majorité Halpulaar of the people in the Senegal River
Valley. Theys occupy a 350km long narrow Belt of country (approx. 20km
wide) in the Futa region, BETWEEN Fanaye, On The East of Dagana Senegal
River, And North West of Debankani Bakel. This belt of land right onto
Stretches of the Border Mali and Senegal in the East.

Since They Are Minorities in the Countries THEY lies in the tendency to speak
other languages.
Second / trade languages:

In Mauritania: French, Wolof gold Hassaniaya.

In Senegal: Wolof, and gold Glossary.
In Mali: Bambara and French.
In Nigeria: Hausa, and Francais.
In Gambia: Français, Wolof and French.

The Halpulaar Have Developed strong alphabetization programs in Their Own

Language. There are various current literacy programs Among the
Pulaarophone Including; ARED (Associates in Research and Development Inc.,)
and GIPLIN (Group for the Promotion of Books in National Languages).

Traditional living:
Food: The favorite dish fish and rice IS, Called OMAFRA e Lizzie. This Is Often
Served with Some pieces of vegetable. The staple in the Futa Used To Be a
millet couscous meal based dish. The dish That Is To Be regarded the
traditional dish of the Halpulaar, IS Couscous Served with a souse made from
the green leaves of the peanut plant or the sweet-potato plant. This Is Called
Lacciri e haako. (See Cooking)

Shelter: Traditionally the Halpulaar Lived in thatched mud Dwellings, Grouped

together in villages Governed by year Arzo. The villages are very neat and tidy
Usually. In Larger towns thatched roofs are Replaced by tin / sink roofs.
Generally buildings are of mud bricks are plastered over with That mud or
cement. Has the advantage Cement That It Does not Have to Be redone Every
year like the mud Plastering. More and more people are building with cement
bricks adopter INSTEAD of the traditional mud bricks.

Clothing: The style of dress has been "largely Influenced by Arabic / Muslim
tradition, drank some practicality Also Reflect Regarding the climate. During,
special occasions people dress up in brightly colored clothes with richly
embroidered in gold thread. Women and men alike Their Best Will Also wear
jewelry, gold chains Mostly, rings, earrings and bangles, we SUCH
opportunities. Generally men wear long flowing wide mantels Known As 3 piece
or 2 piece Bubus, With Islamic-style turbans or Fez skullcaps. Generally women
wear long flowing dresses large, Also Called Bubus, with wrap-around skirts
Beneath, and scarves as head-dress (worn in turban style.) Another form of
dress Both worn by men and women Is a basic drop-over long poncho style
outfit made from one drop of material falls to the knee That or the ankles.

168 | P a g e
Society and Culture:

The main forms of occupation are: Herders, Farmers, Tradesmen, Fisherman,

Entertainer and Craftsmen. Authority and Power Is in the hands of the elders
and the men in general. Transitory and Spiritual power and authority "are in
the hands of the upper cast, the Tooroove. High status IS Attached to
membership in a noble lineage or a prosperous family. The organization of the
society revolve around Halpulaar Two hand forces, the clan, and the caste
system. Of argument, the Largest form of association and relationship Is The
clan subdivided Into lineage groups - has lots of extended family. Always
Halpulaar Themselves Around a group leader or chief (of a suburb, town,
region, etc..)

The Halpulaar hairpins and follow a patriarchal social structure. Community Life
Is Highly Stratified Into a hierarchy of 12 casts, Grouped Into Social classes
torroove, rimva, subálveas, sevve, jawave, and nyenyve.. The first class
included the Highest and Chiefs and Religious leaders. Most are members
Halpulaar cette Tooroove class.
The value of An IS Determined by individual "and not casting Loved Loved by
the rich, fame or Any Other position in life. Relationships are of primary
importance for social purposes is the connections are horizontal Formed Within
a social class and weddings by example, are never contracted Traditionally
across class lines.In the caste system, the castes are Characterized by
Hereditary, endogamy and / or Professional Specialization. Theys constituted
groups and closed hairpins Relationships with One Another was hierarchical
Basis. Social relations, issues of domination and Especially subordination are
defined \ Essentially by the caste people to Which Belong.

The social structure IS Highly Stratified am and is Primarily based on male

lineage groups, Which are Usually Scattered Among Several villages. Each clan
embraces All That Their descent to trace a common ancestry. Within the clan
members owe One Another Social Obligations and Responsibilities. Members of
a clan group Usually occupy the Saami area and defends Traditionally Their
Against Other clans area. Over the centuries the clans Acquired a measure of
autonomy ", Which Was particularly Pronounced" during the time of the
empire, and the Futa Toro Became a loose federation of groups SUCH.
Under the influence of Islam gradually changed from the Halpulaar matrilineal
to Paternally structured society. An example of this Is That the wife would
come to live at the Village of Her father-in-law. The drawings can be
downloaded ménage Included father, historical sounds and grandchildren,
Their Wives, children and more remote kin Sometimes.

Greetings

Greeting Is One Of The MOST important social conventions. Greetings are

coming across appropriée When local people, Especially in the bush, and the
visitor should "make the effort to learn thesis sentences. Handshaking is
meeting, Regardless Of over how many times a day one meets the person, IS
normal. When visiting a village It Is polite to call upon the village headman to
explain gold Schoolteacher That You Want to Spend the Night There gold visit
the area.

Weddings: The Halpulaar Strictly observe the Islamic categories of persons in

169 | P a g e
marriage and prohibée marriage equality règlements. Saddle price, Including
the Obligatory gifts of animals, gold nafore, Goes to the couple to GUARANTEE
the Stability of the union. Part of the nafore IS Turned over to the flange as a
dowry, if she intended Seeks Divorce, the nafore IS restored to the husband.
Halpulaar do not look the levirate as Obligatory. Customarily, Halpulaar prefer
to marry in Shawwal, the month the Prophet Muhammad That married Aisha.
Fridays are reserved for virgins, while Mondays are for divorcees and widows.
The general term for marriage IS dewgl ('ve mbazii dewgal). The verb form to
get married IS ResD, Drank the process of getting married IS Divided Into
Several steps. The initial step Called the IS xamol, From the verb xamde
Meaning to ask for a woman's hand in marriage. At this stage the man's family
Approaches the family of the woman to have the Chat Desired marriage. The
golden couple Involved Apr May Have not made the choice, the choice gold
inseparable UK Themselves. In Either case, the families must "give consents
Because Their wedding arrangements are Carried Out Between families, and
are regarded family affairs. The Next Step Involves the older male members of
Both families Who Will Go To The Mosque to tie the marriages. This step IS
Called the Kumal, From the verb humde meaning "to tie". The symbol of this
Step Is The sharing of kola nut (peccugol goro) WHICH IS Provided by the
man's family. Once this step has been "Taken regarded the couple IS married,
drank It Still May Be Several months, or long-lived event, Before the woman
moves Actually Into Her Husband compound. This last step Known as the
kuurtagol, The moving of the wife to The Husband Compound ya une
expensive step, "celebrated with jubilation and Protracted festivities. While the
preparations for this final step are Being Made, the wife continues to live May
At Her parent's compound, with gold Elsewhere Other family members.

Art forms: Poetry Is very important am and is Incorporated in the traditional

language use Among the older generation. Dance Also Has a prominent place
in social interaction Halpulaar. Traditional dance varies from region to region,
But Is Generally Accompanied by traditional drumming. Most celebrations for
Incorporate Some of dancing. The younger generation in the true age
FOLLOWING cette regularly arrange evenings of dance, WHERE the music style
is Dominated by American, Caribbean,, Jazz and modern African-style music.
Storytelling is very important est aussi art and communication form.
Storytellers are Paid for Their Services and Performance SUCH diverse as the
recounting stories of history and folklore, to the praise-singing Gold dignitaries
of events. Storytellers are a must at a wedding feast, and the status
DEPENDING ON Of A Might Be Hired Many family for the occasion. (Also See
Videos)

The hand forms of recreation by visiting Consist of socializing and chatting

around the traditional tea, dancing and storytelling. In recent times it Has
Become popular to arrange social evenings of Debate over tea, "as well as
socio-cultural traditions and folklore evenings WHERE IS recounted and
discussed.
The Most Important Sport in the region are the West African Football and
wrestling. This form of hand-to-hand combat differs from Greco-Roman
wrestling, kicking and punching me manager IS Allowed. The Loser Is The first
one to hit the ground or Have Both feet of the ground. There Are Other
traditional sports as well.

170 | P a g e
Religion

Mauritania apart, Gambia, Mali and Senegal, Secular states are with freedom
of religion. Islam Has grown over the past 50 years and Islam Has INcreased
to 95. Moslems in Senegal are adherents to Sunni Islam, goal over 85% of
Muslims are Muslim members of Sufi brotherhoods The Three - the Mouride,
Tidjane, and Qadiri - who are in very Influential Political and Economic Life in
Senegal.
The Halpulaar are very Proud of Their Islamic heritage - of Being the first West
African group to embrace Islam. Generally Theys Belong to the strict Tijaniya
School.
Traditional Beliefs in the Nature of Man and His destiny after death play
significantly role in the Halpulaar outlook on life. The impersonal life force,
fittaandu, Is upon death Absorbed Into deity, while the Shadow Soul, mbeelu,
Is The personal spirit, subject to reward in heaven or punishment in hell. Two
spirits thesis, howeve, Is Not as Clear Might have expected ", and They Are
Often confused.
Sernaave (sing. Čierno) Are the spiritual authority "Marabouts centers. Ltr the
Religious leaders and teachers. It Is Through These Men That Satan controls
the lives of the people. From the cradle to the grave, a person lives "under the
shadow of the Marabout. Whether for giving a name at birth, for education, for
celebrating a wedding, for burial, for healing or cursing, the Marabout IS ever-
present.
Halpulaar Differentiate Among Their LUKAS clergyman to whether THEY lead
prayer, teach, specialize in the study and interpretation of the canon law, a
golden head Mosk. The common word for a cleric IS midibbo, The Teacher Is
The Čierno, While the jurist and the High Priest Is The Fojo. The head Mosk,
Often Also The chief administrative officer in a Village, IS Called Almami.
The Brotherhoods: In the past the Halpulaar Have Been associated with
various Sufi tariqas (Brotherhoods). Early in the 19th century the Shadhiliya
Among Them Was Introduced by a Fulani cleric, Ali As-Sufi, the purpose THEY
ADOPTED ultimately Tijaniya upon the Rise of Al-Hajj Umar.

Adapted from:
1) www.wagetaway.org
2) "Intrduction to Pulaar" by Sonja F. Diallo

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The Hausa-Fulani of Nigeria

This section addresses Mainly the Fulani of Nigeria. Nigeria is Africa's Most
Which Populous Country, IS Composed of more Than 300 ethnic groups,
Divided Into Many subgroup of considerable social importance and politique.
Most important ethnolinguistic categories: Hausa and Fulani in north,
Yoruba in southwest, and Igbo in Southeast, all Internally subdivided. Next
major groups: Kanuri, Ibibio, Tiv, Ijaw and.
Languages in Nigeria are Estimated at more Than 350 with Many dialects. The
Most importantare: Hausa, Yoruba, Igbo and. Français Is The Official Language
Used in government, large-scale business, mass media, and education Beyond
primary school. Several other languages Also reconnu for Primary Education.
The FOLLOWING are the MOST Populous and politically Influential:
Hausa and Fulani 29%, Yoruba 21%, Igbo (Ibo) 18%,
Ijaw 10%, Kanuri 4%, Ibibio 3.5%, Tiv 2.5%.
The religions in Nigeria are as Follows:
Muslim 50%, Christian 40%, Indigenous Beliefs 10%.

The Hausa-Fulani are a great model of An ethnic group merger, as They Are
Actually Made up of Two groups, not Called Surprisingly the Hauser and the
Fulani.
The Hausa are Themselves a merger, a collection of West-African Peoples That
Were assimilated, long ago, Into the population inhabiting What is now
regarded Hausaland. Once THEY THEY Arrived in Hausaland Became Known for
setting up seven small states centered around Birni, Or walled cities. In the
Hausa states thesis Developed Techniques of efficient government, has very
carefully Organized Including Tax System and Judiciary A highly Learned,
Which Gave Them a reputation of Integrity and Administering a flexible loan in
Islamic law.
The Fulani are Muslims Also, and, like the Hausa.
Fulvia pastoralists, in Known Nigeria have Fulani, Hausa Began to enter the
country in the thirteenth century, and by the Fifteenth Century They Were
Tending cattle, sheep, and goats in Borno as well. The Fulani from the cam
Senegal River valley, Their Ancestors WHERE HAD Developed a method of
livestock management based on transhumance and Specialization. The
movement of cattle Along north / south corridors in pursuit of grazing and
water Climatic Followed the pattern of the rainy and dry seasons. Gradually,
the pastoralists Moved Eastward, Into the first centers of the Mali and Songhai
Eventually empires and Into Hausaland and Borno. Some Fulvia Converted to
Islam in the Senegal region as early as the Eleventh century, and one group of
Muslim Fulani Settled in the Cities and mingled with the Freely Hausa, from
Whom Became THEY Racially indistinguishable.

A turning point in Nigerian history in 1804 When a cam Fulani preacher,

Othman dan Fodio Began a holy war in the result fromthis That subjugation of
the old Hausa city states of northern Nigeria. Having Conquered the Hausa,
Fulani, the language and Their ADOPTED merged with Their ruling classes to
create Hauser-Fulani ethnic group "under the rule of What Was the Sokoto
Caliphate now.
Theys Have intermarried with the Hausa, and Have Mostly ADOPTED "latter's
customs and language, although Some Fulani Decided to stay clean Retaining
by a nomadic life.
The Hausa-Fulani ruling coalition IS Still dominant in northern Nigeria. This

172 | P a g e
coalition HAD ITS beginnings Much Earlier, Because The Fulani Governed by
Simply The Highest Hereditary Assuming positions in the well-organized
system Hausa politique. Many of the Fulani ruling Culturally and linguistically
Have Become Hausa.
At the top of the hierarchy politique Organized Into the Fulani are states, or
emirates, Ruled by the emir. Emirs are selected from the ruling lineages by a
council of cleric (Mallam). After British intervention, the selection of year emir
Had To Be Approved by the British government. Emirs Have the ultimate power
in administrative and judicial functions of the state, and delegate sponsored
funds to carry out thesis Officials functions. Emirs HAD Somewhat more power
in the Past Than They Do today.
The Purely Fulani-speaking groups are made up of the Muslim population of
Northern Nigeria and the adjacent areas "of Niger, Which Have Been
Traditionally Organized Into wide Centralized states. Fulani of Nigeria speak a
number of dialects, They Can Be Grouped Into oven basic language groups:
Adamawa (On the east of Nigeria, Extending Into Cameroon )
Sokoto (Most of Whom speak Hausa, in the northern part of Nigeria,
Extending Into Niger), Sokoto (was ounce Staff geo-political state Fulvia, a
famous center for Pullo (singular for Fulvia) Usman dan Fodio ) Now the
Fulvia of the Sokoto area Mostly speak Hausa
Borgu: We Nageria western border, spilling over from Benin and Togo.
Central North Nigerian Fulani, With population figures estimate of 12-15
million, Have Many names and variations in speech, goal Basically the Kano-
Katsina Mbororo Western Fulani, Bauchi Fulani Toroove, etc.. Closely related
dialects speak to Each Other, readily Understood By Other Fulani People of the
region.
The modern Fulani of Nigeria are Concentrated Mainly in the provinces
of Kano, Katsina, Sokoto, and Zaria.

The Fulani Jelgoove

The Jelgoove Fulani Goldfulva Jelgoove of Northern Burkina Faso are one
expression of the Rich Variety in livelihoods Among the Fulani. In the late
Seventeenth and early Eighteenth Centuries THEY migrated from the Boni
region in Mali What is now northern Into Burkina Faso with "substantial herds
form Belonging to Their Masters, the Jalluve. Theys Quickly made alliances
with local chiefs in order to Protect Themselves and Their herds from Jalluve
retribution.

In just the Separate Two Generations of chiefdoms Djibo and Baraboulle Were
Established and-through a series of isolated Campaigns and battles, the
Jelgoove Established Themselves as masters of the region. Later on, A Third
chiefdom Was Established at Tongomayel. A King Ruled Kaaananke gold EACH
chiefdom gold region. At a village level, accession to the position of Jooro
Determined by IS genealogical Seniority. In simple terms, the jooro power
order is in. Does not Have Power. Drake gold adviser arbitre year with no real
coercive power EXCEPT Perhaps Loved-through charisma.

Most Jelgoove thesis days are agro-pastoralists. Seasonal decision-making

balanced Must Be Between millet cropping year transhumance herding. Some
Jelgoove Still are nomadic in the sense That THEY Rely Entirely on Their

173 | P a g e
Livelihood security for animals and manage giving further using various
patterns of mobility. These are Jelgove Mainly large herd owners Who Have
migrated to the wetter rangelands in the south-west and south east of Burkina
Faso Some gold in the north-east of Burkina Faso Who Into travel Mali and /
Gold Niger. In The Most Fulbhe Soum province of Burkina Faso Either are
sedentary or nomadic pastoralists one Who Their herds move over short
distances in a north-south pattern. Theys move north at the beginning of the
rains, as soon as surface water Allows to take advantage of shepherds bush
pastures Towards the Malian border, And Also escape with farmers "Conflicts
over crop damage. Theys move back south in the dry season to Their village
and / or permanent water points.

At first observation, Fulvia Jelgoove Seems very Secular Society. Surrounding

SUCH unlikable tribes have the Mossi Kurumba and Dogon THEY Have No
Systematic cosmology nor Do They Have "any plastic or graphic arts, except
the geometric patterns are Being leather work and utensils ménage (Riesman
1977:39). Similarly, It Is hard to find "any traditional rituals Fulvia Regarding
curing sickness, warding off death, Increasing fertility, and one (Riesman
1975:40). The Jelgove prononcer to Rely on Neighboring tribes (particularly
the Mossi and Kurumba), Itinerant Fulbhe Wodaave and Hausa merchants from
Niger for safaara gold Medicine and occult rituals. Feign ignorance Islamic
Fulbhe Generally matters in contention. Some Islamic clergyman regarded less
erudite howeve do dabble in folk medicine and sell charms as a supplementary
source of income options. The Fulbhe Jelgoove state quite categorically That
Their religion (Kulol Allah, Literally, fear of Allah) IS Islam, yet MOST hairpins
A Rather casual adherence to STI tenets, Except For That Is The Islamic
clergyman caste or guild, the Moodibaave. The Jelgoove Attached to Their are
very Pulaaku Which Is The Basis of Their extreme pride gold dimmaanku /
dimmaaku (see Pulaaka ).

Overview of Burkina Faso

Most of the People of Burkina Faso Belong to one of Two Hand cultural groups,
the Voltaic and the Mande. The Voltaic group includes the Mossi, the Bobo, the
Gurunsi, and the Lobi peoples. The Mossi make up about half of the country's
population. For over 800 years, They Have Had a kingdom with a central
government headed by the Moro Naba (Mossi chief). A Moro Naba Still Holds
short in Ouagadougou, the main city Mossi. Most of the Mossi are farmers
"Who live in the central and eastern share of Burkina Faso. The family lives in
Typical Mossi has Yiri, a group of mud-brick houses Surrounding a small short.
The families keep sheep and goats in the short.

The Bobo, the Gurunsi, and the Lobi EACH make up less Than 10 Percent of
the population. The Bobo live in the southwest around Bobo Dioulasso. THEY
live in large villages Where They build houses with clay castlelike brick walls
and straw roofs. The Gurunsi, Who live around Koudougou, HAVE ADOPTED
modern exchange more readily Than the Mossi have. The Lobi live in the
Gaoua region. THEY Have Long Been good hunters and farmers ", work as
intended now THEY Migrant Laborers in and around the cities.

The Mande group includes the Boussance, Marka, Samo, and Senufo peoples.
These are branches of the Mande peoples groups living in Neighboring Mali,

174 | P a g e
Guinea, and northern Cote d'Ivoire. Burkina Faso Also Has Several Hundred
Thousand Fulani and Tuareg nomads. These people travel grazing Between
Areas in the northern part of Burkina Faso with Their goats, sheep, and Other
livestock.

Kano-Katsina

KANO

The Hausa state of Kano Was Founded in the 10th century. It Was Conquered
by the Fulani in 1807, Becoming a dependency of Sokoto.

Was Imposed British rule in 1903.

Emirs

House of Ibrahim Dabo

Ruled Since 1819

1855 - 1883 Ibrahim Abdullahi dan Dabo "Abdu Sarkin Yanka" 1 ... - 1883

1883 - 1893 Muhamman Bello Ibrahim dan Dabo, brother ... 1 - 1893

1893 - 1895 Muhamman Bello Tukur dan Muhamman, its 1 ... - 1895

1895 - 1903 Aliyu "Abu" dan Abdullahi, Emir of the

Dan Abdullahi Ibrahim (s.a.), part of Ruled Since the country in 1894, Expelled
by the British 18 .. - 1926

1903 - 1919 Muhammadu Abbas dan Abdullahi, brother 18 .. - 1919

1919 - 1926 Uthman dan Abdullahi, brother 18 .. - 1926

1926 - 1953 Bayaro Abdullahi dan Muhammadu Abbas, of the Emir

Muhammadu Abbas (as) 1883-1953

Katsina

The state of Katsina Hausa Was Founded in the 11th century and Was
Conquered by the Fulani in 1806, Becoming a dependency of Sokoto.

Was Imposed British rule in 1903.

Emirs

House of Umaru Dallaji

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1870 - 1882 Ibrahim dan Bello Muhamman 1 ... - 1882

1882 - 1887 Umaru Musa dan, of the Emir Umaru Dallaji

(1 ... - 1835 r. 1806-1835) 1 ... - 1887

1887 - 1905 Ibrahim dan Abubakar, Emir of Ibrahim's (sa), deposed

1905 - 1906 Yero dan Musa, the Emir of Musa (as), deposed

House of Gidado

1906 - 1944 Muhammad dan Dikko Gidado 1865 - 1944

1944 - 1981 Muhammad Usman dan Nagogo Dikko its 1905 - 1981

The Hausa-Fulani Dominion

It thrived Bornu's west the spectacular Hausa cultures, Which by the 7th
century AD Were Already smelting iron ore. Cette politique militaire power and
Motions What is this in Nigeria's northwestern and north central area. The
Origin of Crop Remains a Mystery thesis to Western Historian. Purpose Local
lore Hold That Bayajida has traveler from the Middle East, married the queen
of Daura and HAD seven sounds. Each IS his Believed To Have Founded one of
the seven Hausa kingdoms: Kano, Rano, Katsina, Zazzau (Zaria), Gobir, Kebbi,
and Auyo.

The seven walled city-states have strong economies Developed Supported by

intensive farming, cattle rearing, music, Soldier and craftsmanship. For Each of
the seven states, annually élu monarch Ruled over a network of feudal lords by
the 14th century Who Converted to Islam HAD.

A Greater Perhaps, if more Subtle, Threat to the Hausa kingdoms Was The
Fulani pastoralists. Their Migration Into the Hausa-dominated savanna over
Many Centuries Presented a purpose Subtle Significant Threat to the Hausa
states. In 1804 Fulani scholar, Usman dan Fodio, Has Declared jihad (holy
war) Against the Hausa states, whos Rulers ET upbraided for Allowing Islamic
practices to deteriorate. Armed Fulani warriors are evangelists and horseback,
with the blessing of Usman dan Fodio and, fired by Religious and Political
fervor, overthrew the Hauser and Conquered areas "Beyond Hausaland,
Including Adamawa to the east and Nupe and Ilorin to the south.

After the war, a loose federation of 30 emirates emerged, recognizing the

supremacy EACH of the Sultan of Sokoto, Located in What is now the state of
Sokoto on Nigeria's northwestern flanks. The Sultan of Sokoto Was first Usman
dan Fodio. After Usman Died in 1817, Loved her, Muhammad Bello, Took
Loved up. With STI militarily and Economic Might and savvy, the Sokoto
Caliphate Dominated the region THROUGHOUT the 19th century

The Hausa Consist of the Hausa-speaking, Muslim population of Northern

Nigeria and adjacent areas "of the Niger, Which Have Been Traditionally

176 | P a g e
Organized Into wide Centralized states. Originally, the name Hausa Referred
to only the language of the people of this area Habe, Who Were Organized Into
Closely related goal seven independent states Called Biram, Daura, Kano,
Katsina, Gobir Rano and gold Zazzau Zaria. Early in the Nineteenth Century,
the states Habe Were Conquered by the Fulbe (Fulani, Peul), Waging a Jihad
Muslim gold holy war "under the leadership of Uthman dan Fodio. The Sokoto
Caliphate Peul Established the Golden Empire, Which ultimately Incorporated
Some 15 states Called emirates, EACH headed by a ruling dynasty of Fulani
origin. The deposed Habe

Dynasties of Zaria and Katsina states set up new at Abuja and Maradi and A
Third Habe Was Established state has Argunga. In thesis states, Habe customs
largely Unchanged Survived by Fulani influence.

The Fulani rulers of the Hausa states progressively ADOPTED the sedentary
life, language, customs and Other of the subject population Habe, ou partly-
through intermarriage. They Are Called the Golden Town Settled Fulani to
Distinguish Them From The Bush nomadic Fulani gold. Malthus the Hausa term
Normally Is Now Used to Refer to Both the original and the Settled Population
Habe, acculturated Fulani ruling aristocracy. Also it extends to people of
different ethnic origins, have SUCH Tuareg gold Kanuri Where They Have the
Hausa language ADOPTED and culture.

Most Hausa are Muslim farmers "part-time and part-time occupational

specialists, while the pagan Hausa are for the full-time MOST share subsistence
agriculturalists. Agriculture IS Scheduled Around The May-October rainy
season. Grain crops of millet, maize, Guinea corn, and rice supply the bulk of
the diet. A wide range of additional crops, SUCH as peanuts, cowpeas, sweet
potatoes, cotton, sugarcane, bamboo, tobacco, cassava, root crops and Other
Both are grown for Household Consumption and as cash crops. Uncultivated
plants are sources of fuel have Exploited, thatch, food, and fiber. Livestock
Raising Is Another

important feature of economic activities, and the Hausa inventory of domestic

animals includes horses, donkeys, goats, sheep, and poultry.

A few "cattle are Raised, aim for the MOST part the Hausa cattle and cattle
products get-through trade with the pastoral Fulbe. Except at the elite Gold
Levels Where There is Sufficient market demand, occupational specialties are
Pursued were part-time Basis in Conjunction with subsistence agriculture.

Exchange of Goods and Services Takes place Within a cash economy. A system
of markets and traders are links together the units of state and the state to
Outside groups. Small rural villages Have periodic markets, while larger
settlements Have daily markets. At the top of the hierarchy Is a central
market, Located in the administrative center of the state. A series of market
Officials Oversee the activities and Settlements Within The marketplace
disputes.

At the top of the hierarchy politique Organized Into the Hausa are states, or
emirates, Ruled by the emir. Emirs are selected from the ruling lineages by a
council of cleric (Mallam). After British intervention, the selection of year emir

177 | P a g e
Had To Be Approved by the British government. Emirs Have the ultimate power
in administrative and judicial functions of the state, and delegate sponsored
funds to carry out thesis Officials functions. Emirs HAD Somewhat more power
in the Past Than They Do today, howeve, When THEY Appointed stronghold
heads and more officials.

The British, by a series of Department Interposing to handle state affairs,

spread out sacrifice part of the Powers That HAD Been formerly reserved to the
emir. At present, Many of the important decisions are made by the emir in
Conjunction with senior department heads Chooses Whom ET. The emir, the
top state bureaucrats, The Two Priests state, and the central market are all
Located in a capital city.

The Islamic religion Was Introduced Among the Hausa as early as the 1500s,
goal ITS predominance Was Not Fully Established Until the Fulani-led jihad
(holy war) of the Early Nineteenth Century. Pilgrimages, daily prayer, mosque
attendance at ceremonies, adherence to Islamic law, and the stress they are
learning Quaranic Major elements of the Islamic faith. Mallam (men of learning
Quaranic) teach the faith and Have Relatively high status in Haus Society.

The Mallam are Ranked by degree of learning and status, with giving further at
the top of the hierarchy serving in state-level offices That Religious and Secular
combines Both Powers. Individual participation in Islam IS variable, the degree
of adherence to Islamic practices Greater Among Those Being of Wealth and
Power Among the Poorer Than groups.

178 | P a g e
History of Kanem-Borno

The Kanem Empire Originated in the ninth century AD to the Northeast of Lake
Chad. It Was Formed from a confederation of nomadic peoples Who spoke
languages of the Teda-Daza (Tubu) group. One theory, based on early Arabic
sources, Suggests That the dominance of the Zaghawa people bound the
confederation together. Local oral traditions omit Aim the Zaghawa and has
progressively closed INSTEAD to legendary Arab, Sayf ibn Dhi Yazan - Some
Believed to Have Been by a Yemeni - who Assumed leadership of the clan and
Magoumi Sayfawa Began the dynastic lineage. Historians Agree That the
leaders of the new state of the Ancestors Were Kanembu people. The leaders
ADOPTED the title in May, gold king, and Their subjects Them Regarded as
divine.

One Factor That Influenced the formation of states in Chad Was The
penetration of Islam "during the Tenth Century. Migrating from the Arabs north
and east Brought the new religion. Toward the end of the Eleventh century, the
king Sayfawa, May breathed in Converted to Islam. (Some Historians Believe
That It Was Rather Than Sayf ibn Humai Dhi Yazan Sayfawa Who Established
the lineage as the ruling dynasty of Kanem.) Offered Islamic rulers Sayfawa
the advantages of the new ideas from Arabia and the Mediterranean world, as
well as "Literacy in administration . Purpose Many people resisted the new
religion in Favor of Traditional Beliefs and practices. Converted Humai When,
for example, It Is Believed That the Zaghawa broke from the empire and
Moved east. This pattern of conflict and compromise with Islam underinsured
motorist Repeatedly in Chadian history.

Prior to the twelfth century, the nomadic confederation expanded Sayfawa

Southward Into Kanem (the word for "south" in the Teda language). By the
thirteenth century, Kanem's rule expanded. At the time Sami, the people
Kanembu Became Established more sedentary and has a capital Njima,
Northeast of Lake Chad. Even Though the Kanembu Were Becoming more
sedentary, Kanem's rulers continued to travel frequently to remind
THROUGHOUT the kingdom herders and farmers "the de fait's Power and to
allow 'em to Demonstrate Their allegiance by Paying Tribute.

Kanem's expansion Peaked and energetic "during the long reign of May
Dabbalemi dunams (ca. 1221-1259). Initiated Dabbalemi diplomacy exchange
with sultans in North Africa and arranged for the establishment Apparently of a
special hostel in Cairo to Facilitate Pilgrimage to Mecca. During, Dabbalemi's
reign, the Fezzan region (in present-day Libya) Fell Under Kanem's authority
"and the empire's influence extended Westward to Kano to Wadai Eastward,
Southward and to the Adamawa grasslands (in present-day Cameroon).
Portraying thesis boundaries maps we can Be Misleading, howeve, Because The
degree of control extended in ever-weakening gradations from the core of the
empire around Njima to remote peripheries, from Which allegiance and tribute
Were Usually only symbolic. Moreover, cartographic lines are static and
misrepresent the mobility inherent in Nomadism and migration, Which Were
common. The loyalty of peoples and Their Leaders in Governance Was more
important Than the physical control of territory.

Dabbalemi devised a system to reward militaire commanders with authority

179 | P a g e
"over the people THEY Conquered. This system, howeve, Tempted militaire
officers to pass Their Positions to Their sound, transforming the office from
Malthus based on one Achievement and loyalty to the one based on May Into
Hereditary Nobility. Dabbalemi Was Able to suppress this Tendency, goal after
death Loved, Loved sound disagreement Among the weakened Sayfawa
Dynasty. Dynastic feuds degenerated Into civil war, and Kanem's outlying
peoples soon ceased Paying tribute.

By the end of the Fourteenth Century, internal and external attacks Struggles
HAD torn Kanem apart. Between 1376 and 1400, but six Reigned, goal Bulala
invaders (from the area around Lake Fitri to the east) Five of Them Killed. This
proliferation of but in result fromthis Claimants to the throne Numerous and
led to a series of internecine wars. Finally, around 1396 the Bulala Forced to
abandon May Umar Idrismi Njima Kanembu and move the people to Borno on
the western edge of Lake Chad. Over time, the intermarriage of the Kanembu
and Borno peoples created a new people and language, the Kanuri.

Purpose Even In Borno, the Dynasty's troubles Sayfawa PERSISTED. "During

the first three-quarters of the Fifteenth Century, for example, fifteen Occupied
but the throne. Then, around May 1472 Ali Dunamami Loved Defeated rivals
and Began the consolidation of Borno. He built a fortified capital at
Ngazargamu, to the west of Lake Chad (in present-day Niger), the first
permanent home was in May Sayfawa HAD Enjoyed in a Century. So
Successful That Was The Sayfawa rejuvenation by the Early Sixteenth Century
and the Bulala Were Defeated Njima retaken. The empire's leaders, howeve,
Has Remained Ngazargamu Because ITS agriculturally productive lands Were
more and Better suited to the raising of cattle.

Kanem-Borno Peaked "during the Reign of the Outstanding statesman May

Idris Aluma (ca. 1571-1603). Aluma (also spelled Alooma) IS Remembered for
Loved militaires skills, Administrative Reforms, and Islamic Piety. His
opponents hand Were the Hausa to the west, the Tuareg and Tubu to the
north, and the Bulala to the east. One epic poem extol Loved victories in 330
wars and more Than 1.000 battles. His innovations included the emploi of fixed
militaire camps (with walls); permanent seats and "scorched earth" tactics,
WHERE Solidere 'everything burned in Their path; armored horses and riders,
and the Use of Berber camelry, Kotoko Boatmen, and iron-Helmeted Trained
by Turkish Musketeers militaire advisers. His active diplomacy featured
relations with Tripoli, Egypt, and the Ottoman Empire, Which feels a 200-
member ambassadorial party across the desert to Aluma's court at
Ngazargamu. Aluma Also signé What Was Probably the first Plantagenet treaty
or cease-fire in Chadian history-. (Like Many cease-fires-Negotiated in the
1970s and 1980s, It Was promptly broken.)

Aluma Introduced a number of legal and administrative Reforms Based on

Religious Beliefs and Loved Islamic law (Sharia). He sponsored the
construction of mosques and Numerous made a pilgrimage to Mecca, Where He
arranged for the establishment of a hostel to Be Used by pilgrims from Loved
empire. As With Other Dynamic Politicians, Aluma's reformist goals led Him to
seek competent and honest advisers and allies, and frequently relied on slaves
ET Who HAD Been Educated in noble homes. Aluma regularly Sought advice
from a council Composed of heads of the MOST important clans. He required

180 | P a g e
major politique figures to live at the short, and ET-through alliances reinforced
politique appropriée marriages (Aluma Himself Was the son of a Kanuri father
and a mother Bulala).

Kanem-Borno Under Aluma Was Wealthy and strong. Government cam back
from tribute (or booty, if the recalcitrant people Had To Be Conquered) of dirty
Slav, duties and participation in one trans-Saharan trade. Unlikable West
Africa, the Chadian region Did Not Have gold. Still, it was central to one of the
MOST convenient trans-Saharan routes. Between Lake Chad and Fezzan lay a
sequence of well-spaced wells and oases, and from Fezzan There Were easy
connections to North Africa and the Mediterranean Sea. Many products Were
feels north, Including natron (sodium carbonate), cotton, kola nuts, ivory,
ostrich feathers, perfume, wax, and hides, the MOST important goal of all
Slavic Were. Imports included salt, horses, silks, glass, musket, and copper.

Aluma Took A Keen Interest in Trade and Other Matters économique. Drake
credited with HAVING the roads cleared, Designing Better boats for Lake Chad,
Introducing standard units of measure for grain, and moving farmers "Into new
lands. In addition, ET Improved security and the ease of transit-through the
empire with the goal of making it so safe That "lone woman clad in gold Might
walk with none to fear God intended."

The Administrative Reforms and brilliance of Aluma militaire Sustained the

Empire Until the mid-1600s, When Its Power Began to fade. By the late 1700s,
Borno rule extended only Westward Into the land of the Hausa. That Time
Around, Fulani people, Invading from the west, Were Able to make major
InRoads Into Borno. By the early Nineteenth century, Kanem-Borno Was
"clearly an empire in decline, and in 1808 Fulani warriors Conquered
Ngazargamu. Usman dan Fodio led the Fulani thrust and Proclaimed a jihad
(holy war) is the Irreligious Muslims of the area. His campaign Eventually
Engagements Kanem-Borno and has Inspired Trend Toward Islamic orthodoxy.
Muhammad al-Kanem Purpose Contested the Fulani advance. Kanem Was a
Muslim scholar and non-HAD Sayfawa Who put together warlord alliance of
Shuwa Arabs year, Kanembu, seminomadic and Other Peoples. Eventually He
built a capital at Kukawa (in present-day Nigeria). Sayfawa but Remained
titular monarchs Until 1846. I'm his year, the last May, in league with Wadai
tribesmen, precipitated a civil war. It Was not That Has That Kanem's son,
Umar, Became king, ending one of the Malthus longest dynastic reigns in
regional history.

Although the dynasty ended, the kingdom of Kanem-Borno survived. Purpose

Umar Who eschewed the title in May for the simple designation Shehu (from
the Arabic "shaykh"), "could not match Loved father's vitality and gradually the
kingdom Allowed To Be Ruled by advisers (wazir). Borno Began to decline, as a
result of administrative disorganization, regional Particularism, and attacks by
the militant Wadai Empire to the east. The decline continued Under Umar's
sounds, and in 1893 Rabih Fadlallah, leading by year Invading army from
eastern Sudan, Borno Conquered.

Ref: U.S. Library of Congress

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The Krio Fula of Sierra Leone

The Fulani (or Fula) people in the Settled Futa Jalon region of Sierra Leone
Nearly Three Hundred years ago, and mixed with the People of the area. As the
term Krio Fula Indicates That They Are of mixed ancestry.The Krio Descended
from African slaves Freed Who Settled On The Coast Of Sierra Leone "during
the first half of the Nineteenth Century. These Freed slaves intermarried with
Many groups in the area Already Sucha have the Kru, the Mende, the Vai, the
Mandinka, the Kissi, and the Europeans. The Resulting mixture of cultures and
languages Produced Eventually the Creole race, Called Krio.The Krio Fula
Inhabit the western peninsula of Sierra Leone near Freetown, The country's
capital. The area in Which They Live consists "of very heavily Wooded
mountains rising from coastal swamps. Annual rains can Reach 200 inches,
and the IS Humidity Usually very high.

Their language, Also Called Krio Fula Belongs To The Niger-Congo language
family. The Krio Fula are skilled cattle farmers "Primarily, with Their Lives
DEPENDING upon and revolving around the cattle herds. The status of a family
can Be Determined by the size and health of Its cattle. The more a man knows
about cattle herding, The Greater compliance HE IS a sealed envelope the
community.

Herding cattle IS Usually a male activity, howeve, the women milk and take
care of the cattle. Theys Also tends to the livestock and poultry small, cultivate
gardens, and carry containers of milk and cheese to the local markets for sell
gold trade. Most Krio Fula Also urges In Some type of farming. Rice is
cultivated in the swamps on the peninsular coast, while millet, peanuts,
vegetables are grown and Other Farther inland.

Krio Fula villages are Scattered, EACH Has A central goal short and a mosque.
Together, a community composed thesis. Each community Has A village
headman Who handles affairs and chief Who has answers to. The homes of the
Krio Fula are Settled round with mud walls and thatched roofs That projects
over encircling porches. Howeve, nomadic Krio Fula live in simple structures,
Since They Are so Often moving with the herds. These houses Have Neither
walls nor verandahs, and are encircled by cattle corrals.With Their Mothers
Daughters reposer Until THEY sorry. Howeve, as soon as puberty has his
Reaches, ET leaves the family compound and lives alone in a nearby
compound, with Usually Some cattle. This new compound Will Be the Home Of
The Loved and his future wife.

The Krio Fula are 90% Muslim, Many Still Follow Their goal Traditional Beliefs.
In Their ancient religion, the nomadic herdsmen prononcer to find relevance
for the experiences and dangers of Their lifestyle. Some men practice herbal
healings, divination and magic. Fertility IS prayed for have important year
moyen de Ensuring the future supply of herdsmen and Milkmaid. Meat from the
cattle Is Not Eaten by the Krio Fula, EXCEPT for ceremonial purposes. The herd
owner's feast Is One SUCH ceremony. During, this feast, a bull That Has
Served Ten Season is Presented, Killed, and Eaten.

The Fula Liptako

182 | P a g e
(See also Jelgoove)

The Fulani people are named Generally LUKAS to Their locations, occupations,
and dialects. The Fula Liptako Inhabit the Liptako Gourma region. Liptako-
Gourma Region IS site location is the Border Area Between Burkina Faso,
Mali and Niger. It Is made up of part of the territories of Burkina Faso (57%)
of Mali (21%) and Niger (10%) WHERE Some 14 million live Gutman.The Fula
Liptako are a branch of the Fulani living in the Masina District of Central Mali
and northern Burkina Faso. In the 17th and 18th centuries, Fulvia Have Many
migrated eastwards to Oudalan Liptako, and Into Yagha Niger. Ltr part of the
Jelgoove Fulani sub-group.

The Jelgoobe Descended From Two chiefdoms That Hair migrated from region
of Mali by 1750. According To Their oral traditions, They Arrived from Masina in
Mali, Driving the cattle of the Jallube in the 17th century, Because Of Famine
And The Struggles Of That politique region. Purpose THEY DID not escape
Entirely thesis, for THEY Became in 1824 the eastern edge of the Islamic
Dwina kingdom of Ahmadu Cheiku, Based in the Masina HAD Their goal
rebelled and leaders killed. Theys appealed to the king of the Mossi Yatenga
Who Attempted to rule imposes Mossi. The Jelgoobe Both Threw off Until the
French Arrived in 1864.
These and Other Fulvi of different origins and dates of arrival are Varied Called
Fulvia Jelgooji, like the Fulvia Kelli. Purpose sacrifice part of the Riimaybe ex-
captive Who Possibly Gaining Their Freedom in the conflict with the Mossi
around 1834, live in the town of Djibo and speak the language of the Mossi.
The Town Is About 25% Mossi, A Further 18% are Riimaybe Also speaking
Fulfulde.

In this region 72% of the population of IS Fulfulde language and culture, goal
only 44% are Fulvia, the rest Riimaybe Being, Who Now Have independent
farming in Yukon. The Fulvia living in hamlets The surroundings speak Fulfulde
and INSIST on keeping "status as a new serie cattle cattle owners in the Fulvia
tradition. Many migrated south "during the Droughts of the 1980s. Goal Since
Then Have Remained That giving further prospered Better Than the farming
population. This has been "Helped by new water holes and a cattle market in
Djibo.

The herds are a very important asset to the Liptako. Milk from the cattle and
goats Provides the hand portion of Their diet. Butter IS Made And Also sold at
the markets. Meat is only at major film festivals Eaten ceremonies. The Liptako
Both raise long-horned and short-horned cattle. Two types of sheep are bred
Also: one with one with hair and wool. The wool sheep are important for trade,
and indicate where and the Economic Status of Their owners. Values have
SUCH valor, bravery, and strength are important to the Fulani. This is shown in
one interesting custom Liptako Known As Sharo

Masina

Introduction

183 | P a g e
The Fulani Mostly live in the West-African Sahel. Their migration With Their
herds in the north IS limited by the Sahara Desert, And in the south by the
tsetse flies infested areas. Howeve, At The Edge Of The Sahara Desert, There
are rich and fertile lands. There, the Niger River Delta extends Almost 200
kilometers in Mali, Leaving 50 to 75 miles of fertile land for agriculture and for
cattle. That? S where is Located Masina e mango malaango (Masina the great
and blessed). The Fulani population groups are named to LUKAS Their
locations, occupations, and dialects. The Masinaare Also Called fulva Masina
gold Masinankove are a branch of the Fulani living in the Masina district of
central Mali and northern Burkina Faso.

Society

The culture and lifestyle of Masina are Virtually identiques to giving further
Fulani of Other Peoples in West Africa. The hot, tropical climate of the Masina
district Provides wet and dry seasons, and seasons dictate the thesis lifestyle
of the Fulani. Ltr a semi-nomadic people, mixing farming with shepherding.
"During the dry season, Which Lasts about kiln months, the young men move
Usually the herds of cattle, sheep or goats to the flood complain in search of
grazing land Better. The life of young Fulani men herding the cattle in search of
pasture "during the transhumance Was Brilliantly portrayed in a documentary
entitled Love in the Sahel.
Herders Camp in mobile shelters made of poles or branches Covered with
straw, leaves, or mats. While the young men are Migrating with the herds,
Their Wives, and the younger children stay at the homestead with the family
elders, Tending to the gardens. Theys raise a Variety of vegetables, staple
crops are intended Their rice and millet. SUCH A few "animals as horses,
donkeys, chickens, and dogs live on the farms Also.
In the wet season, the herds and the intransitive families in the villages.
The herds are a very important asset to the Fulani. Milk from the cattle and
goats Provides the hand portion of Their diet. Butter IS Made And Also sold at
the markets. Meat is only at major film festivals Eaten ceremonies. Cattle are
the type of livestock Kept hand, sheep and goats are intended Aussi raised.
Herding cattle IS Usually a male activity, although the milk and help women
take care of the cattle. Also the women tended to the livestock and poultry
small, cultivate gardens, and carry containers of milk and cheese to the local
markets for sale or trade. The Fulani Both raise the long-horned, humpless
cattle and the short-horned, humped cattle. Two types of sheep are bred Also:
one with one with hair and wool. The wool sheep are important for trade, and
indicate where and the Economic Status of Their owners.

Villages are made up of extended families form a Compound That. Their homes
are made of flexible poles and a center post has thatched roof Supporting.
Around Every compound Is a thorn fence. Each of the Fulani clans, whether
nomadic or Settled, is Governed by Elder year. The elder village chief answers
to a Who Lives In The Generally center plaza of the village.

Although Masina Fulani villages are Scattered, EACH Has A Village and a short
central mosque. Houses Belonging to the Settled Fulani Masina are round with
mud walls Typically and thatched roofs. Each year hut Has encircling veranda.
The Macina Fulani nomadic live in open, beehive-shaped huts with no walls or
verandas. Each hut IS Surrounded by a cattle corral.
With Their Mothers Daughters reposer Until THEY sorry. Howeve, as soon as

184 | P a g e
puberty has his Reaches, ET leaves the family compound and lives alone in a
nearby compound, with Usually Some cattle. This new compound Will Become
the home of the wife's and His Future.
The first marriage of a Man Is Usually arranged by the man's father. A bride-
service of Helping the girl's father with livestock IS Loved Performed by The
Man, Who Usually HE IS marries while in His early twenties.
Children Belong To age-groups (shovel) Until THEY sorry. Year Age-group
(Fedde) At Three gold oven underinsured motorist year intervals, With Every
child born in years giving further Belonging to That sets. The children in year
age-set go to school together and work and play together Often. When the
time arrived for marriage, They May Events help One Another With The bride-
service. Within EACH age-set are a leader, a deputy, and a judge.
Like Other Rural Areas in Mali, The Masina district IS Divided Into castes.
The Masinankove are Muslims. Children Are Taught in Islamic religious schools.
Howeve, They Are Also Taught Pulaaku, the importance of being has Fulani by
the elders, Who Thrive on Spreading Fulani traditional stories and culture to
the next generation. To the Fulani children are the future. They Do not believe
in afterlife year, so children are the only means clustering by Which THEY can
live on from generation to generation. Theys Believe That Their sound-through,
Their names and features Will remain.
Over the years sacrifice part of Them Have Moved from Being Exclusively
shepherds, to Being scholarly, Influential Leaders in Their Communities.

Special Places:

DJENNE: Surrounded by floodplain, And Sometimes it an island, Some Say

This Is The MOST beautiful town in the Sahel. Founded in around 800 AD by
the Bozo people, Djenne Became a way station for gold, ivory, lead, wool, and
kola nuts.

Mopti: Mopti, has-been a hub of trans-Saharan trade Since ancient times.

The city annually Became important site in the 19th century When Fulani
scholar Ahmadou Cheikou Lobbo Made it the year of Masina Empire outpost,
Which Was it centered Djenne and the Fulani pastureland around it.

Timbuktu: In the 11th century, the Tuareg set up a permanent camp here on
the north bank of the Niger and left the settlement in the care of An old woman
named Timbuktu. The town Became year major commercial center. It Also
Became year major center for Islamic Studies

How to get to Masina

AIR Mali? S national airline Air IS Mali (L9). Airlines Operating Between Mali
and Europe include Aeroflot and Air France.

Approximate flight times: From Bamako to London Is 11 hours (Including

stopover in Brussels gold Paris).

International airports: Bamako (BKO) IS 15km (9 miles) from the city (travel
time? 20 minutes). A bus service est disponible Into the city.

Departure tax: CFAfr10, 000; CFAfr8000 for destinations in Africa. Children

185 | P a g e
under 2 years are free.

RAIL: There Is a twice-weekly service from Bamako to Dakar (Senegal) Which

Has air conditioning, sleeper cars and restaurant facilities (travel time? 35
hours). It Will Also Carry cars. There are plans to extend rail Also Into links
Guinea.

ROAD: The best connections are from road Cote d? Ivoire and Burkina Faso.
There Are Also road links with Senegal, Guinea, Niger and Mauritania. The all-
weather road Follow the Niger you as far as Niamey (Niger). Travel through the
Algerian border IS Currently regarded dangerous and not recommended. Bus:
Services operate-from Kankan (Guinea) To Bamako, "As well as from Bobo
Dioulasso (Burkina Faso) To Segou and Mopti, and Niamey (Niger) To Gao.
From Cote d? Ivoire, There Are Three nozzles per week (travel time? At least
36 hours). From Niger, The national bus line SNTN Operates Three weekly
nozzles to Mali.

See Also: Hamdallaye Cheikou Ahmadou Lobbo, and Amadou Ba

Hampathé

Masina Travel Links

Hamdallaye
Hamdallaye Now Is a shadow of What It Must Have Been a century ago. Prior
to the arrival of the French Segou When Was Powerful and Practicing
traditional religion, This Was the center of the Masina Fulani's Emerging Islamic
Empire and a center of Islamic education at the time. Currently It Is Not Even
Labeled maps are MOST.
A brief description of the Founding of the ITS organization and Hamdallaye
Provided below are.
The site selected for foundation of Hamdallaye Was Located in edge of the area
of flood, the river of Remotely reasonable, the way of great penetration and
Exchange of West Africa Timbuctu Connecting to Jenne, and with the foot of
the rock escarpment of Kunar, Which constituted excellent natural Barriers.
Amadou Cheikou Submitted the project to the great council ADOPTED Which it.
The notable ones Were feels to examine the ground and to make plans for the
buildings. Two Thousand Concessions Were Granted to heads of family in the
Wishing to Settle new city, Whos Been HAD center reserved for the mosque
and the concession of Cheikou Ahmadou Himself.

The distribution of the seats on Monday Took Grounds, Which like counts dates
from the foundation of city. The construction of the Sami mosq Began the day.
Took every body part is the construction. When the construction of the mosq
Was finished, the marabout (Religious Leaders) is There to "give thanks to
God.
The construction of Hamdallaye Lasted Three Years. When It Was sufficiently
advanced, the council feels great circular letters, "under the signature of
Cheikou Amadou Asking all the boat owners in near by cities of weighting,
Diennéri, Mourari, etc., to send Their boats for the transfer of the Gutman of
the village of Noukouma and Their marchandises. One sample of thesis and
letters Arrived in Tékétya Was read at mosq.
The mosque of Hamdallaye HAD Been Built "under the direction of masons

186 | P a g e
come from Jenne. It Did not understood minaret, nor "any kind of
architectural ornament. The walls, made Were Believed unmolded bricks. Wood
Pillars Supported roofs, and in place Were Such A Way to not have the sight
obstruction. There Were Twelve lines of about Pillars, directed North-South and
thirteen Limiting transverse spans. The mihrab Was At The Bottom Of The
building, in the east,, and the one side elevated pulpit year. Moreover There
Were longitudinal rows: two in north and two in the south. The first pair of
rows reserved Were To The readers of the Koran and the scribes Who
Reproduced rare works, the second pair of rows Were reserved for the tailors
Who made the shrouds. The Covered Was Preceded unit, one the western side,
by a courtyard of about the Sami dimensions. Water filled vases of pottery
Were Placed at the corners for ritual ablutions.
Ahmadou Cheikou? S residence Was Divided Into rectangular and Many Parts:
Cheikou? S personal residence, a library, a burial ground sounds wherehis
Were Buried, and the Seven-door meeting room. It Was Called Because The
seven-door meeting room facings north HAD Three Doors, Three Doors facings
south west and one door facings.
Lastly, all the western part of the residence Was reserved for travelers from
abroad, orphans, old persons. Without Resource Persons Were Also Housed
and nourished with the dépenses of the community.
The city Itself, Divided Into eighteen districts Was Surrounded By An Enclosing
wall oven with doors called:
Damal Sebera In The West
Damal Fakala in the south
Damal Ba 'Ben in the east
Damal Kunar in north.

The supply of the city Was Ensured by a central market and eighteen
secondary markets, one by district. A supervisor Was in charge of Each
District and controller of measurements. The Salesmen Grouped LUKAS To The
Nature of Their marchandises. Was Most Significant salt, Then Came the Gold
Which one Preserved in pipes of gold feather Thatches of millet has cut the
length of a finger. No food was cooked to the Proposed purchasers ", EXCEPT
the morning of the Yoni and sinassar. Almost all the concessions Were
Equipped with a well. Those of Bourema Khalilou and Guro Malado Were
regarded to "give the best water. "During the rainy season, the Gutman could
"go to draw water at the edge of the flooded plain. Counted in One Hamdallaye
more Than 600 Koranic schools, "under the top management of Alfa Nouhoun
Tayrou. All Were The Has the burden of the community and the teachers Were
Paid by public funds. No one "could not open a school to Be Without reconnu
suited to teaching and Without the authorization "of Receiving Alfa Nouhoun
Tayrou. The hand Taught subjects included:
The Koran
Tafseer of the Qur'an commentaries gold
Hadith, the traditions gold Relating to the actions of the Prophet
Tawhid gold KM of God and His attributes
Oussoul golden principles of the canon law
Philosophical Tassawouf gold mystic
The secondary subjects Were Taught only in one small number of schools.
They were:
Nâhou gold grammar
Sarf gold syntax
Mani gold rethoric

187 | P a g e
Baydn golden eloquence
Hard gold Mantik
Allay Takandé Was Recognized As the Koran MOST eminent scholar. The
Teaching of the girls Was Ensured by women. Cheikou Ahmadou Taught
Himself is the Koran and the Life of morning Mohammed the afternoon.
The police force of the city Was Ensured by seven marabouts Directly reporting
of the general council:
Hambarké Samatata
Alfa Guidado
Send Hamma Oumarou
Alhaji Seydou
Bela Modi
Bela Goure Dyadyé
Allay Takandé
The offenses; Were Reported to one of the seven member of the general
council. There Were civic rules and codes of conduct the Gutman Which Were
to Abide by.
Hygiene and cleanliness Were Also Covered by a precise adjustment. Each
head of family Was responsible for the clearness of the Neighborhood and
Loved concession. Hamdallaye Was Said To Be clean inside out. On the
market, the saleswomen Were To Have Covered the milk and closed to new
serie em a container full of water in order to wash the cup Used to Measure the
milk. Was it forbidden to sell the meat of a sick animal.
The security of Hamdallaye Was Ensured by Alfa Futa Samba, with a troop of
horses 10.000 strong. A portion of the troop Was Permanently stationed inside
the city, comme au serving Was stationed with the surroundings. Armed
guards patrol Performed routine GUARANTEE Every Day to the safety of the
country.

Ahmadou Cheikou Lobbo

Cheikou Amadou Tall and handsome Was a Fulani man with a copper colored
skin and a straight nose. He Carried year Unshaven hair in the Manner of the
prophet Mohammed. His Eyes Were sharp, piercing with a glance. He Walked
With A long bamboo cane. He liked to rock Sometimes Loved flesh. His
modest clothes Were, and Were Made of cotton seven bands. He Loved head
wrapped in a long turban, and shoes with leather straps Carried.

He Said ITS prayer with prayer beads and Spent Most Of Loved nights in
reading and meditation.
a chain of grains made of tanned 22. It PASSED MOST of the night in
speeches and meditations.

His words Were Measured, precise and Always Supported by quotations from
the Koran or Hadith. He Always Knew how to put Loved interlocutor in
confidence and at ease. His inspiration Was Much Higher Than What of
Acquired ET-through study. Naturally calms, Ahmadou Cheikou discussed and
Did Not Without passion engages in a Debate UNLESS He Was sure to be right
and What Was Able to PROVE Loved point. He HAD seven qualities Which Made
Him the Loved WISEST of time:
He Did Not get Carried Away When people DID Unpleasant Things To Him
He Did Not engages in Against opponents dispute Loved

188 | P a g e
He never envy others? Belonging
He never got rid of the beggars
He never lied "any one occasion
He Did Not Do Anything to embarrass Loved slanderers
He Loved word never failed.

Amadou Ba Hampathé

This work has RECALLS single experiment in the history of Islam and Perhaps,
of Africa the eighteenth century int. Cheikou Ahmadu, a simple Fulani
shepherd, Undertaker, it was the faith of prophecy dream, to gather and of the
Highly nomadic Fulani Settle. Malthus ET Founded the Fulani Empire of Masina,
basing ITS organization and structure are the rules Which are the Governed
the Life of the first Moslem community, the time of Prophet Muhammad of the,
in Medina. He Succeeds in Bringing peace and Maintaining it while Regulating
the Movements and The Period Of The seasonal migration of the herds year
thanks to open dialogue with the People Concerned. This work IS Entirely
Drawn from the oral tradition. During, 15 years of research, Ahmadou Ba
Hampaté Heard at least 1000 advisors. After a meticulous selection of work,
hey Retained the 80 worthiest testimonies. This account Is The result of this
work.

Amadou Ba Hampate & Jacques Daget

The Fulani empire of Macina (1818-1853)
Paris. News Editions Africaines.
Editions de l'Ecole de Hautes Etudes en Sciences Sociales. 1975. 306 p

The Sokoto Fulani

Overview

The Fulani live in northern Nigeria alongside the Hausa people. The Sokoto
region, Which lies in the far northern part of the country, houses the sacrifice
part of ruling class of the Fulani, Known as the Toroobe. The exercise Toroobe
autorité politique and power over the Hausa.
Many of the Sokoto Fulani Also Have Spread Into SOUTHERN Niger. While
sacrifice part of the Fulani living in this area are Educated aristocrats, others
are Bororo, or semi-nomadic herdsmen (by shepherds and farmers "part).
The Sokoto Fulani either ', are Composed of the ruling class (Toroobe) and the
semi-nomadic shepherds (Bororo). The area THEY occupy open grassland with
ya une narrow forested areas. Camels, hyenas, lions, giraffes and Inhabit this
region. Though the temperatures are Extremely hot "during the day, They Are
Much cooler at night.
Traditions of the Sokoto Fulani
The semi-nomadic Sokoto Fulani engages In Some supplementary farming,
animal breeding Along with. Millet and Other grain crops Are Their hand. Milk
drunk and have fresh buttermilk, IS Their staple food, and only Meat Is
Consumed DURING ceremonial occasions. The cattle are herded by the men,
although the women help with milking the cows. Also the women make butter

189 | P a g e
and cheese and do the trading at the markets. Among the Fulani, Wealth IS
Measured by the size of a family's herds.
The semi-nomadic Sokoto Fulani Live in temporary settlements. "During the
harvest, the families live together in small huts That make up village
compounds. Each compound IS Surrounded by the family's garden. "During
the dry season, the men leave Their wives, children, the sick, and the elderly
at home while THEY take to Better Their herds grazing grounds. Each village
chief or headman Has a handle to village affairs.
Like the Toroobe (ruling class), the semi-nomadic Sokoto Fulani are Divided
Into age groups of Three or Four Years intervals. The contention in youth age
groups work together and help Each Other DURING Their early years. A man
selects a flange Usually from Loved age group.
The Settled Fulani Sokoto (the Toroobe, or ruling class) are year Influential
people Who live in towns and cities. They Are Usually government workers, tax
collectors, and municipal rulers. These Sokoto Fulani are Educated and
Dominate the leadership of Islam in the area. Although THEY May Own Some
cattle, Their real interests "binding in administration, law, religion, and
education. Their children are Encouraged to go to school and do well.
Because the Fulani Were a moral, pious Group Who Had an "interest in
learning, the droits of the Muslim Mosk PASSED Were to 'em, making' em
Eventually the leaders of the Muslim faith. Mallam (men of learning) are
revered and Treated with Respect In Their Culture.

Sokoto History

The Sultanate of Sokoto Was Founded in 1804 When the Fulani nomads,
headed by
Usman dan Fodio (1754 - 1817), a Religious Leader, revolted Against Their
shrugged and Overlords Took Powe. Their movement in the extended territoire
Of What Was To Become Northern and Northern nigeria cameroon.

HEADS OF STATE

Sultans - Emirs al-Mu'minin - Sarkin Musulmi (1)

(1) Also Sometimes styled khalifs gold Shehu's INSTEAD of Sultans

House of Muhammadu Fodio

1867 - 1873 Usman dan Ahmadu Rufai 1814 - 1873

1873 - 1877 Atiku Abubakar dan na Rabah BelloIts of
Sultan Muhammadu Bello (1781 - 1837; st
1817 - 1837) 1812 - 1877
1877 - 1881 Dan Ahmadu Mu'azu Bello, Brother 1816 - 1881
1881 - 1891 Umaru Aliyu Baba dan, Son Of Sultan Aliyu
Baba (1808 - 1859; st 1842 - 1859) 1824 - 1891
1891 - 1902 Abdurrahman "Danyen Kasko" dan Abubakar
Son Of Sultan Abubakar Atiku (1782 - 1842;
st 1837 - 1842) 1829 - 1902
1902 - 1903 Muhammadu dan Ahmadu Attahiru, the Sultan of
Ahmadu Atiku (1807 - 1866; st 1859 -
1866), driven out by the British 18 .. - 1903
1903 - 1915 Attahiru dan Muhammadu Baba Aliyu, brother of

190 | P a g e
 Sultan Umaru (s.a.) 18 .. - 1915
1915 - 1924 Muhammadu "May Turar" dan Ahmadu, brother of
Sultan Muhammadu dan Ahmadu Attahiru (s.a.) 1 ... - 1924
1924 - 1931 Muhammadu "Tambari" dan Muhammadu, sound,
abdicated 1 ... - 1935
1931 - 1938 Hasan dan Ahmadu Mu'azu, the Sultan of Mu'azu
Ahmadu (s.a.) 1 ... - 1938
1938 - 1988 Abubakar Shehu dan, nephew 1903 - 1988

MINISTRY (Vizier, Waziri)

1859 - 1874 Ibrahim dan Abdulkadiri

1874 - 1886 Abdullahi dan Gidado
1886 - 1910 Muhammadu dan Amadu 18 .. - 1910

DIVISIONS OF THE SULTANATE SOKOTO

As The territoire Became Of The Sultanate extended to, It Was Divided in 1817
Between the new Emirate of Gwanduand the Sultanate of Sokoto, EACH Being
overlord to a number of tributary Emirates, the Sultan of Sokoto Also
= remaining overlord of the Whole Empire. Despite this the Sultanate Rapidly
Became No More Than a loose federation of the Emirates, sacrifice part of 'em,
like AdamawaIndependently acting totally in fact.

DEPENDENT OF EMIRATES Gwandu

Agai
Bida
Ilorin
Kontagora
Lafiagi
Lapai
Pategi

Emirates DEPEND OF SOKOTO

Adamawa
Bauchi
Daura
Gombe
Hadejia
Jama'are
Jema'a
Kano
Katagum
Katsina
Kazaura
Keff
Lafia
MISAU
Muri
Nasarawa
Zaria

191 | P a g e
Sokoto Link
http://www.pulaaku.net/leydhe/sokoto/index.html

The Tekruri of Eritrea

Overview
(See also Fellata)
It is believed that Fulani and other West-African on their way to or back from
prigrimage to Mecca, Saudi Arabia, have settled in many parts of eastern
Sudan and in western Eritrea.
In Sudan they are known as Takrir (sing. Takruri). They are also known as
Fellata a term given to them by Kanuri people. They number close to 2 millions
in Sudan, while in Eritrea that number is significantly less. However, the
Tekruris have been part of the Eritrean society for hundreds of years(1).

Living mostly in western Eritrea, they had their own quarters in the towns,
called Hillet Tekhwarir. They speak Tikarna Arabic , their dialect separated
them from other population groups. They were seen as reserved group who
elected their own chief. They have a reputation to be hard working and clean
and honest people. Crime was uncommon, but they did not educate their
children who started working at early age. They married amongst themselves.
Because of their superior learning, the Tekruris are regarded as well educated,
cunning and wizards not only by the people of Sudan and Eritrea , but also by
the people of by the people of Egypt and Saudi Arabia. In fact, it has been
reported that country-people are eager to possess amulets of their writing,
which are supposed to possess greater virtue than those of any other class of
pilgrims (2).

They can be classified into 3 groups

(1) Pilgrims passing through the Sudan, including the many colonies on
the pilgrim routes through Darfur to El-Obeyd.

(2) Large permanent colonies, especially in Kessela and Sennar districts. There
is also a large colony near Sinnar under Mai Wurno, son of the ex-sultan of
Sokoto, and another under Mai Ahmed, ex-Emir of Misau.

(3) Two nomadic cattle-owning clans ('Ikka and 'Ibba) with a Dar of their
own in southern Darfur, who have been there at least two hundred years and
now speak Arabic. Some Tekruris originally from Darfur, have now, however,
settled in the
neighborhood of Gallabat, on the Abyssinian frontier; and the Egyptian govt
has given them some land on a number of years' lease, where they cultivate
Dhurra (3).

References:

1) Regarding the Tekruri of Eritrea.

Contributed by Aida Kidane, 10 Oct 2003
2) The Sources of the Nile; by Beke, Charles T, 1860
3) The Wild Tribes of the Sudan by F.L. James 1884

192 | P a g e
The Wasulu people

The Wasulu People are ethnic Fulani living in an areas of West African that
constitutes parts of Côte d Ivoire, Guinea, and Mali.
They live in a region that expands from the southwest corner of Mali, to the
northwest corner of Côte d Ivoire, and the northeast part of Guinea.
The Wasulu settled among the Maninka (in the north eastern corner of Guinea
and the southwestern corner of Mali). It is believed that they setted in Yanfolila
and surrounding areas between the 11th and 14th centuries AD. They
eventually adopted the language and culture of the surrounding Maninka and
Bambara. The Wasulu now speak the Bambara language with a mixture of
Malinké which is called Wasalunkan.
Many of the Wasulu are farmers, with cotton being their main crop. Islam was
introduced among the Wasulu in the late 1800s. Like their Fulani brethren,
The Wasulu are almost 100% Muslim.
Wasulu villages are often remote and some are inaccessible by car at the peak
of the rainy season. Like many West Africans, they live a simple lifestyle
depending on locally grown crops to feed themselves. Many people in the
communities are farmers, with main crops being rice, peanuts, and corn, a
staple in the Wasalun diet. Cotton is also grown, primarily for export.
The Wasulu culture has a long and rich history of which music plays a key role.
The Wasulu music has become known internationally as Wass and is
enjoyed by people of all ages. The super star, internationally known singer
Oumou Sangare is originally from the Wasulu group of Mali. Oumou Sangaré
is the leading female star of the Wasulu sound, which is based on an ancient
tradition of hunting rituals mixed with songs about devotion, praise, and
harvest played with pentatonic (five-note) melodies. In addition to the flute
and violin her sound is accompanied by the sound of the scraping kèrègnè,
women play the flé, a calabash strung with cowrie shells, which they spin and
throw into the air in time to the music. Sangaré most often sings about love
and the importance of freedom of choice in marriage.

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Country Locations

The Principal Traditional Fulanis regions are: Adamawa, Kanem-Bornou,

Masina, Futa-Jallon, Futa-Toro and many other regions in West Africa. Fulanis
are found in significant numbers include the following republics: Burkina Faso,
Cameroon, The Gambia, Guinea Republic, Guinea Bissau, Chad, Mali,
Mauritania, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra-Leone, Sudan (See Table: Fulanis
Country Statistics)

Countries with a large number of Fulanis

Ethnic Groups and religions

Nigeria

Nigeria, which is Africa's most populous country,

is composed of more than 250 ethnic groups;
the following are the most populous and
politically influential: Hausa and Fulani 29%,
Yoruba 21%, Igbo (Ibo) 18%, Ijaw 10%, Kanuri Population: 130 million
4%, Ibibio 3.5%, Tiv 2.5%Muslim 50%, Fulani: 9%
Christian 40%, indigenous beliefs 10% Growth rate: 2,54%

Ethiopia

Oromo 40%, Amhara and Tigre 32%, Sidamo

9%, Shankella 6%, Somali 6%, Afar 4%, Gurage
2%, other 1% Muslim 45%-50%, Ethiopian
Orthodox 35%-40%, animist 12%, other 3%-
8% Population: 54 million
Fulani: small
Growth rate: 2,64%

Cameroon

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Cameroon Highlanders 31%, Equatorial Bantu
19%, Kirdi 11%, Fulani 10%, Northwestern
Bantu 8%, Eastern Nigritic 7%, other African
13%, non-African less than 1%indigenous beliefs
40%, Christian 40%, Muslim 20% Population: 16,2 million
Fulani: 10%
Growth rate: 2,34%

Niger

Hausa 56%, Djerma 22%, Fulani 9%, Tuareg

8%, Beri Beri (Kanouri) 4.3%, Arab, Toubou,
and Gourmantche 1.2%, about 1,200 French
expatriatesThe Fulani who, together with their
herds, are concentrated in the Dosso-Agadez-
Maine-Soroa triangle. Some have also settled in Population: 10,6 million
the West, around Tera, Say and Niamey. They Fulani: 9%
predominate in certain parts of Maradi, Growth rate: 2,7%
Tessaoua, Mirriah and Magaria Districts.
Sometimes they live alongside Tuaregs and
Toubous. (ref : Upenn)Muslim 80%, remainder
indigenous beliefs and Christian

Guinea

Fulani 40%, Malinke 30%, Soussou 20%,

smaller ethnic groups 10%Muslim 85%,
Christian 8%, indigenous beliefs 7%

Population: 7,8 million

Fulani: 40%
Growth rate: 2,3%

Chad

200 distinct groups; in the north and center:

Arabs, Gorane (Toubou, Daza, Kreda), Zaghawa,
Kanembou, Ouaddai, Baguirmi, Hadjerai, Fulani,
Kotoko, Hausa, Boulala, and Maba, most of Population: 9 million
whom are Muslim; in the south: Sara Fulani: small
(Ngambaye, Mbaye, Goulaye), Moundang, Growth rate: 3,27%
Moussei, Massa, most of whom are Christian or
animist; about 1,000 French citizens live in
ChadMuslim 51%, Christian 35%, animist 7%,
other 7%

Benin

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African 99% (42 Ethnic groups, most important
being Fon, Adja, Yoruba, Bariba), Europeans
5,500Indigenous beliefs 50%, Christian 30%,
Muslim 20%
Population: 6,8 million
Fulani: small
Growth rate: 2,91%

Togo

African (37 Ethnic Groups; largest and most

important are Ewe, Mina, and Kabre) 99%,
European and Syrian-Lebanese less than 1%-
Indigenous beliefs 51%, Christian 29%, Muslim
20% Population: 5,2 million
Fulani: small
Growth rate: 2,48%

Central Afric Republic

Baya 33%, Banda 27%, Mandjia 13%, Sara

10%, Mboum 7%, M'Baka 4%, Yakoma 4%,
other 2%- Indigenous beliefs 35%, Protestant
25%, Roman Catholic 25%, Muslim 15%
Population: 3,6 million
Fulani: small
Growth rate: 1,8%

Burkina Faso

Mossi over 40%, Gurunsi, Senufo, Lobi, Bobo,

Mande, Fulani.- Burkina Faso also has several
hundred thousand Fulani nomads in the northern
part with their goats, sheep, and other
livestock.- Indigenous beliefs 40%, Muslim 50%, Population: 12,6 million
Christian (mainly Roman Catholic) 10% Fulani: 8%
Growth rate: 2,64%

Cote D'ivoire

Akan 42.1%, Voltaiques or Gur 17.6%, Northern

Mandes 16.5%, Krous 11%, Southern Mandes
10%, other 2.8% (includes 130,000 Lebanese
and 20,000 French) (1998)- Christian 20-30%,
Muslim 35-40%, indigenous 25-40% (2001) Population: 16,8 million
note: the majority of foreigners (migratory Fulani: small
workers) are Muslim (70%) and Christian (20%) Growth rate: 2,45%

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Gambia

African 99% (Mandinka 42%, Fulani 18%, Wolof

16%, Jola 10%, Serahuli 9%, other 4%), non-
African 1%- Muslim 90%, Christian 9%,
indigenous beliefs 1%
Population: 1,4 million
Fulani: small
Growth rate: 3,09%

Ghana

Black African 98.5% (major tribes - Akan 44%,

Moshi-Dagomba 16%, Ewe 13%, Ga 8%, Gurma
3%, Yoruba 1%), European and other 1.5%
(1998)- indigenous beliefs 21%, Muslim 16%,
Christian 63% Population: 20,2 million
Fulani: small
Growth rate: 1,7%

Guinea Bissau

African 99% (Balanta 30%, Fulani 20%, Manjaca

14%, Mandinga 13%, Papel 7%), European and
mulatto less than 1%- indigenous beliefs 50%,
Muslim 45%, Christian 5%
Population: 1,3 million
Fulani: 20%
Growth rate: 2,23%

Mali

Mande 50% (Bambara, Malinke, Soninke), Fulani

17%, Voltaic 12%, Songhai 6%, Tuareg and
Moor 10%, other 5%- Muslim 90%, indigenous
beliefs 9%, Christian 1% Population: 11,3 million
Fulani: 17%
Growth rate: 2,97%

Mauritania

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Maur 30%, Fulani, Soninke, Wolof, Haratin -
Muslim 100%

Population: 2,8 million

Fulani: small
Growth rate: 2,92%

Senegal

Wolof 43.3%, Fulani 23.8%, Serer 14.7%, Jola

3.7%, Mandinka 3%, Soninke 1.1%, European
and Lebanese 1%, other 9.4%- Muslim 94%,
indigenous beliefs 1%, Christian 5% (mostly
Roman Catholic) Population: 10,6million
Fulani: 23,8%
Growth rate: 2,91%

Sierra Leone

20 native African tribes 90% (Temne 30%,

Mende 30%, other 30%), Creole (Krio) 10%
(descendants of freed Jamaican slaves who were
settled in the Freetown area in the late-18th
century), refugees from Liberia's recent civil Population: 5,6 million
war, small numbers of Europeans, Lebanese, Fulani: small
Pakistanis, and Indians- Muslim 60%, indigenous Growth rate: 3,31%
beliefs 30%, Christian 10%

Sudan

Black 52%, Arab 39%, Beja 6%, foreigners 2%,

other 1%.The Fulani nomads are found in many
parts of central Sudan from Darfur to the Blue
Nile. In the Eastern Sudan there are large Population: 37 million
colonies of Fallata the name by which the Fulani Fulani: small
are called. They are also called Teckruri and Growth rate: 2,73%
believed to number between 1 and 2 millions.In
Darfur groups of Fulani origin adapted in various
ways to the presence of the Baqqara People.
Sunni Muslim 70% (in north), indigenous beliefs
25%, Christian 5% (mostly in south and
Khartoum)

Somalia

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Somali 85%, Bantu and other non-Somali 15%
(including Arabs 30,000)-Sunni Muslim

Population: 7,7million
Fulani: small
Growth rate: 3,46%

Eritrea

Ethnic Tigrinya 50%, Tigre and Kunama 40%,

Afar 4%, Saho (Red Sea coast dwellers) 3%,
other 3%.
The Tekruris have been part of the Eritrean
society. Population: 4,362,254
The common story of their origin is that they Fulani:1-2 million
were Growth rate:1.28%
in pilgrimage to Mecca and stayed in Eritrea
and Sudan.

199 | P a g e
Fulani Dictionaries

Seydou, C. 1998: Dictionnaire pluridialectal des racines verbales du peul: peul

- francais - anglais
/ A Dictionary of Verb Roots in Fulfulde Dialects: Fulfulde - French English

Awde N. 1997 Treasury of African Love: Poems and Proverbs

Nyiang M. 1997 Pulaar-English / English-Pulaar Standard Dictionary

Taylor F. 1995 Hippocrene Practical Dictionary: Fulani-English

De Wolfe P. 1995 English-Fula Dictionary (Fulfulde, Pulaar, Fulani): A

Multidialectal Approach

Bautista A. 1991 Dictionnaire de Fulfulde / Fulfulde Dictionary

Mukoshi I.1991 A Fulfulde English Dictionary

Daudu G 1989 Papers on Fulfulde Language, Literature, and Culture

Egushi I 1986 An English-Fulfulde Dictionary

McIntosh M 1984 Fulfulde Syntax and Verbal Morphology

Gamble D. 1981 Gambian Fula - English Dictionary (Firdu Dialect)

Sonja F. Diallo, 1982-3 Introduction to Pulaar and Advanced Pulaar

Sow A. 1971 Dictionnaire Elementaire Fulfulde - Francais - English Elementary

Dictionary

Pelletier C.1970 Adamawa Fulfulde: An Introductory Course

Stennes L 1967 A Reference Grammar of Adamawa Fulani

Swift L 1965 Fula: Basic Course

AJP, 1960 Introduction to Pulaar (Senegal, Association des Jeunes Pulaar)

Taylor F. 1953 A Grammar of the Adamawa dialect of the Fulani Language

(Fulfulde)

200 | P a g e
Words of Griots

We are vessels of speech, we are the

repositories which harbor secrets many
centuries old & without us the names of
kings would vanish from oblivion, we are
the memory of mankind; by the spoken
word we bring to life the deeds and exploits
of kings for younger generations.

History holds no mystery for us; we teach

to the vulgar just as much as we want to
teach them,for it is we who keep the keys
to the twelve doors of Mali
I teach the kings of their ancestors so that the lives of ancients might serve
them as an example, for the world is old but the future springs from the past.
-The words of the Mali griot Mamadou Kouyate,

Quoted in D. T. Niane, Sundiata: An Epic of Old Mali A.D. 1217-1237

Aspects of knowledge

Interview with Amadou Hampathe Ba about Knowledge

From a selection from Aspects of African Civilization by Amadou Hampathe

Ba

Question: Your name is forever connected to a sentence which the

intellectuals are in the habit of quoting in the course of their
conversations: In Africa, when an old person dies, it is a library that
burns. Would you develop this image for our readers?

Answer: When I was appointed to the executive council of UNESCO, I

was given the mission of speaking to Europeans about African tradition
as culture. This was difficult because the Western tradition had
established once and for all that where there is no writing, there is no
culture. The result was that when I proposed for the first time to take

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 oral traditions into account as historical sources and sources of culture,
I didn't provoke anything but smiles. Some people even asked
sardonically what African traditions could possibly have to offer Europe!
To one interlocutor who asked me one day, what indeed can we obtain
from Africa? I remember answering: Laughter, which you have lost.
Perhaps today one could add as well: a certain human dimension, which
modern technological civilization is in the process of erasing.

The fact of not having a literature does not prevent Africa from having a
past and knowledge. As my teacher Tierno Bokar says: Writing is one
thing and knowledge is another thing. Writing is a photograph of
knowledge, but it is not knowledge itself. Knowledge is a light which is
in man. It is the heritage that consists of everything the ancestors have
been able to know. This they transmit to us in seminal form, just as the
potential for a baobab tree is contained in its seed.

Of course, this knowledge inherited and transmitted by word of mouth can

either develop or wither away. It develops wherever there exist centers
of initiation and young people to receive that formation. It is lost
wherever initiation disappears.

African knowledge is immense, varied, and covers all aspects of life. The
knower is never a specialist. He is a generalist. For example, the same
old man knows as much about pharmacopoeia, earth sciences (the
agricultural or medicinal properties of different kinds of soil), and the
science of water as he does about astronomy, cosmogony, psychology,
etc. It is therefore possible to speak of a single science of life conceived
as a whole, in which everything is related, interdependent and
interactive.

In Africa, everything is History [Histoire]. The great History of life is made

up of sections which are, for example, the history of soils and waters
(geography), the history of plants (botany and pharmacopoeia), the
history of the threads in the bowels of the earth (mineralogy), the
history of the stars (astronomy, astrology), the history of waters, etc.

These knowledges are always concrete and tend toward practical uses.

Knowledges have an order. One begins at the bottom, that is to say, with
beings and things that are less developed or less animated when
compared to man, and ascends upwards toward man. The earth,
considered as navel of the world, is the principal habitat of three sorts
of beings, or three modes or manifestations of life:

At the bottom of the ladder, one finds inanimate beings, called mutes,
whose language is thought to be hidden, being incomprehensible or
inaudible to ordinary mortals. This is the world of all that lies on the
surface of the earth (sand, water, etc.) or in its interior (minerals,
metals, etc.).

Next come animate immobile beings. These are living things that do not
move about from place to place. They are plants that are able to extend
and spread out their branches in space, but whose stem or trunk cannot

202 | P a g e
 move.

Finally, mobile animate beings, from the most minuscule of animals to

man, including all classes of animals.

Each of these categories is subdivided into three groups:

Among mute inanimate beings, one finds solid, liquid and gaseous
(literally: smoking) inanimate.

Among immobile animate objects, one finds creeping plants, climbing

plants, and plants that stand vertically, the latter constituting the
highest class.

Mobile animate beings include land animals (among them animals without
bones, those that shed their skin, etc., and animals with bones), aquatic
animals and flying animals.

These nine classes of beings correspond to specific moments in the

educational process, but these modules are not necessarily successive
or progressive. Education is connected to life and dispensed according
to the circumstances that present themselves. If, for example, a
serpent suddenly leaps out of the bush, this will provide an opportunity
for the old master to give a lesson about the serpent. His discourse will
vary depending on whether his listeners are children or adults. He could
speak about the legends of the serpent, or remedies which can cure its
bite. If he is surrounded by children, he will very gladly elaborate on the
harm a serpent can do so they will learn to be careful.

The study of the earth, the waters, the atmosphere, and all that they
contain insofar as they are manifestations of life constitutes the
ensemble of human knowledge bequeathed by tradition. But the
greatest of all these histories, the most developed, the most significant,
is the history of man himself, who is at the summit of mobile animate
beings.

It is the knowledge of man and the application of this knowledge in

practical life that makes man a superior being on the ladder of living
things. But one can only say this about man if he is in the state of
neddaaku (Fulani/Peul) or of maayaa (Bambara), that is to say, in a
fully human state.

The history of man includes, on the one hand, the great myths of the
creation of man and of his appearance on earth, including the
significance of the place which he occupies in the fabric of the universe,
the role which he ought to play (essentially the role of axis of
equilibrium), and his relation to the forces of life which surround him
and live in him. It includes, on the other hand, the history of the great
ancestors, innumerable educational and initiation stories and symbolic
tales, and finally, history pure and simple, including the great royal
traditions, the historical chronicles, the epics, etc.

203 | P a g e
Tradition transmitted orally is so precise and so rigorous that one can, with
various kinds of cross checking, reconstruct the great events of
centuries past in the minutest detail, especially the lives of the great
empires or the great men who distinguish history. It is noteworthy that,
based on diverse oral traditions, I was able to reconstruct The History of
the Fulani Empire of Massina of the 18th Century. In a similar way,
comparing oral traditions allowed my friend Boubou Hama of Niger to
produce his voluminous works on the history and traditional knowledge
of African people.

In oral civilization, speech engages man; speech IS man. Whence the

profound respect for traditional stories bequeathed by the past. One is
permitted to embellish their form or poetic phrasing, but their
framework remains unchanged over the centuries, serving as a vehicle
for the prodigious memory which is very characteristic of peoples in oral
traditions. In a modern civilization, paper substitutes for speech. It is
paper that engages man. But can one say with absolute certainty that
the written source is more worthy of confidence than the oral source,
continuously monitored by the traditional milieu?

At this point, it is useful to explain that in Africa, the side of things that is
visible and apparent always corresponds to an invisible and hidden
aspect which is like its source or principle. Just as the day emerges
from the night, all things consist of a diurnal and a nocturnal aspect, a
visible side and a hidden side. Indeed, each visible science always
corresponds to a much deeper science, theoretical and, one could say,
esoteric, based on the fundamental conception of the unity of life and of
the interrelation, within the fabric of this unity, of all the different levels
of existence. Here there is a domain which, just because it is less
immediately exploitable, does not mean that it is any less worthy of
being closely examined and explored before the last depositories of this
science disappear.

As we have seen, African knowledge is a global knowledge, a living

knowledge, and it is because the old people are themselves the last
depositories of this knowledge that they can be compared to vast
libraries whose multiple shelves are connected by invisible links which
constitute precisely this science of the invisible, authenticated by the
chains of transmission through initiation.

In the past, this knowledge was transmitted regularly from generation to

generation by rites of initiation and various forms of traditional
education. This regular transmission was interrupted because of an
external, extra-African action: the impact of colonization. The colonial
powers arrived with their technological superiority, their own methods
and their own ideal of life, and did everything in their power to
substitute their own way of life for that of the Africans. Just as one
never seeds fallow ground, the colonial powers were obliged to clear the
African tradition to be able to plant their own tradition.

Thus from the outset the Western school began to do battle with the
traditional African school and to hunt down the keepers of traditional
knowledge. This was the époque when all healers were thrown in prison

204 | P a g e
 as charlatans or for practicing medicine without a license. It was also
the era when children were prevented from speaking their mother
tongue in order to shield them from traditional influences, to such an
extent that at school, a child who was caught speaking his mother
tongue had to wear a board called a symbol on which was drawn the
head of a donkey, and he was not allowed to eat lunch.

The seeds of this new tradition, once sown, have grown and borne fruit. It
is for this reason why African youth, born of the Western school, have a
pronounced tendency to live and to think "à l'européenne", for which
they cannot be reproached because they don't know any other way. The
student always lives according to the rules of his or her school.

During the colonial period, transmission by initiation, which used to take

place on a great holiday and at regular intervals, sought asylum by
going underground. Little by little, the removal of children from their
families had the result that old people no longer found around them
young people who were able to receive their teachings. Little by little,
initiation left the cities and took refuge in the bush. But the final blow
was delivered by the advent of an independence based exclusively on
European ideas and ideologies. Whereas colonialism actually created
skepticism and penetrated little into the countryside, the same
European ideas, conveyed by modern political parties, mobilized the
masses in even the farthest corners of the bush, so much so that the
handing down of tradition almost couldn't find any place to be practiced
any more.

At a time when diverse countries of the world, through the intermediation

of UNESCO, devote money and effort to saving the great Nubian
monuments threatened by the rising waters behind the Aswân High
Dam, is it not more urgent still to save the extraordinary human culture
and stock of knowledge accumulated over the course of millennia in
these fragile monuments which are men, when the last depositories of
this knowledge are in the process of disappearing?

By Ahmadou Hampathe Ba

Oral Knowledge

At rare, auspicious, and unexpected moments, people share their fascinating

life experiences: a grandmother reminiscing about her childhood in a village in
the Kano region; a grandfather recalling life as a Shepard in Masina; an old
man telling under the palabre tree the absorbing story of his battle against a
wild animal; such people have something important to share. But, all too often,
experiences shared by voice die with the teller because they are not written
down or recorded.

Oral history is history in the first person; the way parents and grandparents
lived it and remembered it.Not many family records survive. Most people have
few if any items that once belonged to a grandparent or great-grandparent.
Rarely is a descendant lucky enough to have inherited a Koran or older

205 | P a g e
documents, let alone any old letters, diaries, or photographs.

However, in many African cultures, oral arts are professionalized: the most
accomplished oral historians, storytellers and praise singers are elders and
spoken word specialists (griots ). The griots in particular have mastered many
complex verbal, musical, and memory skills after years of specialized training.
This training often includes a strong spiritual and ethical dimension.

A Different Way of Knowing

Human culture comprises all that is learned, and language is a primary means
for learning and transmitting one s culture. Furthermore, linguistic theorists
like Walter Ong maintain that a culture s dominant means of communication
shape its people s consciousness and ways of knowing the world. Ong
ascribes fundamental differences among cultures, and the arts and
technologies they create and value, to whether those cultures are oral or
literate (writing-based).

Consider the following characteristics generalized for traditional oral cultures:

 Knowledge is sacred, magical power, immanent in the spoken word.

 Time is cyclical, non-linear: you live in the always of inseparably

intertwined past, present, and future (the community = all past,
present, and to-be-born members).

 Knowledge must be re-called, re-created, re-interpreted constantly, or

you lose it; orature lives only insofar as it is repeated, performed by the
community.
 Oral narratives (stories, proverbs, etc.) are practical, flexible, and
spiritual; these living texts have no single definitive version.

 They vary, adapt, and change with performer, audience, time, place,
situation, and need; and if they lose their relevance and power, their
memory is discarded. Oral cultures produce powerful and beautiful
verbal performances
of high artistic and human worth which are impossible
once writing has taken possession of the psyche. (Walter Ong)

Reference

The information contained on this page comes from a variety of sources, but
relies heavily on The Everything Family Tree Book by William G. Hartley
(Adams Media, 1998) and Ancestors: A Beginner's Guide to Family History &
Genealogy by Jim & Terry Willard with Jane Wilson (Houghton Mifflin Company,
1997).

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Fulani languages

English: Fulani

French: Peul

Ethnologue Classification: Linguistic Lineage

Niger-Congo,

Atlantic-Congo,

Atlantic,

Northern,

Senegambian,

Fula-Wolof,

Fulani

Main Speaking
Language Alternate Names Population Countries
Group (Millions)
FULFULDE, ADAMAWA FULANI, PEUL, PEULH, 13 Chad Nigeria
ADAMAWA FUL, FULA, FULBE, BOULBE, Sudan
EASTERN FULANI, FULFULDE,
FOULFOULDE, PULLO, GAPELTA,
PELTA HAY, DOMONA, PLADINA,
PALATA, PALDIDA, PALDENA,
DZEMAY, ZEMAY, ZAAKOSA, PULE,
TAAREYO, SANYO, BIIRA,
Filatanci. Dialects: MAROUA,
GAROUA, NGAONDÉRÉ,
KAMBARIIRE, NOMADIC FULFULDE,
BILKIRE FULANI (BILKIRI) FELLATA
GOMBE
FULFULDE, BAGHIRMI PEUL, BAGIRMI FULA. 0.180 Central
BAGIRMI African
Republic
FULFULDE, PEULH, PEUL, Dialects: FULBE- 0.328 Nigeria Togo
BENIN-TOGO BORGU
FULFULDE, PEUL, PEULH, FULANI, FULA, FULBE. 0.450 Niger
CENTRAL- Dialects: WODAABE
EASTERN
NIGER
FULFULDE, PEUL, MACINA. Dialects: WESTERN 0.919 Ghana
MAASINA MACINA , EASTERN MACINA .
FULFULDE, KANO-KATSINA-BORORRO 7.6 Cameroon
NIGERIAN FULFULDE. Dialects: KANO-KATSINA, Chad

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 BORORRO (BORORO, MBORORO,
AKO, NOMADIC FULFULDE),
SOKOTO.
FULFULDE, PEUL, PEULH, FULANI, FULA, FULBE. 1.1 Burkina Faso
WESTERN Dialects: DALLOL, BITINKOORE
NIGER
FUUTA JALON FUTA JALLON, FOUTA DYALON, 2.9 Mali Senegal
FULBE, FULLO FUUTA, FUTA FULA, Sierra Leone
FOULA FOUTA, FULFULDE JALON,
JALON, PULAR, PULAAR. Dialects:
KEBU FULA, FULA PETA.
PULAAR PULAAR FULFULDE, PEUL, PEULH. 2.9 Senegal
Dialects: TOUCOULEUR (TUKOLOR, Gambia
TUKULOR, TOKILOR, PULAAR, Guinea
HAALPULAAR, FULBE JEERI), Guinea-
FULACUNDA (FULAKUNDA, Bissau
FULKUNDA). Mauritania
Mali

Ethnoveterinary medicine practices

In Cameroon as well as in most developing countries (especially in Africa),
disease remains one of the principal causes of poor livestock performance,
leading to an ever- increasing gap between the supply of, and the demand for,
livestock products. The ever-declining provision of animal health services has
resulted in the resurgence of a number of epizootic diseases, undermining the
economic efficiency of livestock production in Africa. After elaborating on the
nature of orthodox veterinary medicine and ethnoveterinary medicine, the
authors propose a complementary approach.

Livestock production in the Northwest Province of Cameroon

Livestock production in the Northwest Province (NWP) of Cameroon is carried

out mainly by Fulani herders. With its 410,000 head of cattle, the NWP ranks
third in cattle production in Cameroon. In the last three decades Fulani herders
have evolved from nomadic to semi-nomadic or transhuman livestock owners.
This evolution has given most of them an opportunity to become
agropastoralists. Although transhumance is in general preferable to total
nomadism (Williamson and Payne, 1978:730; Niamir, 1990; Brown, 1993),
this pattern of life is quite problematic for livestock owners, whose grazing land
is often lost as a result of human population pressures. In addition, the yearly
burning of native range destroys the less fire-resistant pasture species,
eliminates habitat and pollutes the environment. As a result, livestock become
malnourished and emaciated because they do not get enough to eat or the
feed is of low quality. Under these conditions, they are predisposed to disease
and cannot trek the long distances required to find feed.

About six decades into colonization in the 1940's, orthodox veterinary medicine
was introduced in the NWP. Many orthodox veterinarians did not promote
indigenous practices, because they did not appreciate the role which they
played. In some places, it was even illegal to treat animals using local herbs
without the permission of a vet. As a result, many livestock owners ceased to
use local practices, while those who continued to rely on them did so in secret.

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This meant that the knowledge and use of ethnoveterinary medicine declined.
Before the introduction of orthodox veterinary medicine in Cameroon,
pastoralists depended solely on indigenous health practices. Nomadic livestock
owners treated animal health problems using various biologicals from plants
and animals, while carefully avoiding disease-infested areas and regions
dominated by toxic plants. Their knowledge of ethnoveterinary medicine
encompassed surgery, pharmacology and toxicology (Ndi, 1990:4).

Ethnoveterinary practices, especially for ruminants such as cattle and other

large animals, were introduced into Cameroon at the end of the last century by
migrating and nomadic Fulani pastoralists from neighbouring Nigeria and Chad,
who were searching for new pasture (Ndi, 1990:1). Thus livestock owners have
used traditional animal health practices for a long time and are convinced of
their efficacy. In a recent study conducted by Nuwanyakpa and associates
(1995a:16-17), farmers claimed that 33 out of 55 cattle diseases and ailments
(60%) prevalent in the NWP of Cameroon are treatable or preventable solely
by traditional medicine. Some 9% of these diseases (anthrax, blackquarter,
bovine tuberculosis, contagious bovine pleuropneumonia and rinderpest) can
only be treated using orthodox methods, while the remaining 31% are dealt
with by the complementary use of ethnoveterinary and orthodox veterinary
medicines. In the latter case, the livestock owners stressed that orthodox
practices should be used only after the traditional ones have failed; they claim
that about 91% of their animal health problems can be solved by means of
traditional medicines. In some cases, they prefer to use traditional medicines
even where orthodox drugs are available (Marcus, 1992:2). The advantages
which they ascribe to local medicines include availability, lower cost, efficacy,
one treatment for various ailments, and the fact that they rely on local
knowledge and manpower, and are based on materials and equipment which
are locally available.

Collaborative work between HPI**1 and orthodox veterinary institutions

(including the Ministry for Livestock, Fisheries and Animal Industries, MINEPIA
and the Institute for Animal Research, IRZV) in Cameroon and elsewhere in
Africa has revealed that when it comes to the diagnosis of livestock diseases
(e.g. clinical symptoms and post mortem signs), the knowledge of
ethnoveterinarians closely parallels orthodox veterinary patterns. For example,
the ailment known as Labba in Fulfulde has been identified as blackquarter
disease in cattle. Pettu (which means 'falling down in great number') as an
epidemic has been identified as rinderpest in cattle (Nuwanyakpa et al.,
1995b).

Advent of orthodox veterinary medicine and associated drawbacks

The enforcement of orthodox veterinary practices--especially following the

independence of Cameroon--was the result of a number of livestock epidemics
(including rinderpest), the belief that orthodox medicine is superior to
indigenous practices, and growing human population pressures, all of which
have been detrimental to the application of traditional animal health care
practices in Cameroon (Nuwanyakpa et al., 1995a). Livestock owners were
forced to stop using ethnoveterinary medicine, as it was thought that orthodox
medicines were capable of solving all the health problems encountered in
cattle. The government also failed to promote the complementary application

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of orthodox and ethnoveterinary medicine.

Orthodox animal health care in Cameroon, as well as in most African countries,

is plagued by many problems. These include:

inadequate manpower and logistical inputs;

scarce and erratic supply of veterinary drugs and supplies;
high cost of veterinary drugs and supplies;
poor communication facilities and other modern amenities;
counter-productive government policies, which do not promote the
complementary utilization of orthodox and indigenous knowledge systems;
inadequate attention to the development of ethnoveterinary medicine and
other indigenous knowledge systems (Nuwanyakpa and Toyang, 1994).
The relation between these problems and the current dependence on orthodox
veterinary medicine has resulted in a failure to solve the majority of animal
health problems. This has been accompanied by an ever- declining provision of
animal health services, together with a resurgence of various epizootic
diseases which are presently undermining the economic efficiency of livestock
production in Africa (PARC, 1991:2).

Sustainable interventions to enhance livestock production

In 1989 Mopoi Nuwanyakpa, in cooperation with Heifer Project International

(HPI), initiated an Ethnoveterinary Medicine/Fulani Livestock Development
Project to seek sustainable alternatives for animal health problems. This
initiative was triggered by, among other things, the high level of frustration felt
by HPI when faced with the expensive and erratic supply of veterinary drugs
and supplies. One of the objectives of the project was to promote the
complementary utilization of indigenous and orthodox veterinary medicines in
sustainable livestock production. (Nuwanyakpa et al., 1990)

The parallel use of the two knowledge systems was regarded as important for
several reasons, i.e., to bring about a reduction in the dependency on
expensive imported veterinary drugs and supplies and the resulting savings in
foreign valuta; the possibility of discovering new drugs; the increase in
manpower at a lower cost; the improvement in communications and contacts
between livestock owners and veterinarians; the use of more natural drugs,
which do not have the toxic effects on animals which are sometimes
experienced with synthetic drugs.

The HPI/Cameroon Ethnovet Project has adopted multi-facetted approaches in

promoting the use of indigenous animal health care practices. For example, it
has organized Cameroon's first association of traditional veterinarians and
promoted active networking among indigenous practitioners and orthodox
animal health care specialists. Indigenous knowledge provided by livestock
owners has been documented for most aspects of livestock production, and to
some extent in crop production and food processing (crops and dairy
products).

The information already documented covers the indigenous treatment of 55

cattle, 17 horse, 12 sheep/goat and 21 rabbit diseases and ailments
(Nuwanyakpa et al., 1995a:16-18). Using the knowledge of livestock owners

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as a foundation, the project has trained and equipped livestock producers as
the primary deliverers of animal health care. Orthodox veterinarians provide
support, as well as certain critical services, such as vaccines and treatment for
the 9% of diseases which stock owners cannot treat themselves, and also
study the efficacy of indigenous treatments. The testing of ethnoveterinary
treatments for their efficacy has been initiated not only on-farms but also on-
stations. For example, Nuwanyakpa et al. (1990:59) and Marcus (1992:9)
have undertaken several studies on the anthelminthic efficacies of some
medicinal plants.

Livestock owners have an amazingly good knowledge of ethnobotany, due to

the fact that most of the materia medica used in ethnoveterinary medicine are
from plants (Mathias-Mundy and McCorkle, 1989:13-14). Thus the
ethnobotanical knowledge of local people has formed the foundation for the
worldwide screening of plant material as potential sources of medical drugs
(Spore, 1992:5). In this way, a significant number of ethnopharmaceuticals
have been shown to be biochemically active. This explains why about 25% of
all medicines are of direct plant origin, while the remaining 75% are from
animal, plant and synthetic products (Spore, 1994:3).

Livestock owners also have a good understanding of the plant parts and
quantities needed, and the methods used in harvesting, processing, storing,
preserving and utilizing medicinal plants to ensure good drug efficacy and to
enhance the survival of plant germplasm. If the above procedures are poorly
executed, plant resources may be over-exploited, which can lead to the
extinction of certain species. This means that the best results from medicinal
plant preparations can only be obtained when the users are able to judiciously
harvest, process, store, preserve and utilize the preparations (Levy, 1988:6-
16; Lötschert and Beese, 1983:12) and establish botanic gardens of
endangered medicinal plants (Gbile, 1991:10; Spore, 1992:5)

Botanical and backyard gardens of medicinal plants have been established by

the project in order to conserve medicinal plants and save them from
extinction, and to enhance the availability of medicinal plants. The medicinal
plant establishments consist of both in situ and ex situ conservation strategies.
Such conservation efforts contribute to biodiversity preservation and
significantly increase the accessibility to, and the utilization of,
ethnobotanicals. Some 190 of the nearly 400 medicinal plants that have been
identified through the Ethnovet Project have now been scientifically and
ethnotaxonomically classified. A number of these are listed in the table below,
with some of their uses.

Table 1. A few of the medical plants so far identified and some of their major
uses.

Family Botanic name Fulfude name Some uses

Annonaceae Annona Dukuhi Diarrhoea and antiseptic
senegalensis (wounds)
Asteraceae Vernonia Suwaka Worms, diarrhoea and

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 amygdalina purgative
Bignoniaceae Kigelia africana Jillahi Brucellosis, retained
placenta and mastitis
Caesalpinaceae Cassia Tapasa Worms, blackquarter,
occidentalis anaplasmosis and
babesiosis
Crassulaceae Kalanchoe Noppi bali Worms, blackquarter,
crenata anaplasmosis and
babesiosis
Euphorhiaceae Ricinus Kolakolahi Bloat Purge, oil used in drug
Communis preservation and
administration, antidote to
poisoning in animals and
humans
Bridelia Bududi Snake bite, brucellosis,
ferrugiana bloody diarrhoea, fertility
enhancement
Croton Ngalawahi Purgative
macrostachyus
Meliaceae Khaya Kahi Blackquarter, bloat,
anthotheca brucellosis, ciarrhoea,
worms and babesiosis
Mimosaceae Entada Peluwahi Ephemeral fever, FMD
abyssinica (foot and mouth disease),
babesiosis and worms
Dichrostachys Burli Brucellosis and bloody
cinera diarrhoea
Moraceae Ficus elastica Biskehi Fertility enhancements
(hormone)
Papilionaceae Tephrosia nana Yomji (wild) Mange and ticks
Tephrosia Yomji Mange, ticks and
vogelii balckquarter
Erythrian Bobillohi Ringworm, mange and
senegalensis brucellosis
Rubiaceae Gardenia Dii-ngali Aphrodasiac and growth-
ternifolia enhancer
Solanaceae Solanum Gitte-nai Streptotricosis and worms
aculeastrum
Seruliaceae Cola acuminata Gorohi Babesiosis
Verbenaceae Vitex doniana Bummehi Brucellosis, FMD, shipping
fever and
anaplamosis/babesiosis

The ethnotaxonomy has been carried out in 10 major Cameroonian languages.

The plants classified so far are from 90 families; 20 of the 190 plants classified
are also used in human medicine, 11 in milk preservation and processing, 5 as

212 | P a g e
insecticidal and raticidal plants, and 20 in soil fertility improvement (Toyang
and Wirmum, 1994:4). This means that most of the plants have multipurpose
uses. An herbarium for the preservation of mounted specimens of medicinal
plants is also being set up to enhance education and research on
ethnoveterinary medicine.

Conclusion

Now that a good number of the plants used in indigenous remedies to treat or
prevent livestock diseases have been classified both scientifically and
ethnotaxonomically, it is time to publish this information. This is expected to
make a substantial contribution to the field of ethnoveterinary research and to
development in Cameroon and elsewhere. Formal research in ethnoveterinary
medicine will no doubt help to confirm the claims made by ethnoveterinarians
with respect to the efficacy of ethnoveterinary treatments by
ethnoveterinarians.

The project has already started field testing of the storage and efficacy of some
of the many ethnoveterinary treatments that have been documented. For
example, since 1989, HPI/Cameroon has used mainly two medicinal plants
(Terminalia schimperiana and Vernonia amygdalina) as the sole or principal
drugs against gastrointestinal tract helminths in cattle. This has resulted in a
huge drop in the project funds spent annually on orthodox dewormers. Many
poultry diseases and most health problems in rabbits are now also being
treated or controlled mainly through ethnoveterinary practices.

The recognition and support that the Cameroon Council of Experts on

Ethnoveterinary Medicine now receives from the government of Cameroon,
traditional authorities and development organizations will make possible the
realization of the HPI Ethnovet Project.

Ngeh J. Toyang
HPI/ANE
P.O. Box 808
Little Rock
Arkansas 72203
USA
Tel: +1-501-376 6836.
Fax: +1-501-376 8906.

Dr Mopoi Nuwanyakpa
HPI
P.O. Box 467
Bamenda
Cameroon
Tel/fax: +237-363822/363284.

Dr Christopher Ndi
Sali Django
IRZV
Bambui

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P.O. Box 51
Bamenda
Cameroon

Dr Wirmum Clare Kinyuy

Medicinal Foods and Plants (MEFOPLA) Referral Research Center
P.O. Box 5164
Nkwen
Bamenda
Cameroon
Tel: +237-363135

Acknowledgements

We are very grateful to all the members of the HPI Council of Experts on
Indigenous Knowledge, who have allowed their hitherto secret information to
be recorded for purposes of this project. All HPI staff are also to be
commended for their support for, and participation in, many activities leading
to the development of this unique project in Africa. Our thanks go also to
PVO/NGO/NRMS, GdEF/NGO/SGP Projects and HPI Headquarters, who provided
funds for the implementation of this project. The management of the
Cameroon Institute for Animal and Veterinary Research (IRZV) is also
acknowledged for providing some of its facilities and personnel for the
realization of certain laboratory and field aspects of this project.

References
Brown, M. (1993) Non governmental organizations and natural resources
management in Africa: Pastoral sector, where to go from here? A synthesis
document. Washington: PVO- NGO/NMRS Project.

Gbile, O.Z. (1991) Identification and pharmaceutical importance of medicinal

plants. Ibadan: Forestry Research Institute of Nigeria. Unpublished paper.

Levy, B.J. (1988) The complete handbook for farm and stable. St Ives Place:
Clays Ltd..

Lötschert, W. and G. Beese. (1983) Collins guide to tropical plants. London:

William Collins Sons & Co. Ltd..

Marcus, S. (1992) A preliminary study on the Anthelminthic properties of

Terminalia glaucescens in cattle in the Northwest Province of Cameroon: An
ethnoveterinarian approach. DVM Theses. Utrecht: University of Utrecht,
Faculty of Veterinary Medicine.

Mathias-Mundy, E. and C.M. McCorkle (1989) Ethnoveterinary medicine: An

annotated bibliography. Bibliography in Technology and Social Change No. 6.
Ames: Iowa State University, Technology and Social Change Program.

Ndi, C. (1990) Preliminary observations on ethnoveterinary therapy among

214 | P a g e
Fulani pastoralists in the Northwest Province of Cameroon. Bambui: Institute of
Animal and Veterinary Research (IRZV). Unpublished paper.

Niamir, M. (1990) Herders' decision making in natural resource management in

arid and semi-arid Africa. Community Forestry Note 4. Rome: FAO.

Nuwanyakpa, M., J. DeVries, C. Ndi and S. Django (1990) Traditional

veterinary medicine in Cameroon: A renaissance in an ancient indigenous
technology. Bamenda: HPI.

Nuwanyakpa, M. and Toyang, J. (1994) Paraveterinary medicine and animal

disease surveillance in the Northwest Province of Cameroon. Unpublished
paper.

Nuwanyakpa, M., J. Toyang, H. Njakoi, and S. Django, S. (1995a

Plants

Medicinal Plants*

1.Barkasone.
2. Barkeji.
3. Bawaami
4. Bryophyllum pinnatum.
5. Catharanthus roseus.
6. Centella asiatica.
7.Chenopodium ambrosioïdes.
8.Dage.
9. Darkase.
10. Jaave.
11.Zoki.
12.Enenguel
13. Folere.
14. Gawdi,gawari.
15. Geloki.
16. Gialgooti.
17. Guguma.
18. Guyab
19. Indama.
20. Jaabe.
21. Kaaki.
22. Kekamedi.
23. Lantana camara.
24. Liige.
25. Nyebeday.
26. Samtarle.
27.Talli. (kinkeliba)
28. Tasbati.

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*Reference: ENDA-Environment and Development Action in the Third
World (ENDA-TM) is an international non-profit organisation based in Dakar,
Senegal.

Oumou Sangare

The Wasulu people are ethnic Fulani who have

adopted a Manding language close to Bambara,
Bamanankan. Wasulu is a dialect of
Bamanankan in Mali, but also spoken in Guinea
and Cote d'Ivoire near their borders with Mali.

Oumou Sangare, the Internationally know singer

is originally from the Wasulu group of Mali.

Oumou Sangaré is the leading female star of the

Wasulu sound, which is based on an ancient
tradition of hunting rituals mixed with songs
about devotion, praise, and harvest played with
pentatonic (five-note) melodies. In addition to
the flute and violin her sound is accompanied by
the sound of the scraping kèrègnè, women play
the
flé, a calabash strung with cowrie shells, which they spin and throw into the air
in time to the music. Sangaré most often sings about love and the importance
of freedom of choice in marriage.

At the age of 21 Oumou recorded her first album, Moussoulou (Women),

released in 1990. It caused a great stir because of the subjects in the lyrics
which were not usually publicly expressed, most notably her big hit 'Diaraby
Nene (The Shivers of Passion)', and also her chosen rhythm. Oumou's songs
use the resonating jittery sound of the kamalengoni - the youth version of the
hunter's harp. The radical mission of her songs is to highlight the issues that
women in Mali face, especially polygamy.

Further albums in the 1990s were Ko Sira and Worotan. You don't have to look
very far to find one of Oumou's songs on African music compilations Empresses
of Africa and Africanesque are just a couple. Several of Oumou's songs feature
on the soundtrack of the powerful movie Beloved (1998).
Since the CD Worotan 5 years ago, Oumou has concentrated on producing
music for the Malian market and a few other projects, including the building of
a hotel in Bamako called Hotel Wasulu and touring countries in Africa.
In January 2003 Oumou participated in Festival in the Desert in the northern
part of Mali, her presence was notable because of the recent civil war in the
North. Her song Wayena is on the festival CD. Later the same year Oumou was
at international summer festivals including WOMAD festival in Reading UK. She
was in London for the Jazz Festival in November as part of a major
international tour.

Oumou Sangare was a featured artist at the 2003 Smithsonian Institute

216 | P a g e
Folklife Festival in Washington, DC USA. She has a new internationally released
double CD as well in 2003, simply entitled Oumou; it includes notes on the
songs provided by Oumou herself. The CD is a 20-track compilation of 12
songs from her existing CDs plus 8 tracks not previously on CD. DJs are
already promoting 'Yala' as one of the best dance tracks on the album. A few
of the songs give advice to young people, such as Djorolen and NGuatu.
Oumou's performances on stage are truly spectacular as she and her dancers
spin calabashes in the air

Baaba Maal

performer, in West African culture, tradition dictates that the ancient griot
caste must produce the singers and storytellers, and Maal was born in the city
of Podor in 1953 into the fisherman's caste. Despite his parents' insistence that
he become a lawyer, he grew up surrounded by music, absorbing both the
traditional sounds of the region as well as American R&B and soul, later
discovering jazz and blues. As a teen Maal moved to Dakar, joining the 70-
piece orchestra Lasly Fouta and teaming with his guitarist friend Mansour Seck
to form the group Lasli Fouta; during the early 1980s, the duo also spent
several years in Paris, where they recorded the 1984 album Djam Leelii. Upon
returning to Senegal, Maal formed the group Daande Lenol -- literally, The
Voice of the people, and began honing a highly distinctive sound fusing
traditional African music with elements of pop and reggae; in 1988 he issued
the LP Wango, the first in a series of highly successful albums which also
included 1991's Baayo, 1992's Lam Toro and 1994's Firin' in Fouta. In 1998,
Maal released Nomad Soul; the first recording on Chris Blackwell's new Palm
Pictures label, it featured cameos by Brian Eno, Howie B. and others. A
succession of records followed on Palm during the subsequent three years.

Baaba Maal's music is filled with the mysteries of ancient Africa. Like the griots
he admires, Maal sings of history and heroes, bringing the lessons of the past
into our lives today, as heard on the "Black Hawk Down" soundtrack. Maal
brings his acoustic group, focusing on the folkloric and intimate music of Africa.
Delicate in appearance, Baaba Maal sings with hurricane force. His music
embraces the gentle filigree of West African folk, and the toughness of urban
music. Adapted from Jason Ankeny, All Music Guide.

Fore More on Baaba Maal see the websites listed below.

http://www.newworldbuzz.com/maalreview.html

http://www.baabamaal.tv/
http://africanmusic.org/home.html

Words of griots

Griots are called many things including, African wandering poet and musician,
guardian of oral tradition, a village entertainer, praise singer, and oral

217 | P a g e
historian. The cast of griot is found in almost all the West-African cultures.
Griots are born in the cast ofas Griots, they're not chosen nor have they
evolved their entertainment or singing talents to become griots..

Traditionally, there are two types of griots: those who are musicians and those
who speak. In the Fulani society, those whose exclusively play the hodu
(ngoni) musical instruments are called wambave (sing. bambazo). Generally,
a griot's role in society included everything to do with communications: oral
history, genealogies and social rankings, messages of social or diplomatic
significance, talking drum, war drums, royal and dancing drums, music,
storytelling, and buffoonery. Griot families were attached to particular noble
families or a community, receiving protection and often generous remuneration
in exchange for their services. One of their most important function is to keep
the genealogy of families and communities. The transmit their knowledge of
the genealogy and historical feats from generation to generation, is primarily
attributed to the dominant oral culture.
They often sing songs that praise an individual and tell their history or songs
that are of historical or entertainment nature. They specialize in many types of
instruments such as the the molo, hodu, nyanyoru, Kora, balaphone which is
passed on from generation to generation from father to son. The women griot
sing, dance and also play the calabass and gourd.

Music
The most popular instruments are introduced here.
The balaphone resembles the western xylophone and varie in design from
place to place. For example the senegambian balaphone is made up of 20
rectangular wooden slats. Two rows of calabashes below the slats serve as
natural amplifiers. We play it with two mallets, wooden sticks with the tops
covered with cloth. The music is a mix of percussion and melody.
A kora sounds like a harp-lute. The body is made from a calabash, that has
been cut in half. Thereupon we place cowskin. A traditional kora has 21
strings, made of fishingline. The strings are plucked by the thumb and
forefinger of each hand. The other fingers hold the two vertical hand posts. We
tune the kora by moving the leather rings on the hardwood neck.
Although the (flute) and nyanyoru (violin), the drums are present every where
is the Fulani music and dance.Drums called buuba or mbaggu. Over time,
Fulani have evolved many music genre such as: sorawo, leele, wango, and
pecan.

Through songs the communities store their history, teach adolescents the
secrets of adulthood, and praise important figures. Religious chanting
frequently goes on all night, and is specially heard during religious holidays
blasting from loud speakers on public transport. Modern popular singers such
as Baaba Maal have mixed the traditional Fulani music and rhythmic base with
various modern modes of music to produce sounds which are well appreciated
throughout the world.

Dance
A traditional drumming and dancing program consists of several parts. When
the three drummers begin the buuba, the women of the village form a big
circle. The women will sing and if the music is good, they will dance. The
neighbours or age groups organise parties for a variety of purposes: weddings,

218 | P a g e
naming ceremonies, harvest, wrestling matches, group fishing, which are all
accompanied with dancing and drumming.

Words of griots
We are vessels of speech, we are the repositories
which harbor secrets many centuries old & without
us the names of kings would vanish from oblivion,
we are the memory of mankind; by the spoken word
we bring to life the deeds and exploits of kings
for younger generations. History holds no mystery for us;
we teach to the vulgar just as much as we want to teach them,
for it is we who keep the keys to the twelve doors of Mali &...
I teach the kings of their ancestors so that the lives
of ancients might serve them as an example, for the world is old
but the future springs from the past.
The words of the Mali griot Mamadou Kouyate,

Quoted in D. T. Niane, Sundiata: An Epic of Old MaliA.D. 1217-1237

Links:
Fula Flute
African music and history
Contemporary Music of Africa
Djimo Kouyate

Books (About griots)

Amkoullel, l'enfant peul by Amadou Hampaté Ba

Amadou describes his youth (1900-1920) in colonised West-Africa.
...his work is of enormous historical and ethnological importance... (Le
Monde).

Performing Africa by Paulla A. Ebron.

A detailed ethnographic study of the role griots have in Gambian
society. A bit too scholarly at times for the average reader but the way
she writes about her personal experiences in The Gambia, the
interview encounters and her travels is thouroughly enjoyable.

In griot timeby Banning Eyre.

Banning spent 7 months with Djelimady Tounkara, the guitarist of the
Rail Band in Bamako, Mali. In his book he tells about music, musicians,
griots and every day life in this Westafrican country. A great book for
musiclovers and people interested in West Africa.

Griots and griottes by Thomas A. Hale.

Tom Hale is a professor of African, French and Comparative Literature
at The Pennsylvania State University. So if you want well documented
and unbiased information read this book.

Our grandmothers drumsby Mark Hudson.

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Mark spent 14 months in The Gambia, working with and doing
research among the women of Dulaba. He is also the author of The
music in my head.

The griot's craft by Jan Jansen

Jan conducted his research about the skills of griots as mediators
among the griots of Kela (Mali).

The two hearts of Kwasi Boachi by Arthur Japin.

A beautiful novel about two young Westafrican princes who left their
home country in 1837 to study in The Netherlands.

The African Child by Camara Laye

An account of the author's experiences during his boyhood in Guinea.
A beautiful book, first published in 1954 but still available in the
bookshops around the Serrekunda mosque.

Under the baobab tree by Rosemary Long.

In 1989 journalist Rosemary from Scotland came to live with Ray from
The Gambia. The columns that she wrote for the Glasgow Herald about
her new life are now published as a book. A nice read for newcomers
to The Gambia.

Pastoralism and Water in Africa Moving Toward CSD-

Pastoralism: A Livelihood in itself
In comparison with settled societies, nomadic pastoralism represent
marginal phenomenon, which is not known by the vast majority of global
development actors and academic authorities of the developed countries. This
is mainly due to the specific nature, and characteristics associated with
nomadic lifestyle and pastoral livelihoods. As a result, nomadic lifestyle and
even pastoral decision making process is often described as pure madness.
For over a period of centuries, African societies have been governing
themselves and managing their resources in a sustainable manner. The
traditional decision-making of pastoral and agro-pastoral societies are deep
rooted in social, cultural, economic, environmental and practical knowledge
which has been adopted based on harsh arid and semi-arid conditions they live
in. The nomadic lifestyle is, or for pastoralists, the best and only way of
surviving in the hostile living condition they happen to live in.
This nomadic lifestyle is based on complex calculation, which takes into
consideration external and internal factors that affect various aspects of their
lives, and integrate past experiences with tie present and future needs.
Pastoral mobility is not purely base on locating and going after water and
green pasture for themselves and their livestock wealth, but reflect appropriate
coping mechanism against the ethnic hostilities and natural calamities.
Pastoral social set-up and traditional governance system reflect best means
and ways of dealing with the antagonistic circumstances they live in and covers
inter and within ethnic conflict and disputes, traditional resource management
practices (including water), defense and security of specific ethnic groups,
early warning system and disaster management, social safety net and
traditional
charity system, protection of culture and social values, religious teaching and
practical learning system, communication and exchange of information and

220 | P a g e
ideas, sustainable management and optimum utilization of natural resources,
and protection of natural environment.
In absence of outside intervention and imposition of alien practices, the
traditional nomadic societies tend to live in harmony with the natural
environment. Lessons learnt from past experience however suggest that both
governmental and non-governmental organizations (NGO s) operating in
Africa failed to understand this reality. As a result, their intervention in the
past decades impoverished pastoral societies through systemic disintegration
of each and every element of local capacity.
Pastoralist have been excluded from global development arena
Current technical water approaches have been employed on the premise that
pastoralists, who are also among the poorest in Africa, have little to contribute
to the on-going global debate on water. The consequence of this is outright
exclusion and eventual marginalization of pastoralists from taking a central role
in water related issues affecting their own lives.
Moving Forward
The followings represent some of the priority issues which need to be
addressed :

 Pastoralists need to contribute to their own water resources

management based on their specific needs.
 Water strategies often need to be specified and not generalized.
 Community based pastoral water user associations that are responsible
for developing, operating and maintaining their water sources need to
be promoted.
 Pastoralists water supply need to be improved in order to increase
availability and minimize water-induced conflict,
 Rehabilitation of devastated natural environment need to be
emphasized,
 Pastoralists knowledge, practices, techniques and experiences need to
be recognized with a view to reaching a consensus between pastoralism
an other development sectors .
 Pastoralists-based knowledge need to be integrated in defining and
setting up policies, priorities, vision and approaches on water
development with pastoral communities.

Tradional and modern communications

In traditional Africa, the individual does not and cannot exist alone except
communally. He owes existence to other people, including those of past
generations and his contemporaries. Whatever happens to the individual is
believed to happen to the whole group, and whatever happens to the whole
group happens to the individual.
Traditional Africans also preserve and express the ideal of harmonious

221 | P a g e
community-living through their dominant ritual symbols. In an effort to ensure
that this and other important value relating to their survival, is well preserved
and successfully transmitted to successive generations, in the absence of
developed literary culture, traditional Africans avail of different kinds of oral
means and media to encode and communicate their important cultural values
over and over again. Repetition is, no doubt, a typical feature of oral cultures
around the world. Traditional Africans rely on speech-forms such as myths,
proverbs, wise sayings and songs, as well as art-forms like sculpture, dance,
ritual objects, etc to preserve and impress their key beliefs, ideas and values in
the minds of successive generations of society.
One of the most important tools for community existence and growth is
communication.
A good communication system allows people to have control of their own life
stories and begin to improve the circumstances they happen to be in.
Traditional forms of communication include story telling, palabre under a
tree, drums, dance music and dialogue circles.
Oral communication such story telling and the use of dream to communicate
information is still widely used in rural areas. However, the full successes and
the potential of the oral tradition in Africa is still well known.
The new form of communication such as news papers,
magazines, telephones, cellulars, radios and television
are gaining wide acceptance among the urban and rural
people of West Africa. The internet is still in its infancy.
Culture identity must be central to the communication
experience. The community should have assimilated
any new tools of information technology without
jeopardizing local values or languages. These
communication experience also could contribute
immensely to networking and knowledge sharing.

Radio by nature gives people the ability to hear, content, context and even the
feelings of passion and pain. On the other hand video gives the ability to see
and hear voices therefore allowing a more profound emotional linkage with
pictures. Yet video remain expensive and the video equipment is subject to
frequent breakdown which makes it unreachable for most rural villages.
Both education and communication have been neglected for too long. Cultural
barriers misperceptions, as well as beliefs that one form of knowledge is
superior to another. And the disdain of indigenous knowledge all have
contributed to this neglect.
The communication growth and development situation is still embryonic.
However, countries have opened radios an television stations all over Africa.
Mostly in language foreign to the African culture. The links to some radio and
television stations are provided below.

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http://www.comfm.com/live/radio/?k=1
http://www.radio-locator.com/cgi-bin/nation
http://www.radio-locator.com/cgi-bin/nation
http://members.aol.com/dpaterson/radio.htm
http://www.tvradioworld.com/region3/
http://www.afropulse.com/music/radio/internet.html

Overview

The Education Section of the Jamtan Website is

devoted to the introduction of the Fulfulde
language. While the Fulfulde is not an official
language in all countries with a strong Fulani
presence, it plays an important role in the identity
of the Fulani people. The cultural relevance of the
Fulani language and the tremendous interest
about it have been brilliantly expressed in the
articles of Cheikh Ahmidou Kane and Sonja Diallo
provided below.
In the article Languages of Colonization and
African Cultural Identity,
Cheikh Hamidou Kane examines the impact of the
historic clash of culture between the European
and the African and African people's motivation in
learning French.

French is a language of use, practical, utilitarian, functional tool giving access

to the modern world, whereas Pulaar (Fulfulde) is a language of life, a
reflection of the Fulani peoples' human condition of today and yesterday, the
most irreducible means of expressing one's cultural identity. To speak French is
on the order of doing and to speak Pulaar, the order of being.

In her article Defining education within a grassroots literacy movement

By Dr. Sonja Fagerberg-Diallo addresses the questions of the why and the how
to develop so-called literacy programs in traditional languages. Sonja Diallo
describes the experience of the promotion of National Language in Senegal.
S Diallo demonstrates the importance of a cultural dimension in which
becoming literate becomes a media both for knowing better one's own culture,
as well as for supporting that culture in a time of rapid social change.

Foreign alphabet, have been used to write Fulani Languages, Arabic in the
past, and Latin more recently. However the UNESCO at various conferences in
1966, 1971, and 1989, helped introduce a new writing system. In this website
that writing is retained and slightly modified to adapt to the web programming.
It is important to note that the University of Cheikh Anta Diop, Dakar, Senegal
is developing a Fulfulde Keyboard under the direction of Dr Fary S. Ka.
The Jamtan team envisioned both relevant and useful themes about which a
series of words and their sounds will be performed. This was divided into 5
sub-groups: Numbers, Vocabulary, Grammar, and Glossary. Several topics

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were chosen including: Numbers, Mathematical Operations , the Computer and
the Internet
Body, Cooking Domestic Animal, Farming, Fishing and the Environment,
Greetings, and Time. Voices were added to most of the terms.

African Cultural Identity

Languages of Colonization and African Cultural Identity

It was in Matam, in the region of Fouta Toro, an evening of my childhood a

long time ago. Resting on a straw mat spread out on the courtyard floor, one
of my aunts, my father's oldest sister, kept an audience of teenage listeners
captivated as if attached by invisible strings. Each day at dusk, dropping all
other activities, her grandchildren would come to drink from the
inexhaustible well of stories, legends, proverbs, riddles, and word plays.

A couple of feet from this enchanted circle, two men, the storyteller's sons,
would be seated on straight-backed chairs conversing in French. One was a
doctor, the other, a teacher. Interrupting herself suddenly, undoubtedly in
the middle of the adventures of Samba Geladiégi, the narrator, who didn't
understand French would ask her sons, aren't you tired of that? Rest a little.
Get down off your chairs and come speak to us in the language of our
fathers!

I have always had a vivid memory of that scene. Now allow me to evoke
another one that goes back to the same time.

We were in a neighborhood alleyway, not far from where my father lived. I

was with my usual playmate, a boy about my same age. It was in Pulaar, our
native language, that we spoke to each other, not yet knowing how to speak
French the study of which wouldn't start until a year later. We had already
gone through two or three of the games from our daily repertoire when my
friend suggested another, "Pretend like you speak French." We immediately
started the preparations. Pulling up the wide hem of our traditional robes, we
would tighten them around our chests to make a sort of jacket or shirt. Then,
rolling the ample pleats of our pants around our legs, we made knickers and
European trousers. Next, we got a hold of some ash that we used to endow
each other with a white face.

Having successfully accomplished the masquerade, we would try imitating

the gestures of the whites when they talked to each other: hands in the
pockets, fists on the hips, or arms folded; standing straight or doing a little
pirouette around the other. It was only after these preliminary exercises that
we felt ready to speak French, or in other words to emit the strange, foreign
sounds which, need it be said, had absolutely no significance whatsoever.
Regarding these sounds, I should clarify that my friend and I would force
each other to articulate them correctly, to produce them with other parts of
our mouth, palate, and throat, than those that we used to pronounce the
phonemes of our native Pulaar.

224 | P a g e
The significance of my aunt's fiery quip and of our childhood games is
obvious. To pretend to speak French indicated that the execution of such an
activity was a desired aptitude and brought along with it a coveted status.
This powerful motivation was to become a passport during our entire life as
students. Later on, it was to be transformed into the prideful desire to
acquire the same degree in French as the whites, because we had the latent
conviction that only such a degree would allow us to claim the same
qualifications as the whites in careers of medicine, engineering, etc. Our
game was also a way of taking note of the differences between French and
Pulaar.

Our contrived airs and graces also clearly expressed that for us, the
importance of a language's form can't be reduced to a mere linguistic
medium but extends to imitation, to style, and to an aesthetic. We were very
aware that French is not Pulaar, nor the other way around, and that one
shouldn't mix I was going to say genres.

As for my aunt, it went even further than that. It established profound

differences. According to her, to speak French is to adopt a life of
appropriateness. Therefore, one speaks French, just like one works, in the
modern sector, and one speaks Pulaar just like the farmer, leathersmith, or
craftsman in the traditional way. To speak French one must be standing up,
going somewhere, or seated on chairs with the back straight and vertical; if
one wishes to take a rest or take part in the joys of family life, it can only be
done speaking Pulaar, cross-legged, sitting up or sprawled out on a straw
mat on the ground. French is a language of use, practical, utilitarian,
functional tool giving access to the modern world, whereas Pulaar is a
language of life, a reflection of the Halpulaar peoples' human condition of
today and yesterday, the most irreducible means of expressing one's cultural
identity. To speak French is on the order of doing and to speak Pulaar, the
order of being.
As a group, the Senegalese people of today are not far from sharing these
views, if one is to believe Pierre Dumont, formerly the director of the Center
for Applied Linguistics of Dakaar (CLAD). Socio-linguistic studies, he has
written, have proven that the Senegalese peoples' motivation in learning
French has been for a number of reasons: social, professional, economic, and
technical, but never linguistic. The use of French is reserved for easily
indexed situations, outside of African society.

What has been suggested concerning the respective vocations of Pulaar and
of French could also be said with as much truth of other Senegalese people
(and Africans in general) and their perception of the relationship that exists
between their dialect and that of the Europeans. In its depth, post-colonial
Africa considers that it has, on the one hand, languages of identity and
culture and, on the other, languages of usefulness and function. The one
being original and oral, the other, foreign and written. The African people
see, between their dialects and those of Europeans, the same opposition, the
same division, but also the same complementary character, as Léopold
Senghor puts it, as those that my aunt saw between Pulaar and French.

We will put under scrutiny this latent intuition in the African people in order
to evoke its truth because, as is often the case, intuition and its prophetic

225 | P a g e
nature is more accurate when it springs forth from the people. This serene,
realistic vision of the neo-African cultural landscape, the consequence of its
history, contains in itself, imprinted like a watermark, the important lines
that sketch the future that the governing elite will have to strive to faithfully
build. The socio-cultural terrain with which we are concerned here is vital,
fundamental; and the time to accomplish the necessary work in this area is
limited. It is, therefore, advisable that the political and intellectual leaders
avoid all of the errors of excess or default, the reckless improvisations or the
fearful abstentions. To achieve such a reality, they have no better teacher
and guide than the people.

Therefore, I will explain what I understand, and what I mean, by this

unexpressed discourse of the Senegalese people concerning the crucial
question of languages.
Before the white men landed on the country's shores, penetrated the interior
lands, and imposed their laws and languages, the Senegalese people were
neither nonexistent nor mute. They lived off their own substance, and their
languages the exact reflection of their way of life expressed it more
adequately and more perfectly than any other language.

Then the white men came from across the sea. The historic clash of these
two worlds was devastating and left behind no aspect of the former way of
life. The cold witness of history, devoid of both love and hate, attests to the
defeat and submission of the Senegalese. It isn't that they didn't resist
valiantly on all the confrontational fronts. The fact is that, just or unjust, they
were defeated. There are better things to do, thought the people, than shed
tears and brood over one's bitterness.
It is necessary to take a clear look at the weapons that assured the European
victory. In the area of linguistics, what greater efficiency and importance
than to substitute French in the place of Senegalese languages to declare the
law, to express knowledge, and to facilitate exchange? Instead of protesting
French and claiming to eradicate it as an irrational person would be tempted
to do the Senegalese chose to send their students to school in search of this
language. The choice was so frank and so overwhelming that schools proved
to be weak and insufficient, managing to neither accommodate the large
number of applicants, nor to give them intellectual and spiritual food in the
spirit of an undertaking of mutual civilization.

The Senegalese people, solidly entrenched in their original languages, which

had been for a long time their only means of communication, undertook, by
their own volition, to learn, master, and use the French language. This
movement in the present time is a deliberate act of will whose motive is
perfectly clear. It has to do with acquiring a useful tool that makes the
upheavals caused by the shock of both the future and the past indispensable.
Senghor explains to us that we are present for an encounter of giving and
receiving, to give and to receive, in an exchange that would cease to be
unequal, and which, for the benefit of all, would draw from the best
characteristics of all sides. If the dialogue of the Senegalese people is, from a
linguistic perspective, the one we have just suggested, let us pause to more
profoundly consider it; we can then glean the teachings required in order to
define the best course of action.

226 | P a g e
The most visible and spectacular element in this panorama is the great,
viable presence of national, traditional languages in their survival, despite a
long and unfair confrontation with a powerful language endowed with the
weapon of writing.

The blacks of Africa are not the only non-European people to have been
openly beaten with the whip of a calamity-ridden history. The miracle is that
they did not disappear, as others have done, and that not only have they
survived, but that they still live, grow, and prosper. I see the secret of this
vitality of men and their cultures in one specific quality unique to their
civilization. This secret, their fountain of youth, is that there is a unique and
privileged tie that exists between oral tradition and African life.

The oral culture of the black world is certainly vulnerable. By failing to posses
the impregnable barricade of writing, it is open to all winds, to all lack of
progress. However, even if it bends, oral tradition does not falter. The oral
tradition is linked to life, to perpetual and spontaneous renewal, whereas
writing is linked to severity, rigidity, and apathy. Maurice Calvet, who was
then the director of CLAD, made a striking comment in a conference held in
1968. "The primary function of the speech organs," he said, "is tied to animal
survival. To speak, we use the organs designed for breathing: the lungs; to
prevent flooding the voice box; the jaws and teeth for catching food; and for
kneading and moving food, the tongue." There is no more convincing proof
between speech and life. We eat like we speak; we speak like we breathe.
We speak like we relax, as my aunt used to say. One cannot say that we
write like we eat, or like we breathe, or like we relax: speech is, more than
writing, linked to life. Better than does writing, speech assures survival not
conservation of that with which we entrust it. More than writing, speech is a
living archive.

The Senegalese languages have survived because, better than written

languages, they conserve life. This virtue alone suffices to recommend them
to the filial faithfulness of modern linguistic elite as they work towards
edification and rebirth. It is another virtue of our oral traditions that refers
them to the attention of those called to fortify the revival. It has been said
that one of the principle characteristics of oral society is the close association
that exists between language and social practice. Again, Maurice Calvet
sheds light on this comment by saying, the structural ethnologs have shown,
he reminds us, the strange yet fascinating similarity that exists between
human structures and institutions (kinship, rituals, hierarchies, etc.) and the
very structures of language. Profoundly rooted in society, The oral tradition
explains the world, the history, the rituals, the surrounding nature, and the
relationships with neighboring ethnicities. Oral tradition ensures and protects
the multiple functions of memorization, of values, of ethics, and of aesthetic
expression. The oral tradition, being the support and medium of a living
society, better assures social reproduction than does writing. In the face of
brutal attacks of all kinds against African societies, oral tradition has afforded
opposition to an elastic and inconstant reaction, thus ensuring the survival of
these societies.

Furthermore, oral tradition dictates an aesthetic expression richer than

writing. Speech is not tied to the only organs that ensure animal survival. In

227 | P a g e
speech, the whole body participates in the transmission of the message,
unlike writing, which is paralyzed. If so desired, the speaker can easily
increase the power of his or her expression by incorporating facial
expressions, hands, and even the whole body. One can make speech
rhythmical like a drum; it can be made to sing and dance. It is true that one
can do the same with writing both with prose and especially with poetry but
in a less immediate fashion. Let us refer one last time to Calvet. He says,
Language is in its most pure form spoken language, the act of speaking. All
other forms of language: body language, drummed-out language, whistled
language, and written language are subsidiary forms of oral language,
achieved by transfer.

Languages of life, languages of survival, life-preserving languages of our

societies, irreplaceable in their ability to express the Senagelese people's
sensibility, culture, and civilization can you just throw these vital cultural
forms away in history's wastebasket, all in the name of progress? There is
not a soul in Senegal, a land of reason and imagination, situated on the
forefront of cultural attachment, who would make such an irrational choice.
There is not a country in Africa more capable than Senegal at sensing the
need to define political causes called for by historical necessity. That is why
the problem today is not that of choice, for the choice has already been made
in an unequivocal and unanimous manner by political and intellectual élites.
The task that these élites are challenged with is the transition from intention
to action, from theory to practice.

For the moment, let's come back to the linguistic and cultural panorama of
contemporary Senegal. This land is not inhabited by only native languages. A
foreign language, French, has also conquered, besieged, and still continues
to occupy the territory. Having come from somewhere else, known only by a
minority, mastered by a still smaller minority, French is, however, the
language that proclaims the law, communicates modern knowledge, and
facilitates the most important business transactions. It is true that this
foreign language was introduced in the country at the threat of bayonets. But
if it has remained for so long in a privileged position, it is because of the
choice made by the Senegalese people. Two signs are a testament to this
choice: first, the movement toward French schools, a movement whose size
has surpassed both the schools' ability to accommodate and adapt to all the
students' needs; and, secondly, the upholding of French as the official
language even as the country has acquired international sovereignty.

What assets, what attractions have ensured the victory of French and its
continued eminence? It is an important thing to know. One does not in the
slightest diminish the merits of this language in saying that French owes its
strength first and foremost, from a linguistic point of view, to the fact that it
is a language with a written form. The tool of writing, with all its virtues and
spells, couldn't help but have an effect of fascination on the Senegalese
people, a people of oral tradition. Political power, urban development,
historical records, the codification of laws, the formulation and preservation
of beliefs there isn't one of these elements that doesn't take on a whole
different aim when supported by the use of writing.

We have just said how, throughout a history full of trials and mortal dangers,

228 | P a g e
oral tradition has permitted the expression and preservation of these
elements of civilization. But the times have changed. In a world where, from
now on, neither time nor distance will be an obstacle to communication, an
oral culture becomes fragile and endangered. The broadcasting reach of an
oral culture is limited, as well as its power of competition and, consequently,
it falls in a position of inferiority. The strength of internal sentiment that
people of an oral tradition feel towards their cultures no longer suffice to
preserve their cultures, especially since these people are entering a phase of
technical progress in a united world.

The Senegalese peoples' intuitive perception of the mortal fragility of a

country deprived of the tool of writing provides one of the explanations for
why French has had such an alluring effect on them. However, French was
not the only written language present in Senegal. Arabic had been introduced
a long time before. So why is it that French prevailed? Certainly because it
was imposed by weapons. But we also believe that it is because the study of
French called for the use of the child's intelligence and reasoning whereas the
study of Arabic, a language of worship, required in the first place the faith of
the believer as well as his memory. The acquisition of French was more
thorough and its use, more universal. This direct and immediate relationship
between the French language and intelligence, reason and intellectual
aptitude of its Senegalese speaker was one of the major attractions.

From what I've just said, does it mean that French is unable to express the
sensibility and heartfelt musings of a Senegalese individual, unable to extract
from him and expose to the light of day his most profound identity? Read
Chants d'Ombre and the Stories of Amadou Coumba; read Maimouna and Les
bouts de bois de Dieu and tell me if Léopold Senghor and Birago Diop.
Abdaoulaye Sadji and Ousmane Sembene aren't Senegalese. Senghor is the
proof that it is absolutely possible, by the use of French, to reach the most
intimate reaches of the heart and soul. Nevertheless, it still takes a talented
poet to do this.

In truth, the French language has entered into the heritage of Senegal,
joining native languages like Wolof, Pulaar, Sereer, Joola, Malinké, and
Sarakolé. These are the seven living languages of Senegal today every one
as essential as the other. Taken all together, or considering each one
separately with French, they express completely and adequately the
Senegalese language at the end of this millennium. Individually, they cannot
make this claim.

It follows that the choice either was clear, or rather that Senegal didn't have
the choice. That is why, as Senghor (then president of the Republic of
Senegal) wrote, We have decided to choose French as the official language of
employment and of international communication, whereas our six principal
languages . . . will be promoted to the level of national languages,' because
of the expression of our African values.

The Senegalese legislator ratified what had already been inscribed in the
reality of our culture. The second paragraph of our constitution proclaimed
French as the official language. A decree of 21 May 1971 established as law
and regulated the transcription of the six national languages. From that time

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on, the legislative and regulatory arsenal establishing the chosen linguistic
policy was in place. It was then just a question of going from the formal
agreement on the principal to its elaboration and application.

So it had been decided that French would be the official language. Next came
the classic debate between the old school and the modern school. For, as the
radical nationalists would say, in French, by the way,

"French is a foreign language and, what's more, the language of the former
colonizers. The majority of the Senegalese people don't speak it. It is clear
that French is not as appropriate as our other native languages in expressing
the profound cultural identity of the Senegalese people. Nevertheless, the
Senegalese language that we aspire to build must be compatible with modern
progress. In fact, it is on this level of progress that one finds the cultural
genius of our people. Consequently, as the nationalists would say, the choice
of French is a bad one, from a political, technical, and operative point of
view. It would have been better to immediately choose one of our national
languages, logically, the one representing the largest minority of our people
and make it our national language, by force if necessary."

You can't do that, the modernists retort. It's true that French is a foreign
language, but it has been a part of Senegal for three and a half centuries.
Sure, it is the language of the former colonizers, but colonization is dead,
and if French is our official language, it is because of an independent,
deliberate choice on our part. That choice made in that way at that moment
in time, changed the political significance of the French language in Senegal.
Along this political frontier, this choice wards off any of the dangers of
internal divisions caused by the other solution. In view of its long presence in
our country, in view of the fact that it was imposed upon us as our official
language and that of our government, our instruction at all levels has been
only in French, common sense, reason, and the imperatives of action require
it to remain as such. If we are serious in our desires and if we consider that
modernization is our primary objective, then we must not hesitate between
French, a written language, one of the great languages of the world, and
some other Senegalese language not yet transcribed or modernized.
Considering our desire for progress and the fast-paced race of time, French
is, at this moment, the best tool. By it our technicians can read, speak, and
write the language of modernism, and access a universal heritage. By its use,
we can come to know the cultures of the peoples of the earth, which none of
our national languages would permit in the foreseeable future.

The debate could continue on indefinitely, elaborating on one or many of the

pertinent arguments, but there are certainly better things to be done. Let us
for the moment focus on what can be done concerning the French language;
we will then turn our attention toward the urgent tasks that must be
undertaken for the national languages.

It is obvious that the most rigid nationalists did not seriously want to
abandon the French language. Similarly, the most sentimental modernists
were forced to admit that on one hand, French, though it may be an official
language, is not a maternal language of the Senegalese people, and, on the
other hand, that for cultural and psycho-linguistic reasons, a maternal

230 | P a g e
language is a medium providing an indispensable education. If, by the nature
of things, and because of a lack of available solutions, French is an official
language, it must be studied in the best circumstances of quality and
effectiveness. As Senghor said, "If one must choose an instrument, it would
be absurd to not want the best possible one." I also remember that that was
the feeling that enlivened my playmate and me when, in the alleyway of our
village, we would play the game of speaking French correctly. The necessity
of French is a consequence that flows from the utilitarian function of French,
which is not only admitted by all the élites, but strongly desired by the
population.

Although the necessity of studying French is obvious, the necessity for

French to be the only teaching vehicle is less certain. I will not go so far as to
say that French should not serve as the sole tool of instruction in certain
disciplines for a period of time . Even the most advanced nations, with more
modern languages than Senegal at their disposal, show no reluctancy in such
a step. What should come to an end is the monopolistic position that French
has enjoyed when it is treated as the maternal language of the Senegalese
people. Dumont observed, The introduction of the national languages in the
official curriculum will modify the numbers attached to the problem of
teaching French in Senegal. French will rediscover its rightful place in the
Senegalese educational system: that of a foreign language benefitting from
the hours, curriculum, but also perspectives usually reserved for traditional
foreign languages.

The second stage of the Senegalese linguistic plan involves the politics of
national language promotion. The decree of 13 July 1972 concerning
elementary school teaching in Senegal, clearly laid down these principles, All
language transporting a given civilization, we believe that as long as we, the
Senegalese people, continue to teach our children a foreign language,
whatever it may be, without first teaching them their native language, our
people will remain alienated. There is an urgent necessity for the Senegalese
people to begin to teach their national languages. An initiation to the French
language, which is considered a workplace language, should be given in a
parallel manner to the introduction of the teaching of national languages. . . .
In Senegal, French will remain a foreign and secondary language whose
teaching should begin with clear connections tying it to the national
languages.

The promotion of national languages to the ranks of taught languages is a

complex and considerable undertaking, but it is both necessary and possible
to bring about much good, given a reasonable amount of time. Our history
has known slower progress than this.

Along with the politics involved with a Senegalese educational movement

towards a new call to progressively promote the teaching of national
languages, another task presents itself: that of literacy among adults in these
languages. Even if the educational and intellectual elite come to terms with
the monster that they have created for themselves, the desired objective of
rebirth and modernization of the national languages will only be achieved
with the participation of the people. Only the dynamism and creative genius
of the people will allow them to undertake the obstacles and to make a new

231 | P a g e
and fertile culture prosperous instead of the adverse, antagonistic theories
brandished by some scholars.

I have not lost sight of the possible permutations of the question that we are
asked, Is the French language appropriate for the expression of Senegalese
cultural identity? I think that I have answered this question, but to be clear, I
will repeat this answer in conclusion. Drawing from my own experience with
the French language and my knowledge of a few Senegalese languages,
judging with my mind and with my heart, having the ambition and the
intention of being profoundly entrenched in my black, African tradition, and
to be at the same time a militant committed to the birth of a new world,
materially self-mastered and spiritually reconciled, my answer to the
question is yes. Yes, in the language of humanism there is no aspect of the
human condition that the French language would not be capable of
describing; the language of a great and old nation, in times past, French was
chosen by diplomats and cultivated men of many nations and it remains
today one of the principle languages of the modern world.

To Prospero, who asked a question similar to that which we are asked today,
Caliban answered, You taught me your language. The advantage I have on it
is I know how to curse. Considering the manner in which he was treated,
having been demoted to servitude, denying his culture, and even his human
condition, it is understandable that Caliban was more inclined towards
cursing and insult than towards forgiveness. But there are no more lost
islands, unknown lands, unrecognized lands. The time of the finished world
has started and with it the dawn of the birth of the Civilization of the
Universal. The Africans and the French can and want to be present at this
meeting, together, in freedom and in brotherhood.

by Cheikh Hamidou Kane, author, former diplomat and minister in the

government of Senegal transcript from his presentation at BYU, 2 November
2000, translated by Natalie and Zachary Gubler

Perspectives on Literacy

Defining education within a grassroots literacy movement

The questions of why and how to develop so-called literacy programs, which
usually focus on adults and are often in a language without a long written
tradition, is part of an on-going international debate. This article gives a
voice to a group of new literates in a Senegalese language, Pulaar, who are
sandwiched between the national debate over continuing to use an
international language in the local school system, and the public policy
debate over allocating funds for non-formal education.The official language of
Senegal, both in the administration and in education, is French. There are
twenty-two national languages, six of which have been officially recognized
but which are not used in the educational system. Approximately 58% of
school age children enter the public French-language school system; but of
these, roughly 80% fail to finish primary school. The pyramid of Senegal's
educational system looks like a sharp needle standing up-right on a flat

232 | P a g e
surface, and getting ever narrower as the educational years go by. As a
result, Senegal's official illiteracy rate is 67% by the latest World Bank
statistics.

In the face of such dismal statistics, individuals motivated to learn are

turning, as adults, to a non-formal, community-based form of education in
Senegalese languages.
The most dramatic and dynamic of these grassroots movements is
unquestionably that of the Pulaar language. Pulaar is a language used by
roughly one third of Senegal's 9,000,000 citizens, but it is spoken by some
25,000,000 people speaking mutually intelligible dialects across the Sahel to
the borders of eastern Sudan.

Educators and policy makers can learn some important lessons from this
language community. This article highlights the salient points of this
grassroots movement, from exploring the motivations of individual learners
to reviewing the socio-historical events which have contributed to converting
a literacy program into a cause. Few elements of this literacy movement are
more important than the link which has been established between cultural
identity and literacy. In an interview with a group of voluntary literacy
teachers living on the outskirts of the Senegalese capital, the person
conducting the interview was told, ..we must try to revitalize our culture, and
literacy in the Pulaar language is one instrument for reaching that goal.
(Madden, 1990, p. 18)

The personal impact: Studying Pulaar woke me up

It is difficult to present a neat definition of the cognitive skills which people

feel
they gain by becoming literate. They speak more in terms of generally being
more aware. When new literates write, very few of them talk about their
efforts in terms of literacy or illiteracy (known as humambinnaagal in Pulaar).
To describe their
experience with learning to read and write, almost all consistantly use the
term
jande (whose meaning is much closer to studies). As one woman said,
Studying made me literate, not Because I'm literate I can now start to study.
This phrase captures the sense of participating in a learning process which is
perceived as a wake up call.
All new literates claim that becoming literate brought them pinal, from the
verbal root fin- meaning to wake up. The noun pinal is used in to mean
culture, values,
awareness - that is, being awake. Kuenzi reports this same metaphor in her
evaluation report:

Many respondents expressed the idea that literacy training had allowed them
to explore and get to know themselves. They also spoke of being generally
more aware and conscious than they had been previous to their literacy
training. Interestingly, the metaphor of sleeping was frequently used by
many when asked about the impact of literacy. In describing the effects of
literacy on villagers, one respondent commented, They are now more awake.
They are able to document things, they are aware of everything that is

233 | P a g e
happening in the world. The others are sleeping. (Kuenzi, 1996, p.14)

Amongst the things which people say about the personal aspects, both
cognitive
and empowering, of becoming literate and studying are:

 Studying opened up my intelligence.

 Now I can take notes of all my thoughts.
 I can now listen to things and make a choice.
 It is only through studying that a person can change.
 At first, I didn't even know how to write my name. Now I know what I
should do with my life.
 I now know my own mind, and refuse to be tricked.
 From now on, everything that I do, I will stop first to think about it, to
get information about whether it is a good or bad action.
 Studying woke me up, gave me knowledge, and improved my
behavior and patience.
 What has changed in my life is that now I have become a more
humble and forgiving person.

Oxenham presents these same thoughts in a more elegant form:

....the technology of literacy has served not simply the intended practical
purposes of storing and communicating information. Vastly more important,
it seems to have enabled the growth and development of the human reason
and its power to combine different sources of information to produce even
more understanding and inspiration. It has been potent, too, in the growth of
self-consciousness and self-understanding. (Oxenham, 1980, p. 43)

One particularily articulate respondant with only one year of Pulaar literacy
training and no formal schooling in French shared the following reflection in
the Kuenzi evaluation:

The fact that I have pursued literacy has helped me in my work. It has given
me
courage to go all the way with things, to be more rigorous and curious. I
used to
do things by routine. Before, I couldn't give the dates of your visit. I didn't
have memory, precision or observation. Writing has been the most important
thing because I can fix firmly on something. (Kuenzi, 1996, p. 15)

Kuenzi views the often repeated theme of writing letters and keeping secrets
not
as a trivial use of literacy, but as a sign of the increased empowerment of
those
who are able to do so:

Overall, the respondents seemed to feel empowered by their experience with

literacy.... Many of the respondent's replies pertained to issues of personal
efficacy and independence. Numerous respondents note that, after literacy
training, they were able to read and write their own letters. Many

234 | P a g e
respondents stressed that being able to do so allowed them to keep their
secrets. While some might dismiss these often heard remarks as trivial in
light of the magnitude of the problems facing villagers and their
communities, one would be in error to do so. The sheer frequency with which
respondents recounted this new found ability indicates that it represents
something important to people. Indeed, being able to read and write one's
own letters appears to be associated with the ideas of being able to protect
one's interests, keep one's personal business to oneself and thereby maintain
control over self. Throughout all of the topics discussed with respondents
who participated in a literacy program, the theme of no longer needing an
intermediary was emphasized. (Kuenzi, 1996, p. 13)

In other words, individuals are fully aware of the numerous ways in which
literacy has affected them. This is largely expressed in terms of personal
capacities to think and plan.

The social impact: I now dare work in a group

Because of the issue of empowerment, it is difficult to separate most

comments by those which show either a personal or a social impact. The
juncture between the two is perhaps best expressed by the use of the verb to
dare, which appears in the vast majority of letters. Daring starts from a
sense of personal empowerment, but implies a social action as well. Ong
captures the dialectic between the heightened sense of self generated by
participation in a literacy program, and the heightened sense of sociability,
when he writes, Writing ... intensified the sense of self and fosters more
conscious interaction between persons. (Ong, 1991, p. 179) Canieso-Doronila
points out that the participation in literacy classes increases an awareness of
how to act in a group through learning the communication skills of
discussion, facilitation, synthesizing, public speaking, bargaining, negotiation.
(Canieso-Doronila, 1996, p. 125)

As Kuenzi reports:

At the same time that the idea of getting to know oneself was stressed,
respondents also strongly emphasized that they had become more social as
a result of the training. Many of the same themes regarding changes
in demeanor and an openness to the outside emerged in these interviews.
(Kuenzi, 1996, p. 14)

The issue of change in public behavior is well expressed in the following

excerpts from letters:

 Studying gave me the courage to stand in the middle of people and

speak the truth.
 Now when I enter a group, first I listen to what the others have to
say, I try to understand, and then I respectfully add whatever I can,
based on the technique of good listening.
 What has changed in my life is that now I dare sit with the elders,
something which I couldn't do before.
 Whether the person be old or young, a man or a woman, I now know

235 | P a g e
 how we can be together as equals.
 Studying taught me a lot about people.
 Studying improved my social relationships.
 What we've seen in studying is that men and women are equal in
work.

Clearly, personal empowerment and new skills have led these participants
into the social arena, where they can act as both leaders and resource
persons to the larger community to which they are attached.

Conclusion: What can we learn from the Pulaar experience?

A good deal has been written about the relative merits of the autonomous
and ideological models for supporting literacy. The Pulaar model
demonstrates an integration of the two. New literates can very clearly
identify both the cognitive and the social gains they have made through
becoming literate. Furthermore, these gains are realized both on a personal
level, and on the level of the entire community. But the Pulaar model also
emphasizes the importance of a cultural dimension in which becoming literate
becomes a media both for knowing better one's own culture, as well as for
supporting that culture in a time of rapid social change. While some of the
gains of literacy are seen as having access to what is new and from the
outside, somehow new literates have also transformed literacy in Pulaar into
a tool to discover and transmit the soul or core of their own culture.

---------------

Excerpts from:

Constructive Interdependence:

The Response of a Senegalese Community to the Question of

Why Become Literate

By Dr. Sonja Fagerberg-Diallo

Associates in Research & Education for Development (ARED)

Centre Ahmadou Malick Gaye (Bopp)

Dakar, Sénégal

236 | P a g e
Food & Drinks

At this writing, Western Fast food is not yet popular in West-Africa. For the
most part, people eat at home (or at a friend's).When families cook, they don't
cook for just themselves, they also cook for anyone who may stop by. In
villages as well in the towns, people who, hold on to the traditional Fulani
ways, group organize themselves into tumbudu or eating group, eating
together where every one brings a dish, as in a pot-luck, or take turn in
preparing the meal for the group. For meats, there is just about every thing
except maybe pork: beef, lamb, goat, cow, chicken, turkey, geese, guinea
fowls, pigeon, fish, other seafood...

Grains include: millet, sorghum, maize, rice and wheat. For fruits, vegetables,
and legumes there are oranges, bananas, pineapples, tangerines, carrots,
watermelons, guava, melons, limes, grape fruits, mangos, peppers, tomatoes,
onions, peas, sweet potatoes and many other things. A popular oil used for
cooking is called palm oil, which is a reddish colored oil made from ground
palm kernels.

A classic complete meal will include: Appetizers, Main Dishes, Fish or meat,
Dessert, a Three-round service of tea and a sharing a Kola nut. The table
below shows some of the meals and how they are prepared, and some of the
ways that they are eaten.

Below are lists of the foods that include traditional and imported and new
cuisine.These show how wise food choices and preparation methods of
traditional cultures combined with exotic foods and cuisine, promote vigorous
good health, longevity and freedom from dental problems and mental
disorders.

Food

FOOD Names Description

Appetizers Akara Beans are skinned, ground, and
fried into round balls. They are
eaten with a spicy tomato sauce
and onions.
Pastels Fried batter of wheat flower
stuffed with fish or beef eaten
with a spicy sauce.
Beignets Beignets (where French influence
exists),
Buuzi Millet patties similar to pancakes
Traditional CousCous Steamed millet flower, maize
Dishes flower or semolina
Lacciri e Haako Couscous and leaves with fish or
meat
Nyiiri Boiled coarse ground millet or
maize with seasonings
Nyiiri e Buna Boiled coarse ground millet or

237 | P a g e
 maize with dried fish and ghee
Caakri Dessert (see below)
Rice Dishes white: rice cooked or Eaten with Fish, Mafe, Sup
steamed in water, then Kandie, Cassava leaves.
usually covered with
sauce.
jollof rice: rice cooked (or Eaten with Fish , Meat, Maro e
baked) with ground Lizzi,
tomatoes, peppers,
sometimes meat and
vegetables, other spices,
and comes out reddish in
color.
fried rice: rice cooked in Eaten beans, plantains, meat, ...
oils, vegetables, meats,
and spices.
Black eyed Generally boiled. Eaten with Couscous millet, rice
peas Sometimes cooked in
combination with maize, or
rice, with or without
sauce.
Sweet boiled plain: White or vegetable oil, palm oil, eggs,
Potatoes, yellow yams are peeled, beans and soup
yams sliced up, usually into
pieces about 3
centimeters, and boiled in
water with salt
fried: White or yellow usually by itself or as a side in a
yams are cut up into long meal
thin squares and fried in
vegetable oil or palm oil.
Water yams are cut up usually by itself or as a side in a
and fried in vegetable oil meal
or palm oil.
Plantains Boiled
baked whole in the oven rice, beans, eggs, by itself...
maize (yellow boiled: the corn is still on
corn) the cob, and boiled in
water and salt
roasted: the corn is still on
the cob, and it is roasted
in the oven, or on a grill
until it is brown
Main Dishes
Maro e Lizzi Fish and jollof rice also called
Thieboudiene (See Recipe below)
afe Recipe Peanut butter stew over white
rice (See Recipe below)
Chiken Yassa Recipe Lemon Chicken (See Recipe
below)

238 | P a g e
 Sup Kanje Recipe Okra sauce (See Recipe below)
Laciri Basi Salte Stewed meat and vegetables
over Couscous (See Recipe
below)
Laciri e Tew Stewed meat and black eyed
peas over Couscous (See Recipe
below)
Maffi Haako Sweet potato leaves (See Recipe
below)
Couscous Haako (See Recipe below)
groundnuts Used as in Peanut butter Eaten with boiled white rice
sauce, Mafe
shelled peanuts (as called raw, or boiled in salt water, or
in America anyway) roasted (eaten after the shells
are removed of course)
Dessert Caakri dessert Eaten specially during holidays
and ceremonies.

Drinks

Drinks Description
water
Tuffam drink made a mixture of sour milk and water may or may
not be sweetened.
minerals (soft also known elsewhere as 'pop', or 'soda'.
drinks)
fruit drinks pineapple juices, orange juices, etc.
Follere, Bissap A hibiscus type flower with water and pineapple
Juice sweetened with vanilla.
Javve, Sweetened tamarind pods drink
Tamarindo Juice
Jingeer, Ginger Crushed ginger with pineapple juice, sweetened
Drink
Attaya, Tea Tea ceremony: Drinking Tea is an important social
function. A great deal of ceremony surrounds the making
and serving of tea. See Making tea (Below)

The Kola Nut (Goro)

The Kola Nut (Goro)

After a copious meal, especially during holidays and ceremonies, a Kola nut is
used to complete the meal. The Kola nut is broken into small pieces and
shared between family and friends. Some Kolanuts have two carpsels, some
three, some four some five, and some six which is the highest number of
carpsels they can have.

239 | P a g e
The Kola nut has a very special meaning in West African Cultures. It is used
to seal agreements and contracts. For example it is widely distributed at
weddings, naming ceremonies, and conflict mediation. The Kola nut
symbolizes understanding, friendship and unity. Kola is used to symbolizes
long life in a marriage. It is wishing the couple a long life together. It is
broken and passed around to all the well-wishers present for the ceremony.
Everyone takes a small bite.

Full Recipes:
FLacciri e Haako: Couscous and leaves with fish or meat.

*For six people

Ingredients (May be adjusted for taste or health reasons)

1steak of fish of 1kg, 2 pieces of dried fish, 1kg of leaves (leaves of black eyed
peas or spinach, or collar greens) , 50g of onion, 1 cloves of garlic, 2 fresh hot
peppers, 1 strap of green onion, salt, 500g of ground peanut, 1 cup of black
eyed peas, 1 cup of dried ground melon or pumpkin seed (jaga), and 2 kg
couscous and 1-2 table spoons of laalo.

Preparation

 Put 2 liters of water in a large pot; add fish, dried fish, onion, garlic,
spices and salt. Let cook the whole for a half hour. Withdraw fish from
the pot and remove bones. Then in the pot add the ground peanut, the
dried ground melon seeds and the black eyed peas.
 Leave the whole pot to simmer for half an hour.
 In another pot steam the couscous with 2 Qt of water and 1or 2
Tablespoon of laalo.
 Serve the Haako sauce over couscous.

Extra

 After the meal, as a dessert people usually mix the couscous with fresh
milk and drink it.
 The fish could be replaced by meat.

FMaro e Lizzi (Thieboudiene)

*For six people

Condiments (May be adjusted for taste or health reasons)

2 pieces of fish preferably, grouper, Half a pound (250 G) of concentrated

tomato, 1 big fresh tomato cut out of pieces, Onion 50g, 1/2 liter of groundnut
oil, 4 large carrots, 4 big eggplants., 100g Cabbage, 2 slides of maniocs ,
bunch of parsley, 25g of dried hot pepper., 2 fresh hot peppers.,
1 piece of dried mollusk (yet), 1 tea spoon of pepper., 1 bay leaf., 1 clove of

240 | P a g e
garlic, 1 bunch of sour-sour or bissap leaves, 1 piece of dried fish, 1 m of wire
of kitchen, 1 whole cauliflower, 6 fresh okra, ½ lb of tamarind, and 2 pounds
(1kg) of long grain rice.

Preparation

 Cut out onions and a fresh hot pepper .

 Dilute concentrated tomato in an average bowl, with a half glass of
water.
 Crush in a mortar or mixer the dried pepper and the pepper. Add the
parsley thin slice and the clove of garlic, until obtaining the stuffing.
Add salt.
 Make small hollows by places in fish and to put the stuffing at it.
 Peel vegetables and to soak them in a bowl filled with water.
 Preheat oil in an enough broad pot to contain the condiments, and to
put salt. To make cook fish stuffed as a preliminary during a few
minutes .To withdraw It oil and to put it side.
 Make return in hot oil the dried mollusk (Yët), onions cut out, and the
hot pepper. To let cook during 5 minutes. Not to let onions brown too
much.
 Add then concentrated tomato and some fresh tomato cubes.
 Let cook the whole during 10 minutes. Put per moments a small
quantity of water, in order to avoid the formation of juices.
 Put fish now, to let it cook on the two sides during 15 minutes.
 Put all vegetables in cooking, before adding a liter and half of water. Let
cook until boiling.
 Wrap the dried fish in the bissap leaves and put them in.
 Rinse rice and cook it with the vapor of cooking. Then withdraw it.
 Withdraw fish and vegetables of cooking, as well as a ladle of the
bubble.
 Rectify the seasoning with salt and make cook the rice until it is
perfectly cooked.
 Serve in a dish and to decorate with vegetables and fish on your own
way.

Extra

Make return from pink shrimps and sweet pepper in cooking at the beginnig for
decorer your dish

Mafe

*For 8 people

Ingredients: (May be adjusted for taste or health reasons)

2 kg of meat , 500 G of groundnut paste, 250 G concentrated tomato , ¼ of

litter of oil

1 piece of dried mollusk , 1 piece of dried fish 2 big fresh carrots, 2 pieces of
cabbage, tubers of manioc, potatoes, sweet potatoes, 2 fresh peppers , 5

241 | P a g e
grammes of dry pepper, 2 teaspoons of pepper, a leave of bay-tree, salt,
vinegar , 250 grammes of onion, 1 handful of netetou (West-African grain), 2
kg of rice .

Preparation

 Heat the oil in a pot rather big

 Make the meat cook for a few minute
 Add some salt, some onion cut out, some fresh pepper, some dried
mollusk, some concentrated tomato until it get brown.
 Add water, the groundnut, all the vegetable (except the sweet potatoes
and the potatoes) the dried fish and let cook for a few minute. Crush
the nenetou, the pepper, the hot pepper, the garlic, and then put in the
pot put the potatoes, the sweet potatoes and the fresh pepper. Let it
cook until boiling. Cook the rice in salted water.
 Serve the Mafe sauce over white rice and enjoy.

-FChiken Yassa Recipe

*For six people

Ingredients. (May be adjusted for taste or health reasons)

2 Chicken of 1.500g each , 3 kilos of onions , 6 cloves of garlic , · 1 hot pepper

, · 1 teaspoon of pepper , 20 cl of vinegar , 1 coffee spoon of red pepper , 3
soup spoon of mustard , 1/2 liter of oil , 2 kilos of long grain rice , 10 lemons
at least.

Preparation

 Crush the hot pepper, pepper, garlic, salt and put it side.
 Cut out onions in juliennes and marinate with the vinegar, salt,
mustard, and oil, add 2 soupspoons of mustard. Let macerate for half
an hour.
 Cut out chicken in pieces, prick them with the stuffing prepared as a
preliminary and let it macerate for one hour at least in preceding
marinade.
 Make roast the pieces of chicken in entirety during necessary time
(without letting them burn because it will deteriorate the taste of
chicken) and put it side.
 Preheat the pot and pour in it the remaining oil. Make onions return in
oil for 10 minutes. Then remove it.
 Put in the hot oil the remaining of the stuffing, mixed with onions cut
out of dice. Let it return for a few minutes.
 Add glass of water and let it cook a few minutes, before putting chicken
in it. Add water and let it cook for half an hour.
 Prick chicken with a fork to ensure of the cooking.
 Put the cut out onions as Julienne and let the whole cook for a few
minutes. Not to let onions empty themselves of their water, because
they are likely to lose their savor.
 Add some vinegar drops and put the sheet of bay-tree as some lemon

242 | P a g e
 juice drops to make it a little acidulous.
 Cook the rice in salted water and a soupspoon of oil. Enjoy chicken Yasa
over white rice.

Extra: May want to add olives and vegetables on the side.

FSup Kanje Recipe

*For six people

Ingredients (May be adjusted for taste or health reasons)

1Qt of palm oil, 1steak of fish of 1kg, 500g of smoked fish, 2 pieces of dried
fish, 1kg of gumbo,

2 pieces of dried mollusk, 175g of shrimp, 50g of onion, 1 cloves of garlic, 2

fresh hot peppers, 1 strap of green onion, salt, 2 kg (of long grain rice).

Preparation

 Put 3 liters of water in a large pot; add fish, dried fish, the yêt and salt.
Let cook the whole for a half hour. Withdraw fish from the pot and take
the bones out. Then in the pot add the smoked fish, shrimps, toufa and
fresh pepper.
 Crush the Netetou, hot pepper, garlic, onion. Add them in the cooking,
before adding the fish. Crush the gumbo, put it in the pot and let it
cook. Rectify the seasoning with salt.
 Put the palm oil in the pot and leave the whole simmer for half an hour.
 In another pot steam the rice with 2 Qt of water and 1 Tablespoon of
salt serve with brown or white rice. Serve Sup Kanje over white rice and
enjoy.

Extra

Add one spoon of powder shrimp and gumbo. The taste of your sauce will be
better.

FLaciri Basi Salte

*For six people

Ingredients: (May be adjusted for taste or health reasons)

1.5 kg of lamb, 250g of onions, 5 cloves of garlic, 2 green onion straps, 3 fresh
leek straps, 300 grammes of tomato purée, 2 fresh tomatoes, 1 pinch of
pepper, 1 fresh hot pepper, 100 g of sweet potatoes, 2 cabbages, 3 big
carrots, 100 g of manioc, 2 Turnips, 25 g of dried pepper, ½ liter of oil, Salt, 3
cucumbers

243 | P a g e
For the couscous: 1 kg of couscous (whole millet), Raisins, white beans

Preparation:

 Prepare a mix with dried hot pepper, pepper, salt, and garlic.
 Prick the meat and chicken by places with a little mix, then keep the
remainder.
 Preheat the oil in a pot and make gild carrots, turnips, sweet potatoes
and. Put aside then.
 Make return and gild the peaces of meat in the oil and put the whole
aside.
 Take again the mix and add onions cut out of dice and green onions.
Salt a little, then put the whole in the hot oil and let gild.
 During this time, cut out tomatoes in dice and dilute tomato purée in a
¼ of a glass water.
 Add to the cooking the tomato puree and let cook. Put the fresh tomato
in 10 minutes after. Do not forget to put per moments small quantities
of water in order to avoid the formation of juices in the bottom of the
pot.
 Add the meat in the pot. Check using a fork the level of cooking of the
meat. Rectify the seasoning if necessary. Add the remainder of
vegetables and the mix in the pot.
 You can now withdraw vegetables and put them on side, before they
soften in the cooking.
 You can now steam the couscous, and then add cooked beans and
raisins.
 You can serve in a large dish Basi Salte sauce over the couscous with
beans and raisins.

FLaciri e Tew/ Lizzi

Fish or Lamb Stuffed

with Couscous, Almonds & Herbs
(Serves 4)

Ingredients:

(May be adjusted for taste or health reasons)\4 tablespoons olive oil,1 small
onion, finely chopped, 2 garlic cloves, crushed, 2/3 cup couscous, 1-1/4 cups
fish or vegetable stock,1 tablespoon chopped parsley, 1 tablespoon chopped
mint. 4 pieces of Lamb or 4 whole fish, each weighing about, 12 ounces,
cleaned, heads removed and boned, Salt and pepper, 1/2 cup sliced almonds

To garnish: Lemon wedges and Mint sprigs.

1. Heat 2 tablespoons of the oil in a frying pan, add the onion and fry until
softened, adding the garlic toward the end. Stir in the couscous, fish or
vegetable stock, parsley and mint. Bring to a boil, then remove the pan from
the heat and leave for 10-15 minutes, or until the liquid has been absorbed.
2. Season the trout with salt and pepper and fill the cavity of each one with
one-fourth of the couscous mixture. Lay the lamb or fish in a greased shallow

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baking dish. Mix the remaining oil with the almonds and spoon over the fish.
Bake in a preheated 400° F. oven for 15-20 minutes, or until the fish flakes
when tested with a fork.
3. Garnish with lemon wedges and mint sprigs

FMaffi Hakko (sweet potato leaves)

Ingredients: (May be adjusted for taste or health reasons)

1/2 cup palm oil or plain vegetable oil , bunches sweet potato leaves, cut finely
, 1 med onion, chopped salt, to taste ,pimento, to taste , 2 1/2 heaping
spoonfuls of dried, pounded, or cooked fish or beef .

Preparation

Cut up the leaves, or buy them already cut. Heat the palm oil in a pot until just
before it starts to smoke. Sauté the onion until translucent. Start adding
handfuls of leaves into the pot, stirring and letting each handful cook down a
minute or two. Pour in enough water to cover the leaves by two inches. Add
pimento and bring the sauce to a rolling boil. Add fish or beef, and stir in. boil
until no water is left on the surface, just a layer of oil. There will be lots of little
bubbles, but not the large bubbles as with water as in a rolling boil. Stir often
at the end. Serve over rice.

FCaakri dessert

2-3 cups wet millet flower, processed into small balls (yerwaade) and steamed
1 32oz. of sour milk or container of vanilla yogurt ,1 small (6oz.) can of
condensed milk (un sweetened)
1 tsp. vanilla extract ,1/2 cup sugar .

This is a wonderful after dinner treat or specialty eaten during Ramadan, the
Muslim holy month. Prepare Caakri to directions. Caakri should be light, not
sticky with clumps. Set aside. Mix sour milk or yogurt, condensed milk, sugar
and vanilla extract. This should form a very thick milk. Chill milk and caakri.
Pour milk into small cups. Add caakri to cups and mix well. Eat with spoon.--

FFollere, Bissap Juice

3 cups of dried hibiscus flowers 1/2 tsp. strawberry or pineapple extract (opt.)
1 cup of sugar , 1/2 tsp. of vanilla extract

Wash hibiscus flowers in lukewarm water. Boil flowers in 2 quarts of water. Do

not boil for more than 1 minute or juice will become bitter. Remove flowers
and carefully pour juice into container. Be sure to avoid pouring any sediment
from the bottom of pot into container. Let sit until cool. Mix in sugar (add more
than 1 cup if needed) and extracts. Refrigerate.

FJavve, Tamarindo Juice

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1 cup tamarind pods, 1 cup sugar, 1/2 tsp. vanilla extract

As with jus de bissap, boil 2 quarts of water. Rinse tamarind and remove pods
if
possible. It is not necessary to remove the seeds. Add to boiling water. Boil for
1-2 minutes. Let stand until cool. Use strainer to remove larger sediment and
seeds. Keep in mind that this juice is thick and that you should not remove the
pulp. Remove smaller sediment while pouring into container. Add sugar and
vanilla to taste. Refrigerate.

FJingeer, Ginger Drink

This tastes just like the stuff you get in little bags - it's delicious. It's kind of a
lot of work but it's very good and refreshing.

6 c -Boiling water ;1 c Ginger root: fresh, peeled & -grated ,1 c Sugar, 2

teaspoons Cloves, whole, Cinnamon sticks, 1/2 c Lime juice, fresh or lemon
juice, 1 c orange, 8 c -Cool water

Pour the boiling water over the grated ginger root, sugar, cloves and cinnamon
in a large nonreactive pot or bowl (enamel, glass or stainless steel). Cover and
set aside in a warm place, in the sun if possible, for at least an hour. Strain the
liquid through a fine sieve or cloth. Add the juices and water. Set aside in a
warm place for another hour or so. Gently strain the liquid again, taking care
not to disturb the sediment at the bottom. Store in the refrigerator in a large
nonreactive container. A glass gallon jar or jug works well. Serve warm, chilled
or on ice, either as is or diluted with water or sparkling water. A squeeze of
fresh lime juice in each glass of ginger drink is nice.

FMaking tea

Empty a bag of tea leaves into the teapot, and add appropriate amount of
water. Bring it to boil in a special tea pot. Then put fresh mint and sugar
directly in the tea pot or into a second teapot for a better mix. To serve, hold
the pot high and pour it into a series of small glasses. Holding the pot high
creates foam and also cools the tea so that it can be quickly drinkable. People
take time over the tea, chatting around the teapot on the stove. Both young
and old enjoy drinking tea.

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Proverbs-Pulareeje

In serious talk or in ordinary conversation, Africans liked to start with a

proverb that speaks about the topic of the moment. The use of proverbs in
Africa is a very powerful communication form. It allows people to understand
the meaning quickly and also to remember what was said long after the
conversation or the meeting is over. Indeed in the African context, a proverb is
worth a thousand words!

Although they may be based on given cultures and traditions, proverbs are
usually essentially expressions of universal truths. In their application proverbs
are not necessarily tied down to the community that first produced them. A
Fulani can easily adopt a proverb from another ethnic group and make it
appropriately fit his/her circumstance. Proverbs are usually short and highly
condensed sayings, which are generally anonymous in their authorship and
authoritative in its application. Brevity is, therefore, one characteristic of a
proverb, and this brevity helps to make proverbs memorable, that is, easy to
learn and retain in memory. Some proverbs are musical, and rhythmic as is
shown by the following Fulani proverb, Feere fendi fettande kono virazam
haazaani (The need to create made sour milk, but fresh milk is not bitter).

The use of proverbs as a source of moral authority is facilitated by their nature.

In their brevity, musicality, and depth of meaning, proverbs are not only easily
memorable, they are also easy to apply at appropriate occasions. It is their
nature, incidentally, that makes it possible for them to be easily used in
everyday speech. They help enrich and add color to everyday speech, as they
help a speaker make a point briefly, sometimes with devastating effect.

As distilled accumulation of time-tested experiences, and ancestral wisdom,

proverbs are also useful in the transmission of what are perceived as adequate
and desirable moral standards and healthy social interaction. Proverbs initiate
youth into adulthood, especially in societies where they are the preserve of
elders. And as the youth are initiated into adulthood, they absorb the codes of
human behavior as they prepare for future roles as guardians of ancestral
wisdom and culture.

The following are proverbs from all over Africa. They are grouped into
categories, but with many overlapping.

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Proverbs

Common sense

 A hunter who has only one arrow does not shoot with careless aim.
When a palm-branch reaches its height, it gives way for a fresh one to
grow.
 One cannot go back to the farmer from whom one borrowed seed-
yams to plant to say that the beetles have eaten up the seed-yams.
 If one were to remove every smoking wood from a fire and condemn
it as bad, one would be killing the fire itself.
 It is the brutally outspoken man that earns enmity.
 The elephant and the tiger do not go hunting on the same pasture.
 A farmer does not boast that he has had a good harvest until his stock
of yams lasts till the following harvest season.
 He who pursues an innocent chicken always stumbles.
The fish that can see that its water is getting shallower cannot be
stranded.
 Without knowing a way thoroughly at day time, never attempt to pass
it at night.
 It is not enough to run, one must arrive and know when one has
arrived.
It is a lazy man who says "it is only because I have no time that my
farm is overgrown with weeds".
 Every river knows where its water would not be soaked up into the
earth, and that is where it flows past.

Hard work

 A farmer does not conclude by the mere look of it that a corn is

unripe; he tears it open for examination.
 It is little by little that a bird builds its nest.
 To do one's duty is to eat the prized fruit of honor.
 A farmer, who would not work inside the rain and would not work
under the sun, would have nothing to harvest at the end of the
farming year.
 An ant-hill that is destined to become a giant ant-hill will definitely
become one, no matter how many times it is destroyed by elephants.
 He who is afraid of doing too much always does too little.
 Sleep and indolence are not cousins of a good harvest.
 Success is 10% ability, and 90% sweat.

Not giving up

 One must row in whichever boat one finds one's self.

 When a person regrets endlessly, he gets to pay more for what he
regrets.
 It is little by little that a bird builds its nest.
 It is not only the fox, even the snail arrives at its destination.
 However long the moon disappears, someday it must shine again.
 It is the same moon that wanes today that will be the full moon

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 tomorrow.
 It is only the toad that gets up from its knees and falls back again on
its knees.
 The spider that knows what it will gain sits waiting patiently in its
web. The praying mantis is never tired waiting all day.
 One does not become a master diviner in a day. A forest is not made
in a season. The swoop of an eagle has seen many seasons and
floods...
 Who says the oasis in the desert is happy because of its hidden spring
of water?
 The cricket is never blinded by the sand of its burrowing.
 An oil lamp feels proud to give light even though it wears itself away.
 A bird does not change its feathers because the weather is bad.

Cooperation

Common proverbs of cooperation are:

 A herbalist that refuses to ask laymen what leaves he looks for in the
bush, must have difficulties getting what he wants.
 It is a pot of water that is already half full that the world would like to
help in filling to the brim.
 A man can not sit down alone to plan for prosperity.
 A man who lives alone is either always overworked, or always
overfed.
 A single tree can not make a forest.
 A single man can not build a house.
 If a child shoots and arrow that reaches the top of a tall palm tree,
then it must be that an elderly person carved the arrow for him.
 When the right hand washes the left hand and the left hand washes
the right hand, both hands become clean.
 It is by the strength of their number that the ants in the field are able
to carry their prey to the nest.
 Two footsteps do not make a path.
 Two raindrops do not make a pool.

Patience

 The calf shouldn t be in a hurry to grow horns; he ll have them until

he dies.
 A speedy wrestling and a bad fall go hand in hand.
 Patient people are patient to gain longevity.
 However long the moon disappears, someday it must shine again.
It is little by little that a bird builds its nest.
 The thirsty fig sits waiting patiently, waiting for the arrival of the
rains.
 One does not become a master diviner in a day. A forest is not made
in a season. The swoop of an eagle has seen many seasons and
floods...
 It is not only the hare, the tortoise arrives also at the destination.

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Kindness

 What good people witness should not become bad.

 Without knowing a person we must not hate him.
 He who digs a pit for others must invariably fall into it.
 By being grateful, a man makes himself deserving of yet another
kindness.
 When the laborer is praised, his cutlass begins to cut more keenly.
 If the owner of a calabash calls it a worthless calabash, others will join
him to use it to pack rubbish.
 Criticism is easy but it does not create.
 If one imitates the upright, one becomes upright; if one imitates the
crooked, one becomes crooked.
 When a sickle is drawn, it in turn draws the tree to which it is hooked.
 If a person who curses another is not better than the person he
curses, a request is never made of him to rescind the curse.

Honesty

 Money does not announce how it is earned but whereas properly

earned money appreciates, improperly earned money depreciates.
 The bottom of wealth is sometimes a dirty thing to behold.
 Rather than tell a lie to help a friend, it is better to assist him in
paying
 the fine for his offense.

Thoughtfulness

 A fowl does not forget where it lays it eggs.

 The habit of thinking is the habit of gaining strength.
 It is one word of advice that one needs to give to a wise man, and
that word keeps multiplying in his mind.
 Does a man not know when he has pepper in his eyes? If we forget
yesterday, how shall we remember tomorrow.
 Thoughts and dreams are the foundation of our being.
 We are what our thinking makes us.

Sharing/Generosity

 Every little tree gives its little bit of shade.

 It is an unthinking man who achieves prosperity, and then finds with
time, that his body can no longer pass through the door.
 When an only kolanut is presented with love, it carries with it more
value than might otherwise be associated with a whole pod of several
kolanuts.
 The man who remembers others, remembers also his creator.
 The bird that remembers its flockmates, never missed the way.
 When a dying man cries, it is not because of where he is going which
he knows nothing about, but because of what he wishes he would
have done in the world he is leaving behind.

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  The head could not have got to where it is now if it did not give.

Humility

 A performing masquerade who tries too hard to outclass his

colleagues may expose his anus.
 It is from a small seed that the giant Iroko tree has its beginning.
 A family name is not cooked and eaten, one's life is the thing.
 A good name is better than gold.
 He who is courteous is not a fool.
 The fowl perspires, but the feathers do not allow us to see the
perspiration.

Greed

 A bag that says it will not take more, and a traditional doctor who
says he would not leave anything behind are both sure to suffer.

Good Behavior

 A man who is advised and he takes it, is still a man who acts from his
own free will.
 When a ripe fruit sees an honest man, it drops.
 When a fowl gets to a new town, it stands on one leg until it knows
that
 it is a town where people stand on their two legs.
A man who has one finger pointing at another has three pointing
towards himself.
 The man who is honored, has first honored himself.
 Greatness and beauty do not belong to the gods alone.
 Antagonism is not good for fowls, and it is not good for goats; worse
still, it is not good for human beings.
 Our examples are like seeds on a windy day, they spread far and
wide.
 A clay pot of water is never hot-tempered.
 A person who picks something and decides to make it his own, ought
to think how he would feel if he was the person who lost the property
he picked.
 He who is called a man must behave like a man.
 One must have to wait till the evening of one's life time to know what
gratitude to pay to one's guardian spirit.

Consequences

 A man who is advised and he takes it, is still a man who acts from his
own free will.
 If hunger forces a farmer in a particular year to eat both his yam
tubers and the seed-yams, the succeeding years would still be worse
because hewould have no yams to eat and none to plant.
 Sometimes the rain might force a man more than once to seek shelter
under the same tree.

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  When the roots of a tree begin to decay, it spreads death to the
branches.
 It is the fear of what tomorrow may bring that makes the tortoise to
carry his house along with him wherever he goes.
 He who digs a pit for others must invariably fall into it.

Peace

 Let's fight, let's fight, no one knows whom fighting would favor.
 Two men quarreling do not share the same seat on a canoe.
 To have no enemies is equivalent to wealth.
 If the owner of two adjacent farms cannot be friends, then they must
wait till their next reincarnation to be able to make friends.
 Whoever says "let's fight" does not know who will be victorious.
 When a man finds that he was wrong to have refused to eat, he
should leave his anger and play a harp to call for harmony.
 Without retaliation evils would one day become extinct from the
world.
 A spacious ground is the right place to demonstrate one's skill in
wrestling.

Wisdom and age

 If you come to the village of the blind, close an eye until you leave.
An old banana leaf was once young and green.
 Old age does not come in just one day.

Courage

 The sun will not dry what it is not shown

 He who does not look ahead always remains behind.
 Courage is the father of success.
 Charms do not perform miracles on the shelf; they perform for those
who are brave.

Family

 Being a younger brother/sister can be worse than loosing a eye.

 A person who has children does not die.
 We can not choose who our relatives should be, even though we may
come to like some better than others.
 When a man loses his prestige, he does not regain it by going to
where he is not known.
 A good name is better than gold.
 A piece of iron can only become what the blacksmith says it should
become.
 It is the habit that a child forms at home, that follows them to their
marriage.
 It is an irresponsible adult that creates enmity because of a
disagreement that arises between two children.
 A child is what you put into him.

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  Talks that are considered to be important must be made to drag on
for so long as to make even the deaf begin to hear it.
 Criticism is easy but it does not create.
 Love is better than a whip.
 A child who has no mother will not have scars to show on his back.
 Even as the archer loves the arrow that flies, so too he loves the bow
that remains constant in his hands.

Friendship

 The eyes can see what they don t like to see, but legs will go only to
place they like to go.
 If a person returns to where he/she went yesterday, he/she liked
where he/she went yesterday.
 To eat from the same pot with another man, is to take an oath of
perpetual friendship with him.
 If one imitates the upright, one becomes upright; if one imitates the
crooked, one becomes crooked.
 Rather than tell a lie to help a friend, it is better to assist him in
paying the fine for his offense.

Survival

 It is the toothless animal that arrives first at the base of the fruit tree,
to eat his fill before others arrive.
 If the load is too heavy for someone to carry, one would be better off
to give the load to the ground to carry.
 The tree that cannot shed its old leaves in the dry season, cannot
survive the period of drought.

Leadership

 When one is taking a chicken from its roost, the hen is bound to
attack with at least its claws.
 A pad that breaks a pot of water does not remain on the head.
 A bush fowls' playground is never appreciably spacious.
 If the owner of a calabash calls it a worthless calabash, others will join
him to use it to pack rubbish.
 What affects the nose must also affect the eyes that must weep for it.
 If a greedy eater is near a patient, such a patient can never survive.
 There is no elephant that complains about the weight of its trunk. No
elephant is burdened by the weight of its tusks.
 When the elderly ones in a house travel, the younger ones quickly
grow in experience.
 If a soup is sweet, it is money that cooks it.
 A glorious past is the work of a glorious man.
 The responsibility of power is like holding an egg. Grasp it too tightly
and it will drip through your fingers; hold it too loosely and it will drop
and break.

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Misceallaneous

 The need to create made sour milk, but fresh milk is not bitter
 The goat that cries the loudest is not the one that will eat the most.
 It is the self-love of the king parrot that made him become a
talkative.
 The owl is the wisest of all birds because the more it sees, the less it
talks.
 If gold rusts, what will iron do?
 A masquerade does not perform to an outside audience until he
performs well at the home base.
 Our elders quote the cock as saying that "it would not be good if one
becomes the only person in the world, and that is why they crow
every morning to show their number".
 Beauty is not sold and eaten.
 A masquerade is not a spirit only because of its mask.
 When a woman prepares a dish which others find unpalatable, she
says that she prepared it to suit her own taste.
 At a time a cockerel matures, it begins to crow to tell the world the
time of day.
 A diviner cannot accurately divine his own future.
 Once a cock begins to crow, it never again becomes dumb.
 It is he who has no place to call at that moves fast through life.
 No frog is tied by a rope to a pond.
 Money has the capability of making people laugh; but when they
laugh, the foolish ones sometimes forget to close their mouths.
 No one feels the pains that arise from unintended injury.

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