Rotodynamic Pumps

NEW AGE
ROTODYNAMIC PUMPS
(Centrifugal and Axial)
Non-met allic
Containment
Gas
K.M. Srinivasan
(f.D NEW AGE INTERNATIONAL PUBLISHERS

ROTODYNAMIC PUMPS
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ROTODYNAMIC PUMPS
K.M. Srinivasan
B.E.(Hons), PhD.(USSR)
Dean (R&D) Mechanical Sciences
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Kumaraguru College of Technology
Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu
PUBLISHING FOR ONE WORLD
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Copyright © 2008, New Age International (P) Ltd., Publishers
Published by New Age International (P) Ltd., Publishers
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ISBN (13) : 978-81-224-2976-3
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THIS BOOK is dedicated to
My Parents
Sri. K. MUTHUSAMY PILLAI
And
Smt. K.T. SAMBOORNAM
As well as
To my Professor and guide
Dr
Dr.. A.A. LOMAKIN
And
Dr
Dr.. A.N. P APIR
PAPIR
Leningrad P olytechnic, Leningrad, K-21, USSR (at present called as St. Petersburg
Polytechnic,
Polytechnic, St. Petersburg, Russia)
Who brought me to this level
Comp-1/Newage/Pump-co.pm6.5—29.12.07 3.1.08
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PREFACE
It was my very long felt ambition to provide a detailed and full information about the theory,
design, testing, analysis and operation of different types of rotodynamic pumps namely Centrifugal,
Radial, Diagonal and Axial flow types. I have learned a lot during the period 1959–62 about pumps at
PSG College of Technology, Coimbatore, while working as Senior Research Assistant for CSIR Scheme
on Pumps, Turbo chargers and flow meters. At the same time, I was undergoing training in foundry,
pattern making, moulding, production, testing and design for different pumps at PSG Industrial Institute,
Coimbatore and also during the period 1967 and 1975.
I cannot forget my study at Leningrad Polytechnic, Leningrad K-21, USSR (now St. Petersburg
Polytechnic, St. Petersburg, Russia), for my doctorate degree in pumps. Dr. A.A Lomakin, Dr. A.N.
Papir, Dr. Gurioff, Dr. N.N. Kovaloff, Dr. A.N. Smirnoff, Dr. Staritski, Dr. Gorgidjanyan, Dr. Gutovski
are the key professors who made me to know more about pumps from fundamentals to updated technology.
I am very much grateful to Dr. A.A Lomakin and Dr. A.N. Papir, who were my professors and guides
for my doctorate degree in pumps. As a consultant, for different pump industries in India and abroad, I
could understand the field problems. My experience, since 1959 till date, has been put up in this book to
enable the readers in industries, and in academic area, to design, to analyze and to regulate the pumps.
Complete design process for pumps, losses and efficiency calculation, based on boundary layer theory
for axial flow pumps are also given. Computer programmes for the design of pump and for profile loss
estimation for axial flow pumps are also given. All the design examples in the last chapter are real
working models. The results are also given with pump drawings.
I do hope that the reader will be in a position to understand, design, test and analyze pumps, after
going through this book. I shall be very much honoured if my book is useful in attaining this. I am
grateful to my wife Smt. S. Nalini, my sons Sri S. Muthuraman and Sri S. Jaganmohan and my daughter
Smt. S. Nithyakala, who were very helpful in preparing the manuscript and drawings.
Last but not the least I am grateful to the editorial department of M/s New Age International (P)
Ltd. Publishers for their untiring effort to publish the book in a neat and elegant form, in spite of so
many problems they come across while formulating this book from the manuscript level to this level.
Constructive criticisms and suggestions are highly appreciated for further improvement of the
book.
K.M. SRINIVASAN
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CONTENTS
PREFACE (vii)
1 INTRODUCTION 1–5
1.1 Principle and Classification of Pumps 1
1.1.1 Principle 1
1.1.2 Classification of Pumps 1
2 PUMP PARAMETERS 6–33

2.1 Basic Parameters of Pump 6
2.1.1 Quantity of Flow or Discharge (Q) of a Pump 6
2.1.2 Total Head or Head of a Pump (H) 6
2.1.3 Total Head of a Pump in a System 7
2.1.4 Power (N) 11
2.1.5 Efficiency (η) 11
2.2 Pump Construction 12
2.3 Losses in Pumps and Efficiency 15
2.3.1 Hydraulic Loss and Hydraulic Efficiency (ηh) 15
2.3.2 Volumetric Loss and Volumetric Efficiency (ηv) 15
2.3.3 Mechanical Loss and Mechanical Efficiency (ηm) 16
2.3.4 Total Losses and Overall Efficiency (h) 16
2.4 Suction Conditions 16
2.5 Similarity Laws in Pumps 19
2.5.1 Similarity Laws 19
2.5.2 Specific Speed (ns) 22
2.5.3 Unit Specific Speed (nsq) 23
2.6 Classification of Impeller Types According to Specific Speed (ns) 24
2.7 Pumping Liquids Other than Water 26
2.7.1 Total Head, Flow Rate, Efficiency and Power Determination for Pumps 26
2.7.2 Effect of Temperature 27
2.7.3 Density Correction (ρ or γ) 27
2.7.4 Viscosity Correction 28
2.7.5 Effect of Consistency on Pump Performance 32
2.7.6 Special Consideration in Pump Selection 33
(ix)
(x) CONTENTS
3 THEORY OF ROTODYNAMIC PUMPS 34–64

3.1 Energy Equation using Moment of Momentum Equation for Fluid Flow
through Impeller 34
3.2 Bernoulli’s Equation for the Flow through Impeller 35
3.3 Absolute Flow of Ideal Fluid Past the Flow Passages of Pump 38
3.4 Relative Flow of Ideal Fluid Past Impeller Blades 40
3.5 Flow Over an Airfoil 43
3.6 Two Dimensional Ideal Flow 45
3.6.1 Velocity Potential 45
3.6.2 Rotational and Irrotational Flow 45
3.6.3 Circulation and Vorticity 47
3.7 Axisymmetric Flow and Circulation in Impeller 48
3.7.1 Circulation in Impellers of Pump 49
3.7.2 Vorticity and Circulation Around Impeller Blades 49
3.8 Real Fluid Flow after Impeller Blade Outlet Edge 50
3.9 Secondary Flow between Blades 51
3.10 Flow of a Profile in a Cascade System—Theoretical Flow 52
3.11 Fundamental Theory of Flow Over Isolated Profile 53
3.12 Profile Construction as per N.E. Jowkovski and S.A. Chapligin 55
3.13 Development of Thin Plate by Conformal Transformation 58
3.14 Development of Profile with Thickness by Conformal Transformation 58
3.15 Chapligin’s Profile of Finite Thickness at Outlet Edge of the Profile 59
3.16 Velocity Distribution in Space between Volute Casing and Impeller Shroud 61
3.17 Pressure Distribution in the Space between Stationary Casing and Moving
Impeller Shroud of Fluid Machine 63
4 THEORY AND CALCULATION OF BLADE SYSTEMS IN

CENTRIFUGAL PUMP 65–129
4.1 Introduction 65
4.2 One Dimensional Theory 65
4.3 Velocity Triangles 66
4.4 Impeller Eye and Blade Inlet Edge Conditions 69
4.4.1 Inlet Velocity Triangle 70
4.4.2 Normal or Radial or Axial Entry of Fluid at Impeller Inlet 72
4.5 Outlet Velocity Triangle: Effect due to Blade Thickness 73
4.5.1 Outlet Velocity Triangle: Effect of Finite Number of Blades 74
4.6 Slip Factor as per Stodola and Meizel 75
CONTENTS (xi)
4.6.1 Slip Factor as Defined by Karl Pfliderer 77

4.6.2 Slip Factor as per Proscura 79
4.7 Coefficient of Reaction (ρ) 81
4.8 Selection of Outlet Blade Angle (β2) and its Effect 83
4.9 Effect of Number of Vanes 86
4.10 Selection of Eye Diameter D0, Eye Velocity C0, Inlet Diameter of Impeller D1
and Inlet Meridional Velocity Cm1 89
4.11 Selection of Outlet Diameter of Impeller (D2) 92
4.12 Effect of Blade Breadth (B2) 92
4.13 Impeller Design 103
4.14 Determination of Shaft Diameter and Hub Diameter 106
4.15 Determination of Inlet Dimensions for Impeller 107
4.16 Determination of Outlet Dimensions of Impeller 108
4.17 Development of Flow Passage in Meridional Plane 109
4.18 Development of Single Curvature Blade—Radial Blades 111
4.19 Development of Double Curvature Blade System 113
4.19.1 Importance of Diagonal Impellers 113
4.19.2 A General Solution for the Flow through the Vane System 114
4.19.3 Axisymmetric Flow of Fluid 115
4.19.4 Flow Line and Vortex Line in Axisymmetric Flow 116
4.19.5 Differential Equation for the Cross-section of Vane with the
Flow Surface 118
4.19.6 Construction of Vane Surface when Wu = 0 118
4.19.7 Construction of Vane Under Equal Velocity Construction 120
4.19.8 Construction of Vane Surface Under Equal Velocity Flow for the
Given w(s) 121
4.19.9 Conformal Transformation of Vane Surface 125
4.19.10 The Method of Error Triangles 126
5 SPIRAL CASINGS (VOLUTE CASINGS) 130–146

5.1 Importance of Spiral Casings 130
5.2 Volute Casing at the Outlet of the Impeller 131
5.3 Method of Calculation for Spiral Casing 132
5.4 Design of Spiral Casing with Cur = Constant and Trapezoidal Cross-section 134
5.5 Calculation of Trapezoidal Volute Cross-section Under Constant Velocity of
Flow CV = Constant (Constant Velocity Design) 135
5.6 Calculation of Circular Volute Section with Cur = Constant 137
5.7 Design of Circular Volute Cross-section with Constant Velocity (CV) 138
(xii) CONTENTS
5.8 Calculation of Diffuser Section of Volute Casing 139

5.9 (A) Design of Diffuser 140
5.9 (B) Calculation of Spiral Part of Diffuser Passage 141
5.9 (C) Calculation of Diverging Cone Part of the Diffuser 142
5.10 Return Guide Vanes 143
5.11 Design of Suction Casing at Inlet of the Impeller 144
5.12 Straight Convergent Cone 144
5.13 Spiral Type Approach Ring 144
5.14 Effect due to Volute 146
6 LOSSES IN PUMPS 147–163

6.1 Introduction 147
6.2 (A) Mechanical Losses 147
6.2 (B) Losses due to Disc Friction (∆Nd ) 147
6.2 (C) Losses Stuffing Box (∆NS) 149
6.2 (D) Bearing Losses (∆NB) 154
6.3 (A) Leakage Flow through the Clearance between Stationary and Rotatory
Wearing Rings 154
6.3 (B) Leakage Flow through the Clearance between Two Stages of a
Multistage Pump 159
6.4 Hydraulic Losses 161
7 AXIAL AND RADIAL THRUSTS 164–181

7.2 Axial Force Acting on the Impeller 165
7.3 Axial Thrust in Semi-open Impellers 167
7.4 Axial Thrust due to Direction Change in Bend at Inlet 168
7.5 Balancing of Axial Thrust 169
7.6 Axial Thrust taken by Bearings 170
7.7 Radial Vanes at Rear Shroud of the Impeller 170
7.8 Axial Thrust Balancing by Balancing Holes 171
7.9 Axial Thrust Balancing by Balance Drum and Disc 172
7.10 Radial Forces Acting on Volute Casing 177
7.11 Determination of Radial Forces 177
7.12 Methods to Balance the Radial Thrust 180
8 MODEL ANALYSIS 182–194

8.1.1 Real Fluid Flow Pattern in Pumps 187
CONTENTS (xiii)
8.2 Similarity of Hydraulic Efficiency 191

8.3 Similarity of Volumetric Efficiency 192
8.4 Similarity of Mechanical Efficiency 193
9 CAVITATION IN PUMPS 195–215

9.1 Suction Lift and Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH) 195
9.2 Cavitation Coefficient (s) Thoma’s Constant 200
9.3 Cavitation Specific Speed (C) 201
9.4 Cavitation Development 201
9.5 Cavitation Test on Pumps 203
9.6 Methods Adopted to Reduce Cavitation 211
10 AXIAL FLOW PUMP 216–292

10.1 Operating Principles and Construction 216
10.2 Flow Characteristics of Axial Flow Pump 218
10.3 Kutta-Jowkovski Theorem 218
10.4 Real Fluid Flow over a Blade 222
10.5 Interaction between Profiles in a Cascade System 223
10.6 Curved Plates in a Cascade System 224
10.7 Effect of Blade Thickness on Flow Over a Cascade System 233
10.8 Method of Calculation of Profile with Thickness in a Cascade System 234
10.9 (A) Pump Design by Direct Method (Jowkovski’s Method, Lift Method) 243
10.9 (B) Design of Axial Flow Pump as per Jowkovski’s Lift Method—
Another Method 247
10.10 Flow with Angle of Attack 255
10.11 Correction in Profile Curvature due to the Change from Thin to Thick Profile 256
10.12 Effect of Viscosity 259
10.13 Selection of Impeller Diameter and Speed 260
10.14 Selection of Hub Ratio 261
 l
10.15 Selection of   — Aspect Ratio at Periphery 263
t peri
10.16 Calculation of Hydraulic Losses and Hydraulic Efficiency 268
10.17 Calculation of Profile Losses using Boundary Layer Thickness (δ**) 271
10.17.1 Notations and Abbreviations 271
10.17.2 Determination of Profile Losses and Hydraulic Efficiency 274
10.17.3 Determination of Momentum Boundary Layer Thickness (δ**) 277
10.17.4 Computer Programme 283
10.18 Cavitation in Axial Flow Pumps 283
(xiv) CONTENTS
10.19 Radial Clearance between Impeller and Impeller Casing 288

10.20 Calculation for Axial Flow Diffusers 289
10.21 Axial Thrust 291
11 TESTING, PERFORMANCE EVALUATION AND REGULATION

OF PUMPS 293–338
11.2 Pump Performance—Relation between Total Head and Quantity of Flow 293
11.3 Pump Testing 301
11.4 Systems and Arrangements 306
11.5 Combined Operation of Pumps and Systems 310
11.6 Stable and Unstable Operation in a System 312
11.7 Reverse Flow in Pump 315
11.8 Effect of Viscosity on Performance 317
11.9 Pump Regulation 232
11.10 Effect of the Pump Performance when Small Changes are made in Pump Parts 336
12 PUMP CONSTRUCTION AND APPLICATION 339–374

12.1 Classification 339
12.2 Pumps for Clear Cold Water and for Non-Corrosive Liquids 339
12.3 Other Pumps 346
12.4 Axial Flow Pumps 354
12.5 Condensate Pumps 357
12.6 Feed Water Pumps 361
12.7 Circulating Pumps 363
12.8 Booster Pumps 365
12.9 Pump for Viscous and Abrasive Liquids 370
13 DESIGN OF PUMP COMPONENTS 375–486

Design No. D1-A : Design of a Single Stage Centrifugal Pump 375
Design No. D1-A1 : Computer Programming in C++ for Radial Type
Centrifugal Pump Impeller and Volute 381
Design No. D1-B : Design of a Multistage Centrifugal Pump 395
Design No. D2 : Spiral Casing Design 409
D2-A : Spiral Casing Design Under Cur = Constant and
Trapezoidal Cross-Section 411
D2-B : Spiral Casing Design with CV = Constant and
Trapezoidal Cross-section 414
D2-C : Design of Suction Volute 417
CONTENTS (xv)
Design No. D3 : Design of Axial Flow Pump 418

Design No. D4 : Correction for Profile Thickness by Increasing Blade
Curvature (β) 427
Design No. D5 : Calculation of Correction for Blade Thickness using
Thickness Coefficient (χ) 429
Design No. D6 : Design of Axial Flow Pump 431
Design No. D7 : Profile Losses Calculation 473
Design No. D8 : Design of Axial Flow Pump—as per method Suggested
by Prof. N.E. Jowkovski 482
APPENDICES 487–508
y
Appendix I : Equations Relating Cy, max , δ° for Different Profiles 487
l
Appendix II : ISI Standards 495
Appendix III : Units of Measurement—Conversion Factors 502
LITERATURE—REFERENCES 509–518
INDEX 519–520
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1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 PRINCIPLE AND CLASSIFICATION OF PUMPS
1.1.1 Principle
Newton’s First law states that “Energy can neither be created nor be destroyed, but can be
transformed from one form of energy to another form.”
Different forms of energy exists namely, electrical, mechanical, fluid, hydraulic and pneumatic,
pressure, potential, dynamic, wave, wind, geothermal, solar, chemical, etc.
A machine is a contrivance, that converts one form of energy to another form. An electric motor
converts electrical energy to mechanical energy. An internal combustion engine converts chemical
energy to mechanical energy, etc.
A pump is a machine which converts mechanical energy to fluid energy, the fluid being
incompressible. This action is opposite to that in hydraulic turbines.
Most predominant part of fluid energy in fluid machines are pressure, potential and kinetic energy.
In order to do work, the pressure energy and potential energy must be converted to kinetic energy. In
steam and gas turbines, the pressure energy of steam or gas is converted to kinetic energy in nozzle. In
hydraulic turbine, the potential energy is converted to kinetic energy in nozzle. High velocity stream of
fluid from turbine nozzle strikes a set of blades and makes the blades to move, thereby fluid energy is
converted into mechanical energy.
In pumps, however, this process is reversed, the movement of blade system moves the fluid,
which is always in contact with blade thereby converting mechanical energy of blade system to kinetic
energy. For perfect conversion, the moving blade should be in contact with the fluid at all places. In
other words, the moving blade system should be completely immersed in fluid.
1.1.2 Classification of Pumps

1.1.2.1 Classification According to Operating Principle
Pumps are classified in different ways. One classification is according to the type as positive
displacement pumps and rotodynamic pumps. This classification is illustrated in Fig. 1.1.
In positive placement pumps, fluid is pushed whenever pump runs. The fluid movement cannot be
stopped, otherwise the unit will burst due to instantaneous pressure rise theoretically to infinity, practically
exceeding the ultimate strength of the material of the pump, subsequently breaking the material. The
motion may be rotary or reciprocating or combination of both.
2 ROTODYNAMIC PUMPS (CENTRIFUGAL AND AXIAL)
PUMPS
PU M PS
Positive
PositiveDisplacement
D isplacem ent PPumps
um ps Other
O ther Pumps
P um ps Rotodynamic
R otodynam ic PPumps
um ps
Jet Pump Centrifugal, Mixed and

Reciprocating Type Rotary Type Hydraulic Ram Axial Flow
Regenerative
Piston Vane, Lobe

plunger Screw, Gear
Perialistic,
Metering,
Diaphram,
Radial piston,
Axial piston
Fig. 1.1. Pump classfication

The principle of action, in all positive displacement pumps, is purely static. These pumps are also
called as ‘static pumps’. The pumps, operated under this principle, are reciprocating, screw, ram,
plunger, gear, lobe, perialistic, diaphram, radial piston, axial piston etc.
In rotodynamic pumps, however, the energy is transferred by rotary motion and by dynamic
action. The rotating blade system imparts a force on the fluid, which is in contact with the blade system
at all points, thereby making the fluid to move i.e., transferring mechanical energy of the blade system
to kinetic energy of the fluid.
Unlike turbine, where pure pressure or potential energy is converted to kinetic energy, in pumps,
the kinetic energy of the fluid is converted into either, pressure energy or potential energy or kinetic
energy or the combination of any two or all the three forms depending upon the end use in spiral or
volute casing, which follows the impeller.
In domestic, circulating and in agricultural pumps, the end use is in the form of potential energy
i.e., lifting water from low level to high level.
In process pumps, used for chemical industries, the fluid is pumped from one chamber under
pressure to another chamber under pressure. These chambers may be at the same level (only pressure
energy conversion) or may be at different levels (pressure and potential energy conversion).
Pumps used for fire fighting, for spraying pesticides, must deliver the liquid at very high velocity
i.e., at very high kinetic energy. These pumps convert all available energy at the outlet of the impeller
into very high kinetic energy.
In turbines, the fluid is water or steam or chemical gas-air mixture at constant pressure and
temperature, whereas, pumps deal with fluid at different temperatures and viscosities such as water,
acids, alkaline, milk, distilled water, and also cryogenic fluids, like liquid hydrogen, liquid oxygen, liquid
nitrogen, liquid ammonia, which are in gaseous form under normal temperatures.
Pumps are also used to pump solid-liquid, liquid-gas or solid-liquid-gas mixtures, with different
percentage of concentration called ‘consistency’. Hence pumps are applied in diversified field, the
pumping fluid possessing different property, namely, viscosity, density, temperature, consistency, etc.
INTRODUCTION 3
A third category of pump, called jet pump, wherein, the fluid energy input i.e., high head low
discharge of fluid is converted into another form of fluid energy i.e., low head and high discharge.
These pumps are used either independently or along with centrifugal pumps.
The reverse of Jet pump is ‘Hydraulic Ram’ wherein low head and high discharge of water is
converted into high head and low discharge. Hydraulic Rams are installed at hills near a stream or river.
The natural hill slope is the low head input energy. Large quantity of water at low head is taken from the
river. A portion of water is pumped at high pressure and is supplied to a nearby village as drinking water.
Remaining water is sent back to the river. This system does not need any prime mover like diesel or
petrol engine or electric motor. Repair and maintenance is easy, in hydraulic ram since moving part is
only the ram.
1.1.2.2 Classification According to Head and Discharge

Another classification of pump is according to the head and discharge or quantity of flow to be
pumped. Any customer, who is in need of a pump specifies only these two parameters. A quick selection
of the pump is made referring standard charts for selecting the pump. Fig.1.2 gives the selection of
pump according to head and discharge.
10000
H.m
PISTON
1000
CENTRIFUGAL
100
10
AXIAL
1 10 100 1000 10000 100000

3
Q.m /hr
Fig. 1.2. Pump selection as per head and discharge
1.1.2.3 Classification According to Specific Speed

Most accurate method of pump selection is based on the non-dimensional parameter called ‘specific
speed’ which takes into account speed of the pump along with head and discharge.
n Q
Specific speed, ns = 3.65 ...(1.1)
H 3/ 4
where ns–specific speed, n–speed in rpm, Q–discharge in m3/sec, H–head in m. If pressure rise is
known instead of total head then p = γH, where p–pressure rise of pumping fluid in N/m2 and
γ–specific weight of the fluid at the given temperature in N/m3. It is essential that all parameters must be
converted to equivalent water parameters before substituting them in equation 1.1. Fig.1.3, illustrates
the pump selection according to the specific speed of the pump.
Centrifugal (radial flow) Diagonal and Propeller and

High mixed flow axial flow
Low Medium
ns = 50 ÷ 80 n s = 80 ÷ 150 ns = 150 ÷ 300 ns = 300 ÷ 500 n s = 500 ÷ 1000
b2 b2
b2
b2
D2
D2
D2
D2
D0
D0
D0
D0
D0
D2
D2 D2 D2 D2 D2
= 2,5 to 1,8 = 2 to 1,8 = 1,8 to 1,4 = 1,4 to 1,2 = 0,8
D0 D0 D0 D0 D0
H–Q
H–Q H–Q H–Q H–Q
Q Q Q
N– N– N– Q N–Q
N–
h –Q
h–
Q
h–
Q
h –Q h–
Q
Fig. 1.3. Classification according to specifc speed

From Fig.1.3, it is evident that, at low specific speeds, centrifugal pumps; at medium specific
speeds, mixed flow pumps and at high specific speeds, axial flow pumps are used. All of them are
classified as rotodynamic pumps.
At very low specific speeds, however, positive displacement pumps are used. Referring to the
equation (1.1), it is seen that positive displacement pumps are used for very high head-very low discharge
conditions. Ship propellers and aircraft propellers are of very high specific speed units beyond 1200 i.e.,
used for very low head-very high discharge conditions.
1.1.2.4 Classification According to Direction of Flow in Impeller

Another classification of pumps is according to the direction of flow of fluid in impeller of the
pump such as radial or centrifugal flow, mixed or diagonal flow and axial flow. Fig.1.4, illustrates the
position of blade system in the impeller passage of a pump.
Considering the flow of fluid in impeller, (Fig.1.4) if the flow direction is radial (2-1) and (3-1)
i.e., perpendicular to the axis of rotation, the pump is called radial flow centrifugal pump. If the flow is
axial (6-5) i.e., parallel to the axis of rotation, the pump is called axial flow pump. If the flow is partly
axial and partly radial (4-2) and (4-3) i.e., diagonal, it is called mixed flow pump or diagonal flow pump.
It is evident, from the Fig.1.4, that all these pumps are rotodynamic pumps i.e., rotary blade
passage and dynamic action of blade system in the fluid passage.
INTRODUCTION 5
b 2′′ Outlet, Delivery

b2 of water
a2
a2 Inlet, entry 1
I of water
2
D2
a1 II III
a1 IV 3
Ds
D1
D ′3′
Ds
D3
D 2′
6 5 4 90°
Shaft axis
(a) Radial (b) Mixed (c) Axial (d) Relative location
Fig. 1.4. Position of blade system in different types of impellers
2–1 Centrifugal — Radial flow — very high head and very low flow.
3–1 Centrifugal — Radial flow — high head and low flow.
4–2 Mixed flow — Medium head and medium flow — low range.
4–3 Diagonal flow — Medium head and medium flow — higher range.
6–5 Axial flow, propeller — low head and high flow.
Radial type centrifugal pumps have higher impeller diameter ratio (outlet to inlet diameter) and the
blade is longer. Mixed flow pumps have medium diameter ratio and axial flow pumps have equal inlet
and outlet diameters.
This indicates that radial flow pumps work mostly by centrifugal force and partly by dynamic
force, whereas, in axial flow pumps, the pressure rise is purely by hydrodynamic action. In mixed and
diagonal flow pumps, however, the pressure rise is partly by centrifugal force and partly by hydrodynamic
force.
2
PUMP PARAMETERS
2.1 BASIC PARAMETERS OF PUMP

A pump is characterised by three parameters i.e.,
1. Total head (H),
2. Discharge or quantity of flow (Q), and
3. Power (N).
2.1.1 Quantity of Flow or Discharge (Q) of a Pump

Quantity of flow or rate of flow or discharge (Q) of a pump is the flow of fluid passing through
the pump in unit time. The rate of flow or discharge in volumetric system is expressed as
unit volume flow unit weight flow
i.e., m3/sec, m3/hr, lit/sec etc., and in gravimetric system as i.e.,
unit time unit time
tons/day, kg/hr, kg/sec etc. The relation between gravimetric or weight (W) and volumetric (Q) flow
rate is given by W = γQ where γ is specific weight of the fluid.
2.1.2 Total Head or Head of a Pump (H)

Total head of a pump (H) is defined as the increase in fluid energy received by every kilogram of
the fluid passing through the pump. In other words, it is the energy difference per unit weight of the
fluid between inlet and outlet of the pump. Referring to Fig. 2.1, the energy difference per unit weight of
the fluid (E) between inlet (E1) and outlet (E2) will be
Z2 p2 = pd
Z2 Z1
H =Z2 – Z1
+ Hs
G V
Hd
H
X2 X1
– Hs
Z1 p1 = ps
Fig. 2.1. Head measurement in pumps

6
PUMP PARAMETERS 7
p1 C12
Einlet = E1 = + Z + 
γ
1
2g 
 ...(2.1)
p2 C22 
+ +
Eoutlet = E2 =
γ
Z 2
2g 
where p — the pressure in N/m2 (Pascal–Pa)
Z — the level or position above or below reference level in ‘m’
C — the flow velocity of the fluid in m/sec
γ — specific weight of the fluid in kg/m3 (or) N/m3
g — acceleration due to gravity in m/sec2
Suffix 1 — indicates inlet condition of the pump
2 — indicates outlet condition of the pump
Total head H will be
( p2 − p1 ) (C22 − C12 )
H = (E2 – E1) = + (Z2 – Z1) + ...(2.2)
γ 2g
kgf.m N.m
and is expressed as or = m.
kgf N
2.1.3 Total Head of a Pump in a System

A pump installation consists of pump and system. Pumps are selected to match the given condition
of the system, which depends upon the system head (Hsy), quantity of flow (Q), density (ρ), the
viscosity (µ), consistency (C), temperature (T), and corrosiveness of the pumping liquid. If the pumping
liquid is other than water at different temperatures and pressures such as milk, distilled water, acid,
alkaline solutions, as well as liquid ammonia, liquid oxygen, liquid hydrogen, liquid nitrogen or any other
chemical solutions under higher temperatures and pressures, solid-liquid solution, liquid-gas solutions
etc., the pump parameters in liquid must be changed into equivalent water parameters.
The quantity (Q) and the total head (H) of the pump must coincide with the conditions of external
system such as pressure, and location of the system. Normally the pump is selected with 2 to 4% higher
value in total head than the normal value of system head.
A system consists of pipelines with fittings such as gate valve or butterfly valve or non-return
valve or any other valve along with bends, tee joints, reducers etc., at the delivery line of the pump as
well as foot valve, strainer, bend, etc., at the suction line of the pump. The system is an already available
pipeline in the field or at the working area, to suit the prevailing conditions in the field or working area.
It is a fixed system for that particular place. System varies from place to place. Referring to the Fig. 2.2,
the pipe 2-d refers to the delivery side and s–1 refers to the suction side of the system. For all calculations
in a pumping system, the axis of the shaft of the horizontal pump is referred as reference line. For
vertical pumps, the inlet edge of the blade of the impeller will be the reference line. Since the difference
between the inlet edge of the blade and the centre line of the outlet edge of the blade is usually small, it
is neglected and the centre line of the outlet edge of the blade is taken as reference line. Anything above
or after the reference line is called delivery side (marked with suffix ‘d’) and anything below or before
the reference line is called suction side (marked with suffix ‘s’) of a pump.
Referring to Fig. 2.2, the equation for suction and pd = p2

delivery pipelines of the system can be written as follows. pd
Since no energy is added or subtracted in these lines during d
the flow through the system,

For (2 – d) delivery line E2 = Ed + hf (2 – d)
p2 C p C2 hd
i.e., + Z 2 + 2 = d + Z d + d + h f (2 − d )  hfd
γ 2g γ 2g

 ...(2.3)
For (s–1) suction line Es = E1 + hf (s–1) 
p1 C12
 C2 2
p C2
i.e., s + Z s + s = + Z + + h f ( s −1)  H G
γ
1
γ 2g 2g Reference
X line
The values hf (2 – d) and hf (s – 1) include major frictional C1
1
losses and all minor losses. The total head of the pump as V
per equation 2.2 is
 p2 C2   p C2  hs h fs
Hp = E2 – E1 =  + Z 2 + 2  –  1 + Z1 + 1 
 γ 2g   γ 2g 
ps=p 1 S
= Ed +hf (2 –d) – Es + hf (s – 1)
 pd Cd2  p C2 
Hp =  + Z + + h f (2 − d )  –  s + Z s + s − h f ( s −1) 
  γ Fig. 2.2. Pump in a closed system
 γ
d
2g   2g 
pd − ps  C 2 − Cs2 
= + (Zd – Zs) +  d  + hf (2 – d) + hf (s – 1)
γ  2g 
pd − ps  Cd2 − Cs2 
= + hs + hd + hf (d) + hf (s) +   = H ...(2.4)
γ  2g 
sy
H
H syst = f(Q)
Operating point
H
O (H sy = H p)
H p = f(Q)
pd – p s
+ h s + hd
γ
Fig 2.3. Head of pump and system

PUMP PARAMETERS 9
Equation 2.4 shows that, if a pump is connected to a system, the pump and the system will
operate only at a point where Hp = Hsy. Fig. 2.3 shows graphically this condition.
C2
For both major and minor losses combined together hf = constant × = KQ2,where K is the
2g
pd − ps
sum of all constants (major and minor). The system head Hsy= + hs + hd + (Kd + Ks) Q2. If a
γ
curve Hsyst= f (Q) is drawn, it will be a parabola moving upwards, i.e., increase of head when the flow
Q increases. (Fig. 2.3).
If this curve is superimposed with H–Q curve of the pump, the meeting point will be (Hp = Hsyst)
the operating point of the pump for that system.
Different Hsy curves can be drawn by changing hs or hd or pd or ps as well as by changing pipe size
Dp, pipe length lp, in suction and delivery, or by adding or removing or changing bends. Tee, cross-
joints or by changing the valves in the system. Change of every individual parts mentioned above
changes the Hsyst–Q curve. If these curves are superimposed on pump H–Q curve, the operating point
for each system can be determined (Fig. 2.4).
H
P1, P2, P3,P4
Operating points
Hsyst 4 – Q
Head m.
H syst 3 – Q
P4
P3
H syst 2 – Q
pd – p s
P2
γ
P1
H syst 1 – Q
H st = hs + h d +
(H p – Q)
Q4 Q3 Q2 Q1
Q
Quantity m3/sec, Lt/sec.
Fig. 2.4. Different systems operating on one pump
Referring to equation 2.4, if suction and delivery chamber pressures are very high, when compared
to the potential and kinetic energies, then the pump is called process pump.
If the suction and delivery chambers are open type, then pd = ps = patm and if hd, hs are very high,
then these pumps are called domestic or agricultural or circulating pumps.
If velocity C2 is very large, when compared to other parameters and pd = ps = patm and hs and hd
may be positive or zero, then these pumps are called fire fighting pumps, sprayer pumps.
Rearranging equation 2.2
p2 pd Cd2 − C22
γ = γ + (Z d – Z 2 ) + + hf (2 – d)
2g
pd Cd2 − C22
= + hd + hfd + ...(2.5)
γ 2g
If a pressure gauge is connected very close to the delivery side of the pump at point 2, it will read
p 
the delivery chamber pressure  d  , static delivery height (hd) delivery line frictional losses (hf) (both
 γ 
major and minor losses) and the difference between the velocity head or kinetic energy at delivery
 C2 
chamber  d  and immediately after the delivery of liquid from pump i.e., at the outlet of the volute
 2g 
 C2  p
casing  2  . If the delivery chamber is a closed one, then d will be real and normally above
 2g  γ
Cd2
atmosphere will be equal to zero. The pressure gauge P2 will read
2g
p2 pd C2
= + hd + hfd – 2 ...(2.6)
γ γ 2g
C22
where C2 is the velocity at the delivery pipe, and will be the kinetic energy at the delivery pipe.
2g
pd patm Cd2
In case the delivery chamber is open to atmosphere then γ = γ and will be real. The
2g
Cd2 − C22
velocity Cd = C2 and the velocity head at the delivery pipe is = 0. The pressure gauge (P2)
2g
will read
p2
= hd + hfd (gauge pressure)
γ
p
= atm + hd + hfd (absolute pressure) ...(2.7)
γ
If a pressure gauge is connected at the end of suction pipe and very near to the pump inlet at point
1, it will read
p1 ps  Cs2 − C12 
γ
=
γ
+ (Zs – Z1) +  2 g  – hf (s – 1)
 
ps Cs2 − C12
= – h – h + ...(2.8)
γ s fs
2g
ps Cs2
If the suction chamber is closed, γ will be read and Cs = 0, = 0. Then
2g
p1 ps  C12 
= –  s
h + h +  ...(2.9)
γ 2 g 
fs
γ 
where C1 is the fluid velocity at suction pipe.
PUMP PARAMETERS 11
ps patm p
If the suction chamber is open to atmosphere then = . The pressure 1 will be
γ γ γ
negative i.e., under vacuum. A vacuum gauge (V) instead of pressure gauge P1 must be connected at
point 1. The velocity Cs = 0 and so
p1 pat  C12 
 s
h + h + 
γ = γ –  2 g  absolute
fs
 C12 

=  h + h + 
or 2 g  vacuum ...(2.10)
s fs

ps
Vacuum gauge will read only vacuum. The same condition will exist if , the suction chamber
γ
pressure is not sufficiently higher than the vacuum in the suction side of the pump. In this case also
only vacuum gauge must be connected at point 1. That’s why if the suction chamber is closed, a
pressure cum vacuum gauge and if suction chamber is open to atmosphere a vacuum gauge is connected
at point 1 i.e., at the end of suction pipe or immediately before the inlet of the pump.
Since total head of the pump (Hp) = Total head of the system (Hsyst)
 Cd2 Cs2 
Hp = Hsyst = P2 + V + X +  − 
 2g 2 g  for open system
= P2 – P1 + X for closed system
...(2.11)
where X is the difference in height between delivery pressure gauge (P2) and suction gauge
(P1 or V). If P2 is at a higher level than P1, X is positive. If P2 is at a lower level than P1 then X1 is
negative. If P2 and P1 are at the same level X = 0.
2.1.4 Power (N)

Power is defined as the amount of energy spent to increase the energy of the fluid passing
kgf.m N.m
through the pump from inlet to outlet of the pump and is expressed in or or watts or
sec sec
kilowatts. If ‘W’ is the weight of fluid passing through the pump and the energy increase per unit
weight of the fluid between inlet and outlet of the pump is ‘H’, power N will be
WH γ QH
N0 = = in kW or watts.
constant constant
where W = γ Q, if W is expressed in kgf, the constant will be 102, and if expressed in Newton the
constant will be 1000 in order to get the power in kW.
η)
2.1.5 Efficiency (η
The power supplied to the pump will be higher than the energy spent in converting mechanical
energy to fluid energy due to various losses, namely, hydraulic, volumetric and mechanical losses. The
ratio of actual power utilized to the power supplied is called efficiency (η).
 γQH 
power spent  N 0 = 
 const (C )  γ QH
η = = C .N
power supplied( Nth ) th
N0 γ QH
or Nth = = ...(2.12)
η C.η
2.2 PUMP CONSTRUCTION

Any pump consists of an impeller having specified number of curved blades called vanes, kept in
between two shrouds.
The impeller is the rotating element responsible for the conversion of mechanical energy into
fluid energy. This impeller is connected, through a shaft and coupled, to the prime mover for rotation.
The connection may be a direct drive or indirect drive, through belt or gear system. The shaft is
supported by one or two fixed bearing supports depending upon the pump duty and one floating
sleeve bearing support along with either mechanical seal or asbestos packed stuffing box. This floating
support is arranged to take care of liner thermal expansion of shaft, towards the impeller side but not
at the prime mover side and at the same time acting as load bearing unit. The mechanical seal material
or the packing material is selected according to the type of pumping liquid such as acidic, alkaline,
neutral, milk, distilled water, cryogenic liquids like ammonia, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, two phase
fluids such as solid-liquid, liquid-gas etc. A gland provided in the stuffing box keeps the packing
material or seal in position.
The impeller is rotated inside a sealed spiral casing or volute casing. Suction and delivery pipes are
connected to the suction side and delivery side of the spiral casing through respective flanges. Since
volute casing is a non rotating part and impeller is a rotating element, sufficient clearance should be
provided between them. The fluid enters the suction side of the impeller, called eye of the impeller with
low energy. Due to conversion of mechanical to fluid energy, the fluid leaving the impeller will be with
higher energy, mostly with more kinetic energy. Due to the energy difference between inlet and outlet of
impeller and due to the clearance between volute casing and impeller, a part of fluid flows from impeller
outlet to the eye of the impeller at the suction side and towards the stuffing box side at the back. In order
to control this leakage flow, wearing rings, at the casing and at the impeller at front and back side are
provided. The amount of clearance and different forms of wearing rings used depends upon the pumping
fluid (temperature, consistency etc.). The mechanical seal and the packing in stuffing box reduces this
leakage still further at the rear side. The volute casing and the impeller with shaft are fitted to the bracket
which has the bearings to support the shaft. This bracket base is mounted in a common base plate,
which has the provision to mount the prime mover. The pump and prime mover will be kept on a
common base plate.
In Figs. 2.5, 2.6 and 2.7, three types of pump assemblies are given for single suction pumps.
However, the construction differs for double suction pumps and multi stage pumps.
PUMP PARAMETERS 13
10 14 9 12 7 16 6 11
4
15
15
3
5
8 1
13
1. Suction flange 5. Bearing bed 9. Flexible coupling (pump side) 13. Impeller nut
2. Delivery flange 6. Shaft 10. Flexible coupling (motor tside) 14. Coupling nut
3. Impeller 7. Deep groove ball bearing 11. Gland 15. Air cock
4. Volute casings 8. Bush 12. Bearing cap 16. Grease cup
Fig. 2.5. Single bearing supported pump with split type volute casing
2 18 15 14
2 3
1
24
10
6 21
22 36
20
40 27
29 8
33
7 28
32
26
11
5 44
42 19
17
12
43
31
26 39
38 13 30 9 4
18
34 41 37
16 35 40 25
1. Spiral casing 9. Bearing bracket 17. Flat seal 26. Wearing ring 35. Stud bolt
2. Intermediate casing 10. Bearing bracket 18. Seal ring 27. Shaft sleeve 36. Stud bolt
3. Cooling room cover intermediate 19. Radial seal ring 28. Disk 37. Locking screw
4. Supporting foot 11. Bearing cover 20. Gland 29. Pin 38. Threaded pin
5. Pump shaft 12. Flat seal 21. Stuffing box ring 30. Oil level regular 39. Inner hexagon screw
6. Left-hand impeller 13. Flat seal 22. Bottom ring 31. Hexagon screw 40. Nut
7. Radial ball bearing 14. Flat seal 23. Block ring 32. Hexagon screw 41. Nut
8. Radial roller bearing 15. Flat seal 24. Stuffing box 33. Stud bolt 42. Impeller nut
(only for bearing bracket) 16. Flat seal 25. Splash ring 34. Stud bolt 43. Fitting key
44. Fitting key
Fig. 2.6. Back pullout-double bearing type pump with combine volute casing
1
6 7
2
10
8 3 5
4
Fig. 2.7. Heavy duty pump
Basically pump construction consists of three sub-assemblies namely (1) shaft assembly (2) casing
assembly and (3) base assembly or bracket assembly.
Shaft assembly, consists of impeller, impeller key, impeller nut, shaft, bushes at stuffing box,
bearing inner races, pump coupling, key, and coupling nut, all mounted on a common shaft. The shaft
is connected to the prime mover either through belt drive, or direct. This assembly is the only rotating
assembly and hence this assembly must be perfectly balanced. But, all components in this assembly are
machined components except impeller, viz., inside surface of shrouds and the blade surfaces. These
surfaces are normally rough cast surfaces and could not be machined. Hence impeller only is balanced
and assembled on the shaft.
Casing assembly consists of suction side or front side bracket, rear side or coupling side bracket
of the volute casing. However, volute casing construction changes depending upon the pumping fluids.
For pumping high consistency liquid, two phase fluids, suction side bracket, coupling side bracket and
volute casing are made up of three separate pieces (Fig. 2.7). For ordinary pumping liquids like water,
milk, etc. suction side bracket and volute casing are single unit (Fig. 2.6). In agricultural pumps, casing
is made into two halves (Fig.2.5). Suction side bracket and one half of the casing become one part.
Coupling side bracket and other half the casing become another part. Coupling side bracket will also
have stuffing box or mechanical seal chamber.
For higher capacity pumps, the base assembly or bracket assembly consists of a bracket with
provisions for assembling front and rear bearings, and bearing caps. In agricultural pumps (Fig. 2.5),
however, the stuffing box and gland at the front side of the bracket and bearing chamber and bearing
cap on the other side of the bracket will be the normal construction. In low capacity pumps, the bracket
is fitted on a base plate along with the prime mover. The casing will be connected to the bracket. In such
pumps, the entire weight of delivery pipe with fluid, the suction pipe with fluid and all minor fitting like
valve, bend etc. will be connected to the casing delivery side and suction side respectively as a overhung
unit. In higher and medium capacity pumps, pumps with heavy liquids, two phase fluids will have the
base at the casing which is connected to the common base plate.
Such assemblies are called ‘back pull out’ assembly (Fig 2.6). This assembly is a convenient
assembly, where in all parts, except casing can be removed by pulling the entire assembly backwards
for any repair and maintenance. The pipe system need not be disturbed. However, the prime mover has
to be removed from base plate, in order to remove the pump assembly parts.
PUMP PARAMETERS 15
2.3 LOSSES IN PUMPS AND EFFICIENCY

Theoretically, all the energy supplied to the pump by the prime mover, in the form of mechanical
energy, should be converted into fluid energy. Owing to manufacturing inaccuracies and entirely different
flow conditions prevailing in pump, entire energy input (mechanical energy) is not converted into fluid
energy. Referring to Figs. 2.5, 2.6 and 2.7, 100% mechanical energy supplied at the coupling side of the
pump by the prime mover is reduced, due to energy absorption in bearings, stuffing box, disc friction.
Hence, the energy input at the impeller will be less than the energy input at the pump coupling. Due to
surface roughness inside impeller and due to the leakage flow through clearance, there will be further
reduction in the energy input to the impeller. Hence, the energy output from the pump is less than the
energy input to the pump. The difference between energy input and energy output of the pump is called
losses in pump. The ratio of energy usefully utilized for work to the energy supplied is called efficiency.
In other words, efficiency is the ratio of output energy to the input energy of the machine in doing work.
Three kinds of losses prevail in fluid machines namely, (1) Hydraulic loss (2) Volumetric loss and
(3) Mechanical loss. The sum of all losses will be the total loss. Overall efficiency is the product of
hydraulic efficiency, volumetric efficiency and mechanical efficiency.
η h)
2.3.1 Hydraulic Loss and Hydraulic Efficiency (η
Due to surface roughness at the inner side of the impeller, through which the fluid passes, losses
due to friction and losses due to secondary flow, take place, as a result of which energy loss take place.
Actual head developed (Ha) will be less than the theoretical head (Hth) by the amount ∆H = Hth – Ha.
∆H is called the hydraulic loss. Hydraulic efficiency (ηh) is the ratio between, actual head to the theoretical
head.
Hydraulic loss, ∆H = Hth – Ha 
Ha Hth − ∆H Ha ∆H 
Hydraulic efficiency, ηh = = = = 1– ...(2.13)
Hth Hth Ha + Hth Hth 

∆H = (1–ηh) Hth 
η v)
2.3.2 Volumetric Loss and Volumetric Efficiency (η
In order that the impeller can rotate inside the stationary casing, proper clearance is provided at the
front and rear side of the impeller at wearing rings. Due to pressure difference between impeller outlet
and impeller inlet at the front side of the impeller as well as the pressure difference between impeller
outlet and slightly higher than atmospheric pressure at the stuffing box, part of fluid coming out of the
impeller leaks through the clearances on both sides of the impeller. As a result the quantity coming out
of the pump, the actual quantity (Qa) will be less than the quantity passing through the impeller, i.e.,
theoretical quantity (Qth) by the amount of leakage quantity passing through the clearances (∆Q), i.e.,
∆Q = Qth – Qa. Volumetric efficiency (ηv) is the ratio between actual quantity and theoretical quantity
∆Q = Qth – Qa 
Qa Qth − ∆Q Q ∆Q 
ηv =
a
Qth
=
Qth
=
Qa + ∆Q
=1–  ...(2.14)
Qth 
∆Q = (1–ηv) Qth 
η m)
2.3.3 Mechanical Loss and Mechanical Efficiency (η
Energy loss in ball, roller or thrust bearings (∆NB), in bush bearings at stuffing box or in mechanical
seal portion (∆Ns), and the disc friction losses (∆ND ) due to the impeller rotation inside the volute casing,
which is filled with fluid are classified as mechanical losses (∆N ). The energy received at the impeller
side of the shaft, i.e., actual power (Ni) for energy conversion into fluid energy will be less than the
energy supplied at the coupling side by the prime mover, i.e., theoretical power (Nth), i.e., ∆N = Nth – Ni.
The ratio between actual power (Ni) and the theoretical power (Nth) is the mechanical efficiency (ηm)
i.e., ∆N = ∆ND + ∆NB + ∆Ns 
∆N = Nth – Ni 

N th – ∆N 
Ni Ni ∆N 
ηm = = = =1– ...(2.15)
N th N th N i + ∆N N th 

∆N = (1 – ηm) . Nth 

2.3.4 Total Losses and Overall Efficiency (h)

Total losses = Hydraulic loss + Volumetric loss + Mechanical loss = ∆H + ∆Q + ∆N.
Qa
Since ηv = Q , output energy (N0) = γ Qa.Ha = γQth.ηv . Hth .ηh
th
Taking Ni = γ Qth Hth

where Ni = power available at the impeller end of the shaft, Ni = Nth – ∆N.
Ni
Therefore, N0 = Ni ηv ηh = Nth ηm . ηv . ηh. Since ηm =
N th
N0
Overall efficiency, η = = ηm . ηv . ηh ...(2.16)
N th
2.4 SUCTION CONDITIONS

Normal and dependable operation of a pump depends mostly on suction conditions of the pump
i.e., pressure at the inlet edge of the impeller blade (Fig. 2.8).
Referring to the equations (2.8) and (2.9), the pressure p1 at the impeller inlet is less than the
pressure at the suction chamber ps. If the suction chamber pressure ps is low or if the suction
chamber is open to atmosphere i.e., ps = patm, the pressure at point 1, the inlet edge of the blade of the
impeller will be under vacuum (Equation 2.10). If this pressure, p1 is lower than the local vapour
pressure of the pumping fluid, corresponding to the temperature of the liquid at impeller eye (pvp),
then the liquid at this point will be boiling. In other words, liquid will not be in liquid form, instead it
will be in gaseous form and pumping cannot be done. Hence, the pressure at the inlet of the impeller,
i.e., at the eye of the impeller, must be above vapour pressure of the flowing fluid corresponding the
temperature of the fluid.
PUMP PARAMETERS 17
2 ∆h
Cs 2
= C 0 2g
2g
Xs Radial
D1 D0 C0 flow
B
2 2
Axial
flow
Hs
Fig. 2.8. Suction conditions in a pump
p1 ps  Cs2  pvp
= –  hs + h fs +  >
γ γ  2g  γ
 p1 pvp   ps pvp   Cs2 
or  γ − γ  =  γ − γ  –  hs + h fs + 2 g  > 0 ...(2.17)
 
ps patm
If = i.e., if the suction chamber is open to atmosphere, then
γ γ
 p1 pvp   patm pvp   Cs2 
 γ − − –  s
h + h + > 0
γ 
= 
γ  2 g 
fs
 γ 
must be greater than zero or in other words, always it should be positive i.e.,
 patm pvp   Cs2 
 γ − γ  >  hs + h fs + 2 g 
 
 p1 − p vp   patm pvp 
  −  is called
γ 
is termed as H and is called Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH).
  γ γ 
sv
NPSH available. The two terms patm and pvp cannot be altered, since these values patm, the atmospheric
pressure at the place where pump is running and pvp is the vapour pressure, which depends upon the
 C2 
temperature of the pumping liquid, are fixed values. The term  hs + h fs + s  is called NPSH required
 2g 
which is depending upon, the pump, viz., flow rate, pipe length and size, and the level of suction
chamber with respect to the reference line of the pump. All these can be altered during pump erection at
site.
Hence NPSH (Net) (Hsv) = NPSH (available) – NPSH (required)

 patm pvp   C2 
Hsv =  −  –  hs + h fs + s  ...(2.18)
 γ γ   2g 
 C2 
( H atm − H vp ) −  hs + h fs + s 
H sv  2g 
σ = = ...(2.19)
H H
where σ is called Thoma’s constant. All pump manufactures give this value i.e., Hsv or σ by conducting
test on water in the laboratory. Depending upon the site conditions, pump erection is carried out so that
pump can work without cavitation.
In order to have a safe operation, a reserve in the NPSH is introduced and suction lift or suction
head is calculated accordingly.
 C2 
KHsv = (Hatm – Hvp) –  hs + h fs + s  ...(2.20)
 2g 
Normal values of K will be 1.15 to 1.40. Therefore, hs will be
 C2 
hs = (Hatm – Hvp) –  h fs + s  – KHsv ...(2.21)
 2g 
In case the pumping liquid is other than water
H sv ( w ) γ w H svw
Hsv (L) = = ...(2.22)
SL γL
where SL is the specific gravity of the liquid
γL and γw are the specific weights of liquid and water respectively.
12
11
Vapour Pressure ion Metres of Water Column
10
9 8
8
Additional Suction Head in Metres
7
7
6
6
5
5
4
4
3
3
2 2
1 1
0 0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 100 125 150 175 200 225
Water Temperature °C Water Temperature °C
(a) (b)
Fig. 2.9. Vapour pressure of water at different temperatures
PUMP PARAMETERS 19
2.5 SIMILARITY LAWS IN PUMPS
2.5.1 Similarity Laws

A complete study of fluid flow and the flow pattern in impeller, in casing and in various other
elements of pump by theoretical means could not be achieved. Thats why, experimental coefficients are
used along with the theoretical equations to solve the problems in pumps. These experimental coefficients
are obtained by conducting experiments on different pumps and obtaining results with the help of
similarity laws and dimensional analysis.
Similarity and dimensional analysis is a process of obtaining the property and characteristics of
another similar pump from the available property and characteristics of a pump on which experiment
was carried out and the results known. A functional relationship between different parameters of the
pump tested and the pump for which the calculations are needed is established by this law. Using
dimensional analysis under geometrical similarity, different expressions, connecting pump head (H),
quantity (Q), power (N) and speed (n) with the impeller diameter (D), which is the standard reference
linear dimension for a pump, and the properties of fluid, such as density (ρ), viscosity (µ) and gravitational
acceleration (g) can be established. The following Table 2.1 gives the dimensions and units of different
parameters used for non-dimensional analysis.
TABLE 2.1: Units and dimensions
Parameter Dimensions Symbol

1. Head H metre (m) L
2. Quantity Q m3/second (sec) L3/t
Newton . m ML2
3. Power N
sec t2
1 1
4. Speed n
sec t
5. Diameter D m L
6. Gravitational
acceleration g m/sec2 L/t2
7. Density ρ kg/m3 M/L3
kg M
8. Viscosity µ m sec Lt
As per the laws of dimensional analysis, there are 8 parameters with 3 dimensions. Hence,
(8 – 3) = 5 non-dimensional parameters can be evolved. After solving, we get the following non-
dimensional parameters.
µ  ρVL 
(1) which is Reynold’s number  Re = 
ρ n D2  µ 
Q  V 
(2) which is Struhaul’s number  Sh =  called unit discharge KQ in fluid machines
nD 3  nL 
N
(3) called unit power (KN)
ρn3 D 5
g  V2 
(4) which is Froude number 
 F = 
gl 
r
n2 D 
H
(5)
D
Multiplying non-dimensional parameters (4) and (5), we get another non-dimensional number
gH H
2 2
. However, since g is a constant, 2 2 is used, in practice which is called unit head (KH) in fluid
n D n D
machines. Based on the above non-dimensional parameters, a functional relationship between unit power
(KN) and the unit discharge (KQ) i.e., KN = f (KQ) as well as unit head (KH) and unit discharge (KQ). viz.,
KH = f (KQ) can be established.
Ni  µ Q   Q 
= f , 3  = f 
 R , 
n D3 
3 5 e ...(2.23)
ρn D  ρnD nD 
2

 Q 
Ni = ρn3D5 f  Re , 
n D3 
...(2.24)

where, Ni (internal power) or the power input at the impeller unit i.e., the power input at the coupling
side minus mechanical losses in bearings, stuffing box, and disc friction.
F µ I FG R , Q IJ
Also
gH
n2 D2
= f GH ρ n D 2
,
Q
nD 3
JK =f H nD K
e 3 ...(2.25)
n2 D2  Q 
or H = f  Re ,  ...(2.26)
g  nD3 
Equations (2.24) and (2.26) give the relation between the internal power (Ni) and head (H) with
Reynold’s number and unit discharge (KQ). The effect of Reynold’s number is not considered, since the
tests are conducted in auto model region i.e., at high Reynold’s number (Re > 105), where the coefficient
of friction ‘f ’ remains constant and is independent Reynold’s number (Re). This value H will be
approximate, since effect due to frictional losses is not considered.
Considering two identical pumps viz., prototype (suffix p) and model (suffix m) i.e., pumps of the
same series which are geometrically similar, i.e., linear dimensions are proportional and kinematically
similar, i.e., flow directions are same within the impeller and in casing, i.e., blade angles are same,
velocity triangles are identical.
gH p gH m
For Head =
n 2p D p2 nm2 Dm2
Hp Hm
or = ...(2.27)
n 2p D p2 nm2 Dm2
Hp gn 2p D p2 FG n IJp
2
 Dp 
Hm
=
gnm2 Dm2
= K2
Hn K m
where K=  
 Dm 
...(2.28)
PUMP PARAMETERS 21
Qp Qm
For Quantity =
n p D 3p nm Dm3
Qp n p D3p FG n IJ
p
or
Qm
=
nm Dm3
= K3
Hn K m
...(2.29)
Np Nm
For Power =
ρ p n3p D5p ρm nm3 Dm5
Np ρ p n3p D5p
or =
Nm ρm nm3 Dm5
FG n p IJ FG ρ IJ
3
p
= K5
Hn m K Hρ Km
...(2.30)
If the pumping liquid is same for both prototype and for model ρp = ρm, then
Np FG n IJp
3
Nm
= K5
m Hn K ...(2.31)
Equations (2.28), (2.29) and (2.30) are called similarity equations for pumps, and include the scale
µ
effect, i.e., include change in the effect of Reynold’s number Re = and relative Roughness effect
ρnD 2
ε
  .
D
However, exact values, which include the change in the corresponding efficiencies between prototype
and model, are given below :
Qp FG n IJ FG η IJ
p vp
U|
Qm
= K3
Hn K Hη K
m vm ||
Hp F n I  η  2
|
Hm
=K G J 
Hn K η 
2
p hp
hm
V| ...(2.32)
||
m
N ip Fn I Fρ I  η
=K G J G J 
3

||
p p mp
N im Hn K Hρ K η
5
m m mm


W
FG η IJ
vp
The value
Hη K
vm
takes into account the change in volumetric efficiency connected with the
change in the relative values of wearing clearances, balancing holes and usually connected with the
 ηhp 
change in scale K. The value 
 ηhm 
is the change in hydraulic efficiency which is a function of
FG ηmp IJ
Reynold’s number and scale K. The value
H ηmm K
is the change in the relative values of mechanical
losses in bearings, stuffing box and for disc friction. The equations developed under similarity laws for
pumps are most important for test result analysis and widely used in pump industries, to analyse the
performance of model tested in the laboratory, with the test results obtained from the prototype, tested
in industries such as test at different speeds, test at different diameters, tests on liquids other than water
etc., and also to develop new pumps.
2.5.2 Specific Speed (ns)

Specific speed (ns) is defined as the speed of a geometrically similar pump which consumes 1
(metric) hp and develops 1 m of total head, the pumping liquid being water under normal temperature
of 4°C and at atmospheric pressure of 1.0336 kgf/cm2, and γ = 1000 kgf/m3 viscosity µ = 1 centipoise
or ν = 1 centistoke i.e., n = ns, when N = 1 hp and H = 1 m.
γQH
Since, N (hp) = .
75
Substituting the values γ = 1000 kgf/m3
N (hp) = 1 hp, H = 1 m
1 × 75
Q = = 0.075 m3/sec.
1000 × 1
Referring to equation for unit power, KN and substituting the values.
N 1
=
ρn 3 D 5 ρns3 Ds5
ρn3 D 5 FG n IJ 3
N =
ρns3 Ds5
= K5
Hn K s
...(2.33)
gH g .1
2 2 =
n D ns2 Ds2
F nI F DI
H = G J .G J
2 2
FG n IJ 2
or
Hn K HD Ks s
= K2
Hn K s
...(2.34)
Combining equations 2.33 and 2.34
2 FG n IJ and H = K FG n IJ
6 10
K10
Hn K Hn K
N = 5 10
s s
H5 F n I or n = n N
= G J
4 4 2
N2 Hn K
s H
4
s 5
n N
ns = ...(2.35)
H5 4
γ QH
Since N =
75
 λ 1000  n Q
ns =  =  ⋅ 3.65 3 / 4
 75 75  H
Since γ = 1000 kgf/m3
PUMP PARAMETERS 23
n N n Q
Hence ns = 5/ 4
= 3.65 ...(2.36)
H H 3/ 4
Equation (2.35) is used for turbines and equation (2.36) is adopted for pumps.
2.5.3 Unit Specific Speed (nsq)

Unit Specific Speed (nsq) is defined as the speed of a geometrically similar pump delivering
1 m3/sec of discharge and develops 1 m head i.e., n = nsq where Q = 1 m3/s and H = 1 m, i.e.,
n Q
ns = .
H 3/ 4
gH Q
Combining 2 2
and into one by removing ‘D’
n D nD 3
Q Q2
Q ∝ nD3 or D3 ∝ or D6 =
n n2
gH g3H 3
gH ∝ n2D2 or D2 ∝ or D6 =
n2 n6
Q2 g3H 3 n 6Q2
Therefore, 2 ∝ or
n2 g 3 H 3
= Constant
n n6
n 4 Q2 n Q
or = Constant or = Constant (nsn) ...(2.37)
g3H 3 ( gH ) 3/ 4
Equation (2.37) is called non-dimensional specific speed (nsn). Since g is a constant, it can be
taken to the right hand side.
n Q
Unit specific speed, nsq = .
H 3/ 4
gH N
Similarly, combining and into one and by removing ‘D’ in both expressions
n2 D2 ρn 3 D 5
gH g5H 5
gH ∝ n2 D2 or D2 ∝ or D10 ∝
n2 n10
N N2
N∝ ρn3D5 or D5 ∝ or D10 ∝ 2 6
ρn3 ρ n
g5 H 5 N2 n10 N 2
So ∝ or = Constant
n10 ρ2 n 6 g 5 H 5ρ 2 n 6
n10 N 2
or = Constant
ρ2 g 5 H 5
n N
or = Constant = nsn ...(2.38)
ρ g 5/ 4 H 5/ 4
where nsn is the non-dimensional specific speed.
Since N = γ QH = ρg QH, substituting this value in the above equation
n ρ g Q H
= Constant
ρg 5/ 4
H 5/ 4
n Q
or = Constant = nsn
( gH )3/4
which is the same nsn as defined earlier.
While calculating the specific speed, all efficiencies i.e., volumetric, hydraulic, mechanical and
overall efficiencies are assumed to remain same for one value of ns i.e., for one series, independent of
size, capacity, head of the pump, of same ns. This is not correct since larger size and capacity pumps
will have higher efficiency than smaller capacity units of same ns. This is the only drawback in the
calculation of specific speed.
Referring to the specific speed equation, it can be said that each value of specific speed, ns refers
to one particular series of geometrically similar pumps i.e., a number of pumps with different H, Q, n
can be developed, all having same (ns) specific speed.
From the above it can be concluded that each value of ns refers one particular series of geometrically
and kinematically similar pump, each pump in this series will be identical to the other. It can also be said
that for the same value of head and discharge (H – Q) different types of pumps in different series can
be obtained with different specific speed, by changing the speed n.
Each pump will be different in type and construction. But due to limited suction conditions and
due to cavitation and subsequent vibration, noise and damage of pump parts at higher speeds, high
speeds are not recommended unless otherwise needed. Moreover, maximum efficiency can be obtained
only at a particular speed for the given head (H) and discharge (Q) i.e., for given ns only at one
particular speed. In fact, the specific speed, ns is calculated at the maximum efficiency point only.
Normally pumps are driven by electric motor (speed will be 720, 960, 1450, 2990 rpm) or by I.C.
Engines (750 or 1000 rpm) or by Turbines (25000 to 50000 rpm). Hence, pumps are always selected or
developed to give maximum efficiency at these speeds. The value of specific speed, the type of pump
will be always selected for the given H – Q of pumps and from the speed, n of the prime mover coupled
to the pump.
2.6 CLASSIFICATION OF IMPELLER TYPES ACCORDING TO SPECIFIC

SPEED (nS)
The shape and type of impeller depends upon the specific speed ns. For the same head and
discharge, the specific speed (ns) is directly proportional to the speed (n). ns increases when the speed
is increased. When the speed increases, the shape and type of impeller change. In first approximation
the pump head (H) is directly proportional to the peripheral velocity or blade velocity (u). This is evident
from the non-dimensional equation H ∝ n2 D2 ∝ u2. When speed (n) decreases the diameter (D) increases.
PUMP PARAMETERS 25
Outer diameter (D2) of the impeller is the characteristic linear dimension or the reference diameter D. So
increase in speed n decreases the diameter D2 and correspondingly the size and weight of the pump is
reduced which is naturally most advantageous, provided suction conditions do not have any limitations.
The eye diameter (D0) or the inlet diameter (D1) is determined from the quantity of flow (Q). D0 or D1
D D
and slightly reduces when speed is increased. So the ratio 2 or 2 reduces with the increase of ns.
D0 D1
b
Also for the given quantity, the diameter D2 reduces, the breadth b2 increases. So 2 increases with the
D2
increase of ns. When ns the specific speed increases, the flow rate (Q) increases and total head (H)
decreases. High head-low discharge pumps have low specific speed. The pumps have higher value of
(D2/D1) and low value of (b2/D2). Impeller blades are in radial direction and of single curvature design.
These pumps are called radial flow centrifugal pumps.
Medium head-medium discharge pumps have medium specific speed. These pumps have medium
D b
value of 2 and 2 . At lower range of medium specific speed, the impeller blades have double
D1 D2
curvature at inlet and single curvature at outlet. The outlet edge of the blade is parallel to the axis. The
inlet edge of the blade extends towards the eye of the impeller in order to reduce blade loading since
outer diameter D2 is reduced. When the specific speed increases further the inlet and outlet edges are
inclained i.e., neither radial nor axial. The blades have double curvature design. Flow through the impeller
is neither radial nor axial, but is in mixed or diagonal direction. These pumps are called mixed flow
pumps or diagonal flow pumps.
Low head-high discharge pumps have high specific speed. Inlet and outlet edges of impeller blade
are almost perpendicular to the flow direction. The blades are of double curvature design. These pumps
are called axial flow pumps.
Very low head and very high discharge condition gives very high specific speed. The fluid flow
direction in impeller is axial. Ship propellers belong to this category.
In general, pumps are classified as radial, mixed, diagonal or axial, depending upon the fluid flow
through the impeller passage.
All positive displacement pumps have very low discharge and very high head and hence very low
specific speed.
Theoretically, specific speed changes from 0 to ∞ i.e., from zero discharge to zero head as well as
change in speed. Practically very low speed and very high speeds could not be attained, so also very low
head and very high discharge are limited and hence the specific speed.
D
D1 D
C
D2
B
A
80 350 450 800 ns
D2
Fig. 2.10. Form and shape of impeller for
D1
Figs. (1.3) and (2.10) give different forms or shapes of impellers and their range of specific
speeds as well as the range of diameter ratio (D2/D1).
TABLE 2.2: Specific speed of pumps
Positive Centrifugal Mixed Axial
Type of displacement Radial Mixed
impeller pumps Low Normal Higher Ship
discharge discharge discharge Diagonal Propeller Propeller propellers
3.65 n Q
ns= 8–35 40–80 80–150 150–300 300–400 400–600 600–1200 1200–1800
H 3/ 4 and above
D2
– ≈ 2.5 ≈2 1.8–1.4 1.3–1.15 1.15–1.1 0.8–0.6 0.6–0.55
D1
n Q
nsq = 3/ 4 2–10 10–22 22–41 41–82 82–110 110–165 165–330 330–495
H
n Q
nsq = 0.36–1.8 1.8–4.0 4.0–7.4 7.4–14.8 14.8–19.8 19.8–29.8 29.8–59.5 59.5–89.3
( gH ) 3/ 4
2.7 PUMPING LIQUIDS OTHER THAN WATER
2.7.1 Total Head, Flow Rate, Efficiency and Power Determination for Pumps
when Pumping, Liquids other than Water
Unlike turbines; pumps are used not only for pumping clear cold water at normal temperatures,
but also for pumping liquids with different properties such as different densities, different viscosities
and different consistencies, pumping not only at normal temperatures, but also at cold or hot temperatures.
Liquids may be corrosive or non-corrosive, two phase fluids such as gas-liquid or solid-liquid mixtures,
milk, distilled water, acids, alkaline solutions, cryogenic liquids like liquid hydrogen, liquid oxygen, liquid
nitrogen, liquid ammonia, molasses, tar, petrol, diesel, crude-oil etc.
It is not possible to design each pump for each liquid and test them in the laboratory with the
pumping liquid at the actual field working conditions.
Pump design is always carried out for clear water at normal temperature. Water is considered as
reference liquid for all the liquids mentioned above.
For pumping liquids with viscosity and consistency, correction coefficients KH , KQ and Kη
(or Ke) are used for converting the liquid parameters to equivalent water parameters. These coefficients
are taken from standard recommended graphs and tables. These values are the consolidated results
from a number of experiments by many authors and recommended by International Hydraulic Institute
and Bureau of Indian Standards | 46 |.
Suitable pump is then selected from the commercially available water pumps for which performance
characteristics are known.
PUMP PARAMETERS 27
2.7.2 Effect of Temperature

Increase in the temperature of the liquid decreases the density, viscosity and consistency and
increases vapor pressure of the liquid. Due to high temperature of pumping liquid, the dimensions of
pump parts change at running condition, due to thermal expansion of the material of the pump parts.
Extra dimensional allowances in clearances are given depending upon the temperature of the pumping
liquid and coefficient of thermal expansion of the material of the pump parts. These pumps are brought
to the running temperature by filling with the pumping liquid or by external heating, before starting of the
pump for smooth and vibration free operation. These pumps will not be started at normal temperatures
and also should not be used for liquids at other than the recommended temperature.
Increase in vapor pressure due to increase in temperature of the pumping liquid changes the net
NPSH value and also reduction in suction lift. The system at suction side of the pump must be suitably
altered for cavitation free operation of the pump. Recommended changes are given in chapter 9 of this
book.
ρ or γ )
2.7.3 Density Correction (ρ
Pumping pressure ‘p’ and the total head (H) are related by the hydrostatic equation p = γH = ρ g H
where ‘γ’ is the specific weight and ‘ρ’ is the density of the pumping liquid and ‘g’ is the gravitational
acceleration. For the same pumping pressure, total head of the pump changes according to the specific
weight (γv) or the density (ρv) or the specific gravity (Sv) of the pumping liquid i.e.,
p = γw Hw = γv Hv = Sv γw Hv
Since rv = Sv γw. Suffix ‘w’ is for water and suffix ‘v’ is for the viscous liquid.
γv H v
∴ Hw = = Sv Hv
γw
Although theoretically density has no influence on flow rate i.e., Qw = Qv, practically Qv changes
by 2 to 3% Qw and even up to 5% at higher density of pumping liquid due to the influence of surface
tension.
For high temperature liquid pumping at t°C, the density of pumping liquid (ρt°C) is calculated as
(equation 2.39).
ρ15 C
ρt°C = ...(2.39)
1 + β t °C (t C − 15C )
where (βt°C) is the coefficient and (ρ15°C) is the density at t = 15°C.
Table 2.3 gives the values of (βt°C) for different values of (ρ15°C).
TABLE 2.3: Density correction coefficients
ρ15°C 0.7 0.8 0.85 0.9 0.95
βt°C 82 × 10–10 77 × 10–5 72 × 10–5 64 × 10–5 60 × 10–5

2.7.4 Viscosity Correction

Performance of centrifugal pump changes when the viscosity of the pumping liquid changes. For
higher viscous liquids, total head (Hv), flow rate (Qv) and efficiency (ηv) reduce considerably.
Correspondingly, power consumption (Niv) increases. Head-discharge graph droops down more. Overall
efficiency reduces. Optimum efficiency shifts to lower flow rate condition. Power consumption increases
considerably especially at high viscous liquid pumping due to higher reduction in efficiency. However,
shut off head of viscous liquid remains same as that of water. Fig. 12.27 shows the change in pump
parameters when viscosity of the pumping liquid changes.
However, up to liquid viscosity 20 C.S., pump performance for viscous liquid pumping does not
change with respect to the pump performance pumping with water. Correction is applied only if the
pumping liquid viscosity is more than 20 C.S. Figure 2.12 gives the values of coefficient for flow rate
(KQ), coefficient for total head KH and coefficient for efficiency (Kn or Ke) for different values of Qv, Hv
and νv, where νv is the viscosity of liquid in (S or SSU).
If the temperature of pumping liquid is higher, viscosity (νt°C) at the temperature (t°C) is calculated as
0.01775
ν t°C(C.S.) = ...(2.40)
1 + 0.0337 t ° + 0.00023 t ° 2
νt°C must be taken while referring the Fig. 2.12.
However, this graph can be referred only for :
(a) Pumps of radial type centrifugal pumps under the normal operating range, having open or
closed impellers. It cannot be used for mixed and axial flow pumps or for pumps of special
design of impellers such as s-type impellers, single blade or two blade impellers or for non-
uniform liquids like, slurries paperstocks etc., since it may produce widely varying results,
depending upon the particular characteristics of the liquids.
(b) Sufficient NPSH should be available in water parameters in order to avoid cavitation.
Relation between viscous and water parameters is expressed as
Qv = KQ . Q W
Hv = KH . Hw ...(2.41)
ηv = Kη . η w
( Sv × γ w × Qv × H v )
Niv = (kW)
1000 ηv
2.7.4.1 Determination of Water Parameters for the Given Head, Quantity and Viscosity of
the Pumping Liquid
For the given total head (Hv), quantity (Qv), efficiency (ηv) and specific gravity (Sv) at the pumping
temperature (t°C) of the viscous liquid to be pumped, equivalent water parameters (Hw, Qw, ηw, Niw) can
be determined referring the graph (Figures 2.11 and 2.12). The procedure is as follows:
From the point of given viscous quantity (Qv) (Point A) in X-axis, a vertical line is drawn to meet
the given viscous head (Hv) line (Point B). From this meeting point of Hv and Qv (Point B) a horizontal
line, either left or right, is drawn to intersect the given viscosity (νv) line (Point C). From the point C, a
PUMP PARAMETERS 29
100 Water pump peak

efficiency %
90
80
Head
70
90
60 80
70
100 20 30 40 50 60
90
80
Capacity
70
Water pump peak
60 efficiency %
50
100 90
20 30 40 50 60 70 80
90
80
70
Efficiency
60
50
40
Water pump peak
efficiency %
30
20 90
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
300
200
15,0 0
Head per stage in m at peak efficiency for
1 0 00
150
10 0
30 0
40
20
30
80
15
90
100
20 0
10
90
15
40
80
,00
50 0
00
00
00
0
40
80
75
0
0
0
0
0
0
00
0
50
40
30
20
15
water at actual operating r.p.m.
10
5m
V is
co
s ity
300
200
150
100
75
50
40
30
20
15 3
m /hr
1000
1400
1800
2200
10 15 20 30 40 50 60 80 100 150 200 300 400 600 800
30 40 50 60 70 80 100 150 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 8000 imp gpm
Fig. 2.11. A viscosity correction nomogram based on that quoted by (from Davidson (3), 1993,
Process Pump Selection—A System Approach, Second Edition IMechE, London)
1.0
0.9
KH
0.8
0.60
Correction Factors
0.7 0.80
1.00
0.6 1.20
1.0
0.9
0.8
KQ
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
Kη
0.3
0.2
1217
1670
2280
3190
6.25
11.8
16.5
21.2
33.4
45.2
60.5
114
132
190
223
304
350
436
610
760
915
Centistokes
75
Hm
200
150
100
80
60
300 430
40
30
25
20
Engler
15
10
8
1.5
2.5
3
4.5
6
8
10
15
20
25
30
40
50
60
80
100
120
160
220
6
4
100
1000
50
130
300
400
60
20
30
10
200
500
600
800
1500
2000
Q imp gpm
Fig. 2.12. Performance correction chart for viscous liquids

vertical line is drawn to meet the correction curves Kη, KQ and KH at peak water efficiency points D, E,
F respectively. The values Kη, KQ and KH are the correction coefficients. By using the equation (2.41),
equivalent water parameters QW, HW, ηW can be calculated.
For multistage pumps, the total head (Hv) must be the total head per stage only i.e., Hv = [(HV)
multistage/number of stages]. Based on the water parameters (HV and QV), suitable pump can be selected
from the commercially available pumps.
2.7.4.2 Determination of Viscous Parameters When Water Parameters are Known

For the given Hw, Qw, ηw values of water pump, equivalent viscous parameters Hv, Qv, and ηv can
be determined, referring the graph (Figures 2.11 and 2.12). From the performance characteristics of the
available water pump, namely Hw = f (Qw), ηw= f (Qw) and Niw = f (Qw), where Qw is the quantity at the
PUMP PARAMETERS 31
maximum efficiency condition and Hw, ηw, Nw are the corresponding values at Qw, the values of Hw, ηw,
Nw for 0.6 Qw, 0.8 Qw, 1.0 Qw and 1.2 Qw are determined. As first approximation, all the above determined
water parameters are assumed as viscous liquid parameters, so that graph (Figs. 2.11 and 2.12) can be
referred to find KH, KQ, and Kη for all four capacities, following the same procedure as mentioned.
Using the equation (2.41), equivalent values of HV, ηV, and QV can be calculated for all four Qw capacities.
Two graphs Hw, ηV, NW = f (QW) and Hv, ηV, NV = f (QV) are drawn taking shut off head is same for
water and for viscous liquid pumping. From this curve QV, can be found out for the given value of Qw,
and other values. One such graph is given in Figure 2.13.
H Q
0, 6
N H 0, 8 Q
1, 0 Q
η
1, 2 Q
N
Water parameters
Viscous liquid parameters

η
Fig. 2.13. Determination of viscous parameters from water parameters of pump

Example: A water pump has the following details as per the performance graph:
Optimum efficiency condition ηW (max)= 80% is at QW = 150 m3/hr. Corresponding Hw = 40 m,
Nw= 28 kW. Pumping liquid viscosity is 57 CS. Referring to the performance characteristic of
water pump, the values of HW, ηW, NW, for 0.6 Qw = 90 m3/hr, 0.8 Qw = 120 m3/hr and for 1.2 Qw =
180 m3/hr are found out. Referring the conversion graphs (Figs. 2.11 and 2.12), the values of Kη,KH,
and KQ for all four capacities are determined. Using equation (2.41), HV ,QV, ηV, and the power required
for viscous fluid pumping NV, are calculated. All these values are given in Table 2.4.
TABLE 2.4: Viscous parameter determination from water parameters
% QW values
Parameters 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2
Flow rate m3/hr Qw 90 120 150 180
QV = KQ.QW QV 88.2 117.5 147 176.5
Total head m HW 44 42 40 36
HV = KH . HW HV 43.2 40.8 38 33.5
Efficiency % ηW 70 78 80 77
ηV = KηηW ηV 49 54.5 56 54
Input power kW NW 15.7 17.9 20.9 23.1
NV 21.6 24.6 27.6 29.8
Based on the results tabulated in above table (2.4), HV, ηV, NV = f (QV) are drawn in the same scale
and in the same available performance characteristics of water pump, taking shut off head same for
both liquids. From this graph (Fig. 2.13), for any value of QW, HW, ηW, corresponding values of QV, HV,
ηV and NV can be determined.
2.7.5 Effect of Consistency on Pump Performance

Pumps in chemical and process industries, handle two phase fluids i.e., liquid with another non-
mixing liquid, liquids with solids in suspension, gas particles in liquids. Apparently average specific
gravity of such mixtures is different from specific gravity of liquid alone. The problem becomes more
difficult, if the liquid is other than water, which is very common in chemical industries. As a result, the
net pumping head, flow rate, power, NPSH of the mixture change. So the pump parameters of the
mixture is converted into equivalent water parameters by using experimental coefficients called
‘consistency factor’.
‘Consistency’ is defined as the percentage by volume or by weight (or specific gravity) of the
solid content or gas content or other liquid present in suspension in the whole pumping mixture. It is
the property of material by which, a permanent change of shape is resisted and is also defined by the
complete force-flow relationships.
As done for viscous fluids, the experimentally determined conversion factors are used to determine
the liquid parameters. The following equations are used for such conversion:
Pulp (or) stock rating for Q or H ( Qs or H s ) 
Water Rating (Qw or HW) = 
Conversion factor for Q or H ( Eq or EH )  ... (2.42)

HS = EH , HW , QS = EQ . QW 
Water efficiency (ηW) × Conversion factor (Eη) = Pulp or stock efficiency (ηs)
ηW × Eη = ηs
Table 2.5 gives the conversion factor for pulp or stock pumping at different consistency conditions | 5 |.
TABLE 2.5: Consistency conversion coefficient
Pulp or stock consistency % EQ EH Eη
1.0 0.99 1.00 0.99

2.0 0.99 1.00 0.99
2.5 0.98 1.00 0.98
3.0 0.97 1.00 0.97
3.5 0.96 0.99 0.95
4.0 0.92 0.98 0.90
4.5 0.87 0.97 0.85
5.0 0.80 0.95 0.76
5.5 0.72 0.93 0.67
6.0 0.62 0.90 0.56
6.5 0.52 0.87 0.45
7.0 0.42 0.83 0.35
PUMP PARAMETERS 33
Such conversion factors are available for different liquid mixtures from the manufactures such as
KSB pumps, pump manual or International Hydraulic Institute Standards. Rotodynamic pumps can be
used only up to 7% consistency. For consistencies above 7%, positive displacement pumps must be
used.
Correct design, construction and material of pump parts must be followed especially for impeller
blade shape, casing shape and location, sealing arrangement, and cooling arrangements such as external
cooling or mother liquid circulation for cooling and sealing to suit the pumping fluid and operating
conditions.
In this book, water handling pumps and their constructions are only dealt with and discussed in
chapter 13. For special pumps, however, handling hydrocarbons and other high consistency liquids,
specific manufacturer’s recommendation must be referred.
2.7.6 Special Consideration in Pump Selection

Normally pumps are manufactured as per the manufacturer’s standard of production range. Any
customer selects pump for his requirement from the available standard ranges. Sometimes, pumps are
selected according to space availability in the field such as in ships, rigs, railways, in general for transport
systems and sometimes to replace the existing pump with the new pump especially in mechanical and
process industries. In such cases, efficiency is not considered as a major factor, instead functional
applications such as fitting the pump in the space available, non-stop or continuous operation even at
emergency conditions are considered as important. Such conditions change from field to field and
installation to installation. Pumps must be designed and constructed and must work as per the requirement
of prevailing conditions at the fluid.
3
THEORY OF ROTODYNAMIC PUMPS
3.1 ENERGY EQUATION USING MOMENT OF MOMENTUM EQUATION FOR

FLUID FLOW THROUGH IMPELLER
Energy transfer from the impeller blade to the fluid, per unit mass (or weight) of fluid flow, when fluid
passes through the impeller, can be developed by using momentum equation between point ‘O’, just
before the impeller blade and point ‘3’ just after the blade. The cylindrical contour surface passing
through point O and point 3 are shown in figure (3.1). The contour circles drawn with radius ‘r1’ passing
through the point O and with radius ‘r2’ passing through point 3 are connected to the front and rear
shrouds (Fig. 3.1). Pressure and velocity forces, on both sides of the shrouds, are equal and opposite and
hence get cancelled. Only two forces, due to absolute velocities, one acting on the outer cylindrical
surface 3 and another on the inner cylindrical surface ‘O’ are responsible for energy transfer. Taking
moment of this momentum at inlet and at outlet i.e., moment of tangential component of these forces
with respect to the centre of the circle and since l0= r0 cos α0, r0= r1, C0 cos α 0 = Cu0= Cu1 and l3 = r3
cos α3, r3= r2, C3 cos α3 = Cu3 = Cu2, the reactive moment due to the tangential forces acting on the
cylindrical surfaces 3 and 0 will be
C3
α3 C u3 3
Contour
C0 3 Contour line
α0
r3=r2
C u0 0
l3 l0 α0 r
1 r2
r0=r1
II I
Fig. 3.1. Moment of momentum equation as applied to impeller
Moment M 0 = C0 l0 = C0 r0 cos α 0 = Cu1r0 = Cu1r1

Moment M 3 = C3l3 = C3 r3 cos α 3 = Cu 3 r3 = Cu 2 r2 ...(3.1)
Taking into account, moment Mf due to friction, created due to the fluid passing through blade
passages, total moment M will be
M = M3 + M 0 + M f
34
THEORY OF ROTODYNAMIC PUMPS 35
rQ
= (Cu 2 r2 − Cu1 r1 ) + M f ...(3.2)
g
For ideal fluid flow, Mf = 0. Energy transfer per unit weight of fluid flow through the impeller of
a pump i.e., the theoretical head developed under infinite number of blades, with infinitesimally smaller
vane thickness, will be
M ω  Cu 2 − Cu1 
Hth ∞ = =   ...(3.3)
γQ  g 
where Mω = N, γQ = W and u = ω r.
Equation 3.3 is the Eular’s equation for the head developed by a pump.
3.2 BERNOULLI’S EQUATION FOR THE FLOW THROUGH IMPELLER

Eular’s equation for an elementary flow along a streamline (S) is given by
1 ∂p dC ∂C ∂C ∂s ∂C ∂C ∂C ∂  C 2 
= = + . = + = +
∂t ∂s  2 
Fs – ρ ∂ C ...(3.4)
s dt ∂t ∂s ∂t ∂t ∂s
where, Fs = Resolved component unit of mass along the direction of the streamline S
p = pressure
C = velocity (absolute)
ρ = density
For an elementary length ‘ds’ on the streamline the equation (3.4) can be written as
1 ∂p ∂  C2  ∂C
Fs ds – ds –   ds = ds ...(3.5)
ρ ∂s ∂s  2  ∂t
∂C
For steady flow condition = 0.
∂t
1 ∂p ∂  C2

Therefore, Fs ds – ds –   ds = 0. ...(3.6)
ρ ∂s ∂s  2

 mg 
The force due to unit mass is the gravitational force ‘g’  =  which is directed downwards.
 m 
Fg = – g.
Taking vertically upward direction of Z-axis as +ve direction
dZ
and Fs – Fg ( cos Z , ds ) = – g ...(3.7)
ds
Substituting this value of Fs in equation 3.6 and changing the sign
dZ 1 ∂p ∂  C2 
+g ds + ds +   ds = 0 ...(3.8)
ds ρ ∂s ∂s  2 
dp C2
or gdZ + +d = 0
ρ 2
For compressible flow, density ‘ρ’ is a function of the pressure p i.e., ρ = f ( p). Integrating the
equation (3.8) with respect to ds
dp C 2
gZ + ∫ + = Constant ...(3.9)
ρ 2
For incompressible fluid, the density ‘ρ’ is constant. The specific weight γ = ρg. Hence, the equation
(3.9) can be written for unit weight of fluid as,
p C2
+Z + = Constant ...(3.10)
γ 2g
Equations (3.8), (3.9) and (3.10) are called Bernoulli’s equation derived from fundamental Eular’s
equation of motion under steady absolute flow condition along a streamline.
It is evident that, this equation cannot be applied for the change of energy of ideal fluid under
unsteady absolute motion of fluid in impellers. Perhaps this equation can be applied for other elements
like approach pipe with or without inlet blades, volute casing, diffuser, return passage of multistage
pumps, which are non-moving or stationary elements, where steady flow prevails under optimum
conditions.
For impellers, however, steady flow condition can be applied for relative velocity of flow of fluid
since this velocity is actual velocity flowing past the blades. Referring the equation (3.7) the force Fs in
impeller blades consists of the gravitational force Fg and inertia force (since blade is moving) namely
centrifugal force FCF and Coriolis force Fc .
Fs = Fg + FCF + Fc ...(3.11)
dZ
For unit mass flow along the streamline ‘S’, the gravitational force Fg = – g and is directed
ds
towards downward direction. The centrifugal force FCF = ω2 r, where ‘ω’ is the angular velocity and
‘r ’ is the radius, and is directed towards radial direction. Coriolis force, Fc = ω w sin (ω w) , is directed
normal to the direction of relative velocity, vector ‘w’ and angular velocity ‘ω’. Since ds = w dt along
the streamline, the resolved component of the total mass force Fs will be
Fs = fg cos (Fg.ds) + FCF cos (r.ds) + Fc cos (Fc.ds)
Fc
Wu
F cu
W. sin (ω,w) Fcr
acu
u
Wr a cr
W Wz
Fig. 3.2. Vector diagram for Coriolis component Fa determination of Mz

Taking axis of rotation vertically upwards as +ve direction the resolved component of the mass
force in relative motion along a streamline will be
dz dr
Fs = – g + ω2 ...(3.12)
ds ds
substituting the value of Fc in equation (3.6) and since, Fcs = Fc cos (Fc.ds) = 0, because of the direction
of Fc normal to the direction of w on the elemental strip ‘ds’ where the relative velocity ‘w’ is tangential
to the streamline
dZ dr 1 ∂p ∂  w2 
–g ds + ω 2 r ds – ds –   ds = 0 ...(3.13)
ds ds ρ ∂s ∂s  2 
2 r   w2 
2
dp
Simplifying gdZ – ω d   + +d  =0 ...(3.14)
 2 ρ  2 
Integrating the above equation (3.14) and since u = ωr
dp w2 – u 2
gZ + ∫ + = Constant ...(3.15)
ρ 2
For an incompressible fluid flow, the density ‘ρ’ is constant and independent of pressure ‘p’. Hence,
the above equation can be written as
p w2 − u 2
for unit mass flow gZ + + = Constant ...(3.16)
ρ 2
ρ w2 − u 2
for unit weight flow +Z + = Constant ...(3.17)
γ 2g
The equation (3.16) and (3.17) represent Bernoulli’s equation for a relative flow past impeller
blades and is used for an indepth study of flow analysis i.e., interaction between blades and flow past
the impeller blade. This equation is similar to the Bernoulli’s equation derived for an absolute flow used
for analysis of all non-moving flow passages of the pump. Applying equation (3.17) between point 0
and point 1 (which lies on the inlet edge of the blade), where steady flow exists in absolute and in
relative flows.
p1 w2 − u12 p0 w2 − u02
+ Z1 + 1 = + Z0 + 0 ...(3.18)
γ 2g γ 2g
Relative velocity ‘w’ can be expressed in terms of absolute velocity ‘C’ and blade velocity ‘u’.
Referring to the velocity triangle (Fig. 4.1)
w2 = C 2 + u 2 − 2u Cu ...(3.19)
w2 − u 2 C 2 Cu1 u
So, = −
2g 2g g
Equation 3.27 can be written as
p1 C C u 2
+ Z1 + 1 − u1 1 = p0 + Z 0 + C0 − Cu 0 u0 ...(3.20)
γ 2g g g 2g g
p C2
Since total energy E = +Z+ , the above equation (3.20) can be written as
γ 2g
Cu1 u1 C u
E1 – = E0 – u 0 0
g g
C u − Cu 0 u0
or E1 − E0 = u1 1 ...(3.21)
g
Correspondingly the energy difference between point 3 and 0 which is the total head Hm developed
by the pump, is
C u − Cu 0 u0
Hm = E3 – E0 = u 3 3
g
C u − Cu1u1
and Hth ∞ = u 2 2 ...(3.22)
g
Also u3 = u2 , Cu 3 = Cu 2, Cu 0 = Cu1 and u0 = u1
This equation (3.22) is the fundamental Eular’s equation for rotodynamic pumps. Hm is the
monometric head applied for finite number of blades with finite thickness and Hth∞ is the theoretical
head applied for infinite number of blades with infinitesimally smaller thickness.
3.3 ABSOLUTE FLOW OF IDEAL FLUID PAST THE FLOW PASSAGES OF

PUMP
The integral form of equation for the ideal fluid flow as per Gromeko-Lamb |67| is
1 ∂C  C2  → →
F– grad p = + grad   + rot C × C ...(3.23)
ρ ∂t  2 
→
where C is the velocity vector.
→
Taking Z-axis in vertically upward direction as +ve direction , mass force F under absolute flow
through the passages of pump parts, is
→
Mass force F = – grad ∏ = – gz ...(3.24)
where g = acceleration due to gravity, which is acting vertically downwards.

The density ‘ρ’ is a function of pressure ‘p’.
ρ = f (p) ...(3.25)
For compressible flow it depends upon the process. Under baratropic conditions, for isentropic
process ρ = (p)1/γ. For adiabatic process ρ = ( p)1/k. For isothermal process ρ = p–1 = p. For incompressible
flow, ρ = Constant (p0).
In general, under baratropic condition.
p
dρ
P (p) = ∫ ρ ( p) ...(3.26)
p0
Gradient of the above function will be

dp 1
grad P = grad p = grad p ...(3.27)
dρ ρ
For the condition (equations 3.23 and 3.24) as per Gromeko-Lamb equation, (3.23) can be written
as:
→
∂C  C2  → →
+ grad  + P + ∏ + rot C × C = 0 ...(3.28)
∂t  2 
→
∂C →
For absolute flow + grad E + Ω × C = 0 ...(3.29)
∂t
C2 →
where E = + P + ∏ and rot C = Ω.
2
Equation (3.29) represents the ideal fluid flow under baratropic condition (for liquids and gases)
and under potential field of mass force.
→
∂C
Under steady flow condition = 0. For absolute flow stationary conditions prevailing in diffusers
∂t
volute casings etc., (non-moving parts) equation (3.29) can be written as
→ →
grad E + Ω × C = 0 ...(3.30)
→
For axisymmetric flow Ω = 0. Such conditions prevail in approach pipe at pump inlet. So
→ → → →
Ω × C = 0, where the vortex vector Ω is parallel to the velocity C . Such things exist in propeller and
screw type units, because, the interaction between fundamental vortex and the flow becomes zero. The
vortex motion developed in impellers continues up to outlet also.
Integrating equation (3.30)
p
C2 C2 dp
E =
2
+P+∏=
2
+ ∫ ρ
+ gZ = Constant ...(3.31)
p0
which is the Bernoulli’s theorem for the entire stream tube which is called as Lagranze’s equation, |67|.
p C2
For incompressible fluid flow +Z+ = Constant ...(3.32)
γ 2
Equations (3.31) and (3.32) can be and widely used for compressible and for incompressible flow
in fluid machines.
For unsteady absolute flow, which is normally existing in impeller blades and in places where
flow is changing from stationary to moving. Integrating the equation (3.29) under axisymmetric
conditions.
→ → − → ∂C ∂φ
Ω = rot C = 0 and for potential function φ of velocity C , grad φ = C and hence = grad .
∂t ∂t
Equation (3.29) under axisymmetric flow condition will be

 ∂φ 
grad  + E  = 0
 ∂t 
∂φ ∂φ C 2
Since +E = + + P + Π = f (t) ...(3.33)
∂t ∂t 2
This equation is called Lagrange-Koshi’s equation | 67|. The function f (t) is a function of time and
is determined from the boundary conditions. Equation (3.33) i.e., equation of Langrange-Koshi plays a
very important role in unsteady flow as similar to Bernoulli’s equation in steady flow.
Equation (3.33) for incompressible flow will be
1 ∂φ C 2 p
+ + = f (t) ...(3.34)
g ∂t 2 g γ
3.4 RELATIVE FLOW OF IDEAL FLUID PAST IMPELLER BLADES

Considering the integral form of Gromeko-Lamb equation (equation 3.23) in vector form for a
→
relative flow of fluid past impeller blades, absolute velocity of fluid C before entering the impeller
→
blade at inlet is changed to relative velocity w , while flowing through the impeller due to rotation of
→
impeller with a peripheral velocity u . So also at outlet. The relation between these velocities can be
written as :
→ → → → → →
C1 = w1 + u 1 and C 2 = w2 + u 2
The force due to mass ‘F’ under relative flow consists of three elements namely
→ → → →
F = Fg + FCF + Fc ...(3.35)
→
where Fg = gravitational force acting vertically downwards
→
FCF = centrifugal force and
→
FC = Coriolis component of force acting normal to the flow at any given point on the
streamline.
The gravitational force Fg is a potential function Π
→
F g = grad ∏ = – gZ ...(3.36)
since Z-axis is the reference axis and vertically upward direction is taken as +ve.
The centrifugal force is also a potential function and expressed as
→ u2 ω2
F CF = grad = grad r 2 = ω2r ...(3.37)
2 2
where, u = ωr, ω = angular velocity, r = the selected radius on the stream referred with respect to Z-axis,
the axis of rotation.
The Coriolis component can be written in general form as
→ → →
FK = – 2 ( ω × w ) ...(3.38)
→ → → → →
The vectorial form of the relative velocity w will be rot w . Since C = w + u
→ → → → → → → → →
w × rot w = w × rot ( C – u ) = w × rot C – w × rot u ... (3.39)
→ → →
rot u = rot ( ω × r ) = 2ω
Same thing can be obtained by selecting or elementary contour of radius ‘r’ in the plane, normal to
the Z-axis of rotation. The resolved component of these vortex along the direction Z is
→
2π r u 2π r 2 ω
rotz u = lim = lim = 2ω
r →0 π r2 r →0 π r2
→ → → → → →
So w × rot w = w × rot C + ( ω × w ) ...(3.40)
Substituting all the values in equation (3.23) of Gromeko-Lamb
u2 → → 1 w2 →
– grad Π + grad ω w
– 2 ( × ) – ρ grad p – grad + w × rot C
2 2
→ → dw
+ 2 (ω × w ) – =0 ...(3.41)
dt
Simplifying
 w2 – u 2  dw → →
grad  ∏ + P +  + = w rot C ...(3.42)
 2  dt
→ dw
Under steady flow conditions of relative velocity w , =0
dt
Integrating equation under two conditions:
→
(1) When axisymmetric potential flow of absolute velocity exists i.e., rot C = 0.
(2) When the vector of absolute flow vortices are parallel to the relative velocity under vortex
→ →
flow of absolute flow, i.e., w × rot C = 0
 w2 – u 2 
grad  ∏ + P +  = 0
2 
So, ...(3.43)

p
dp
Integrating the above equation (3.43) and since Π = g Z and P = ∫ ρ
p0
dp w2 – u 2
∫ρ
+ gZ +
2
= Constant ...(3.44)
Equation 3.44 is the equation for the relative flow under steady potential flow conditions. For
compressible fluids the density ‘ρ’ is a function of pressure ‘p’ and depending upon the process. For
incompressible flow ρ = Constant. Changing the equation from unit mass to unit weight. γ = ρg
p w2 – u 2 = Constant
+Z + ...(3.45)
γ 2g
Equation (3.45) holds good for the entire flow in the channel for a steady and potential
(axisymmetric) flow. Applying Bernoulli’s equation between points x and y (Refer Fig. 3.3 and 3.13)
located on both sides of the impeller blade at the same radius ‘r’.
x r
r
Impeller blade passage at r ′
f 1 1
r
2 2 2
px
py
r
y x
p2
p1
(a ) (b)
Fig. 3.3. (a) Pressure variation in radial flow impeller passage

(b) Pressure variation across impeller passage of axial flow pump
ω
ω
x
r
(a) Theoretical (b) Actual
Fig. 3.4. Velocity distribution between blades
px w 2 − ux2 py wy2 − u y2
+ Zx + x = + Zy +
γ 2g γ 2g
ux = uy and Zx = Zy since point x and y are located on the same radius and the difference in level is
negligibly small, the above equation can be written as
px wx p y wy
+ = +
γ 2g γ 2g
Useful work done by the impeller blades under finite number of blades with finite thickness is due
to the interaction between the blade and the flow of fluid and due to the local pressure difference between
leading and trailing side of the impeller blade. The pressure at the point x, located on the leading side of
the blade on the radius, is higher than the pressure at point y, which is located at the trailing side of the
blade at the same radius. In the same manner the pressure at point x′ is same as at x since both are at
leading surfaces but at adjacent blade. This means the pressure across the channel between two successive
blades (x′ – y) located at the same radius are not equal. px = ( px′) > py. Across the channel, pressure
changes uniformly. Correspondingly, wx= wx′ < wy the relative velocity across the channel gradually
decreases for x′ to y. (Figs. 3.3 and 3.4).
3.5 FLOW OVER AN AIRFOIL

The flow of fluid over a blade kept in space is of three types: (1) Plain flow over the blade
[Fig. 3.5 (a)], (2) Circulatory flow [Fig. 3.5 (b)] and (3) Combination of these two flows [Fig. 3.5 (c)].
In pure plain flow, fluid flows over blade without any circulation or vortex. It is a uniform, steady,
potential (axisymmetric) flow. In pure circulatory flow, the fluid flows around the blades, encircling the
blade. There is no plain flow. The line integral of the flow velocity around their closed contour gives
circulation, sum of which is zero in an endless flow (i.e., in space where flow starts from infinity and
ends in infinity).
A B
(a) Plain flow (b) Circulatory flow (c) Combined flow
(d) Flow after the airfoil
Fig. 3.5. Fow over an airfoil
Pure plain flow or pure circulatory flow acting individually on the blade does not produce any
force on blade. The pressures on both sides of the blade are equal in both type of flows. When these two
flows are combined together, a pressure difference is developed due to the difference in flow velocities
between two sides of the blade, by which energy transfer between fluid and the blade takes place. In
rotodynamic machines (pumps, fans, blowers, compressors and turbines) instead of one blade, a number
of blades, i.e., a cascade system is adopted for energy transfer between blades and fluid. This pressure
difference in axial flow pump is due to the flow over the cascade system with angle of attack. The flow
velocity is determined from the flow rate. But in radial flow pump this pressure difference is produced
not only from the main flow (plain flow combined with circulatory flow), but also due to the rotation of
the impeller i.e., Coriolis component. The Coriolis component does not give any flow, but increases the
velocity difference further as a result of which circulation is increased.
The relative velocity at the trailing side of the impeller blades is higher, whereas the relative
velocity at the leading side of the blade is lower (Fig. 3.7 and 3.8). Due to this, relative velocity across
the channel from trailing side of the blade to the leading side of the sucessive blade is not constant,
instead changing. Absolute velocity of flow C is axial and potential, without any rotation or vortex, but
the relative velocity is not axisymmetric i.e., with vortex, induced due to peripheral velocity u. This can
be shown by the following. Since the relative velocity
→ → → → → → → →
w = C – u ; rot w = rot ( C – u ) = rot C – rot u
→
Since absolute velocity of flow is axisymmetric and potential rot C = 0.
→ → → → →
So, rot w = rot u = rot (ω − r ) = 2 ω
This means the relative velocity is with vorticity or circulation. Consider the flow of ideal fluid, in
a completely closed cylindrical container and the container moves in a circular path (Fig. 3.6) with the
centre of rotation ‘O’. The fluid body AB in the closed channel keeps its position same without any
rotation at all positions when the channel is moved in a circular path. i.e., the pointer is always pointing
the same upward direction. In other words, the absolute velocity direction is without any circulation or
vortex, even when the channel moves in a circular
I B
path with centre ‘O’. But the same line AB rotates,
if it is considered with respect to the circle. When A
the circle is rotated in anticlockwise direction, at
II IV
the section I the arrow AB is perpendicular to the
circle. At section II, it is parallel to the circle. This B B
is repeated to section III and IV but rotated by A O A
180° with respect to section I and II. The fluid in
the container rotates in opposite direction i.e., III
clockwise direction, with respect to the circle with B
an angular velocity ‘ω’. This indicates that the
relative velocity is with circulation or vortex. The A
same situation prevails in impeller channel

Fig. 3.6. Relative rotary motion of fluid in a closed
(Fig. 3.7) when the channel is closed at inlet and channel when moving in a circular path
at outlet.
Fig. 3.7. Circulatory motion of fluid in impeller blade passage (channel vortex)
Adding the plain flow i.e., the potential absolute flow moving with constant velocity over both
sides of the blade to this relative circulating flow i.e., when the channel is no longer a closed one, the
resultant flow gives velocity difference between trailing side and leading side of the impeller, and hence
the energy transfer from blade to fluid. The velocity triangles at inlet and at outlet are shown in Fig. 3.8.
C2
u2
α2 ω
α′2
E
C2′
w2 w1 ω1
β2 R S w1
ω1
B2 c1
w2′ β′2
B1 c1′
K B
A α′1
P
M
r1 D u1
r2
N
L
0
Fig. 3.8. Relative velocity of flow in impeller passage at normal conditions
As mentioned earlier, different velocities at the outlet of the impeller w2 equalises after some
distance. Constant and uniform velocity ‘w3’ exist after the impeller, which again shows that axisymmetric
absolute flow prevails after the impeller.
3.6 TWO DIMENSIONAL IDEAL FLOW
3.6.1 Velocity Potential

Velocity potential φ is defined as φ = ∫ Cs ds between any two points in the potential field and Cs
is the velocity tangential to the elementary path connecting these two points, independent of the path
taken between two points. Such a flow is called potential flow. Circulation is equal to zero for a potential
flow. Presence of isolated vorticity does not change the potential flow. Circulation along a closed contour
not enclosing the vorticity is also equal to zero and remains constant at all times along and contour.
3.6.2 Rotational and Irrotational Flow

Two basic motions of fluid, namely translation and rotation can act either independently or
collectively. Fig. 3.9 shows such motions.
dθ
dy
dx
(a) (b)
Fig. 3.9. Translation and rotation in fluid motion
So also a deformation of a fluid element, represented by a square in Fig. 3.10, can be either linear
or angular.
(a) (b)
Fig. 3.10. Linear and angular deformation in fluid motion
All the above mentioned fluid motion can take

place either individually of collectively. y
∂vy
dy dt
Consider a fluid motion with rotation and v x dt ∂ y
translation as shown in Fig. 3.11. During the time a′
interval ‘dt’ point ‘A’ in the fluid element aAb moves to a β
point A′ and takes new position a′, A′, b′. When
A′ ∂vy
deformation also takes place, the angles of rotation α dy
α dxdt
∂x
and β are not equal. Average rate of rotation ‘ω’ in b′
A dx b
v ydt
ω Aa + ω Ab α +β x
time ‘dt ’ will be ω = = ...(3.46)
2 2dt
Fig. 3.11. Rotation, translation and
Taking anticlockwise direction as positive and deformation in fluid element
taking α and β as small values ( tan θ = θ )
Arc ∂v 1 ∂v
α = = dxdt . = dt
Radius ∂x dx ∂x
∂u 1 ∂u
and β = dydt . =–
∂y dy ∂y dt
α +β 1  ∂v ∂u  1 1  ∂v ∂u 
So ωz = =  dt – dt  . =  – 
2dt 2  ∂x ∂y  dt 2  ∂x ∂y 
3.6.3 Circulation and Vorticity

Circulation ‘ Γ ’ is the line integral of velocity
around an element. A study of circulatory motion can be y ∂v x
vx + dy
understood by studying vortex motion under potential ∂y
B C
flow condition.
The velocity components on all four sides of the Direction ∂v y
dy
vy of vy + dx
fluid element ABCD are shown in Fig. 3.12(a). The fluid ∂x
integration
element is rotating in anticlockwise direction with an
A D
angular velocity ‘ω’. vx
Since the centre of rotation is not known it is dx

convenient to relate the sum of the products of velocity
x
and distance around the contour of the element which is
the sum of the line integral of velocity around the element. Fig. 3.12. (a) Circulation in fluid element
This is called ‘circulation, Γ ’. Since area of the element
dA = dxdy.
Circulation Γ = C ⋅ ds z → →
Taking anticlockwise direction as positive direction for integration.

...(3.47)
 ∂v   ∂u 
Γ ABCD = udx +  v + ∂x dx  dy –  u + dy  dx – vdy = 0
   ∂y 
∂v ∂u
= dxdy – dxdy
∂x ∂x
 ∂v ∂u 
=  –  dxdy = 2ωdA ...(3.48)
 ∂x ∂y 
It is evident from the equation (3.48) that the circulation around a contour of an element is equal to
the sum of vortices within the area of the contour.
v
θ
dA
C
Fig. 3.12. (b) Circulation and vorticity
This is known as Stokes theorem. Mathematically, it is represented as
z → →
z
ΓC = C ⋅ ds = C cos θ ds = 2ωdA = 2ωAz
s
...(3.49)
Γ →
Vorticity Ω= = rot C = 2ω
Area
is twice the angular velocity of fluid rotating as a solid body. Taking anticlockwise direction as +ve
direction, the component of vorticity in polar (r, θ, z) coordinates will be
 ∂C ∂C 
Ωu = 2ωθ = 2ωu  r – z 
 ∂z ∂r 
1  ∂C ∂ (Cu r ) 
Ω π = 2ωr =  z –
r  ∂θ ∂z 
1  ∂(Cu r ) ∂Cr 
Ω z = 2ωz =  – 
r  ∂r ∂θ 
For an irrotational flow ωu = 0. For a potential and incompressible flow Cr= 0. Circulation along
a closed contour is constant and is equal to the intensity of vorticity. i.e.,
∂Cz
= 0 or Cz = Constant.
∂r
In axial flow pump, the existence of potential flow gives equal flow velocity at all radii. Under
axisymmetric, potential flow condition.
∂C z ∂Cr
= = 0.
∂θ ∂θ
∂ (Cu r ) ∂ (Cu r )
Also = = 0 or Cu r = Constant
∂z ∂r
at all radii of the impeller inlet and outlet. However, under potential flow in meridional sections only
ωu = 0. Whereas ωr and ω z ≠ 0 and henc Cu r ≠ constant in these direction.
3.7 AXISYMMETRIC FLOW AND CIRCULATION IN IMPELLER

Ideal fluid flow through the elements of fluid machines is an axisymmetric flow. Kelvin’s theorem
and Lograngan’s theorem are the most important expressions for the study of dynamics of ideal fluid
flow. Circulation ‘ Γ ’ is defined as the line integral of the velocity along a closed contour.
Γ= z
c
→→
q dl
→ →
→ →
where q is the velocity vector dl is the differential of arc length of the closed curve q . dl is the scalar
product of these two vectors. Kelvin’s theorem is the time rate change of circulation for a closed fluid
curve. i.e.,
DΓ
= 0.
Dt
Kelvin’s theorem states that for a barotropic ideal fluid acted on by gravitational force with
potential, the circulation along a closed fluid contour, remains constant with respect to time. When
applied to radial flow fluid machines, the Kelvin‘s equation is written as
d → →
dt ∫ C dr = 0
→ →
where C = q and dr is dl.
This equation confirms the application of Eular’s equation for fluid machine design. Kelvin’s
theorem can be used only for absolute flow for both non-stationary and stationary elements, where the
gravitational force is under potential.
3.7.1 Circulation in Impellers of Pump

As per Kelvin’s theorem, if axisymmetric or potential flow exists in ideal fluid flow before entering
the impeller, then same potential flow prevails, when fluid flows through the impeller also. Circulation
along the closed contour of the fluid flow must also be equal to zero. But this statement is correct only
if the fluid flow is an unified flow, i.e., only for a fluid flow through impeller. If the closed contour
encloses, a solid body apart from the fluid, for example, impeller blades, then fluid flow cannot be taken
as unified flow and correspondingly circulation along the closed contour under potential flow cannot be
zero. This is evident from the fact that pressure at the leading side of impeller blade is higher than that at
trailing side. Correspondingly, flow velocities at the leading side is lower than that at leading side of the
blade, due to the interchange of momentum from blade to fluid (effect due to finite number of blades
with finite thickness).
3.7.2 Vorticity and Circulation around Impeller Blades

Consider a closed contour enclosing one impeller t2 = 2
2′ πr
blade 11′2′2 (Fig. 3.13) of a radial flow pump. Lines 12 7 2z 2
and 1′2′ are two identical stream lines kept at a distance of
6
 2πr  2πr1 db
‘t’ the pitch  t =  at inlet and at outlet. t1 = and 4
2
 Z  Z 3
ds
2πr2 5 1 r2
t2 = , where r1 = inlet radius, r2 = outlet radius and Z
Z
= number of impeller blades. Lines 11′ and 22′ are the arc ω x′
r1
of circles at inlet radius r1 and at outlet radius r2 respectively, 1′
connecting the two streamlines. y
Consider the absolute flow of the fluid along the x
contour 11′2′2′ (Fig. 3.13). The streamlines 12 and 1′2′ are
identical, but located one on each side of the blade,
symmetrically to the blade. Circulation along the streamlines
Fig. 3.13. Vorticity and circulation along a
are equal in magnitude but apposite in sign due to the change moving impellerl blade
in the direction of movement along the contour.
On integration, we get Γ cb = z C ds cos (C, ds) =

b122′1′ 1g
∫ Cu
22 ′
2
ds − ∫ Cu ds
11′
1
2π
= (Cu2 r2 – Cu1 r1) ...(3.50)
z
where Cu 2 and Cu1 are the average values of the tangential component of absolute velocities at radii r2
and r1 respectively and –ve sign for Cu1 is due to the direction of Cu1 opposite to Cu 2 in the closed contour.
In order to find the circulation ‘ Γ cb’ along the blade, the contour 47654, enclosing the blade is
connected to the previous contour 11′2′21 through the line 34.
Consider the circulation along the contour 1345674322′1′1. Since this contour does not include
the impeller blade, the flow can be considered as axisymmetric or potential. As per Kelvin’s theorem
circulation along the contour must be equal to zero.
Integrating (Fig. 3.13)
Γ = Γ + Γ + Γ + Γ =0
(1345674322′1′1) (122′1′1) (34) (45674) (43)
Since Γ = – Γ = – Γ cb and Γ + Γ = 0
(45674) (47654) (34) (43)
and Γ
2π
(122′1′1) = (Cu2 r2 – Cu1 r1 ) as per equation (3.50)
z
2π
Γ cb = (Cu2 r2 – Cu1 r1 ) ...(3.51)
z
i.e., under axisymmetric or potential absolute flow, circulation along any contour enclosing the blade,
including the blade contour also will be constant. Since same value of Γcb exist on all other impeller
blades also, circulation for the impeller, possessing Z number of blades will be
Γimp = Σ Γ cb = z Γ cb = 2π ( Cu 2 r2– Cu1 r1 ) ...(3.52)
3.8 REAL FLUID FLOW AFTER IMPELLER BLADE OUTLET EDGE

Let us consider the flow of fluid before and after the outlet edge of an impeller blade in a cascade
system under finite number of blades with finite thickness (Fig. 3.14).
S t
w1
w 2u = w3u
t-S δ
β3 β0
w3m
w 2m
w 2u β2 w3
a b
w2
A
w2m
w 3u d
β3 C t
w3m
w3
Fig. 3.14. Real fluid flow after impeller blade outlet edge
The geometric and kinematic parameters of the blade system are: outlet blade angle β2 , blade
thickness ‘δ2’, pitch ‘t2’ outlet flow velocity on the blade ‘w2’ and after the blade ‘w3’. The tangential
and normal components, of these velocities, when resolving with respect to the blade movement are
wu2 = w2 cos β2 , wm 2 = w2 sin β2 , wu 3 = w3 cos β3 and wm3 = w3 sin β3.
Fluid uniformly flows over the blades at outlet tangentially without shock. The flow area of the
passage between two successive blades before leaving the outlet edge will be (t2 – S2), where
δ2
S2 = since the flow area is reduced due to the vane thickness.
sin β2
After some distance, fluid stream coming out from both sides of a blade converges into one stream.
A no flow area prevails (marked as A in Fig. 3.14) after the blade thickness area at outlet. The flow area
is increased from (t – S) to t. Correspondingly, the flow velocity is reduced to
t − S2
w3m = w2 m 2 .
t2
In order to find the relation between w2u and w3u, a controlled surface abcd enclosing the no flow
area A as well as covering the outlet edge of the blade is taken for analysis. The lines ‘ad’ and ‘bc’ are
two identical streamlines kept at a distance of pitch ‘t’ between them. Other two lines ‘ab’ and ‘cd’ are
parallel to the direction of movement of the cascade system.
Considering the force on the surface ‘ad’ and ‘bc’, the forces are equal and opposite at each and
every point considered along the streamline ‘ad’ and ‘bc’ respectively and hence they cancel each other
(a couple produced by these two forces are neglected).
γ
Considering the surfaces ‘ab’ and ‘cd ’, the forces on surface ab will be FD 2 = g ∆Qw2 inclined at
γ
an angle of β2 to the blade movement and on the surface ‘cd ’ will be FD3 = g ∆Qw3 inclined at an angle
of β3 to the blade movement. Resolved components of these two forces are equal and opposite, hence
γ γ
they cancel each other, i.e., ∆Qw2 cos β2 = ∆Qw3 cos β3.
g g
Since w2 cos β 2 = wu2 and w3 cos β2= wu3, wu2 = wu3, i.e., the tangential components of the
velocities before and after the outlet blade edges are equal. So the change in the relative velocities w2
and w3 is due to the flow area change from (t – S) to ‘t ’ before and after the outlet blade edge and is only
due the change in meridional flow velocities wm2 and wm3 and correspondingly the blade angle from β2
to β3. The corresponding velocity triangles are shown in Fig. 3.14. This is effective due to the application
of finite number of blades in cascade system. The same rule is applicable to the inlet edge also.
3.9 SECONDARY FLOW BETWEEN BLADES (Fig. 3.15)

For energy transfer in pump, pressure at the trailing side of the blade should be greater than the
pressure at the leading side, correspondingly pressure and velocity difference prevails at the passage
between two blades. This pressure difference induces a circulatory secondary flow along with the main
flow in the flow passage in axial direction from inlet to outlet at the same radius. At the same time from
hub to periphery in the radial direction another circulation secondary flow exists due to the boundary
layer in real fluid flow. The circulation in radial directions increases. However, the real fluid flow more
or less concides with ideal fluid flow. Hence, the secondary flow effect is neglected normally in axial
flow pumps.
If inlet entry is normal Cu = 0 and Cr = 0. Circulation and hence the total head remains constant at
all radius. In practice, however, it is found that circulation slightly increases near hub and considerably
at periphery due to finite number of blades and subsequent secondary flow. However, it is very small
and hence neglected. Pumps designed with Cu r = constant give very high efficiency (93 to 98%) in spite
of complicated three dimensional flow pattern actually existing at all radii of the impeller inlet and
outlet.
Fig. 3.15. Secondary flow in axial flow pump
3.10 FLOW OF A PROFILE IN A CASCADE SYSTEM—THEORETICAL FLOW

Flow over an impeller blade of a pump or airfoil of axial flow pump is with
→
a relative velocity ‘w’,
→ →
which is resultant of absolute and peripheral velocities. (C and u) w = C – u . This flow can be
considered as the flow with many vortices and circulation is due to the action of these vortices. Intensity
of such vortices acting an elementary blade length ‘ds’ in the form of circulation ‘ Γwb ’ will be (Fig. 3.4)
Γwb = z → →
w ⋅ ds
→ → →
Since circulation Γ is the line integral of velocity around the element. Since w = C – u
Γwb = z
s
→ →
C ⋅ ds = z FGH C − uIJK .ds
s
→ → →
= z
s
→ →
z → →
C ⋅ ds − u ⋅ ds = Γcb − u ⋅ ds
s
z
s
→ →
...(3.53)
Since, Γ cb = z
s
→ →
C ⋅ ds
Applying Stokes theorem, which states that circulation around a contour is equal to the sum of
the vortices within the area of the contour, to the above equation
z
s
→ →
u ⋅ ds = z
s
z →
u cos θ . ds = (rot u) n dA = 2ωdA = 2ωA
s
z
s
Hence, Γwb = Γcb + 2ωA ...(3.54)

If the impeller blade or airfoil is very thin, area A will be small and hence 2ωA being very small,
when compared to ‘ Γcb’ it is neglected. Hence
2π
Γwb = Γcb = . (Cu2 r2 – Cu1r1) ...(3.55)
z
In axial flow pumps, impeller blades are airfoils. For analysis, a cylindrical section of cascade of
impeller blades is considered as equal to blades with finite thickness, displaced at a distance of pitch ‘t’
between two successive blades, and spread over from (∞) to (∞). The Z-axis of the coordinates coincides
with the axis of rotation of the cylindrical section. Projection of this cylindrical section perpendicular to
Z-axis will be zero. Hence the equation (3.54) can be considered for the cylindrical section or cascade.
The boundary layer thickness ‘δ’ in real fluid flow over blades, is very small, about 1% of blade
chord length ‘l’. The relative velocity on the blade is zero. Hence, circulation will be zero. The flow
velocity beyond the boundary layer thickness can be considered as ideal fluid flow. Hence, neglecting
the circulation in the boundary layer thickness, since it is very small, the equation (3.55) can be applied
to the relative velocity of flow over impeller blades of axial flow pump also.
Head developed by the impeller blade as per Eular’s equation is
Cu 2 u2 – Cu1 u1 ω
H∞ = = (Cu2 r2 – Cu1 r1)
g g
ωΓimp
=
2πg
2πgH m
or Γimp = z Γ = ...(3.56)
ω
t
p 2 , z2
2 2′
p 1, z 1
1 1′
Jowkovski’s theorem
t
Fig. 3.16. Flow over a profile of a cascade system
3.11 FUNDAMENTAL THEORY OF FLOW OVER ISOLATED PROFILE

Theoretical flow of fluid over a cylinder with plain flow combined with source, sink and vorticity
(circulation) is usually considered for the study of flow over isolated airfoils or hydrofoils used in axial
flow machines.
y y
C
φ=
0 C
=
0
φ
φ=0 A 0 B φ=0 x –a a x
A α0
φ B
0
=
=
0 D
φ
D
(a) (b)
v0
(c)
Fig. 3.17. (a) Plane flow with doublet (b) Plane flow with doublet and circulation (c) Actual flow
Plain straight flow with infinite velocity (C∞) combined with a source and sink of same intensity
(q) kept at origin i.e., a doublet located at point ‘O’ [Fig. 3.17 (a)] leads to a flow over a cylinder. The
velocity | C | at any point on the cylinder surface, located at an angle ‘θ’ from X-axis will be | C |= 2C∞
sin θ. The direction of velocity | C | will be tangent to the cylinder surface at the point considered. At
point A and B, instantaneous velocity | C | = 0. Since θ = 0 and 180°. At points C and D velocity | C | =
| Cmax | = 2C∞ since θ = 90° and 270°. Applying Bernoulli’s equation, pressure at any point in the
cylinder surface can be determined from the known velocity. It is evident that velocities and pressures
are equal at symmetrical points. The vectorial sum of all pressure is zero. There is no flow separation
under theoretical flow. In practice, however, due to real viscous fluid flow, flow separation takes place
at the outer half of the cylinder, which is called Dalambir’s paradox [Fig 3.17(c)].
Due to addition of circulation (vorticity Γ ) to the above mentioned flow, i.e., plain flow with
doublet and with vorticity located at the centre of the cylinder i.e., at the origin of the axis, the resultant
velocity at any point on the cylinder changes although symmetrical with respect to Y-axis. Due to the
introduction of vorticity, points A and B are shifted with downward direction towards point D
[Fig. 3.17(b)]. The velocity at point C is greater than the velocity at point D. Correspondingly, pressures
at point D is higher than pressure at point C, as per Bernoulli’s equation. This results in net upward force
called lift force on the cylinder. The cylinder is made to raise upward. This effect is called Magnus
effect. The higher the lift force will be, if the intensity of vorticity is higher. This lift force will be
Y = ρC∞Γ ...(3.57)
where ρ is the density of the fluid, C∞ is the infinite velocity of approach to the profile and Γ is the
vorticity induced. This is called the theorem of Kutta-Jowkovski about lift force on a profile of any
form. The angle of shift of point A from X-axis ‘α0’ is given by
Γ
sin α0 = ...(3.58)
4πaC ∞
where ‘a’ is the radius of the cylinder. Same condition prevails but reversed, if the rotation of vorticity
in the direction of circulation is reversed. The lift force will be towards the downward direction and the
points A and B shift towards the point C. In that case CD > CC and PC > PD. In general, the lift force Y is
determined as
Γ = 4πaC∞ sin α 0 and 
 ...(3.59)
Y = 4πaρC 2
∞ sin α 0 
Actually, in fluid machines flow of fluid over a profile takes place at an angle θ∞ to X-axis, i.e.,
with an angle of attack α∞. The infinite velocity C∞, is directed at an angle of α∞ from X-axis, when
passing over the profile [Fig. 3.18(a)].
y
y η
B
x z plane C* ζ plane
C ζ
A x
C∞ C ∞∗
θ∞ θ∞
(a) (b)
Fig. 3.18. (a) Flow with angle of attack, (b) Conformal transformation of airfoil from cylinder
3.12 PROFILE CONSTRUCTION AS PER N.E. JOWKOVSKI AND S.A.

CHAPLIGIN
Theoretical fluid flow study on airfoils, used in fluid machines, is done from the known flow
study on cylinder using conformal transformation as suggested by Prof. Jowkovski and Prof. Chapligin.
Cylinder in Z = x + iy plane is transformed into a plate or a profile which is in ζ = ξxi + ζ plane, based
on a mathematical relation z = f (ζ). [Fig. 3.18(b)]
While doing so, the magnitude and direction of the infinite velocity C∞ of the fluid approaching
the blade, the circulation along the contour of the blade and the forces acting on the flow by the blade on
both blades remain same. Necessary conditions are
| f ′ (z)z →∞ | = 1 and arg f ′ (z) = 0  ...(3.60)

dζ 
or dz z →∞ = 1 
The transformation function, to meet the above condition, is given by
a2 a2
ζ = Z+ = Z + Z′ , where Z′ = ...(3.61)
Z Z
l = 4a
Z and Z′ are real and imaginary planes
containing circles K and K′ respectively (Fig. 3.19)
and ‘a’ is the radius of the cylinder. The relation
between the plane Z and the radius ‘a’ is given by
– 2a –a O +a + 2a
Z = a eiθ = a (cos θ − i sin θ) = (x + iy) α v∞
...(3.62)
Combining equation (3.61) and (3.62)
ζ = a (cos θ + i sin θ) + a (cos θ − i sin θ)
Fig. 3.19. Transformation of circle to plate
= 2a cos θ ...(3.63)
It is evident from the equation (3.63) that K
cylinder of radius ‘a’ is equivalent to a plate having
Q
a distance of –2a and +2a from the origin. Plate A1
length is l = 4a. A2
The vector ζ is equal to the geometrical sum z 0′ z0
v
v
a2 O
of two vectors Z and as per equation (3.63) A1′
Z
Referring to Fig. 3.20. Point ‘A′ ’ of the Z′ plane, K′
located at the circle K′, is the inverse of point A1 of
the Z plane, located at the circle K, with respect to
the circle Q by the relation. Fig. 3.20. Construction of inverse of circle
a2 a 2 − iθ
Z′ = r1′ eiθ1 = = e 1 ...(3.64)
r1eiθ1 r1
a2
Module | r1′ | = argument θ1′ = – θ1 for the complex point Z′. Points A1 and A2 are inversely
r1
located with respect to the circle of radius ‘a’ in such a way that r1 r2 = a2. Module r1′, inverse of point
A1 is determined as module of point A2, i.e., r1′ = r2. The mirror image of A2 is A′1 with an argument
θ1′ = θ1 and modules |r1′ |. The relation between Z1 and its inverse Z′1 is given as
a2 a 2 ( x − iy )
x′+ iy′ = = 2 ...(3.65)
x + iy x + y2
Τhe real and imaginary parts are
a2 x a2 y
x′ = and y′ = –
x2 + y 2 x2 + y 2
a 2 x′ a2 y′
In the same manner x = 2 and y = 2 ...(3.66)
x ′ + y ′2 x ′ + y ′2
The radius R of the real circle K with centre at z0 = x0 + iy0 relative to the circle Q can be written
as
(x – x0)2 + (y – y0)2 = R2 ...(3.67)
From the above equations (3.66) and (3.67), the parameters for inverse circle K′ i.e., R′ x′0 and y0′
can be determined.
a 4 ( x ′2 + y ′2 ) a 2 x′ a 2 y′
– 2x0 + 2y0 – (R2 – x02 – y20 ) = 0
(x 2
+y 2 2
) ( x′2 + y ′2 ) ( x ′2 + y ′2 )
or a4 – 2a2x0x′ + 2a2y0 y′ – (R2 – x20 – y20) (x′2 + y′2) = 0
2a 2 x0 x ′ 2a 2 y0 y ′ a4
or x′2 + y′2 + – – =0
( R 2 − x02 − y02 ) ( R 2 − x02 − y02 ) ( R 2 x 20 − y 02 )
This equation can be modified and rewritten in the following form:
2 2
 a 2 x0   a 2 y0 
 x′ + 2  +  y ′ + 2 
 R − x 02 − y 20   R − x 20 − y 20 
a4  x02 + y02 
1 + 2 2 
=
(R 2 − x02 − y02 )  R − x0 − y0 
2 
a4 R2
= ...(3.68)
( R 2 − x02 − y02 ) 2
From the above equation (3.68), equation for inverse circle K′ relative to circle Q is
a2 a2
R′ = R ; x′0 = – x0
( R 2 − x02 − y02 ) ( R 2 − x02 − y02 )
a2
and y0′ = y0 ...(3.69)
( R − x02 − y02 )
2
by
B
Rb
A z
a ξ
yb
a
x
– 2a –a + 2a
z′
a a
b = 4a
Fig. 3.21. Transformation of circle into thin curved plate of an arc of a circle
3.13 DEVELOPMENT OF THIN PLATE BY CONFORMAL TRANSFORMATION

For transforming cylinder circle ‘a’ into an arc i.e., a camber thin plate, the centre of the real circle
‘K ’ with radius Rb is located vertically above the centre of the cylinder circle ‘a’ on the imaginary axis
in Z-plane Z-axis (Fig. 3.21) such that x0= 0, y0 = yb and R2b – y2b = a2. Substituting this value in equation
(3.38) (3.70) R′b = Rb . x′0 = 0 and y′0 = yb which indicates that inverse circle K′ with radius R′b relative to
the main circle ‘a’ exactly coincides with the real circle ‘K’ with radius Rb. Centre z0 and z′0 of the circles
K and K′ concides each other.
Transformation of real and imaginary circles K and K′ in Z-plane to ζ-plane is done by the
geometrical summation of vectors Z (real) and Z′ (imaginary) (Figs. 3.20, 3.21). Since in Z-plane real
and imaginary circles K and K′ coincide each other, z and Z′ vectors drawn from the origin ‘O’ meet the
same circle K and K′. Thus conversion of entire circle with radius Rb = R′b represents in ζ-plane an arc
i.e., cambered thin plate, with a chord length of l = 4a.
3.14 DEVELOPMENT OF PROFILE WITH THICKNESS BY CONFORMAL

TRANSFORMATION
Prof. Jowkovski developed a cambered profile with thickness i.e., airfoil by shifting the centre z0
of the real circle K (Fig. 3.22) along the line ab towards the negative x direction from the imaginary axis.
The radius of the circle K is equal to ‘az0’ and the centre of this circle is z0.
K
R
R′
ζ z0
v0 z 0′
II v0′
b
a
II
a
z′
4a
Fig. 3.22. Transformation of circle into thick profile—Jowkovshi’s profile
From equation (3.69), we can write
 a2 
y0  
 R 2 − x 20 − y 20 
y0′   y0
tan θ′0 = = = − = − tan θ ...(3.70)
x0′  a2  x0
− x0  
 R 2 − x 2 − y 20 
 0 
 y0   y0′ 
or θ′0 = θ0 . Inclination of the line az0 = arc tg   and inclination of the line az′0 = arc tg  .
 a + x0   a – x0′ 
From equation (3.70), we can write
y0′ y0 a 2
= ...(3.71)
a − x0′ a( R 2 − x02 − y02 ) + a 2 x0
Referring Fig. 3.22, R2 = y20 + (x0 + a)2
y0′ y0 a 2 y0
So, = = ...(3.72)
(a − x0 ) (a + x0 a )
3 2 ( a + x0 )
i.e., points z0 and z′0 lie on the same straight line ‘ab’. z0 lies at an angle of θ0 in the negative direction,
whereas z′0 lies at an angle θ′0 (= θ0) in the positive direction of X-axis. The inverse circle K′ passes
through the point +a′ with radius (az′0 ). The geometrical summation of lines drawn from origin ‘O’ at
the same angle with respect to X-axis meet the circle K and K′ in Z plane, gives a point on the thick
profile in ζ-plane.
The drawback in this process is that the thickness of the profile at outlet is zero, which is not
practically possible. Profile shape developed by Prof. Jowkovski for the given arc is determined by the
single parameter, namely the distance of z0 from the imaginary axis. The magnitude of this determines
profile thickness. Profile thickness at the middle section is given by 2 (R – R′ ) = 2 (z0 – z′0).
3.15 CHAPLIGIN’S PROFILE OF FINITE THICKNESS AT OUTLET EDGE OF

THE PROFILE
In order to avoid zero profile thickness at the outlet edge, Prof. Chapligin suggested the formation
of thick profile from the inverse of ellipse. He suggested that the main circle K is selected such that it
touches the real axis at point x1 > a (Fig. 3.23). Then inverse circle K ′ will meet real axis at point
a2
x′ = .
x1
The distance x1 – x1′ = δ can be taken as the parameter for thickness of outlet edge. Referring the
Fig. 3.23 and the equation relating the radius and coordinates of centre of the circle K and its inverse K′
a relation can be obtained. i.e.,
R x y
= 0 = 0 ...(3.73)
R ′ x0′ y0′
θ
from which ∠θ0′ = ∠ θ0 and ∠ 0x1 z0 = ∠ 0x1′ z′0 =
2
i.e., x1 z0 || x1′ z′0
VI
R
V R1 VII
5 7
6 R ′1
6′ 7′
5′ VIII
IV
4 8
8′
IX
III 9
3 4′
9′
II 2 3′ δ X
2′
z0 z ′0
10′
1 1′ 1 1′ x1
I XI
0 11′
2 10
II 2′ 10′ X
3
4 l 9
3′
III 9′
8 IX
4′ 8′
5 7
6
IV 7′
5′ 6′ VIII
V VII
VI
Fig. 3.23. Profile formation with finite outlet edge thickness—Chapligin’s method
where θ is the angle of curvature of the centre line of the profile. For the given value of length ‘l’
thickness at the centre ‘∆’ and angle of curvature of the centre line θ, referring Fig. 3.23 and the equation
(3.73) the radius Rb of the main circle K and the coordinates of its centre x 0 and y 0 will be
R b=
1  θ ∆
 sec + 

2 2 l 

Rb θ θ 
x0 = cos  ∆ cos − δ 
2
 ...(3.74)
l 2 

θ 
2
y0 = Rb sin 
The outlet edge thickness δ is selected as = 0.5 to 0.6 ∆. As per equation (3.68) the main circle K
is shifted from point x1 toward the beginning of the coordinate of the parameter δ to get point x′1. Since
θ′0 = θ0 , a line parallel of x1 z0 is drawn from x′1 to meet the line O z′0. This line is the mirror image with
respect to Y-axis of the line O z0. This process gives the centre of inverse circle z′0. The radius Rb of the
inverse circle K′ is determined by the line z′0 x1′ and is equal to R′b = Rb – ∆. Here also the point on ζ-plane
is determined from the Z-plane as the vector summation ζ = Z + Z ′ .
−
For ease in construction of this profile, an additional circle R is drawn from the origin, with a
suitable radius which encloses the main circle K and inverse circle K′. The circle R is divided into a
number of divisions, about 20 to 26, so that, from each point of the upper half, corresponding symmetrical
point at the lower half of the circle with respect to X-axis is determined. Symmetrical points are identified
with the same designation such as I, II etc. Very near to the inlet and outlet edges more number of points
are selected. Above X-axis, the meeting of radius of supplement circle I–0, II–0 etc., with main circle K
are designated as 1, 2, 3 etc., and with inverse circle K′ with 1′, 2′, 3′ etc. Below X-axis the meeting of
radius of supplementary circle with main circle is designated as 1′, 2′, 3′ etc. and with inverse circle as
1, 2, 3 etc. Middle point of the lines joining identical points 1–1, 1′–1′, 2–2, 2′–2′ etc. gives the profile
of Chapligin. If profiles are to be drawn for actual flow condition, then the axis of the coordinates
should be rotated to an angle corresponding to, angle of attack of the profile in cascade. The coordinates
of the circle, x0 must be shifted along X-axis towards inlet edge of the profile and co-ordinate y0 must be
shifted towards the outlet edge.
3.16 VELOCITY DISTRIBUTION IN SPACE BETWEEN VOLUTE CASING

AND IMPELLER SHROUD
Flow through the space between volute casing and impeller shroud has the following characters:
(1) Very near to the impeller shroud, the fluid flow velocity will be equal to the shroud velocity at the
point considered. (2) Due to stationary condition, there is no flow near casing. Fluid velocity changes
from casing wall to shroud wall i.e., changes from ‘0’ to ‘u’. Apart from that due to rotation of impeller,
the fluid will be thrown out towards periphery near the impeller, but returns back towards inward direction
from periphery near the casing wall, as a result of which a vortex, circulatory flow exists along with the
mainflow QL1, passing through the wearing ring clearance.
Considering an elementary radial height ‘dr’ and axial length ‘l’ with inner radius ‘ra’ and outer
radius ‘rb’ (Fig. 3.24) and applying moment of momentum equation relative to axis of the pump.
M = ∫ ρCn dA. Cu r ...(3.75)
r
p2 p2
l
∆r
Q sz 2 2
u 2 u–′ 2
γ p
2g
b
Q s3
p1 Q′ r
ra
rb
Di
pi
l p1
p′ i
pi
(a) (b)
Fig. 3.24. (a) Flow through the space between casing and impeller shroud (b) Pressure distribution
where ρ — the fluid density

Cn — normal component of absolute velocity C
Cu — tangential component of absolute velocity C
M — moment of external forces acting of the surface area ‘dA’
dA — elementary surface area.
Elementary area dA is the sum total of impeller shroud, area at casing surface and outer and inner
cylindrical surfaces at rb and ra respectively. The moment of normal components of the absolute velocity
on impeller shroud surface and casing surface are equal to zero.
So, M= ∫ ρCr dA . Cu rb – ∫ ρCr dACu ra ...(3.76)

Ab Ar
Under turbulent flow conditions, the flow velocity in the space will be constant but increases from
zero to this velocity near the casing boundary layer and from this velocity to the impeller shroud very
near to impeller shroud, which is rotating with a velocity ‘u’. Velocity u = ωr (Fig. 3.15). Taking
average value of the resolved component of absolute velocity Cu, equation (3.76) can be written as
M = (Cu r )b ρ ∫ Cr dA − (Cu r )a ρ ∫ Cr dA ...(3.77)

Ab Aa
But ∫ Cr dA = ∫ Cr dA = QL1, the leakage flow ...(3.78)

Ab Aa
∴ M = ρ QL1, [ (Cu r )b − (Cu r ) a ] = ρ QL1. ∆ (Cu r ) a − b ...(3.79)

Moment of external forces M = MI – Mv + Mfa+ Mfb ...(3.80)
where MI — Inducing moment of friction at impeller surface
Mv — Breaking moment of friction at casing surface
Mfa and Mfb are the moment of friction of the control section Aa and Ab.
But Mfa and Mfb , the moment of friction of the control sections are negligibly small by magnitude
as well as when compared with the magnitude of MI and Mv the moment of friction at impeller and
casing surfaces. Hence
M = MI – Mv = ρ QL1. ∆ (Cu r ) a − b ...(3.81)
From non-dimensional analysis, moment M can be expressed as
 C2 
M = µ  ρ A r ...(3.82)
 2 
where µ — coefficient of friction
C — velocity relative to the surface
A — area of the surface
Combining equations (3.81) and (3.82)
(u − Cu )2 C 2
M = MI – Mv = µ.ρ.2πr dr = c . r – µ. ρ .2πr dr u .r ...(3.83)
2 2
Comparing equations (3.79) and (3.83)

µ. πr 2 [(u – Cu)2 – Cu2 ] dr = QL1.∆ (Cu r)a–b ...(3.84)
Since ∆ (Cu r ) a − b and QL1 are very small, their product is negligibly small and hence can be assumed
as zero. Simplifying
(u – Cu)2 – Cu2 = 0
u
or Cu = ...(3.85)
2
Hence, under normal conditions of wearing ring, the flow velocity in the space between casing
and impeller will be half the peripheral velocity of the impeller at the point considered.
When wearing ring clearance is fully damaged due to wear of the ring, QL1 considerably increases
and since ∆ (Cur) is too small, the product QL1. ∆ (Cu r)a-b can be taken as zero. Equation (3.85) can be
taken for calculations.
3.17 PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION IN THE SPACE BETWEEN STATIONARY

CASING AND MOVING IMPELLER SHROUD OF FLUID MACHINE
When fluid moves in the space between stationary volute casing and impeller shroud, which is
rotating with a velocity u, the fluid can be considered as the fluid moving as a solid body. Based on this,
pressure distribution can also be determined.
Taking r, u, z coordinates, for an elementary fluid section dr, dz, rdθ the basic hydrodynamic
equations in the space can be written as
1 ∂p
Fr – = 0
ρ dr
1 ∂p
– = 0
ρ rd θ
1 ∂p
– = 0
ρ dz
dCr dCu dC z
Since the total differential of velocity , , are is equal to zero. The mass force is the
dt rdθ dz
centrifugal force ‘FCF’ and is directed in the radially outward direction. Hence
dp
= FCF = ρω2f r ...(3.86)
dr
where ωf — is the angular velocity of the moving fluid
ρ — density of the fluid
FCF — centrifugal force of the unit mass considered
r — radius of the elementary mass.
Taking p2 and p1 as the pressures at outlet and at inlet of the impeller passage respectively, at
radius r2 and r1 respectively the pressure p at any radius ‘r’ can be written as
r2
r22 − r12
∫ ρ ωf2r dr = ρω f
2
p2 – p = ...(3.87)
r
2
Under normal flow conditions through such flow passage referring equation (3.85), the angular
ω 2πn
velocity of flowing fluid, ‘ωf’ is ωf = , where ω is the angular velocity of the impeller shroud ω =
2 60
u
= , where u peripheral velocity of the impeller at radius ‘r’. Equation (3.87) can now be written as
r
p2 − p ω2 r22 − r 2 u22 − u12
= . =
γ 4 2g 8g
 2 
u22 − u 2 u22 1  r  
or p = p2 – γ = p2 – γ −   ...(3.88)
8g 8 g   r2  
Equation (3.88) shows a parabolic pressure distribution along the radial direction [Fig. 3.24 (b)].
Equation (3.88) is used to determine axial thrust at front and rear side of the impeller.
In case the clearance between the stationary and rotary members is damaged, the above formula
(equation 3.88) cannot be applied. The flow follows the Bernoulli’s law. Neglecting the effect at the
surface roughness, applying Bernoulli’s equation.
p2 C22 p C2
+ = +
γ 2g γ 2g
But C2 = C m2 + C2u and assuming Cm remains constant throughout the passage
Cu′2
2
p2 p Cu2
+ = +
γ 2g γ 2g
Cu2 − Cu′ 2
or p = p2 – γ
2g
Since energy is constant throughout the passage Cu′ 2 r2 = Cu r
C′ 2   r 2 
and p = p2 – γ u 2   2  − 1
2g   r1  
 
u2
Taking Cu′ 2 = , which is prevailing mostly at this space and rearranging
2
2  2
u22  r2  1 −  r  
p = p2 – γ     ...(3.89)
8 g  r    r2  
Hence, in case of damaged wearing rings, the pressure drop across the passage increases at a faster
2
 r2 
rate by   times than for normal wearing ring.
r
4
THEORY AND CALCULATION OF BLADE
SYSTEMS IN CENTRIFUGAL PUMP
4.1 INTRODUCTION
The impeller is the main element in a centrifugal pump. Entire construction of a pump depends
upon the impeller. Impeller design forms the most important part in pump design. The fundamental
equation of impeller, determines the head developed by the impeller with respect to the increase in the
moment of momentum of the fluid flowing through the impeller i.e., to get a relation between dynamic
and kinematic parameters of impeller. But this fundamental equation does not give any relation between
the form and shape (dimensions) of the blade system with the change in the moment of momentum of
the fluid in impeller.
A kinematic study of the ideal fluid flow through the impeller based on hydrodynamic action in
general is yet to be determined and found to be an unsolved problem till today. The real fluid flow
conditions are still determined from the ideal fluid flow confition only. The study of fluid flow in
impeller is done by the use of theoretical equations along with the correction factors which are determined
from experiment. For the calculation of blade system in impeller, wherein, the length of the flow passage
between two blades is much longer than the width of the passage, elementary one dimensional theory
can be used successfully. In case, the blades are kept at a distance apart i.e., the width is longer, the
interaction between two successive blades can be neglected, and the blade can be considered as an
isolated blade. Hence, two elemertary theories are existing for the impeller calculation. Application of
the correct procedure is based on the correction factors, which are determined by experiments and also
based on its boundary conditions. If the theoretical means of approach for the impeller design, coincides
with real fluid flow, the design is considered as most satisfactory design.
4.2 ONE DIMENSIONAL THEORY

Elementry one dimensional theory for the centrifugal pump design is given by the mathematician
Leonard Eular (1707–1783), member of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences. His one dimensional
theory is still considered as the fundamental theory for the centrifugal pump design. In early days,
Eular’s one dimensional equation agreed perfectly with practical result due to the fact that each impeller
passage was constructed as individual tubes, and the speed of the pump was very low. Impeller flow
passage were too longer than normal. The length to breadth ratio for the impeller passages was higher.
Due to the introduction of electric motors, I.C. Engines and high speed turbines, as pump prime
movers, pump speed was increased. Correspondingly, the outer diameter D2 was decreased. This in turn
decreased the flow passage length, the passage width remaining same. Existing one dimensional theory
did not agree with the practical results, when length to breadth ratio of impeller passage is reduced. The
flow pattern in impeller passage is completely changed.
65
As per the existing one dimesional theory, impeller blades are considered to contain infinite number
of blades kept at equal distant apart with infinitesimally smaller blade thickness. Practically finite number
of blades with finite thickness are adopted in impellers, diffuser etc. In order to have a complete agreement
between theoretical design and practical results, corrections are introduced in the actual design of finite
number of blades with finite thickness. Under theoretical flow, a study through impeller passage, i.e.,
for conditions of infinite number of blades, with infinitesimally smaller blade thickness, the flow is
axisymmetric. At any radius, the average flow velocity is constant in the impeller passage and is calculated
from continuity equation. The direction of fluid flow on the blade is the tangent to the blade drawn at the
point, at the given radius ‘r’, where the velocity is determined.
In real fluid flow i.e., for finite number of blades with finite thickness, Eular’s one dimensional
theory is applied for impeller design with corrections, agrees perfectly with practical results. In actual
flow with finite number of blades with finite blade thickness, the velocity at any radius across the flow
passage width between two successive blades of impeller passage is not constant (Fig. 3.4). The flow is
not axisymmetric due to the interaction between the blade and fluid. The fluid is pushed by the blade.
This is the main reason, that all the flow passages must be completely immersed within the flowing
fluid or must be filled with flowing fluid completely in all rotodynamic machines.
The theoretical head (H∞), determined, as per the Eular’s one dimensional theory for infinite
number of blades will not be equal to the actual head (Hm) determined as per finite number of blades
condition. (H∞) and Hm are related as
H∞ = (1 + p) Hm ...(4.1)
where, p is the correction coefficient for finite number of blades application.
Different authors developed different values of correction coefficient ‘p’ in different form. Application
of this coefficient in the equation 4.1 to determine the total head developed gives a very good result.
4.3 VELOCITY TRIANGLES

C2
u2
B2
C2 C m2 w2
C m2 α2 β2
C u2
α2 A2 D2
Ci
C u2
w1 αi u2
w2
β2 B
β1 C ui
(b)
C1
α1
r2 A B1
C u1
C1 w1
C m1
0 u1 α1 β1
D1
E
K
C 1u
u1
(a) (c)
Fig. 4.1. Velocity triangles with symbols
THEORY AND CALCULATION OF BLADE SYSTEMS IN CENTRIFUGAL PUMP 67
The following symbols are used in drawing velocity triangles : (Fig. 4.2)
πDn
u — Vane or blade velocity = (m/sec).
60
C —Absolute velocity of flow of fluid i.e., velocity of the fluid with reference to the earth or any
non-moving object.
w —Relative velocity of the fluid in the blade passage, i.e., the velocity of the fluid with reference
to the blade or impeller, in other words, the velocity of the fluid inside the blade passage,
when the blade velocity is brought to zero.
→ → → → → →
w = C – u or C = w + u
α —Absolute angle, the angle between the absolute velocity ‘C ’ and blade velocity ‘u’
β — Vane angle or blade angle—the angle between the relative velocity ‘w’ and vane or blade
velocity ‘u’.
C m2
C m3
δ2
β2
2
B2 t2
C m1
C m0
β1
δ t1
r2
B1
C0 δ1
r0 r1 S2
S1
r1
r2
(a) (b)
Fig. 4.2. Symbols and suffices used in impeller

Suffix
0—indicates the conditions before the impeller blade entrance edge and at impeller eye.
1—indicates the conditions on the impeller blade entrance edge.
2—indicates the conditions on the impeller blade outlet edge.
3—indicates the conditions after the impeller blade outlet edge.
The relative velocity of fluid in the impeller passage ‘w’ is equal to the vectorial subtraction of
→ → → → → →
absolute velocity ‘C ’ and the blade velocity ‘u’, w = C – u or C = w + u (Fig. 4.1). The direction of
blade velocity ‘u’ is always tangential to the circle of radius ‘r’, whereas the direction of the relative
velocity of the fluid ‘w’ at any point on the blade will be the tangential to the blade curve at the given
radius ‘r’. These two velocities i.e., relative velocity ‘w’ is inclined at an angle ‘β’ with respect to the
blade velocity ‘u’. A parallelogram is drawn, with the relative velocity vector ‘w’ and blade velocity
vector ‘u’ at the radius ‘r’ at the point on the blade in the impeller passage. The diagonal of parallelogram
will be the absolute velocity, C, both in magnitude and in direction. If all these three velocity vectors are
drawn in position, we get a triangle called ‘velocity triangle’ (Fig. 4.1). The subtended angle between
absolute velocity ‘C’ and blade velocity ‘u’ is called absolute angle (α) and the angle subtended between
relative velocity ‘w’ and blade velocity ‘u’ is called the blade or vane angle (β).
→ → →
The velocities C , u , w at any radius ‘r’ between inlet and outlet of impeller blade passage can be
obtained by constructing velocity triangle at the point on the blade at radius ‘r’ (Fig. 4.1). By constructing
such triangles at different radii ‘r’ between inlet radius ‘r1’ and outlet radius ‘r2’, we can find the
velocity distribution in impeller blade system. One such velocity distribution in impeller blade passage
is given in Fig. 4.3.
8 w along the streamline

Meridional section 30
Cm w
θ°
100 25
γ
9
φ 178
80 20 8
Cm
φ190
7
φ 164
φ150
60 15 6
θ
φ136
φ122
5
40 10 4
δ = 2 mm
11
3
5 mm
φ 105
20 5 2
δ
φ110
1
φ 50
r 1= 55 61 68 75 82 89 r2= 95
Fig. 4.3. Velocity and angle variation in impeller passage
If width of the passage is very small, as per one dimensional theory of flow, fluid enters the inlet
edge tangentially and hence there is no shock loss at entry. Fluid leaves the outlet edge tangentially and
hence there is no loss, at exit. From inlet to outlet. Fluid moves tangentially over the blade. The direction
of the fluid at any point in the impeller passage will be the direction of the blade at that point i.e., will be
the blade angle ‘β’ at that point, which is the angle between relative velocity ‘w’ and blade velocity, ‘u’.
The velocity triangles are shown in Fig. 4.4. Flow velocities wm and Cm in the impeller passage are equal
and determined as
wm0 = w0 sin β0 and Cm0 = C0 sin α0
Referring to (Fig. 4.4), the relative velocity of the fluid will be tangential to the blade at all points,
on the line AB. Actually, the fluid moves along the direction of absolute velocity (C1 to C2) from α1 to
α2 line AB′ . The fluid at point x on the blade will be actually at x′ i.e., on the absolute velocity line. If the
time taken for the fluid to travel from point A to x on the blade is ‘t’ and if the angular velocity of the
blade is constant and is equal to ‘ω’ then the included angle θ will be θ = ωt.
The real fluid flow differs from the above mentioned theoretical one dimensional flow.
u2
α2
C2
α
C′ u
w
w2
β w 1 C′
B 1 x′
β1 α1
β2 A
D2 ϕ
B′
D1
Fig. 4.4. Graphical representation of velocity triangle
4.4 IMPELLER EYE AND BLADE INLET EDGE CONDITIONS

Fluid enters the impeller eye, with a velocity C0 and is maintained constant until it reaches the
point before inlet edge. The flow velocity at the impeller eye is calculated by using continuity equation
as : (Refer Fig. 4.4).
If there is no impeller hub or shaft Qth = C0 . π D02 

4 

Example: End suction agricultural pumps, domestic pumps.
 ...(4.2)
π 
If the hub or shaft is protruding into the impeller eye Qth = C0 .
4
(D02 − d h2 ) 

where dh is the hub diameter.
Example: Double suction pump, multistage pump.
When the specific speed ‘ns’ is very low (ns = 40 to 50) the inlet edge of the impeller blade will be
parallel to axis of the pump after bend portion of the impeller passage.
When the specific speed ‘ns’ is 60 to 150, the impeller blade is extended towards the bend portion
at inlet of the impeller passage to reduce the blade loading. Blade edge at inlet will be neither parallel
nor perpendicular to the pump axis, instead it is inclined. (Fig. 3.2).
Since quantity ‘Q’ is low and the total head ‘H’ is higher for lower specific speed pumps, the
breadth ‘B2’ will be smaller and diameter ‘D2’ will be larger.
The meridional velocity change along the transverse section of the inlet edge i.e., from shroud to
shroud will be negligible and hence is assumed to be constant throughout the passage. For infinite
number of blades with infinitesimally smaller blade thickness, the streamlines in the impeller passage
are congruent and the flow is considered as one dimensional. The flow velocity Cm0 is determined from
the velocity (C0). The velocity C0 is determined from the equation (4.2). Usually the meridional flow
velocity Cm0 is assumed to be equal to C0. Sometimes, it is increased, Cm0 = 1.03 to 1.05 C0, in order to
get smooth, uniform flow at the bend portion of the impeller passage.
In real fluid flow, however, finite number of blades, with finite thickness are used. Referring to
Fig 4.3, the blade thickness ‘δ’ will be occupying a circumferential distance of ‘s’ due to the blade angle
δ
‘β’ and is determined as s= ...(4.3)
sin β
If there are ‘Z’ number of impeller blades, the actual circumferential length available for the flow
of fluid is (πD − Zs ) instead of πD.
4.4.1 Inlet Velocity Triangle
δ1
Due to finite vane thickness the inlet area, blocked by one vane will be s1 = . Total length
sin β1
Z δ1
blocked by Z number of blades is Zs = . Total available area due to this will be (πD1 – Zs1)B. Due
sin β1
to this the flow velocity before the inlet edge, Cm0 is increased to Cm1 on the blade, i.e., the moment fluid
touches the inlet edge.
The meridional flow velocity Cm, the resolved component of absolute velocity C, in radial direction
at points 0 and 1 are equal to corresponding value of wm the resolved component of relative velocity w
in the same direction.
Cm0 = C0 sin α0 = wm0 = w0 sin β0 ...(4.4)
and Cm1 = C1 sin α1 = wm1 = w1sin β1
Since quantity of flow Q is same, at inlet Qth = πD.B.Cm0 before the inlet edge and Qth is equal to
= (πD1 – zs1) B1 Cm1 on the blade
 πD1 
Cm1 =   Cm0 = Cm0 .K1 ...(4.5)
 πD1 − zs1 
πD1  1   1 
where, K1 = =  =  Ζδ1  ...(4.6)
πD1 − zs1 zs
 1– 1   1− 
 πD1   π D1 sin β1 
φ-6.10
φ
94.9
φ
76
φ
40
14R
150R
14 5.5
12°
38
62 35 20R 3R 28
14 22
35
14.8
21.1
16.4
18.4
25
13 24
φ
25 Hy
φ
45
200
φ ++ 0.020
0.000
Fig. 4.5. (a) Impeller eye without hub
φ
18
φ
φ 8.5
17.5 φ
φ 9 φ
17 9.5
φ
φ 10 φ
16.5
10.5
φ φ
15 11
φ
11.5
φ φ
14 12
φ
13
φ
12
φ
11.5
Fig. 4.5. (b) Impeller eye with hub

Since the inlet blade velocity ‘u1’ remains same at points 0 and 1 inlet velocity triangle A0, B1, C1
at point O, before the inlet edge changes to A1B1C1 at point 1 on the inlet edge of the blade (Fig. 4.6) due
to the increase in ‘Cm’ from ‘Cm0’ to ‘Cm1’.
A1
A0
w1
δ1
C m1
1
C
C m0
C0 w0
C m0
α1
α0 C m1 β0
β1
t1 β1
s1
B1 u0 = u1
C u0 = C u1
(a) (b)
β 2 B 2c 1,0= c m1
w1
w 1,0
c ′1= c ′m1
B 1 β1 w1′
C1 β1 β10
R2 β1 β′1
C u1 u1
R1 s1
(c)
Fig. 4.6. (a), (b), (c) Inlet velocity triangle—effect of blade thickness and normal entry
Practically the inlet edge is rounded off in order to make the fluid to enter the blade tangentially
without any shock. Because of this, entry losses are reduced and the hydraulic efficiency is increased.
However, in practice, the inlet blade angle B10 is increased by an angle ‘δ’ in order to reduce shock
losses at entry and also to improve cavitational characteristics. The inlet angle B10 is increased by
δ = 3° to 10° and in special cases up to 15°. Actual blade angle at inlet β1 will be Fig. 4.6 (c).
β1= β1, 0 + δ = β1, 0+ (3° to 10°) ...(4.7)
At optimum conditions δ = 0 because, fluid flows tangentially to the blade. For the optimum
cavitational conditions, it is recommended to have β1, 0= 16° to 20° and after correction for vane thickness
and adding angle of attack δ, final value of β1= 18° to 25°.
4.4.2 Normal or Radial or Axial Entry of Fluid at Impeller Inlet

The direction of flow of fluid in approach pipe or in suction pipe before entering the impeller is
normal to the area of cross-section. The flow rate is calculated as per the continuity equation (4.2).
2
πD 0 π( D02 − d h 2 )
Qth = . C0 (or) C0 depending upon whether the impeller hub, on pump shaft
4 4
is protruding or not. D0 is the eye diameter or inlet diameter of pipe, dh is the impeller hub diameter and
ds is the pump shaft diameter, C0 is the flow velocity normal to the area of cross-section, eye of the
impeller. The velocity C0 will be in axial direction. At inlet, before entering the impeller inlet edge, the
flow direction will be radial in centrifugal pump, diagonal in mixed flow pump and axial in axial flow
pump. The flow rate is calculated as
Q = πD0 B0 . Cm0 = πD1B1 Cm1 ...(4.8)
This condition of flow is called normal entry (i.e., Axial entry in axial flow pump and radial entry
in centrifugal pump). Inlet velocity triangle, under such condition, is as shown in Fig. 4.6 (c). From the
figure it is evident that C0 = Cm0, Cu0 = 0, α0 = 90°. Correspondingly C1 = Cm1, Cu1 = 0, α1= 90°.
Cu 2 u2 − Cu1 u1 Cu 2u2
So, the Head developed Hm = = ...(4.9)
g g
For normal entry Cu0 u0 = Cu1 u1 = 0. This condition is adopted in all pump designs by which blade
loading and pressure intensity on the blade will be at a reduced level.
In order to get durability and dependability in operation of pump and for stable operation of pump
sometimes α1 is taken between 85° and 90°. This reduces slightly the inlet pressure before the impeller
entry, due to the reduced work load on impeller blades as per the equation (4.9).
In practice, however, due to the rotation of impeller, the fluid also gets rotated before the blade
inlet slightly. As a result a forced vortex is developed. Initial conditions of flow at inlet is determined,
mostly by the prewhirl developed, due to impeller rotation near impeller eye. That is why, this action is
considered as the change in the moment given by the inlet guide blade or by the influence of suction
pipe, which does not lie in the same plane. The effect of this action is the reduction in input energy due
to pressure reduction. This pressure reduction is not due to frictional losses occurring due to friction,
taking place in the rotating impeller passages. Impeller friction losses, are separately given as hf (1 –2) in
the moment of momentum equation for pumps as
Cu 2 u2 − Cu1 u1
Hm = + hf (1 – 2) ...(4.10)
g
In order to accommodate for shock losses reduction, the inlet blade angle β1 is slightly increased
over and above the angle necessary to meet the reversed direction of flow at inlet. The flow rate is also
slightly increased over and above the loss of flow in clearance, and reduction in the area of cross-section
at inlet as well as for induced prewhirl. That’s why normal entry is assumed even in the absence of the
inlet guide blades. If inlet guide blades are used, the inlet pressure is reduced before the entry into the
impeller and the cavitational characteristics is also reduced. It is found, that higher efficiency is attained
when α1is slightly lower than 90° i.e., 85° < α < 90°.
4.5 OUTLET VELOCITY TRIANGLE : EFFECT DUE TO BLADE THICKNESS

Due to vane thickness, effective area at outlet (A2) is decreased. A2 = (πD2 − Zs2 ) B2
δ2
where s2 =
sin β2∞
The flow velocity Cm2 on the outlet edge of the blade is reduced to Cm3 immediately after the
blade. Since blade velocity u2 = u3 and total energy remains constant at outlet Cu2∞ the whirl velocity at
outlet remains same Cu2∞ = Cu3∞
 Zδ 2 
Q = Cm2 .  πD2 −  B = Cm3 ( πD2 B2 ) ...(4.11)
 sin β2∞  2
πD2
Cm2 = Cm3
Zδ 2
(πD2 − )
sin β2∞
1
= Cm3 = Cm3 . K2 ...(4.12)
 Zδ 2 
1 − 
 πD2 sin β2∞ 
1
where, K2 = ...(4.13)
 Zδ 2 
1 − 
 πD2 sin β2∞ 
and Cm2 = C2∞ sin α 2∞ = Wm2= Wm2∞ sin β2∞
Cm3 = C3∞ sin α 3∞ = Wm3 = W3∞ sin β3∞ ...(4.14)

The outlet velocity triangle before and after the outlet edge of the blade is given in Fig. 4.7.
A2
t2 s2
w2
C2 A3 w3
C m2
β2
B2 α2 C3 C m3 β3 β2
α3 δ2
C u2 = C u3 C2
u2
(a) (b)
Fig. 4.7. Outlet velocity triangle—effect of blade thickness
In order to get higher head and efficiency, the outlet edge of the blade is made as sharp edged as
shown in continuous lines (Fig. 4.7). This reduces the area blocked by blade at outlet and the flow
resembles like flow with infinite number of blades with infinitesimally smaller thickness. However,
angle of sharpness must be properly selected, so that there should not be any flow separation.
The outlet velocity triangle A2 B2C2 due to area increase and subsequent reduction in flow velocity
Cm2 to Cm3, will change into A3 B2 C2. Correspondingly, the direction and magnitude of absolute and
relative velocities change (Fig. 4.7).
4.5.1 Outlet Velocity Triangle: Effect of Finite Number of Blades

The direction of the flow of fluid at outlet of the impeller, under elementary theory of blade
system, must be tangential to blade position at outlet. In other words, the fluid angle will be same as
blade angle at outlet. Also under infinite number of blades with infinitesimally smaller vane thickness,
the flow velocity distribution i.e., the relative velocity w and the meridional velocity Cm at any radius,
across the channel should be equal i.e., from the trailing side or suction side of the blade to the leading
side or pressure side of the next blade (Refer Fig. 3.3). Correspondingly, the velocity has the same value
at leading and trailing sides of the impeller blade.
Considering any blade in such a system, as per Bernouli’s equation the pressures between the
leading side and the trailing side of the blade are same due to equal velocity on both sides. Under this
condition, there cannot be energy transfer from mechanical to fluid by the blade system. In other words,
pumping will not exist. In order to have pumping or to change mechanical energy to fluid energy, the
pressure at the leading side of the blade must be higher than the pressure at the trailing side of the blade.
Correspondingly, the velocity (w and Cm) at the trailing side will be higher than the velocity at the
leading side of the blade. When impeller rotates, the leading side of the blade exerts a force on the fluid
in contact and makes the fluid to move.
This unequal velocity distribution within the impellers passage can be considered as consisting of
two types of flow: (1) Constant velocity of flow across the entire impeller passage combined with, and
(2) A circulating velocity moving from trailing edge to the leading edge and then back to the trailing
edge (Fig. 3.6). Due to this circulatory motion, a tangential velocity is created at the outlet edge of the
blade, which is opposite to the direction of motion of blade and is in the same direction of blade motion
at the inlet edge of the blade.
Considering the outlet, the tangential velocity (∆Cu) created in the opposite direction reduces the
original tangential velocity Cu2∞ to Cu2 correspondingly the total head is reduced from H∞ to Hm. Both
these total heads are connected by the equation H∞ = (1 + p)Hm, where ‘p’ is the correction coefficient.
Various authors derived different methods to determine the value of the coefficient ‘p’.
4.6 SLIP FACTOR AS PER STODOLA AND MEIZEL |109|

Due to the flow change from theoretical to actual, in the impeller passage, outlet blade angle β2
reduces and the relative velocity w2 increases (Fig. 4.10).
ω
ω
90°
r2 r2
0°
β2 < 9
ra
ra < r2 ra > r2
Fig. 4.8. (a) Determination of effective radius
π – β2
∆ W max
2
C
Relative
t2
circulatory flow
A 90°
B
β2
2
ω
Main flow
Fig. 4.8. (b) Flow in impeller passage

Stodola and Meizel suggested that ∆w2 is proportional to u2. The blade velocity at outlet ∆w2 =
xu2. In order to determine the value of x, Meizel considered the flow in impeller passages consists of (1)
flow with constant velocity in impeller passage along with (2) a circulatory flow with an angular velocity
ω, rotating opposite to the blade rotation. He assumed that maximum value of relative circulation
velocity ∆w2max occurs at the middle of the passage. The plain flow with equal velocity is along the
streamline, whereas the velocity vector of the circulatory flow is perpendicular to this plain flow direction,
with the result, combined velocity w2 is changed from one end to another end in impeller passages.
Applying Stokes theorem, and referring to Fig. 4.8 (b) the circulation along the contour ABC
will be
Γ = 2ωA = ΓAB + ΓBC + ΓCA

where A is the area ABC. Since contour AB and BC are perpendicular to the streamline, circulation
2πr2 2πr2
Γ AB = 0 and Γ BC = 0 and ΓAC = ∆w2t = ∆w2 , since t =
Z Z
2 2πr
∴ Γ = ΓAC = ∆w2 Z = 2ωA.
1 β β t2
The Area ABC = t cos .t sin = sin β2 .
2 2 2 4
2ω t 2 ωt sin β2 ωπr2 sin β2

∴ ∆w2 = sin β2 = = .
t 4 2 Z
π sin β2
= . u2
Z
π sin β2
Since ∆w2= xu2, x =
Z
If β2 is increased the value x is also increased
Cm 2 π sin β2
Cu2 = Cu2∞ – ∆w2 = u2 – – u2.
tgβ2∞ Z
 π sin β2  C
= u2  1 −  – m2 ...(4.15)
 Z  tgβ2∞
The following assumptions were made by Meizel in deriving the above equation :
1. The circulatory velocity vector is perpendicular to the main flow streamline, which is not
always correct.
2. The circulatory vortex moves in a closed contour which is not correct since inlet and outlet
passages are open for flow. Only two sides of the blades act as closed contour.
3. The relative velocity w2∞ is tangential to the blade at outlet i.e., β2 of flow = β2 of the blade
and flow is parallel to each other at all points of impeller outlet passage. This is correct only
for more number of blades ( z ≥ 10) . For smaller number of blades, the correction factor
called slip factor does not agree. Also it is assumed that inlet flow conditions, will not affect
outlet flow confitions, which is also not true.
In general, the slip factor equation given by Stodola and Meizel agrees with the experimental
results for higher number of impeller blades.
4.6.1 Slip Factor as defined by Karl Pfliderer |97|

Karl Pfliderer established a relationship for slip factor based on the blade loading (Fig. 4.9) which
is based on the following assumptions :
1. Pressure drop across the unit length of middle streamline is constant in meridional section.
2. Unequal pressure and relative velocity distribution
exists in impeller passage before the outlet edge of S2
the impeller blade i.e., high relative velocity and ds

low pressure at the trailing side of the impeller blade
dr
and low relative velocity and high pressure at the
leading side of the blade. High relative velocity at
the trailing face remains same whereas the low S1
r
velocity at the leading side gradually increases and
becomes equal to the high velocity at the outlet edge.
Hence for the normal entry condition (Cu1= 0), Karl
Pfliderer defined a relation between H∞ and Hm
(equation 4.10) with a slip coefficient ‘p’ as Fig. 4.9. (a) Slip factor as per Pfliderer
H∞ = (1 + p) Hm
ψ r 22
where, p =
Z S
Z — No. of impeller blades.
ψ — Coefficient depending upon the blade configuration.
r2
S — Static moment of the central streamline = ∫ r ds.
r1
If the blades are radial or nearly radial ds = dr

r2
r 22 − r12
S = ∫ rdr =
2
r1
ψ 1
and p = 2 ...(4.16)
Z r 
1−  1 
 r2 
yH
Z z
16
12 12
10 0,8 10
8 8
6 6 5
5
4 4
3 0,6 3
2
2
0,4
0 30 60 βepad 0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 r1/r2
K
1,0
0,8
0,7
0,6
0,5
β
0,4
0,35 r1
0,3 r2
0,25 z
0,2
0,16 r1
0,14 (a) y H = f(β) when =0
0,12 r2
0,10
r1
0,08 (b) y H = f when β = 90°
r2
0,07
90° 45 45 25 20 15 10 5 0
0,06 r1
(c) k = f , z, β
0,05 r2
0,04
0,03
0,02
0,01
0,01 0,02 0,03 0,04 0,05 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5 0,6 0,8(r1/r2)
Fig. 4.9. (b) Correction coefficient for finite number of vanes as per S.S. Rudinoff |104|
Karl Pfliderer recommended the value of coefficient as

ψ = (0.55 to 0.68) + 0.6 sin β2 ...(4.17)
The value of ψ, calculated as per the above equation, coincides with practical results, only for
r1
radial type pumps, having < 0.5 and with backward curved blades. For radial blades β2 = 90°
r2
ψ ≈ 1.8 i.e., nearly 50% more than normal value. For forward curved blades, it increases further. The
corrected value of ψ as recommended by Pfliderer is
ψ = (0.6 to 0.65) (1+ sin β2 ) ...(4.18)
This equation is applicable for diffuser type pumps, where the inlet edge of the diffuser is kept
very near to the impeller outlet edge. ψ increases if this distance increases. For volute pumps and for
vaneless diffuser pumps, ψ values becomes higher. The approximate values are given below:
ψ = 0.65 to 0.85 for volute
ψ = 0.68 for vaned diffuser
ψ = 0.85 to 1.0 for vaneless diffuser
Also when α 1 ≤ 10°, ψ increases approximately by 30%. A normal value of α1 ≈ 20° is
recommended for pumps for which ψ is minimum. When ψ is minimum,the power consumption is also
reduced.
Pfliderer’s slip factor gives a good result for pumps n ≤ 150 with back ward curved vanes. Slip
factor ‘p’ increases with the increase of nS and it depends upon the surface roughness of the flow
passage also. Extending the inlet edge towards the eye side as well as change in the static moment of the
middle streamline ‘S ’ does not change the slip factor and hence Hm does not increase. In general Hm
calculated as per Stodota-Meizel formula is found to be nearer to the experimentally determined value
of Hm than Hm calculated as per Pfliderer.
4.6.2 Slip Factor as per Proscura |93|

Professor Proscura mentioned that the flow of fluid in rotating curved blades of impeller is the
combination of two flows: (1) plain flow with uniform and constant relative velocity across the entire
flow passage width from leading side of one blade to the trailing side of the next blade of a stationary
curved blade cascade system, determined by using conformal mapping from the stationary straight
blade cascade system and (2) axial vortex flow.
2. Considering the flow due to axial vortex (2ω) developed within the impeller flow passage, a
gave the relation between Hm and H∞ is given
  r1 
2 
 sin β2 +   sin β1 
 π  r2  
Hm = 1 − . 2  Hm
 Z  r1  
 1−   
  2
r 
1
≈ 2
r 
sin β2 +  1  sin β1
π  r2 
1+ 2 ...(4.19)
Z r 
1−  1 
 r2 
Considering equation (4.1), H∞ = (1 + p) Hm the value ‘p’ is
2
r 
sin β2 +  1  sin β1
π  r2  2ψ 1
p= 2 = 2
Z  r1  Z  r1 
1−   1−  
 r2   r2 
2
π sin β +  r1  sin β 
where, ψ=  2   1
2   r2  
2
  r1  
≈ 1.6  sin β2 +  r  sin β1  ...(4.20)
  2 
which is similar to the equation (4.13) determined
by Pfliderer.
w2 w 2∞
Equation (4.15) is determined only for ideal
C m2
fluid flow with finite number of blades and not for
C 2∞
real fluid having friction losses due to viscosity. C2
Before leaving the outlet edge, due to the slip factor, α 2∞
the relative velocity at outlet w2∞ deviates from the β2 β
α2 2∞
original direction (Fig. 4.10). Since flow rate is C u2 u2
same Cm2∞ = Cm2 and the outlet blade angle reduces C u2∞ = (1 + p) C u2
from β2∞ to β2. With the result w2 > w2 ∞ , C2<C2∞, Fig. 4.10. Outlet velocity triangle–effect of finite
number of blades
α2 > α2∞ β2< β2∞, wu2> wu2∞,Cu2< Cu2∞
Hm Hm 1 Cu 2 u2 Cu 2
= = = =
H∞ H m (1 + p) (1 + p ) Cu 2∞ u2 Cu 2∞
When the fluid comes out of the outlet edge, the flow velocity Cm2 reduces to Cm3 owing to the
 Z δ2 
sudden increase in area from  πD2 − B to πD2B2, due to the absence of vane thickness. Cu2
 sin β2  2
remains same, as defined earlier, i.e.,Cu2 = Cu3 with the result, the outlet velocity triangle changes. Since
u2= u3, Cu2 = Cu3, wu2 = wu3, Cm3< Cm2, α 3 < α 2, β3 < β2.
H H∞ C u − Cu 0u0
Hm = = = u3 3 ...(4.21)
ηh (1 + p ) g
Cu 2u2 − Cu1u1
whereas, H∞ =
g
Figure 4.11 gives a comparison of H–Q curve with correction for the effect due to finite number of
blades by different authors.
It is suggested that the correction coefficient for the finite number of blades can be carried out as
per Stodola-Meizel, if active radius ‘ra’ is considered or otherwise method suggested by Karl Pfliderer
can be applied.
H1
H 1∞
H m as per Pfliderer
π sin β2
H m as per Stodola-Meizel
1+p
u 22
1
g
Z
u 22
1–
g
u 22
g
Qp
Fig. 4.11. (a) Comparison of H–Q curve with different correction coefficients
1.0
d
c
0.9
b
a
0.8
a. G.F. Proskura
b. Pfliderer
c. Stodola-Meizel
0.7
d. Rudinoff
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Fig. 4.11. (b) Correction coefficient for finite number of vanes
4.7 COEFFICIENT OF REACTION (ρ)

p2 − p1 C22 − C12
Total head H m = E2 – E1 = + Z2 – Z1 +
γ 2g
= Hp+ Hdy
p2 − p1
where Hp = + (Z2 –Z1)
γ
C22 − C12
and Hdy =
2g
Cu 3u2 − Cu 0u1
Also, Hm =
g
Referring to velocity triangle
w22 = C22 + u22 – 2u2 Cu 2
and w12 = C12 + u21 – 2u1Cu1 and Cu0 = Cu1, u0 = u1
u2 Cu 2 − u1 Cu 0 C22 − C12 u 2 − u12 w2 − w22

Hence, = + 2 + 1 ...(4.22)
g 2g 2g 2g
u22 − u12 w2 − w22 C 2 − C12

Hp∞ = + 1 and Hdy = 2 ...(4.23)
2g 2g 2g
Pressure head Hp∞ indicates the difference in pressure and potential energy between inlet and
outlet of the pump, which is the sum of the pressure energy due to centrifugal force (Coriolis component)
u 2 − u12
and due to the flow over the blade system (due to relative velocity). 2 is the increase in pressure
2g
energy of the fluid within the impeller due to the rotation of the impeller, under no flow conditions i.e.,
w12 − w22
purely by the centrifugal force, whereas is the increase in the pressure energy of the flowing
2g
fluid over the impeller blade system due to velocity reduction from inlet to outlet, when the impeller is
stationary.
If both these flows are combined, a circulatory flow is developed, which gives a tangential
momentum at outlet and at inlet to develop total energy.
For real fluid flow with friction
u22 − u12 w2 − w22 p2 − p1

+ 1 = + (Z2 – Z1) + hfim + hfv
2g 2g γ
where ‘hfim’ is the hydraulic loss in impeller and ‘hfv’ is the hydraulic loss in volute or in diffuser.
The coefficient of reaction ‘ ρ ’ is the ratio of pressure head developed to the total head
H p∞ H ∞ − H dy  H dy 
ρ = = =1–   ...(4.24)
H∞ H∞  H∞ 
C22 − C12 C2u1 + Cm22 − Cu22 − Cm21 Cu22 − Cu21

Hdy = = =
2g 2g 2g
Since Cm2 ≈ Cm1 and for normal entry Cu1 = 0. Hence
C 2u 2 gH m2
Hdy = = ...(4.25)
2g 2u 22
H dy Cu22 gH m
Hence, ρ = 1– = 1– =1– ...(4.26)
Hm 2 gH m 2u22
C 2u 2
H p = Hm – Hdy = Hm –
2g
gH m2  gH m 
= Hm – = Hm 1 –  ...(4.27)
2u22  2u22 
β 2) AND ITS EFFECT

4.8 SELECTION OF OUTLET BLADE ANGLE (β
Under normal entry, Total head (H) depends upon the oulet dimensions of impeller, D2, B2, β2,
δ2, Z and speed n.
1 Cu 2∞u2 Cu 2∞u22 1 .
Hm = ⋅ = ⋅
1+ p g g 1+ p
Cu 2∞
where, Cu 2∞ =
u2
From outlet velocity triangle
Cm 2 ∞
Cu2∞ = u2 – wu2∞ = u2 – = u2 – Cm2 cot β2∞ ...(4.28)
tan β2∞
Q
= u2 – ...[4.28 (a)]
 Zδ2 
 πD2 −  B2 .tan β2∞
 sin β2∞ 
1  u2  Q 
 u2 −
Hm =
1+ p g   Zδ2   ...(4.29)
  πD −
 2 sin β  2 B .tan β 2∞ 

   2∞ 
 
For the given dimensions of impeller, Hm is a function of C u 2∞ and C u 2∞ is function of β2. Blade
shape changes, when β2 change from < 90° to > 90° for the same direction of rotation of impeller. At
outlet blades are curved backwards when β2< 90°, radial when β2 = 90° and curved forward when
β2 > 90°.
Correspondingly the flow passage between blades of the impeller also changes. Fig. 4.12 illustrates
the blade shape, and the shape of the passage when β2 changes from < 90° to > 90°. For β2 < 90°, blade
passage is longer, the angle of divergence is smaller. Flow can be smooth, without any flow separation.
For β2 = 90° and β2 > 90°, the passage length is reduced and angle of divergence is increased, which
induces flow separation and subsequent hydraulic losses due to secondary flow. β2 < 90° is commonly
adopted for pumps, to get higher efficiency since the flow passage is divergent. β2 = 90° is used in
turbines, and in return guide values where flow is through a convergent passage. The longer length of
the flow passage induces more hydraulic losses. Thus outlet blade angle β2 influences considerably on
the performance of the pump. Converting all the values of head, H∞, Hp∞, Hdy∞, ρ∞, into a non-dimensional
unit, as percentage of total value of (u22/2g).
β 2>90°
ω ω ω
β2
=9
0°
β 2<90°
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 4.12. Blade shapes for different β 2 (a) β 2 < 90°° (b) β 2 = 90°° (c) β 2 > 90°°
H dy∞ 2 gH dy
H dy∞ = =
(u22 / 2g ) u22
2
 Cu 2∞ 
 = (Cu 2 ∞ )
2 gCu 2∞ 2
= =  ...(4.30)
2 gu22  u2 
H∞ Cu 2∞ . u2 Cu 2∞ u22
H∞ = = = = 2 Cu 2∞ ...(4.31)
(u22 / 2 g ) g (u22 / 2 g ) g (u22 / 2 g )

Hp∞ = H∞ – Hdy∞ =  2 Cu 2∞ – (Cu 2∞ )  = Cu 2∞ ( 2 − Cu 2∞ )
2
...(4.32)
 
H p∞ (2 − Cu 2∞ )Cu 2∞  Cu 2∞ 
ρ∞ = = = 1 −  ...(4.33)
H∞ 2Cu 2∞  2 
The following table (4.1) gives the variation of H∞ , Hdy∞ , Hp∞ , ρ∞ for different values of Cu 2∞,
calculated as per the equations 4.30, 4.31, 4.32 and 4.33, when Cu 2∞= 0, β2∞= 0, when Cu 2∞ = 2,
β2∞= 180° when Cu 2∞ = 1β2∞= 90°. β2∞ can also be calculated from the equation 4.34.
∞ , ρ ∞ ,β
∞ , Hp∞
TABLE 4.1: Variation of H∞ , Hdy∞ β 2∞ as a function of Cu 2∞
Cu2∞ H∞ Hp∞
∞ Hdy∞
∞ ρ∞
0 0 0 0 1.0
0.5 1.0 0.75 0.25 0.75
0.75 1.5 0.9375 0.5625 0.625
1.0 2.00 1.00 1.000 0.50
1.5 3.00 0.75 2.25 0.25
2.0 4.00 0 4.00 0
Cu 2∞ u2 − Cm 2∞ cot β 2∞ Cm 2∞
C u 2∞ = = = 1 – Cm 2∞ cot β2 or tan β2 = ...(4.34)
u2 u2 1 − Cu 2∞
A graph is also drawn referring the Table 4.1.
ρ
H T∞
ρ
3,0 0,75
H d∞
H T∞, H d∞, H p∞
2,0 0,5
1,0 0,25
H p∞
0
0.5 1,0 1,5 C 2u∞
— — — —
Fig. 4.13. Graph H∞ , Hdy ∞ , Hp ∞ , ρ∞ = f (c2u ∞ )
The velocity triangles are shown in Fig. 4.14 for three condition namely β2 < 90°, β2 = 90° and
β2 > 90°.
C 2c
2a
C 2b
C 2m
β2b β2c
β2a
C 2ua
C 2ub
C 2uc
Fig. 4.14. Velocity triangles for β 2 < 90°° , β 2 = 90°° and β 2 > 90°°
(a) β 2a < 90°° (b) β 2b = 90°° (c) β 2c > 90°°
Corresponding impeller blade shapes are also indicated in the Fig. 4.12.
Total head (H∞ ) and coefficient of reaction ‘ρ’ are directely proportional to Cu 2∞. Dynamic head,
Hdy is proportional to ( Cu 2∞ )2 and pressure Head (Hp ∞ ) changes inversely to ( Cu 2∞ )2.

When β2∞ < 90°, the blades are backward curved, the angle of divergence of flow passage in
impeller is narrow and, hence secondary flow losses are less. Hydraulic efficiency is higher. Also
Hp > Hdy i.e., a greater part of the outlet energy is in the form of pressure energy. Only a smaller
portion of total head i.e., Hdy is converted to pressure energy, which is the basic requirement for
pumps. That why pumps and blowers are designed with impeller blades as backward curved blades.
Normally β2, the outlet blade angle lies between 20° to 35° for nS ranging from 50 to 400. Recommended
values are:
β2 ≤ 30° for nS < 100
β2 ≤ 25° for 100 nS < 200
β2 ≤ 20° for 250 nS < 400
Total Head increases with the increase of β2. The performance of pump H–Q curve gradually rises
and becomes more and more a straight line when β2 increases. Smaller values of β2 is selected for more
steep H–Q curves and larger values of β2 are for more flat H–Q curves. β2 is always selected for maximum
efficiency condition of operation. As per stepanoff | 112 | average static condition of optimum blade
angle of outlet β2 lies, between 22°–23°. For increase in head, angle β2 may be increased to 28° to 30°
without any sacrifice in efficiency. Minimum blade angle β2 can be 15° to 17° and never less than this
value for pumps of any specific speed (nS) or any size.
4.9 EFFECT OF NUMBER OF VANES
Selection of number of blades (Z) in impellers and in diffusers (Zd) is very important. It influences
on the H–Q characteristics of the pump, pump efficiency as well as suction characteristics of the
pumps. Selection of less number of blades as well as shorter length of blades, give higher angle of
divergence in impeller passages, which increases secondary losses in impeller namely circulatory
losses between two blades due to large pressure differences between leading and trailing sides of the
blade as well as losses at exit due to flow separation. Cavitational characteristics of the pump also
reduces. H–Q curve will be lower than the normal curve. Blade loading will be higher. This increases
the blade thickness which again reduces the blade passage and corresponding increase in w and Cm
which increases frictional losses. Too long the impeller blades and more number of blades increase
the frictional losses, although blade loading and secondary losses are reduced due to less angle of
divergence. Hence correct selection of number of blades is absolutely necessary. In Fig. 4.15, the
effect of number of vanes on pump performance is given. It is evident from the graph that, number of
vanes influences in pump performance.
Based on the channel width in plan of the impeller and the blade length which ensures proper
angle of divergence, Karl Pfliderer | 97 | has established an expression for the determination of number
of blades (Z).
20
15
H Vs Q
Total head, (H) m
Z=6
Z=5
Z = 10
10
Z=8 Z=4
Z=5 Z=5
Z=8
Z=4 Z=4
100%
8 Z=6
=
Z
10
Z=
Z = 10
50%
Efficiency ( η)
Specification:
Head : 12.8 m
Flow rate: 6 lps
Speed : 1440 rpm
25%
n s = 60
Size = 50 mm × 40 mm
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
(Q) Quantity of Flow, lps
Fig. 4.15. (a) Effect of no. of vanes on pump performance
β2
90°
71°
44°
30°
21°
16°
14°
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Z
β 2) as per Pfliderer
Fig. 4.15. (b) Selection of number of vanes, z = f(β
r2 + r1 β1 + β2
Z = 6.5 . sin ...(4.35)
r2 – r1 2
where, 6.5 in the constant derived from experimental results.
This expression gives nearly correct value for normal backward curved blades. If the blades are
too long and too much bent in backward direction, i.e.,for smaller values of β1 and β2, this expression
gives more number of blades than normally used in practice. Karl Pfliderer, based on the results from
Hanson has given a graph for selection of number of blades as a function of outlet blade angle β2 for
diffuser pumps. [Fig. 4.15 (b)]. In Fig. 4.15 (a) the effect of number of blades on pump performance is
given. From the graph it is seen that for best performance number of vanes are found to be between
5 and 6 for radial flow pump.
Most of the pumps of different specific speeds have number of blades between 5–8 in impeller
and 1 or 2 blades, more than impeller blades, in diffusers. For nS ≤ 150, Z will be 6 to 8, for nS ≥ 150
and D2 ≤ 1000 mm, Z = 6 to 7, for D2< 120 mm, Z = 6 to 5.
Most of the high efficiency pumps have an included angle θ between inlet and outlet edges of
blades in plan (Fig. 4.16) between 80° to 150°, optimum being 110° to 120° and θ/tang between 1.2 to 2.2
360
where tang = for pumps of specific speed nS ranging from 130 to 400 and D2 ranging from 100 mm
Z
to 300 mm.
n% For ns = 300 to 400
90 (1) D 2 = 300 mm
(2) D 2 = 116 mm
For ns = 180 – 250
Efficienc y
3
1 (3) D 2 = 116 mm
80
2 4 For ns = 130 – 180
5 (4) D 2 = 116 mm
(5) for ns = 60 to 100
70 D2 = 300 mm
θav / tang
Angular displacement θav / t ang

Fθ I
Fig. 4.16. Selection of number of vanes from the graph, η = f GH t
ang
a
ns , D 2 JK
4.10 SELECTION OF EYE DIAMETER (D 0), EYE VELOCITY (C 0), INLET

DIAMETER OF IMPELLER (D1) AND INLET MERIDIONAL VELOCITY (Cm1)
Impeller eye diameter D0 and impeller inlet diameter D1 are selected for best hydraulic efficiency and
for best cavitational characteristics of the pump.
Impeller eye velocity C0 for pumps with protruding shafts and hubs such as multistage pumps, double
suction pumps is given by
Q π
Qth = = (D02 – d 2h ). C0 ...(4.2)
ηv 4
where dh is the hub diameter.
4Qth
∴ C0 = ...[4.2 (a)]
 d h2 
πD02  1 – 2 
 D0 
For pumps without protruding shaft and hub i.e., dh = 0 such as end suction, single stage, single
entry pumps
4Qth
C0 = ...[4.2 (b)]
πD02
From similarity laws unit discharge (KQ) is defined as
Q
KQ =
nD 3
3 3 3
1 Qth Qth
or D0 = ⋅ = K ⋅ ...(4.36)
KQ n n
3
1
where, K =
KQ
Substituting the value of D0 from the equation (4.36) into equation [4.2 (a)]
4 Qth  4 KQ2 / 3  Qn 2 / 3 
  d  2   Q 2 / 3 
C0 =   =
π 3 2
  Qth   d h2  
π
− 1 −   
h
1
  K n   D 2   D
  Q  0 
= constant (K1) . 3 Q. n 2 ...(4.37)
4 KQ2 / 3
where, K1 =
 d2 
π 1 − h2 
 D 
 
For better cavitational characteristics and hydraulic efficiency, C0= 2 to 4 mps and the meridional
velocity (Cm1) before the blade inlet edge Cm1= C0 or 1.05 to 1.10 C0, since increase in velocity Cm
reduces the efficiency and cavitation effect.
From inlet to outlet in the impeller passage, the relative velocity w, meridional velocity Cm and
hence the absolute velocity C gradually reduces. This means the blade passage is a divergent passage.
w1
For better results, angle of divergence should be within 10°. This is achieved when = 1.05 to 1.15
w2
and Cm2 = 0.85 to 0.9 Cm1. From inlet velocity triangle for normal entry
 4Q 
2
FG πD n IJ 2
H 60 K
1
w21 2 + u2 =
= Cm1  2 +
1
 πD0 
π π
Taking, Cm1= C0, D2 =
4 0 4
(D12 – dh2 )
or D12 = D02 + dh2
2
 4Q  π n
2
∴ 2 
w1 =  
2  +   (D20 + dh2 ) ...(4.38)
 πD0   60 
2
w1
2
M 2
w1
sec
π 2 2 2
2
n D1 = u1
60
2
Q 2
4 2
2 = C m1
π D 21 – dh
2 2 2
D 0 opt D0(m )
Fig. 4.17. Determination of optimum eye diameter graph, w21, Cm

2 , u2 = f (D2)
1 0
For good cavitational characteristics w1 must be minimum. Differentiating equation (4.38) with
dw1
respect to D0 i.e., = 0 and simplifying
dD0
2 22
 π n  4 Q 3
Q
  − 2  π  =0 or D0 = K ...(4.39)
60  D06 n
which is same as equation (4.36).
From experimental results, the constant K is ranging from 3.6 to 5.0. For single stage end suction
pumps of D1 > 70 mm, K = 4.0 to 4.5 and for same pumps if D1< 70 mm, K = 4.5 to 5.00. For all
multistage pumps except for Ist stage K = 3.6 – 3.9 | 76 |.
As per Karl Pfliderer | 97 |, Lomakin | 69 |, Stepanoff | 112 |, and Karrasik | 54 |, the best inlet blade
angle without including the angle of attack for better cavitational characteristics and for better hydraulic
efficiency is
β10 = 15° to 20°.
Taking this into consideration and from the inlet velocity triangle (Fig. 4.1), under normal entry
condition,
4Q
Cm1 C0 πD02 60 × 4 × Q
tan β10 = = = =
u1 u1 πD0 n π2 D03 n
60
240 Q
= ⋅
π 2
D03 n = tan 15° to tan 20°
240 1 Q
D03 = × ⋅
tan (15 to 20) n
or
π 2
1/ 3 3
 240 1  Q 3
Q
D0 =  2 .  = 4.5 to 4.0 ...(4.40)
 π tan (15° to 20°)  n n
Correspondingly finding the value of C0 from the above equation,
π 2   dh  
2
4Qth
Qth = D0 1 −    C0 or D0 =
4   D0     d 2 
  π  1 −  h   C0
  D0  
 
  d 2 
π 1 −  h   C0
  D0  
Cm1 60 C0 60 C0  
tan β10 = = =
u1 π D0 n πn 4 Qth
2
30 d  C 3/ 2
tan (15° to 20°) = 1−  h  ⋅ 0
π  D0  n Qth
 π tan (15° to 20°)  2/3

 2  n Qth 
C0 =  30  dh   
 1–    
  D0  
Substituting the values for tan β10 = tan (15° to 20°) = 0.268 to 0.364
C0 = 0.063 to 0.077 3 Qth n 2
= 0.06 to 0.08 3 Qn 2 ...(4.41)
4.11 SELECTION OF OUTLET DIAMETER OF IMPELLER (D2)

As a first approximation D2, the outer diameter of impeller is determined from fundamental
Eular’s equation. For normal entry
H C u
Hm = = u2 2
ηh g
Cu2 can be selected from (0.8 to 0.5) u2 for nS ranging from 150 to 250.
Cu 2u2 u22 gH m
Hence, Hm = = (0.8 to 0.5) g or u2 =
g (0.8 to 0.5)
60 u2
Having known the speed n, D2 =
πn
This diameter D2 is used to determine β2, Z, p. From the value p
H∞ = (1 + p) Hm is determined.
From outlet velocity triangle, for normal entry condition
Cu 2∞ u2  C 
H∞ = = u2  u2 − m 2 
g  tan β2 
2
 Cm 2   Cm 2 
from which u2 =   +   + g H∞ ...(4.42)
 2 tan β2   2 tan β2 
The diameter D2 determined under second approximation by equation (4.42) is corrected again
after finalizing the correct value of area reduction coefficient ‘Κ2’ and outlet blade angle ‘β2’.
4.12 EFFECT OF BLADE BREADTH (B2)

For the given value of Q,H and the determined optimum value of β2, and Cm2, maximum diameter
at outlet of the impleller D2 is determined. Minimum value of Β2, the breadth at outlet can be determined
from Q, D2 and Cm2. This is achieved when the coeficient of reaction ‘ρ’ is maximum by which Cm2 is
maximum. Since β2 is independent of nS, β2 is selected mostly from the practical results.
The total head H ∞ will be
H
H ∞ = (1 + p) Hm = (1 + p).
ηh
H Cu 2u2
where Hm = = for normal entry at inlet
ηh g
(1 + p ) ⋅ Cu 2u2
=
ηh g
Referring to the outlet velocity triangles, the total head (H) is given as
Cu 2u2 u u2  Cm 2 
Hm = = 2 (u2 – wu2) = =  u2 − 
g g g  tan β2 
u2  K 2Qth  u2  K 2 Qth 
=  u2 – = u 2 –  ...(4.43)
g  πD2 B2 tan β2  g  πD2 B2 tan β2 
2
B2
where B2 =
D2
 Q 
Introducing non-dimensional coefficients unit discharge  KQ =  and Unit Head
 nD3 
 H 
 K H = 2 2  into the equation (4.40), we get
 n D 
K H n2 D 2 πD2 n  K 2 KQ nD23 
=  πD2 n − 
ηh g  ηv .π.D2 B2 tan β2 
2
4/3
3.65n Q 219 KQ  219 K Q 
Introducing specific speed ns = = or K =   into the above
H(
3 / 4)
( K H )(3 / 4) H  ns 
equation and simplifying
K 2 KQ
B2 = ...(4.44)

( )(219)4 / 3 
2/3
g KQ

ηv tan β2 π –
2 
 η1 ( ns )
4/3 
 
For radial type centrifugal pumps ns ranges from 40 to 300, KQ ranges from 0.02 to 0.22, K2
ranges from 1.05 to 1.25, β2 ranges from 20° to 30°.
80
70
B = 12
B=9
60
B=6
B = 16
50
Efficiency (η)
40
30
20
10
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04

(KQ ) Unit Discharge
Fig. 4.18. (a) Efficiency—unit discharge characteristics

η – KQ )
(η
0.7
0.6
B = 16
0.5
B = 12
(K H) Unit Head
0.4
B=9
0.3
B=6
0.2
0.1
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04

(KQ ) Unit discharge
Fig. 4.18. (b) Unit head—unit discharge characteristics

(KH – KQ)
0.3
0.25
0.2
KQ 0.15
0.1
0.05
0
40 45 50 55 60 70 80 90 100 115 130 150 175 200 250 300
ηs
Fig. 4.18. (c) Allowable range of KQ for different specific speeds (Data collected from
different pumps working η ranges from 65% to 81%)
40
45
60 70
50
0.8000
55
80 90 100 115
KH 130
150
175
200
0.3000
0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.20 0.22
KQ
Fig. 4.18. (d) Allowable range of KQ and KH for different specific speeds of Radial type centrifugal
pumps (Data collected from pumps working η ranges from 65% to 81%)
0.1600
0.1400
0.1200
0.1000
B 0.0800
0.0600
0.0400
0.0200
0.0000
40 45 50 55 60 70 80 90 100 115 130 150 175 200 250 300
ns
—
Fig. 4.18. (e) B vs ns for K2 = 1.05, η h = η v = 0.84, β 2 = 22°°
0.1200
0.1000
0.0800
B 0.0600
0.0400
0.0200
0.0000
40 50 60 80 100 130 175 250
ns
—
Fig. 4.18. (f ) B vs ns for K2 = 1.05, η h = η v = 0.84, β 2 = 30°°
FG IJ
98
B
TABLE 4.2: Selection of impeller blade breadth at outlets B 2 = D
2
2 H K
K2 = 1.05
η h = η v = 0.84 η h = η v = 0.90
β 2 = 22 β 2 = 30 β 2 = 22 β 2 = 30
ηs KQ B KQ B KQ B KQ B KQ B KQ B KQ B KQ B
40 0.02 0.0395 0.013 0.0111 0.02 0.0276 0.013 0.0077 0.02 0.0272 0.013 0.0093 0.02 0.0191 0.013 0.0065
45 0.025 0.0473 0.015 0.0116 0.025 0.0331 0.015 0.0081 0.025 0.0331 0.015 0.0098 0.025 0.0231 0.015 0.0069
50 0.031 0.0596 0.02 0.0167 0.031 0.0417 0.02 0.0117 0.031 0.0414 0.02 0.0140 0.031 0.0290 0.02 0.0098
55 0.037 0.0679 0.023 0.0182 0.037 0.0475 0.023 0.0127 0.037 0.0479 0.023 0.0154 0.037 0.0335 0.023 0.0108
60 0.042 0.0670 0.027 0.0211 0.042 0.0469 0.027 0.0148 0.042 0.0491 0.027 0.0179 0.042 0.0344 0.027 0.0125
ROTODYNAMIC PUMPS (CENTRIFUGAL AND AXIAL)

70 0.053 0.0704 0.034 0.0247 0.053 0.0493 0.034 0.0173 0.053 0.0540 0.034 0.0212 0.053 0.0378 0.034 0.0148
80 0.067 0.0832 0.043 0.0304 0.067 0.0582 0.043 0.0213 0.067 0.0648 0.043 0.0262 0.067 0.0454 0.043 0.0183
90 0.081 0.0923 0.053 0.0366 0.081 0.0646 0.053 0.0256 0.081 0.0733 0.053 0.0316 0.081 0.0513 0.053 0.0221
100 0.097 0.1050 0.062 0.0411 0.097 0.0735 0.062 0.0288 0.097 0.0842 0.062 0.0357 0.097 0.0589 0.062 0.0250
115 0.118 0.1128 0.077 0.0488 0.118 0.0789 0.077 0.0342 0.118 0.0926 0.077 0.0427 0.118 0.0648 0.077 0.0298
130 0.134 0.1109 0.092 0.0558 0.134 0.0776 0.092 0.0391 0.134 0.0933 0.092 0.0490 0.134 0.0653 0.092 0.0343
150 0.164 0.1245 0.112 0.0645 0.164 0.0872 0.112 0.0451 0.164 0.1062 0.112 0.0570 0.164 0.0743 0.112 0.0399
175 0.193 0.1295 0.14 0.0770 0.193 0.0906 0.14 0.0539 0.193 0.1123 0.14 0.0684 0.193 0.0786 0.14 0.0479
200 0.222 0.1364 0.158 0.0812 0.222 0.0954 0.158 0.0568 0.222 0.1196 0.158 0.0727 0.222 0.0837 0.158 0.0479
250 0.257 0.1345 0.193 0.0905 0.257 0.0941 0.193 0.0633 0.257 0.1202 0.193 0.0817 0.257 0.0841 0.193 0.0572
300 0.284 0.1341 0.225 0.0990 0.284 0.0938 0.225 0.0693 0.284 0.1211 0.225 0.0900 0.284 0.0847 0.225 0.0630
FG IJ
THEORY AND CALCULATION OF BLADE SYSTEMS IN CENTRIFUGAL PUMP

B
TABLE 4.3: Selection of impeller blade breadth at outlets B 2 = D
2
2 H K
K2 = 1.25
η h = η v = 0.84 η h = η v = 0.90
β 2 = 22 β 2 = 30 β 2 = 22 β 2 = 30
ηs KQ B KQ B KQ B KQ B KQ B KQ B KQ B KQ B
40 0.02 0.0470 0.013 0.0132 0.02 0.0329 0.013 0.0092 0.02 0.0324 0.013 0.0110 0.02 0.0227 0.013 0.0077
45 0.025 0.0563 0.015 0.0138 0.025 0.0394 0.015 0.0096 0.025 0.0394 0.015 0.0117 0.025 0.0275 0.015 0.0082
50 0.031 0.0709 0.02 0.0199 0.031 0.0496 0.02 0.0139 0.031 0.0493 0.02 0.0167 0.031 0.0345 0.02 0.0117
55 0.037 0.0808 0.023 0.0217 0.037 0.0566 0.023 0.0152 0.037 0.0570 0.023 0.0184 0.037 0.0399 0.023 0.0128
60 0.042 0.0798 0.027 0.0251 0.042 0.0558 0.027 0.0176 0.042 0.0585 0.027 0.0213 0.042 0.0409 0.027 0.0149
70 0.053 0.0838 0.034 0.0294 0.053 0.0586 0.034 0.0206 0.053 0.0643 0.034 0.0252 0.053 0.0450 0.034 0.0176
80 0.067 0.0990 0.043 0.0362 0.067 0.0693 0.043 0.0253 0.067 0.0772 0.043 0.0311 0.067 0.0540 0.043 0.0218
90 0.081 0.1099 0.053 0.0436 0.081 0.0769 0.053 0.0305 0.081 0.0873 0.053 0.0377 0.081 0.0611 0.053 0.0264
100 0.097 0.1250 0.062 0.0489 0.097 0.0875 0.062 0.0342 0.097 0.1003 0.062 0.0425 0.097 0.0702 0.062 0.0297
115 0.118 0.1342 0.077 0.0581 0.118 0.0939 0.077 0.0407 0.118 0.1102 0.077 0.0508 0.118 0.0771 0.077 0.0355
130 0.134 0.1320 0.092 0.0665 0.134 0.0924 0.092 0.0465 0.134 0.1110 0.092 0.0584 0.134 0.0777 0.092 0.0409
150 0.164 0.1483 0.112 0.0767 0.164 0.1038 0.112 0.0537 0.164 0.1264 0.112 0.0678 0.164 0.0884 0.112 0.0475
175 0.193 0.1542 0.14 0.0917 0.193 0.1079 0.14 0.0642 0.193 0.1337 0.14 0.0815 0.193 0.0936 0.14 0.0570
200 0.222 0.1623 0.158 0.0967 0.222 0.1136 0.158 0.0677 0.222 0.1424 0.158 0.0866 0.222 0.0997 0.158 0.0606
250 0.257 0.1601 0.193 0.1077 0.257 0.1120 0.193 0.0754 0.257 0.1430 0.193 0.0973 0.257 0.1001 0.193 0.0681
300 0.284 0.1596 0.225 0.1179 0.284 0.1117 0.225 0.0825 0.284 0.1441 0.225 0.1071 0.284 0.1009 0.225 0.0750
99
0.1400
0.1200
0.1000
B 0.0800
0.0600
0.0400
0.0200
0.0000
40 45 50 55 60 70 80 90 100 115 130 150 175 200 250 300
ns
—
Fig. 4.18. (g) B vs ns for K2 = 1.05, η h = η v = 0.90, β 2 = 22°°
0.0900
0.0800
0.0700
0.0600
0.0500
B
0.0400
0.0300
0.0200
0.0100
0.0000
40 45 50 55 60 70 80 90 100 115 130 150 175 200 250 300
ns
—
Fig. 4.18. (h) B vs ns for K2 = 1.05, η h = η v = 0.90, β 2 = 30°°
0.1800
0.1600
0.1400
0.1200
0.1000
B
0.0800
0.0600
0.0400
0.0200
0.0000
40 45 50 55 60 70 80 90 100 115 130 150 175 200 250 300
ns
—
Fig. 4.18. (i) B vs ns for K2 = 1.25, η h = η v = 0.84, β 2 = 22°°
0.1200
0.1000
0.0800
B 0.0600
0.0400
0.0200
0.0000
40 50 60 80 100 130 175 250
ns
—
Fig. 4.18. (j) B vs ns for K2 = 1.25, η h = η v = 0.84, β 2 = 30°°
0.1600
0.1400
0.1200
0.1000
B 0.0800
0.0600
0.0400
0.0200
0.0000
40 45 50 55 60 70 80 90 100 115 130 150 175 200 250 300
ns
—
Fig. 4.18. (k) B vs ns for K2 = 1.25, η h = η v = 0.90, β 2 = 22°°
0.1200
0.1000
0.0800
0.0600
B
0.0400
0.0200
0.0000
40 45 50 55 60 70 80 90 100 115 130 150 175 200 250 300
ns
—
Fig. 4.18. (l) B vs ns for K2 = 1.25, η h = η v = 0.90, β 2 = 30°°
Overall efficiency of pumps ranges form η = 65% to 81%, ηv is assumed as equal to ηh and is
taken as = η . Using excel programme, the values of B2 for the above mentioned variations were
calculated and graph B2 = f (ns) were drawn (Figs. 4.18 c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l), for different values of
KQ, K2, ηh, ηv and β2. These graphs can be referred for the selection of outlet blade breadth for radial
flow impellers.
An experiment on a radial type centrifugal pump was also conducted. The blade breadths (B2 and
B1) at inlet and at outlet were changed keeping the inclination of the shrouds with vertical same at all
time. The results are given in Figs. 4.18 (a), (b) in KH – KQ and η – KQ graphs.
Experimental results agree with the theoretically determined values.
Normally B2will be smaller for diffuser pumps, when compared to volute casing pumps.
4.13 IMPELLER DESIGN

Three fundamental parameters namely (1) Total Head ‘H’, (2) quantity of flow ‘Q’ and (3) either
speed of the pump ‘n’ or suction head ‘HS’ are necessary for impeller design.
The speed of rotation ‘n’ however, is related to the size of the pump, and cavitational characteristics
of the pump.
If suction head ‘HS’ is known, the speed can be determined from suction specific speed (C). From
the known value of H, Q , n, specific speed ‘ns’ for the pump is calculated by which the type of pump can
be determined.
When speed ‘n’ is increased for the given value of Q and H. specific speed ‘ns’ increases. The type
of pump changes such as radial, or diagonal or mixed or axial flow. Also the overall size of the pump is
reduced.
It is found that maximum hydraulic as well as overall efficiencies are attained between ns = 150 to
200 for radial type centrifugal pumps. Fig. 4.19 gives the relation between efficiency (η) as a function of
specific speed ‘ns’ for different eye diameters of the impeller.
12%
100
a
b
c
50
0 85 200 250 400 420 600 800 875 n s
Fig. 4.19. Graph h = f (ns, DO)

(a) DO > 200 mm, (b) DO = 50 to 200 mm, (c) DO = 10 to 50 mm
Suction head ‘Hs’ is reduced, when speed is increased. Cavitational specific speed ‘C’ can be
taken as C = 800 to 1000 from which suction head ‘Hs’ can be determined under first approximation
using the formula.
4/3
p pvp  n Qp 
Hs = atm – –   ...(4.45)
γ γ  C 
 
where,
patm— atmospheric pressure
pvp — vapour pressure and
γ — specific weight of liquid
Detailed analysis on cavitation is dealt with in chapter 9. Correct suction head ‘Hs’ or speed ‘n’
can be established by applying cavitation conditions.
In pump industries, pump is selected mostly from among the available models manufactured in
the industry. For the available data of H, Q, pump model, so selected, must be capable of meeting the
hydraulic and constructional requirements of the field conditions. For example, impellers of multistage
pump having hub extended into the impeller eye should not be selected for a single stage end suction
pump, since the entry in multistage pump impeller is different from entry of liquid in single stage end
suction impellers. In single stage end suction pumps entry is radial, whereas in multistage pump entry at
suction need not be radial. By applying model analysis, the available models are selected to suit the new
requirements. If pumps are not available from the existing models, new designs are made using systematic
design procedure. Total head of single stage pumps with standard speed of rotation 1440 rpm (ns ≈ 40)
will be H ≤ 30 m, in order to keep the impeller size and weight of the pump within the limit. If head for
the single stage pump is more than 30 m, then the impeller size and corresponding the total weight of the
pump considerably increases. Hence, head and quantity for a single stage pump should be selected up to
HT
miximum of 30 m for n = 1440 rpm. If pumps are in series, then head per stage will be H = where
i
H — Head of single stage pump, HT — Total head of the multistage pump, i is the number of stages. If
QT
the pumps are in parallel then quantity of flow per pump will be Qp= , where Qp—quantity of flow
i
for one pump, QT—Total quantity required and i—Number of pumps to be kept in parallel. If a double
QT
suction pump is used then Q = . In case of single stage pump, excess quantity is required to take care
2
of axial thrust, leakage through wearing rings, stuffing box cooling, etc. Actual quantity must be
increased by an extra of 3 to 10% i.e., Qp = Qact = (1.03 to 1.1) Q when selecting pumps for usage in
field. Multistage pumps are used for boiler feed, mines etc.
When high suction characteristics are essential such as condensate or for gas-liquid pumping,
speed of rotation must be selected a little lower than normal. A double suction pump is preferred. If a
multistage pump is used for such conditions, the first stage impeller must be specially designed.The
suction head Hs is determined as per the equation 4.45.
For the calculated specific speed, approximate overall efficiency (η) can be obtained by referring
γQH
the graph (Fig. 4.19). The power of the prime mover will be Ni = .
η
N% 1 h
100
N
2 %
95 5
3
5a
5
90 4 10
6
5b
85 15
80 20
75 25
30
0
70 140 210 240 350 420 490 ns
Fig. 4.20. Energy balance for pumps of different ns (1) Mechanical loss
(2) Impeller loss (3) Discfriction loss (4) Volumetric loss (5) Hydraulic
loss 5a. Volute loss 5b. approach pipe (6) useful output
100 0
1
95 5
2 3
90 10
4
85 15
5
80 20
75 25
70 30
65
60
55
50
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Q
Fig. 4.21. % Energy balance for a pump (1) Mechanical loss (2) Volumetric loss
Qnor
(3) Hydraulic loss (4) Useful power (5) Recirculation loss.
Fig. 4.20 gives an energy balance for different specific speeds of pump and Fig. 4.21 for one
pump. Referring to these figures the mechanical losses, volumetric losses and hydraulic losses, and
corresponding efficiency can be determined. Overall efficiency η = ηv× ηm× ηh, where ηv, ηm, ηh are
the volumetric, mechanical and hydraulic efficiencies respectively. It is necessary to reduce the volumetric
eifficiency by 1 to 2% depending upon the conditions, in case excess volume is used for axial thrust
balancing and stuffing box cooling. Prof. A.A. Lomakin (69) has suggested that volumetric and hydraulic
efficiencies can be determined as per the equation given below. Mechanical efficiency can be assumed
as 1% for larger pumps and 1.5% for smaller pumps. Volumetric efficiency ‘ηv’ is given by
1
= 1 + 0.68 (nS)–2/3 ...(4.46)
ηv
Qact
and Qth = where Qact is the quantity of flow for one pump. ηv the volumetric efficiency lies between
ηv
85% and 95% for pumps. Hydraulic efficiency (ηh) is given by
0.42
ηh = 1 – ...(4.47)
(log D0( Nom ) – 0.172)2
3
Q
where, D0(nom) = (4.5 to 4.0) (metres)
n
H act
and Hth = where Hact – total head for one pump. ηh the Hydraulic efficiency lies between 75% to
ηh
95% and depends upon the shape of the vane passages, surface roughness of the passages and size of the
impeller.
Mechanical efficiency ηm lies 1% for larger pumps and 1.5% for smaller pumps.
γQH
Based on the head, quantity of flow, the power required to drive the pump, Ni = , where γ is
η
the specific weight of the pumping liquid. The above equation can be written in different forms such as
WH PQ
Ni = since γQ = W, weight of the pumping liquid flowing per unit time. Also, Ni = , since
η η
γH = p, the total pressure required for the pumping liquid. Ni is the power input to the pump at coupling
and is equal to the power output from the prime mover (Nop). If the efficiency of the prime mover (ηpr)
N op – Ni
is known, the power input to the prime mover Nipr = .
η pr
4.14 DETERMINATION OF SHAFT DIAMETER AND HUB DIAMETER

Having known the total head, quantity of flow and power, the shaft diameter ‘dS’ can be determined
based on the material selected for shaft, its yield strength for bending and the torque to be transmitted. A
factor of safety of 2 to 6 is used depending upon the type of operation of the pump.
In order to take care of the operation of pumps under overloading condition, a 10% to 15% extra
power, over and above normal rated power is taken for shaft diameter design.
Power ‘N’ required is (1.1 to 1.15) Ni = Tω where T is the torque transmitted in N.m and ω is the
2π n
angular velocity of the shaft, ω = , where n is the speed rpm. If ‘fu’ is the ultimate strength of the
60
shaft material selected, the yield strength ‘fs’ for bending, fatique and shear operating condition,
fu
fs = , where FS is the factor of safety (2 to 6). Shaft diameter ds is determined from the formula
FS
π d s3
f = T.
16 s
Hub diameter ‘dh’ will be dh = 1.2 to 1.3 ds ...(4.48)
depending upon the pump capacity. It is necessary to select the hub diameter to accommodate impeller
key with sufficient space especially for smaller pumps.
4.15 DETERMINATION OF INLET DIMENSIONS FOR IMPELLER

Normally the eye velocity C0 will be 3 to 5 mps. However, it can be determined as,
C0 = 0.06 to 0.08 3
Qn 2 ...(4.41)
Eye diameter ‘D0’ is determined as
Qth = C0 . π (D20 – dh2 ) or = C0 π D20 ...(4.2)

4 4
depending upon type of construction of the pump such as multistage pumps or double suction pumps or
single stage end suction pumps. Eye diameter D0, is rounded off to the nearest standard pipe size and
then correct value of C0 is again determined from the continuity equation (4.2).
The position of the inlet edge of the blade in impeller must be selected based on the required
cavitational characteristics. Radial type, low specific speed, centrifugal pumps will have the inlet edge
of the impeller parallel to thie axis. At higher ranges of specific speeds (ns = 150 to 250) the inlet edge
of the impeller is extended into impeller eye, in order to provide better cavitational characteristics. The
inlet edge of the impeller blade will be inclined (diagonal) instead of purely parallel to shaft axis. In
other words, the inlet edge of the impeller blade gradually extends from purely axial to diagonal when
specific speed of radial type centrifugal pumps increases, in order improve the cavitation characteristics
of the pump.
Diameter D1 is selected as D1 = 0.70 to 1.1 D0 , when specific speed ranges from 300 to 70.
Taking, Cm0 the meridional velocity before the blade inlet as Cm0 = C0 or 1.05 to 1.1 C0 the
breadth ‘B1’ at inlet is calculated from the continuity equation.
Qth = π D1 B1 Cm0
Qth
or B1 = ...(4.49)
πD1Cm 0
The inlet blade angle β1 is determined as
Cm1 KC
tan β10 = = 1 m0 ...(4.50)
u1 u1
πD 1Cm 0 1.Cm0 t
and Cm1 = K1Cm0 = = = ...(4.51)
Zδ Zδ δ
πD − 1− t−
sin β10 πD sin β10 sin β10
π D1
where, t= .
Z
Selection of number of blades may be carried out referring Figs. 4.15 and 4.16. Normally number
of vanes is selected as Zi = 6 to 8 depending upon the specific speed. The pitch or blade spacing (t) can
πD1
be calculated as t1 = . Vane thickness can be selected for strength and at the same time as minimum
Z
thickness as possible to get more flow passage area between any two blades and also to get proper vane
shape while casting in foundary.
As first approximation β10 is determined from equation (4.50). This value is substituted in equation
(4.51) and the coefficient K1 is calculated.
This value is now substituted in equation (4.48) to get new value of β10 .This value is substituted
in equation (4.49) to get new value of K1. This value of K1 is now substituted in equation (4.48) to get
the second value of β10. This process is repeated until two successive values of β10 and K1 are same.
The blade angle β1 is determined by adding the angle of attack ‘δ ’ i.e., β1= β10 + δ as mentioned earlier.
Final value of Cm1 is determined from Cm1= K1Cm0. Thus, all parameters for impeller blade inlet D1, B1,
Cm1, K1, u1, β1 and β10, Z are available for further the calculation to determine the parameters at impeller
blade outlet.
4.16 DETERMINATION OF OUTLET DIMENSIONS OF IMPELLER

The relative velocity ‘w1’ at inlet will be
Cm1 ( = K1Cm 0 )
w1 = ...(4.52)
sin β1
The meridional velocity at outlet Cm2 is selected as Cm2 = 0.8 to 0.9 Cm1 and the relative velocity
w1
at outlet w2 is determined as = 1.1 to 1.15, since the blade passage is a divergent passage. It is also
w2
necessary to take uniform change of w and Cm between inlet and outlet of impeller passage, in order
determine the blade angle β at different radii between inlet and outlet of the impeller blade passage. Also
the blade shape and flow passage between blades form, more uniformly, by which impeller secondary
losses will be less and hydraulic efficiency will be higher.
Outlet parameters are determined by approximate method, and then corrected, since the coefficient
ψ and p to determine the total head reduction due to finite number of blades, determination of number of
blade, are all function of outlet blade angle and outlet diameter.
As first approximation Cu 2 is selected as Cu 2 = 0.8 to 0.5 for specific speeds 75 to 250.
H uC Cu 2 u22
Manometric Head Hm = = 2 u2 = for normal entry at inlet
ηh g g
gH m 60 u2
or u2 = and D2 =
Cu 2 πn
D2 determined from first approximation, is used to determine outlet blade angle β2, number of
blades Z and the head correction coefficient ψ and p. From velocity triangles at inlet and at outlet,
Cm1 C
w1 = and w2 = m 2 from which
sin β1 sin β 2
w2 Cm 2 sin β1 Cm 2 sin β1 K 2 Cm3 sin β1

= ⋅ = ⋅ ⋅ ⋅
w1 sin β 2 Cm1 Cm1 sin β 2 K1 Cm 0 sin β 2
Cm 2 w2 K 2Cm 3 w2
or sin β2 = ⋅ sin β1 = ⋅ sin β1 ...(4.53)
Cm1 w1 K1Cm 0 w1
Cm 2 w2
Since β1 is known, , , value β2 can be determined. Values ψ, p Z are determined from
Cm1 w1
equations 4.18 and 4.19. The value H∞ = ((1 + p) Hm is determined. The outlet vane velocity u2 is
60 u2
determined from equation (4.39) and then D2 = . Outlet breadth, B2 is determined as
πn
t2 Cm 2
K2 =
δ2
and Cm3 =
K 2 Qth = π D2 B2 Cm3
t2 −
sin β 2
Cm 2
Relative velocity at outlet w2 = .
sin β 2
If D2 value determined by I and II and approximation vary too much, then D2 determined from
IInd approximation should be substituted in all equations to determine the outlet dimensions and the
process should be repeated until successive values of D2 are same.
4.17 DEVELOPMENT OF FLOW PASSAGE IN MERIDIONAL PLANE

After determining inlet and outlet parameters of impeller blade, the development of flow passage
in meridional plane (elevation) should be determined before developing the blade shape in plan.
Selection and formation of flow passage depend upon the specific speed of the pump. The radius
of curvature at the bend portion must be as large as possible in order to provide a smooth change over
from axial to radial direction. The criteria for construction of such flow passage is to provide an uniform
change in area from eye to outlet of impeller and at the same time providing velocity C0 at eye, Cm0 at
inlet Cm3 at outlet.
From the established dimensions at inlet and at outlet for the impeller, a graph indicating the
variation of Cm, w, β, δ, B, from inlet to outlet as a function of diameter D should be prepared. The
uniform change in Cm and w is suitably assumed between inlet and outlet and the graph is drawn.
(Fig. 4.3). Referring this graph Cm and w for any diameter can be found out. The blade angle β will be
β = sin–1 Cm . Similarly, the blade thickness ‘δ’ can be assumed. Blade thickness is always determined
w
based in the blade loading and the facility available at foundry to cast as minimum thickness as possible,
which provides more flow passage area. Normally blade thickness is gradually increased from inlet to
some distance approximately up to 1/3 to 2/5 of the blade length and then decreases up to outlet. Usually
4 mm to 6 mm for smaller pumps and 10 mm to 12 mm for larger pumps are selected. A graph δ = f (D)
is drawn. The breadth of the blade at any diameter can be determined from the equation.
 Zδ 
Qth =  πD −  B.Cm.
 sin β 
The value β, δ, Cm are taken from the graph for the selected diameter ‘D’ A graph B = f (D) is
drawn in the same graph.
From impeller eye to blade inlet edge, the graph can be extended to get complete the flow passage.
π D02
The continuity equation at impeller eye portion will be Qth = .C0 for end suction pumps.
4
π D02 D0
This can be changed as Qth = C0 = πDm B C0, where Dm is mean diameter = and B is
4 2
D0
the equivalent breadth B = .
2
π 2 2
Similarly, Qth = (D – d ).C for double suction and multistage pumps. This can be modified as
4 0 h 0
π
Qth = (D20 – dh2 ).C0 = πDm BC0
4
D0 + d h D0 – d h
where, Dm = and B =
2 2
Depending upon the specific speed, the shape of the middle stream line (Dm from eye to inlet and
D from inlet to outlet) is drawn. It should be remembered, that the radius of cruvature at the bend, where
the flow direction changes from axial to radial must be as large as possible at inner and at outer shrould
for better performance. On this streamline, a number of circles are drawn, at frequent intervals, selecting
different diameters of impeller passage. The diameter of these circle drawn on the streamlines is equal
to the breadth ‘B’. For the selected diameter (D) this value of B can be obtained from the graph. Lines
are drawn at both ends of the circle such that the line drawn must be tangent to all cirlces (Fig. 4.22).
These two lines form inner and outer shrouds of the impeller.
If an arc is drawn connecting the meeting tangent points on S2

shrouds and the centre of circle the angle between the arc and tangent
ds
dr
should be 90° i.e., normal (Fig. 4.22). A graph can be drawn between
area ‘A’, A = f (S). Which must have the shape as shown in the Figs.
4.5 (b) and 4.22.
r2
For better cavitational characteristics the rate of area increase
r
at the bend portion, where the flow changes from axial to radial
r1
direction must be at a larger rate than the area increase at the radial
portion. By providing considerable increase in area at the inlet section,
D0
the rate of increase in area at the radial direction will be at a lower
rate. Moreover, significant increase in area at inlet compensates the
area reduction due to vane thickness at inlet.
Radius of curvature at the bend portion of the meridional passage
at the outer side must be as large as possible since smaller radius of
curvature at this point yields high velocity of flow as well as flow
separation after the bend, which drastically reduces cavitational
property and hydraulic efficiency. Flow separation at this point will
create very poor flow in the following radial portion as well as at inlet Fig. 4.22. Vane development in
of the impeller, all will reduce the hydraulic efficiency. meridional section
In general, meridional flow passage development must possess,
1. Smooth, streamlined and uniform area change from eye to the outlet must be ensured.
2. The radius of curvature at the outer side of the bend portion must be as large as possible.
3. Contour of flow passage must be in the same pattern as that recommended for that specific
speed.
D2 D2
The diameter reduces, when specific speed nS increases. When < 1.6, the surface area of
D1 D1
the vane significantly reduces if the inlet edge of the blade lies in the radial portion of the passage. The
blade loading will be higher, which inturn, reduces the cavitational characteristics. Hydraulic losses are
increased. To overcome this, the blade inlet is extended into the bend portion. The inlet edge of the
blade, instead of being parallel to axis, will be inclined. The blade passage changes from diagonal at
inlet to radial at outlet.
This inturn reduces the blade velocity and relative velocity at inlet. This reduces hydraulic losses
and improves cavitational characteristics and reduces blade loading. Due to the inclined location of inlet
edge, the radius from hub to outer changes. Since meridional velocity Cm is constant throughout the
inlet cross-section, blade angle β1 reduces from hub to periphery. Blade curvature changes, from single
curvature to double curvature. The inlet edge will be diagonal and outlet edge will be parallel to axis for
specific ns = 200 to 300. When specific speed increases still further i.e., for ns = 350 to 500 the outlet
edge also becomes inclined and the pumps will be mixed or diagnal type in stead of radial.
4.18 DEVELOPMENT OF SINGLE CURVATURE BLADE—RADIAL BLADES

Single curvature blade or plane vane development is adopted for pure radial blades, where the
inlet and outlet edges lie parallel to axis. The specific speed ‘ns’ of such pump will be less than 100 i.e.,
ns < 100 and normally the diameter D2 < 70 to 100 mm.
Vane development, either by single or by double arc method or by step by step method called as
point by point method, must provide uniform variation in relative velocity ‘w’, meridional velocity Cm
and angle of divergence from inlet to outlet along the flow passage i.e., from S1 to S2 (Fig. 4.23).
G
S2 β
β2 dr
E S2
D B r dθ
θ θk
β1
rk
A dθ ri δ
r0
ri
β
S1 θ
Fig. 4.23. (a) Single curvature plane Fig. 4.23. (b) Vane development by
vane development point by point method
Blade thickness ‘δ’ is selected either constant or changing from inlet to outlet, smaller thickness at
inlet and at outlet end and higher thickness at the middle. However, blade thickness is determined based
in the blade loading and the type of casting adopted in foundry for casting the impeller. The vane
thickness will be a little higher at inlet than that at outlet and will be rounded off at inlet for shockness
entry. For smaller pumps the blade thickness will be 3 mm at inlet, 5 mm to 6 mm at the middle and 1
mm to 2 mm at the outlet. For larger pumps blade thickness is increased up to 10 to12 mm. Selection of
minimum thickness provides a larger flow passage between blades. The velocities Cm and w in the flow
passage is reduced, which yields to higher hydraulic efficiency. Flow is also without separation for a
wide range of flow rate. Now-a-days airfoils are used, for maximum economy and for better anticavitating
property. These profiles are positioned on the stream line ‘S1 to S2’ determined by point by point method.
Referring to Fig. 4.23 the differiential equation at any point between ‘S1 to S2’ for the central
steam line in plan can be written as
dr dr
tan β = or dθ =
rdθ r tan β
Taking θ = 0 when r = r1 and ‘β’ from the graph (Fig. 4.3) β = f (D) and integrating.
θ r2
dr
θ= ∫ dθ = r∫ r tan β ...(4.54)
0 1
Integration is carried out by step by step summation of dθ

1
Taking, = B (r)
r tan β
Bi + Bi + 1
∆θ = ∆ri
2
where ∆θ and ∆r are the increment in central angle and radius Bi and Bi+1 are the integrals at the
beginning and at the end of selected radius. Total value of θ will be
i =i
Bi + Bi + 1
θi = ∑ 2
∆ri ...(4.55)
i =1
All calculations are carried out in Tabular form.

TABLE 4.4: Plane vane development
 Cm δ 
+ 
t
Bi + Bi +1
∆θ = B × ∆s
θi =Σ∆θ rad
 w
r tan β
2
sin β = 
∆S or ∆r
1
2πr
Z
S.No.
θ deg
tan β
Bi =
B=
t=
Cm
β
w
δ
r
S
The values of S or r can be arbitrarily selected for which Cm, W, β can be taken from the velocity
distribution graph (Figs. 4.23 and 4.3). The middle streamline is constructed from the table where θ and
the corresponding r are known. Blade thickness is added on the streamline, to get the blade in complete
shape.
4.19 DEVELOPMENT OF DOUBLE CURVATURE BLADE SYSTEM

4.19.1 Importance of Diagonal Impellers
Increase in speed of the impeller reduces the overall dimensions, total weight and the cost of the
pump. The specific speed of the pump ns increases. Diameter ratio D2/D1 reduces.
If radial vanes are provided when D2/D1< 1.6 and specific speed is 150 ≤ ns ≤ 250, the specific,
load on the vane increases, due to the reduction in the effective vane area. Cavitational property of the
pump also reduces. In order to overcome this, the vane is extended into the impeller eye i.e., vane will be
diagonal at the inlet instead of radial.
If the increase in specific speed is still further, 300 ≥ ns ≥ 600 the outlet edge of the vane also
becomes diagonal. Each streamline of the vane will have its own configuration, i.e., the vane angles β1
and β2 are different from hub to periphery. The vane will be in the twisted form i.e., double curvature.
Due to the change in direction of flow for axial, to diagonal, uniform steady flow no longer exists.
The velocity field considerably changes at the inlet and at outlet. This complicates the pattern of flow.
Existing elemental theory of pumps with average velocity assumption along the circumferential and
along the radial directions cannot be assumed. A simple but considerably accurate scheme has to be
developed. Axisymmetric flow, i.e., flow with infinite number of vanes is commonly adopted for this
type of flow.
Theoretical investigation under axisymmetric flow with infinite number of vanes in meridional
section of flow will be equal velocity construction. This has been suggested by so many authors.
One of the methods of construction for diagonal type of impellers is the assumption of constant
head along all surfaces of revolution where the flow line lies. By applying Kelvin’s theorem, a vortex
free flow i.e., potential flow ωu = 0, suggested by Bowersfield is attained in the vane system as a result
of which the circulation along any contour is constant.
4.19.2 A General Solution for the Flow Through the Vane System
Considering general flow conditions, due to the perpendicularity of the normal nf to the surface f
→
and the relative velocity vector w , the flow on vane surface ‘f ’ in a relative form can be written in the
form,
cos (n f , w) = 0
By applying cosine law between two crossing lines in the cylindrical coordinates (r, θ, z).
_
cos (n f , w) = cos (n f , r ) cos ( w, r ) + cos ( n f , u ) . cos ( w, u ) + cos (n f , z ) . cos ( w, z )
...(4.56)
Equation (4.56) can be written as
∂f ∂f ∂f
wr + wu + wz = 0 ...(4.57)
∂r r ∂θ ∂z
Cosine angle of the normal nf to the coordinates is proportional to the partial differential of the
function (r, θ, z) along the corresponding coordinates and cosine angle of the vector w with the coordinate
is proportional to the corresponding components of the velocity.
Taking into account the relation between absolute and relative velocities.
∂f ∂f ∂f
Cr + (u – Cu) + C = 0 ...(4.58)
∂r r ∂θ ∂z z
The vector Ω of the vorticity is also perpendicular to n f , since the surface f is a vortex surface.
Similarly, the condition of perpendicularity n f , and Ω can be written as

∂f ∂f ∂f
Ω + Ω + Ω = 0 ...(4.59)
∂r r r ∂θ u ∂z z
__
Considering an element dS on the surface ‘f ’ which lies tangential to the surface and perpendicular
__
to nf and designating dS components as dr, rdθ and dz, we get
∂f ∂f ∂f
dr + rd θ + dz = 0 ...(4.60)
∂r r ∂θ ∂z
From the relativity theory equations 4.56, 4.57, 4.58 can be written in the form
dr rd θ dz
Cr u − Cu C z = 0 ...(4.61)
Ωr Ωu Ω z
This differential equation expresses the condition for the flow of vanes under vortex free absolute
flow of fluid without any boundary limitations. However, the components of velocities can be determined
only under axisymmetrical relative flow.
4.19.3 Axisymmetric Flow of Fluid

Axisymmetric flow can be conveniently determined in cylindrical coordinates.
Continuity equation in cylindrical coordinates can be obtained, considering the flow through the
surface of elementary volume with dr, rdθ and dz as boundaries. [Fig 4.24 (b)].
If q is the flow through one side:
qabcd = ρCr rdθ, dz, dt
 ∂ (ρCr ) 
qefgh = ρCr + dr  dθ, dz, dt
 ∂r 
Correspondingly:
qadhe = ρCu drdzdt
 ∂ (ρCu ) 
qbegf =  ρCu + d θ  dru , dz, dt
 ∂θ 
and qaefb = ρCZ rdθ dz dt
 ∂ (ρCZ ) 
qehgc = ρCZ +  rd θ dr dt
 ∂Z 
The total flow through all sides of the elementary volume will be
 ∂ (ρ Cr r ∂ (ρ Cu ) ∂ (ρC z ) 
+ +r
dt ∫ ρCn df = 
 ∂r ∂θ ∂z 
dr dθ dz dt
f
where Cr, Cu, Cz — the component velocities on the cylindrical coordinates.
Cn — Projection of velocity along the direction of the normal to the elemental surface df.
∂ρ
Increase in the mass flow inside the given volume is dr, rdθ dz, dt. This equation of balance
∂t
is divided on both sides by dr, rdθ dz, dt. Continuity equation in cylindrical coordinates is obtained.
∂ρ 1 ∂ (ρr Cr ) 1 ∂ (ρCu ) ∂ (ρ C z )
+ r +r + =0 ...(4.62)
∂t ∂r ∂θ ∂Z
For incompressible flow where ρ = constant
∂ ( r Cr ) ∂ ( r Cu ) ∂ (r C z )
+ + = 0 ...(4.63)
∂r r ∂θ ∂Z
∂ (r Cu )
For axisymmetric flow = 0
r ∂θ
∂ ( r Cr ) ∂ ( rC z )
Hence, + = 0 ...(4.64)
∂r ∂Z
II
II
II
II
1 2 3 4 5
dσ
1 σk c dr
2 dθ d g
3 Si h
b
4 r dz f j
rd θ θ
)d
rm
5
r0
a dr
+
k (r
rh
Fig. 4.24. (a) Flow pattern in mixed Fig. 4.24. (b) Elementary section for the determination
flow pumps of continuity equation and vorticity components
in cylindrical co-ordinates system
s2
hf t
dr
ds
s1
dθ θ
dr
r
R r
R
dR
dl
Fig. 4.24. (c) Construction of vane section on the flow surface
4.19.4 Flow Line and Vortex Line in Axisymmetric Flow

The flow function ψ in axisymmetric flow will be
∂ψ ∂ψ
rCr = ; – r Cz = ...(4.65)
∂Z ∂r
From equations (4.64) and (4.65), we get

∂2ψ ∂2ψ
=
∂r ∂Z ∂Z ∂r
The streamline equation for a two dimensional flow will be
dr dz
= or Cr dz – Cz dr = 0 ...(4.66)
Cr Cz
∂ψ ∂ψ
from which rCr dZ – r CZ dr = + dr = dψ = 0
∂zdz ∂r
This means that ψ function is constant along flow line. The streamline in meridional section
corresponds to the flow surface in space.
The components of vorticity Ω of absolute velocity in cylindrical coordinate can be determined
from the circulation along the contour of the elemental volume considered above.
∂C z ∂Cu
Ωr = rotr C = −
r ∂θ ∂z
∂Cr ∂C z
Ω u = rotu C = −
∂z ∂r
∂ (rCu ) ∂Cr
Ωz = rotz C = − ...(4.67)
r ∂r r ∂θ
For axisymmetric flow
∂ Cu ∂ (Cu r )
Ωr = – =−
∂z r ∂z
∂ Cr ∂ Cz
Ωu = =−
∂z ∂r
∂ Cu r
Ωz = ...(4.68)
r ∂r
The meridional component of the vector
Ωm = Ωr + Ω z ...(4.69)
The equation of vortex line Ωm is
dr dz
= or Ω z dr – Ωr dz = 0 ...(4.70)
Ωr Ωz
From equations 4.68 and 4.70, we get
∂ (r Cu ) ∂ (r Cu ) 1
Ωzdr – Ωr dz = dr = dz = d ( rCu) = 0
r ∂r r ∂z r
From which we get that vortex line coincides with the line r Cu = constant
4.19.5 Differential Equation for the Cross-section of Vane with the Flow Surface
The vane surface f is determined by crossing points of line 1 with the surface S. The relative
velocity is tangential to both vane surface f and flow surface S. Hence, it is directed along the line of
crossing of those two lines which represents flow line. [Fig. 4.24 (c)].
Let us construct a conical surface tangential to the flow surface S, such that it contains an element
ds. The differential equation of flow line 1 on the surface S [Fig. 4.24 (c)] can be represented in the form
of
ds Rd θ
= w ...(4.71)
wm u
where R and θ are the corresponding radius and angle along the spreaded cone surface.
Transferring from relative velocity to absolute velocity, we get
ds wm Cm
= w = ...(4.72)
Rdθ u u − Cu
From the figure 4.24 (c), we get

Rdθ = rdθ
Since the elemental circumferential line in conical surface and in plan are equal.
Equation 4.71 can now be written as
ds ds Cn
tan β = = = ...(4.73)
Rdθ rdθ u − Cu
which is the differential equation of line crossing the vane on the flow surface S. The above function can
be rewritten as
r 2 Cn
ds = = dθ ...(4.74)
ωr 2 − Cu r
4.19.6 Construction of Vane Surface when Ω u = 0

The simplest construction of vane surface is obtained when we consider Ωu = 0 which means the
increase in energy of flow in impeller is proportional to change in the moment Cu r , and Ωu is independent.
∂ Cr ∂ C z
Ωu = – =0 ...(4.75)
∂z ∂r
Potential function Φ of the meridional velocity Cm
∂Φ ∂Φ
Cz = and Cr = ...(4.76)
∂r ∂Z
Considering both, we get
∂2Φ ∂2Φ
=
∂r ∂Z ∂Z ∂r
The equipotential lines (Φ = constant) are determined as

∂Φ ∂Φ
dΦ = dr + dz = Cr dr + Cz dz = 0
∂r ∂Z
dr dz
or = ...(4.77)
Cz Cr
C ′m w 2 m/sec w(s)
a
12,0 e
d c b
10,0
a 5.0 .0 8,0
4
b 4. 5 v 1m a
2 . .0
5
6,0
3.
c
3
5
1 . .0
c
5
2
d 4,0 b d e
e 2,0
0
40 80 120 160 160 200 240 280 320360 400
s mm
(a) (b)
Fig. 4.25. Potential flow pattern in vane passage and the velocity distribution along the streamline
9
8
7
45 6 3 2 1 0
a01 2 3 4
b 5
c 6
d
7
e
8
9
Fig. 4.26. Vane construction under Ω u = 0
F
7
l 6
II 5
4
3
II 12
a
δ(σ) b
II c 5
n d 6
II
b c d e e
a
∆a σ* ∆b σ* ∆c σ* ∆d σ*
(a) (b)
σ ) (b) Construction of ‘s’ lines and s lines for equal velocity flow
Fig. 4.27. (a) Graph f (σ
Ωu = 0 construction is theoretically based. Practical results coincide, if the meridional flow pattern
is uniform. If flow separation prevails, this condition cannot be obtained.
Uniform flow can be obtained if radius of curvature is large in meridional section, which at the
same time increases the size of impeller in axial direction.
TABLE 4.5: For the calculation of flow line under equal velocity flow
– ∆σ*
ri + ∆σ
δ (∆σ) = ∆σ
100
∆F = rav ∆σ
F = Σ ∆F 1
σ = Σ ∆σ
2
∆σ*
σ*
i k r ∆σ
δ(∆σ)
∆σ
1 2 3 4 rav =
5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
a 3
4.19.7 Construction of Vane Under Equal Velocity Construction

Since potential flow does not agree, especially for pumps, another method, what is called, equal
velocity distribution is adopted. This construction for pump is an extension of the method used for radial
impellers. This is based on the principle that the calculation for each streamline is based on the equal
meridional velocity Cm in the impeller passage, under the known value of H∞. Due to inadequate theoretical
background it is more or less done based on experimental results-obtained from best impellers. Using
trial and error method, for the given Cm, the flow line S is determined as first approximation. For this the
entrance area to exit area f is divided into a number of equal areas. By eye judgement the position of S
and equipotential line σx at the intermediate places are located [Fig. 4.27 (b)].
The flow through σx is equal to
n
∫ 1 Cmx
n
Q1 = 2 π rdσ = 2 πCmx ∫ 1 rdσ ...(4.78)
Since Cm is constant along σx the velocity in the section σx is equal to
Q1
Cmx = n ...(4.79)
2π r02 ∫ rd σ
1
R dσ
where, r = and dσ =
r0 r0
The ratio Cmx to C0 is given by
— Cmx 1 − rhub
2 1 − r h2
Cmx = = n = ...(4.80)
C0 2 ∫ rd σ 2F
1
The values F = ∫ rdσ is determined by integration (Table 4.5).

1
As per the table, F (σ) is constructed [Fig.4.27 (a)] and then this value F is divided into (n – 1)
equal parts, which is equal to n flow lines. The value ∆σ* is determined by second approximation and
on it the new position of flow line in section σ is established along which the first approximation flow
line S for the entire surface is constructed [Fig. 4.27 (a)].
The second approximation of flow line S is determined by constructing all σ lines. For that the
flow line k = 1 is divided into m – 1 equal parts corresponding to the assumed m σ lines [Fig. 4.27 (b)].
Then σ lines are constructed and the table is developed. The positions of flow lines ‘S’ and fr lines to S
are now corrected. The same is continued for third time. The lines fr to σ are equal velocity lines
[Fig. 4.27 (b)].
4.19.8 Construction of Vane Surface Under Equal Velocity Flow for the
Given w(s)
From the calculation of vane surface under equal velocity constructions, the change in w = f (S) is
determined. Each vane section (flow lines) is calculated separately. These are common for all these
lines and is the head H∞. The vane surface at the entrance is formed as twisted in order to provide
shockless entry for some discharge Qδ = 0 = m Q′ at all entrance edges. The coefficient m is determined
from the angle δ; selected along one flow line, usually the leading edge.
The shockless entry for the leading edge (marked K =1) is determined as
K11Cm11
tan β110 = ...(4.81)
u11
K1 — correction coefficient for vane thickness
u1 — peripheral velocity
Taking angle of attack δ1, for the first line, we get
β11 = β110 + δ1
K11 (Cm′ 1 )δ = 0
and tan β11 = ...(4.82)
u11
where (C′m1)δ = 0 is the meridional velocity corresponding to shockless entry at the inlet edge.
The ratio
(Cm′ 1 )δ =0 tan β11 (δ′) δ=0

= = = m0
Cm′ 1 tan β110 Q′
which is constant for twisted surface at entrance. The entrance angle β1K for all entrance edges lying in
a flow sk is determined by
tan β1K = m tan β1K, 0. ...(4.83)
Cm′ ,k u1k ωr1k
Cm , K = , u1k = = = r1k
u0 u0 ωr0
Cm1k
tan β1h = m K1k ...(4.84)
r1k
Cm1k is determined from the equal velocity construction. If entrance edge lies on the orthogonal
line then it is constant along the entrance edge.
P1 = 2 πr1k tan β1k ...(4.85)
The entrance edge location is based on specific speed and experience and then subsequently
corrected.
The calculation β1K + w1n along flow lines are carried is a tabular form (Table 4.6). The value K1
is assumed, corrected and then w1K is determined. The exit edge is usually parallel to axis. If inclined,
the same procedure is followed for outlet edge also.
TABLE 4.6: Method of calculation for vane entrance
w1k = K1 k v m1 K
sin β 1k
cos γk
tan β 1,0,k =
∆s / sin β1k
m tan β 10k
sin/pk
K1,k v*m,k
2prk
tan β1,k =
∆k
∆ sk
tan β10,k
K1 ,k
cos γk
tk = z
K*1k
v*m1
sin β1k
∆1
r1
K
γ1
β1k
S
∆ξk =
tk–
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
— ωin Cm1n
W 1n = = K1k ...(4.86)
u0 sin β1k
w1n Cm1n
w1n = = sin β
u0 1k
Cm 2 K
w2k = K2k
sin β2 K
ω2 K ∞
is usually selected as 1 to 0.75
ω1k
w1k K C mγ
sin β2k = , 2k , sin β1k ...(4.87)
w2 k ∞ K1k C m1
2gH ∞
H∞ = ...(4.88)
u02
2
u2 Cm 2 1  Cm 2 1  gH ∞
from which = ⋅ +  u 2 tan β  + u 2
u0 u 0 2 tan β2 0 2 0
2
K 2 Cm 2  K 2Cmγ  H
from which r2 = +   + ∞ ...(4.89)
2 tan β2  2 tan β2  2
Similarly, for other sections; for constant values of H∞ and for the assumed value of r2 the
K 2 Cm 2
values from equations 4.89 is found out from which β2K is calculated.
tan β2
K 2 k Cm 2 k
tan β2K = tan β2 ...(4.90)
K 2 Cm 2
Calculation is done in a tabular form (Table 4.7). The coefficient K2k is assumed suitably.
The construction of vane is carried out as per the pattern of change of w(S) along the flow line S.
The procedure of w(S) is obtained as per the relative velocity at entrance (Table 4.6) and at exit
(Table 4.7) such that change of w along (S) is uniform. The presence of maximum and minimum velocity
at intermediate points indicate the losses due to conversion of kinetic energy to pressure.
TABLE 4.7: Method of calculation for vane exit

w 2k = K*2k vm2k
sin β2k
sin β2
sin β2k
2 π rk
∆S
tan K2
cos β
cos γ
tan β2
sin β2
∆S
z
K*2k
S2
∆S
γ2
m*2
r2
∆2
K
tk =
tk –
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
124
TABLE 4.8: Method of vane surface for the given value of w(s)
sin β 6 + 12
r 1 + r θ1
∆θ = 18 17
∆lu = rav ∆θ
r tan β
vm* w ∞
lu = Σ∆ lu
∆ = Σ∆θ
tan β
2
1
cos γ
∆s / t
∆s
B av
w∞
γ
vm *
β
D
t
∆s
S
l
B=
rav =
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
m-1

m-2
l S1 r1 v m1 w ∞1
Note : 1. Circles are indicated the N 2 of tabular column.

While calculating, put the exact values.
2. (21) to (22) are for conformal transformation.
The calculation of vane as per w(s) is carried out in the tabular form normally adopted for radial
vanes, corresponding to the methods explained above, or in the form Table 4.8 (in non-dimensional
form).
The calculation is carried out from arbitrarily selected exist edge, to the inlet edge, which is
obtained from the calculation. The pattern of change of w(s) and the thickness ∆(s) is obtained such that
the position of entrance edge of the vane lies at the desired level and also not so much deviated in the
value of central angle θlk (which is shown in the plan). The change of θlk from the leading edge to the
trailing edge must also be uniform, to ensure the uniform surface. The change of vane thickness ∆ (s) for
all streamlines must be agreed upon correspondingly so as to get uniform change at the meridional
section.
4.19.9 Conformal Transformation of Vane Surface

The obtained form of vane with streamlines and thickness is constructed in plane surface by
conformal transformation (Fig. 4.28). In conformal transformation the angle of inclination of vane β is
kept constant and is used for construction.
ds ds
Since tan β = =
rd θ dlu = 0
where dlu is the projection of elemental length dl along the direction tangential to ‘u’ i.e., dlu = rdθ
The relation between r and θ is obtained from Table 4.8. Taking step integration method, we can
write
i=m
ri + ri +1
lu10 = ∑ 2
δθ.
i =1
2π
z
14 12 11 1
0
∆θ = 2π
7 9
6
45 87 kz
3
s 12 ∆s
6
s
rdθ
∆
5 4
p1
r
3 2 1
∆θ
r1
γ h
16 12 3 4
56 7 123 4 5 6 7
15
14
13 ∆s . r d θ
12 a2
11
10
9
8
7
1 2 3 45
6 a1 δ
Fig. 4.28. Conformal transformation of vane surface
Which is carried out in a tabular form (Table 4.8), column 21, 22, 23. As per the values S , ∆u
the conformal transformation in plan is constructed.
The interdisplacement of streamlines is carried out based on the experience. The most advantageous
are: (1) The entrance edge at plan must be radial or slightly inclined (point of entrance edge of leading
edge) by an angle of 10–15° toward the opposite side of rotation of impeller. (2) The exit edge is parallel
to axis or the lag. The edge point of the impeller may be inclined towards the direction of rotation.
Two methods are adopted for mixed flow pump design. The first rather old method is one in
which the vane inlet and outlet edges are developed on a cone as a plane cylindrical vane and then
transferred to the plan view from which patterns are made.
In the second developed by Kaplan and called as ‘error triangles method’ the vane is developed
with true angularity, length and thickness. The flow lines are then replotted in plan view. The second
method will be discussed in detail here. In order to layout the vane in plan and in meridional section it is
necessary to have the following quantities:
(a) Meridional velocities at inlet and at outlet i.e., Cm1 and Cm2 respectively.
(b) The impeller outer diameter D2 or peripheral velocity u2.
(c) Vane angles at inlet and at outlet i.e., β1 and β2 respectively.
The following points are most useful:
1. The vane can be extended with the impeller eye which will (a), improve the overall efficiency
of the pump since overlap is more (b), reduces the outer diameter and (c), less shock and disc
friction losses.
2. The profile in meridional section will be drawn for uniform change over from Cm1 to Cm2.
3. The flow lines a1, a2 represent the true radial sections of the flow lines, which should be
gradual to avoid sharp corners.
4. Number of flow lines selection depend purely on experience. These are selected based on
equal area construction. Further, it is assumed that the meridional velocity is constant along the
normal and is equal to the average velocity. Naturally the velocities at inlet and at outlet edges
are same provided they lie along the normal. Usually normals are draw first by eye and then
these are divided into parts based on the law. 2πr1b1 = 2πr2b2.
4.19.10 The Method of Error Triangles

Any flow line shown in a perspective view can be conveniently divided into number of parallel
planes. The curve C1, C2 with the parallel circles, a number of meridional planes can be divided into a
number of sections f1 , f2....The intersection of the planes with the surface of the shroud will form a
number of parallel circles. Through the points of intersection of the curve C1, C2 be drawn which will
section the shroud surface along the curved lines at g1, g2 .... These lines together with the section of
parallel circles h1, h2.... and the curve C1, C2 form a number of curved triangle. The accuracy of the line
C1, C2 will be more if greater number of sections are taken.
On elevation the lines C1, C2 will appear as shown in Fig. 4.29 (b), whereas in plan the same
line will appear as shown in Fig. 4.29 (d). The true representation of the lines C1, C2 is given by
Fig. 4.29 (c). Where in all the curved triangles are transferred to a plane such that h1, h2 .... of the parallel
circles form horizontal parallel lines and the sections g1, g2 ..... of the curved vertical lines will become
flat vertical lines. The following procedure is adopted for the impeller vane lay out by error triangle
method.
1. The meridional section (elevation) of the impeller passage is drawn [Fig. 4.30 (b)].
2. Different streamlines are constructed based upon the methods indicated.
3. The vane development on the plane [Fig. 4.30 (b)] is drawn which corresponds to the exact
vane angle at inlet and at outlet and vane length. Vane thickness is also added. The selection of
vane thickness depends upon the moulding facility available. For normal conditions it is assumed
as 5 to 6 mm.
In order to draw vane development, flow line (a1, a2 or b1, b2 or c1, c2) is divided into a
preferably a number of equal parts such as 1a , 2a, 3a. The parallel lines g1, g2 ..... are drawn the
distances between them corresponds to the distance between 1a , 2a , .... 1b , 2b ...,1c 2c ....
It is always better to draw vane sections of several flow lines in this relative positions. This will
enable us to determine the inlet edge of the vane.
4. The vane sections are now transferred from the vane development to the plan view.
[Fig. 4.30 (c)]. In the plan view an arbitrary point is selected. The arcs of the parallel circles are
drawn with the radii taken from the elevation 1a , 2a ...
The displacement of one point with respect to the other is taken from the vane development
(h1, h2 ...). By joining the points with a smooth curved line the plan projection of the flow line
is obtained. Usually leading edge is taken for the vane development. In order to get the trailing
edge, vane thickness is measured in the plane vane development along the parallel circles at
the required point and laid out at the corresponding points along the circumference. The line
joining all these points will give us the trailing edge. Same procedure is to be followed for
other streamlines also.
5. The next procedure is to draw pattern section for the construction of which the flow lines on
the elevation and plan view are taken as preliminary guidelines. Since these lines are not sufficient
enough to prepare vane pattern sections a second set of construction lines are constructed.
A number of equispaced lines are drawn in the elevation view as indicated in Fig. 4.30 (d) i.e.,
A, B, C, D... The intersection of these lines with meridional streamlines are transferred to the
plan view.
Line joining these transferred point must be smooth, on the plan view. If these lines do not
form smooth, and uniformly spaced, it is an indication that the change in the angularity on the
vane development was too abrupt in any of the flow lines.
The second set of construction lines can also be drawn starting from the plan view. This is done
by drawing different radial lines I, II ... [Fig. 4.30 (e)] and then transferring them to elevation.
Here also the line joining the intersecting points must be smooth. However, the first method is
more advantageous since the second set of construction lines can be taken for pattern making.
6. The next procedure is to get vane pattern sections for which the contour lines on the plan view
are taken. Wooden boards of thickness A, B, C, D .... are cut to the shape along the corresponding
contour lines and then stacked one over the other in the proper order. We get the resulting vane
pattern section in steps [Fig. 4.30 ( f )]. These steps are now filled with wax to get a smooth
surface leading edges. Similarly, the same procedure is adopted for trailing edge also.
7. The best form of impeller channel will be one where in the vane makes 90° with the channel.
This channel form can be improved by moving the flow lines on the plan view [Fig. 4.30 (e)]
through a certain angle.
g6
c2
f6 g5
h g4 s2
f 5 g6 g3
6
f4 g 5 h g2
r7
r6
5
(b)
r5
f3 g h 4 g1
r4
4
C1
r3
f2 g3
r1
r2
f1
c1 g2 h2
g1 h1 (a)
c2 h6
f6
g1 g2 g 3 g 4 g5 g6
f5 h5
f4 h4
f3 r7
f2 r6 h3
f1 h2
c1 r4 h1
h1 h2 h3 h4 h 5 h 6
r1
(c) (d)
Fig. 4.29. Impeller flow line development on a plane
a2 b2 c2
g1
1a 1 b 1c g
2a 2 2 a2b2c2 su
r1a 2 c
3a r2a b g3 h1
4a 3 b 3c h2 g1 1
5 r3a 4c g2
7 6a a r4a 54b 5 c g3
h3 su1 2
8a a r 5a b
6c h4 s u2 3
6b h5
a1 7b 7c 4
9b h6
8b 8c 5
b1 10 h7 6
b 9c h8 7
10c
a1 8
11c
c1 9
b1 10
c1 11
(a) (b)
H G F E D C BA
b c
I a2 2 2
I
g 1 h g h3 II
h1 2 2 g3 III γ ′3a γ
su 3a II
IV γ′4a γ
VIII V 4a
III
s u2 VII VI IV
a1
D2 r1a V
r2a VI
b1 VII
a1
C1
b1
c1
(c) (d)
F–E
G–H
B–C
E– D F–G
III VI
II V IV VII
IV V VIII
DI
III BC
A E VI V VI
IV
VII
II VII
III VIII
F
G C.D.
I II
a1 c1 VIII
B
G
F
a2 CD
E I
(e) (f)
Fig. 4.30. (a) to (f) Mixed flow impeller profile and plane vane development
5
SPIRAL CASINGS (VOLUTE CASINGS)
5.1 IMPORTANCE OF SPIRAL CASINGS

Spiral or volute casing is an approach or suction channel kept before the impeller inlet as well as
a delivery channel kept after impeller outlet. The channel passage may be in the form of vaneless spiral
casing or in the form of vaned or vaneless divergent passage called diffuser or return guide passage.
Design of casing or diffuser must ensure the following:
1. Axisymmetric and equal velocity distribution of flow must always be ensured, since at optimum
conditions, the flow in impeller is axisymmetric. Hydraulic efficiency is also higher.
2. Must uniformly and efficiently convert kinetic energy coming out from the impeller outlet into
useful pressure energy.
3. Momentum at the outlet of impeller must be completely converted in volute casing and
momentum at the casing outlet should be zero.
Fig. 5.1 depicts different forms of casings adopted in pumps. Normally about 25% of kinetic
energy is converted into pressure energy in casings.
Volute or
spiral casing
Concentric passage
with diffuser
Diffuser Return blades
with guide
blades vanes
Discharge
cone
(a) Volute (b) Diffuser (c) Concentric with diffuser blades
Fig. 5.1. Different forms of casings
130
SPIRAL CASINGS (VOLUTE CASINGS) 131
Casing
Diffuser
Impeller
Fig. 5.2. Diffuser pump
5.2 VOLUTE CASING AT THE OUTLET OF THE IMPELLER

Dynamic head available at the outlet of the impeller can be expressed as
gH m
Hdy = (1 – ρ) Hm = ...(5.1)
2u22
If the coefficient of reaction ρ is high, the kinetic energy will be higher at outlet of the impeller.
The casing must be properly designed to convert this high kinetic energy into useful pressure energy.
Volute casings at outlet are of two types:
(1) Spiral shaped, vaneless form of casing and
(2) Diffuser type vaned system of casing.
ρ ρ
ρ
b3
b3 b3
α α
R3
α
α = 180° α = 35° to 45°
(a) Circular (b) Circular (c) Trapezoidal
Fig. 5.3. Shapes of volute cross-sections

Technical and constructional features are different for each type of casing.
Spiral casing at outlet consists of spiral shaped channel 02′4′68 followed by a diffuser passage 8–
9 (Fig. 5.4). The spiral portion connects the impeller outlet to the diffuser 8–9 under axisymmetric flow.
It not only collects the fluid coming out around the circumference of the impeller but also converts
about 75% of kinetic energy into pressure energy. The remaining 25% of kinetic energy is converted at
the diffuser. Casing plays a major role in improving hydraulic and overall efficiencies.
Lateral cross-section of the casing passage will be either trapezoidal or circular (Fig. 5.3) connected
by two tangents, with an angle of divergence at the inlet α approximately = 35° to 45°. Spiral form of
volute cross-section gradually increases along the flow direction due to gradual increase in flow.
Experimental investigation shows that trapezoidal cross-section gives higher hydraulic efficiency than
circular cross-section at higher specific speeds and vice versa at lower specific speeds. Experiments
indicate that spiral casing gives higher efficiency than diffusers at all partial flow conditions either
lower or higher than optimum conditions. But, at optimum condition, diffuser gives higher efficiency
than spiral casing. Spiral casing design is adopted for variable flow operations, whereas diffuser design
is adopted for fixed optimum flow conditions of operation. Spiral casings are used for single impeller
design whereas diffusers are used for multistage pumps to reduce pump weight.
5.3 METHOD OF CALCULATION FOR SPIRAL CASING

Total energy remains constant after the impeller and also when flow passes through casing or
diffuser. Two methods are adopted for volute design i.e.,
(1) the velocity of flow Cu changes according to free vortex pattern when passing through casing
i.e., Cur = constant. The flow is assumed to be axisymmetric and ideal and
(2) constant velocity, Cu = constant, in the spiral casing.
In practice it is found that constant velocity design gives higher efficiency than free vortex
design for pumps and vice versa for hydraulic turbines, due to increase in area of flow.
Considering an element 1234 of the fluid, with a mass ∆m moving in the spiral passage (Fig. 5.4),
external forces acting on the mass are : (a) tangential force ‘PAu’ and (b) normal force ‘PAn’ developed
due to hydrodynamic pressure. In ideal fluid, the tangential force inside the fluid friction is equal to zero
i.e., ± PAu = 0. The normal force ‘PAn’ acting on surfaces 1–3 and 2–4, due to symmetry in pressure
under axisymmetric flow condition is PAn 1–3 and PAn 2–4. Moment of these forces, with respect to
point ‘O’ are equal and opposite. The direction of the forces acting in the surfaces 1–2 and 3–4 pass
through the point O and hence moment of these forces about point ‘O’ is zero. Thus the moment of all
surface forces acting on the elementary volume of fluid in the spiral casing is zero i.e., ± ∆Mz = 0. Thus
the moment of momentum remains constant in the elementary fluid i.e.,
d (∆mrCu )
∆Mz = =0
dt
or ∆mr Cu = Constant
or CuR = Cu3R3 = Cu2R2 = Constant ...(5.2)
Cu u C u
For normal entry at pump inlet, Cu1 = 0 and Hm = = u2 2
g g
gH m ΓB
CuR = Cu2R2 = =
ω 2π
where ΓB = 2πR2Cu2 and is constant throughout spiral passage of the casing. With the increase in radius
‘R’ in spiral passage the tangential velocity decreases, correspondingly the pressure energy increases.
The flow rate gradually increases and proportional to the volute angle θ (Fig.5.4). Since there is
no flow perpendicular to the spiral section under steady flow condition, applying continuity equation,
total mass flow at any section will be
W
g
= ∫ ρCn dA = ∫ ρ Cn dA + ∫ ρ Cn dA + ... + ∫ ρ Cn dA = 0
S f1 S1 fK
Mass flow through the section between volute angle θ1 and θ2 will be
W1 W2
–
g
= ∫ ρ Cn dA and g
= ∫ ρ Cn dA
A1 A2
Under axisymmetric flow the velocity Cn = Cr3 at the surface ‘A3’ the flow will be
∫ ρCn dA = – ρ Cr3 b3R3 (θ2 – θ1)

A3
W2π
and Wθ2 – Wθ1 = ρg Cr3 b3 R3 (θ2 – θ1) = (θ2 – θ1)
2π
where W2π= ρg Cr3 b3 2πR3 which is the total flow of the pump at entrance to the spiral channel. Taking
θ = 0 at the tongue of the volute section.
9
8
dr
b
∆R
∆R
b3 0
4
R
R3
1 2
α
dθ
R3
R2
dr θ2
6 0 θ1 2′
p cu C u2
R3
p2
R
2
A1
b3 A2 fk
4′
Fig. 5.4. Scheme for spiral casing at outlet
θ1 = 0 and Wθ1 = 0
θ θ°
Wθ = W2π or Qθ = Q2π × ...(5.3)
2π 360°
Flow, thus, increases along the spiral passage in proportion to the angle of the volute ‘θ’, referred
with respect to the initial tongue.
Flow across the elementary area ‘dA = bdR’ will be
ΓB
dθ = bdR Cu = bdR ...(5.4)
2πR
Integrating within the limits R3– r
ΓB
r
b
Q =
2π ∫R dr ...(5.5)
R3
Integration is carried out by step by step method in tabulation form (Table 5.1). The function
bi
Bi = . Elementary flow rate through the area dA = b∆r is determined as
ri
Γ B Bi + B(i +1)
∆ Qi = ∆Ri
2π 2
and total quantity of flow Q is determined as
ΓB i=n Bi + B(i +1)
Q =
2π
∑ 2
∆Ri ...(5.6)
i =1
5.4 DESIGN OF SPIRAL CASING WITH Cur = CONSTANT AND TRAPEZOIDAL

CROSS-SECTION
Flow from the impeller enters the circumferencial section of volute having a radius R3, which is
determined as
R3 = (1.03 to 1.05) R2 ...(5.7)
in order to get uniform flow across the section at R3, since, uneven flow velocity and quantity exists at
radius R2 i.e., at impeller exit, due to finite number of impeller blades.
Breadth b3 at the entrance of the spiral section at the radius R3 is taken as
b3 = b2 + (0.04 to 0.05) D2 ...(5.8)
in order to take care of disc friction losses and trouble free running of pump. Fluid leaves the impeller
at radius R2 with an absolute velocity C3 and at an angle α3. Corresponding velocity at the entry into
spiral casing at radius R3 is determined as
C3 R 2 = C 4 R 3
Taking volute cross section divergent angle ‘αV’ as 35° to 45° and breadth ‘b3’ as per the equation
5.8 and since these values are constant at all circumferencial portions, (Fig. 5.5) construction of trapezoidal
cross-section under C3R = constant and the quantity of flow Q at any section is determined from equation
(5.6). Calculations are carried out in tabular form (Table 5.1).
b360
Ab=A a
bθ
∆r
bi
b3 = b4 h ′θ
∆R
b3 = b4 Q 45° Q135° Q 225° Q 315° Q

∆Q
R 135°
3 Qi
ri
4
Q 360° (old)
R3
α α
R4 R3
Q 360°(new)
Tongue R 4 = R 3 + ∆ R
Fig. 5.5. Volute construction for trapezoidal cross-section and free vortex
design, Cur constant and also for Cv = constant
TABLE 5.1: Calculation of volute section—Trapezoidal cross-section and CuR = constant

(Free vortex design)
b Bi + Bi+ 1 B
S. No. R b B= ∆R ∆ Qi = × (6) × (5) Qi = ∑∆Q
R 2 2π
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1 0
Referring the table 5.1, A graph r = f (Q) (Fig. 5.5) is drawn. X-axis i.e. the value Q is now
divided into definite number of equal parts normally 8 equal sections such as Q45°, Q90°, Q135°, Q180°,
Q225°, Q270°, Q315°, Q360°. Projecting these points upwards to meet the R = f (Q) curve and then drawing
horizontal lines from these meeting point to y-axis i.e., ‘R’ axis, the radius at which corresponding
quantity of flow through the trapezoidal cross-section can be determined. By projecting these horizontal
lines futher to meet the trapezoidal cross-section gives the corresponding areas for the corresponding
quantity Qθ.
Final section for Q 360°. Starts at R4 = R3 + ∆t, where ∆t is the volute tongue thickness. Normally
∆t= 2 to 3 mm. Due to this, the quantity of flow at the last section Q360 will be higher than the normal
Q360 taken as per the graph r = f (Q). This is represented in the Fig. 5.5 Q360 (new) = Q360 (old) + ∆Q at
tongue.
In some of the volute designs the tongue starts after some angle θ from initial position of θ = 0.
This is due to the fact that huge noise and subsequent vibration takes place due to the fluid passing
through the gap between the impeller outlet diameter and volute starting point at θ = 0 at high velocity
since this gap acts as nozzle. To avoid this, volute tongue starts a little away from the point θ = 0.
Normally this value will be θt = 17° to 21°. The contour of the trapezoidal cross-section obtained will
have sharp corners which increases the hydraulic losses. Also, flow does not exists at the corner point.
In order to reduce hydraulic losses and ensure flow through entire area of trapezoidal cross-section, the
sharp edged corners are rounded off in such a way that the area added at the middle ‘Ab’ will be equal to
the area reduced due to rounding off at the corners ‘Aa’
Γb Γ
Aa Cua = Ab C ub, Aa = Ab b
2πra 2πrb
Aa r
hence, = a where Ra and Rb are the radius of centre of gravity of areas Aa and Ab .
Ab rb
5.5 CALCULATION OF TRAPEZOIDAL VOLUTE CROSS-SECTION UNDER

CONSTANT VELOCITY OF FLOW C V = CONSTANT (CONSTANT
VELOCITY DESIGN)
Constant velocity of flow through all volute sections CV is determined as CV R = Cu2R2, where R is
the radius of the centre of gravity of the last volute cross-section.
Area of the last volute section will be

Q
A360° =
CV
Area of any volute cross-section at angle θ from the tongue will be
θ°
Aθ = A360°
360°
Construction of volute section will be same as that mentioned in the previous section.
The velocity CV can be determined by the law of similarity as CV = ΦV 2gH . The value ΦV can
be determined from the graph, ΦV = f (nS), (Figs. 5.6, 5.7, 5.8). These values are determined based on
the experimental results by different authors. |4|, |12|
Considering the trepezoidal cross-section (Fig. 5.4)
1
Area Aθ = h (b + b3). Angle α can be selected as α = 35° to 45° in order to avoid flow
2 θ θ
separation due to divergence. Selecting the value α.
(bθ − b3 ) α FG
α IJ
2 hθ
= tan
2 H
or bθ = 2 hθ tan + b3
2 K
1 1 α FG IJ
Aθ = h (b + b3) =
2 θ θ
h 2 hθ tan + b3 + b3
2 θ 2 H K
FG h α IJ α FG IJ
=
H 2
θ tan
2 K
+ hθ b3 = hθ hθ tan
2 H
+ b3 .
K
FGh tan α + b IJ × φ
Qθ = CV × Aθ = hθ
H 2 K θ 3 2gH ...(5.9)
By selecting hθ from minimum to maximum up to the value Q360, a graph hθ = f (Qθ ) can be drawn
similar to Fig. 5.5. From this graph Qθ for Q = 45°, ....... 360° can be determined for different values of
hθ. As a check the values aq = f (Qθ ) can also be drawn and checked with the constructed values. The
construction of trapezoidal cross-section for CV = Constant is same as for Cur = constant. (Same as Fig.
5.5). Entire calculations can be brought out in a tabular form (Table 5.2)
TABLE 5.2: Calculation for area and flow rate under CV = constant and trapezoidal cross-section
CV = φ V 2gH = α=° b3 = mm.
FG h tan α + b IJ α
S.No. hθ mm A θ = hθ
H 2 Kθ 3 Qθ = Aθ × CV aθ = 2hθ tan
2
+ b3
5
10
15
up to a value until For check up
Qθ > Q360 = Q total
TABLE 5.3: Calculation of flow rate at different θ values

(CV = const., trapezoidal cross-section)
S.No. θ Qθ
0 0
1 45° to 360° at constant Q = Q360
2 interval
3
The height of the last trapezoidal section is determined as

h360 = (Kp× r2) – r3. where Kp is an experimental coefficient given in Fig. 5.5.
The value of Kp given are for double suction pumps. For single suction pumps the value Kp will
be less by 10 to 15%.
5.6 CALCULATION OF CIRCULAR VOLUTE SECTION WITH Cur = CONSTANT

Applying equation 5.5 for a circular cross-
section (Fig. 5.6) volute design with Cu r =constant.
8
Quantity Qθ at an angle θ from initial position p
b
dr
will be 7
0
R
v 1
1 b( r )
∫
R
r
Γ
a
Qθ = dr fv
r3
2π B r3 r
6
2
− ( r − ai )
a1 +ρi
1 ρ21 r3
=
π
ΓB ∫ r
dr
ai − ρi
5 3
 
= ΓB  ai – a 2i − ρ 2i 
  4
Since, b (r) = 2 ρ2i − (r − ai )2 Fig. 5.6. Volute design with circular cross-
section and free vortex (Cur = const.)
θ
Since Qθ = . Q360.
360
Substituting this value in the above equation
θ° =
360Γ B FG a – a 2 − ρ2 IJ = K FGa – a 2 − ρ2 IJ
Q360 H K H K
360Γ B 720πg H m
where K = = .
Q360 ω Q360
Since a = r3 + ρ, substituting this value and after simplification
θ° θ°
ρ = + 2 r3 . ...(5.10)
K K
Calculations are made in Tabular form (Table 5.4). θ° values are normally selected as 45°, 90°,
135°, 180°, 225°, 270°, 315° and 360°.
TABLE 5.4 : Calculation of circular volute with Cu r = constant
720πg Hm
K= ⋅ r3 =
ω Q360
θ° θ°
S. No. θ° 2 r 4 ρ = (3) + (5)
K K 3
1 2 3 4 5 6
θ° – selected
uniformly at 45°
interval
As mentioned earlier, final area at spiral outlet before entering the diffuser will be the sum of
calculated area and the tongue area.
5.7 DESIGN OF CIRCULAR VOLUTE CROSS-SECTION WITH CONSTANT

VELOCITY (CV)
Flow velocity in spiral casing is taken as CV = φV 2gH .

The value φV is taken from the Nomogram (Figs. 5.6, 5.7, 5.8).
Area at final section and corresponding radius of volute section will be
QT QT
f = πρ 2 = and ρ=
CV CV π
Quantity at any section will be proportional and will be
QT
Qθ = .θ°
360
From the quantity Qθ , ρθ at any section is calculated.
D3 b3
D2 φ v, φ d, φ vi b2
1,3 0,5
φv
1,2 0,4 D 3/D 2 2,0
b 3/b 2
φd 1,5
1,1 0,2
1 0 φvi 1
50 100 150 200 ns
Fig. 5.7. Design constants as suggested by Artisikoff |4|

D3
φv D2
5 0,5 1,5
4 0,4 φv 1,4
3 0,3 Krs 1,3

K p,K rs 2 0,2 1,2
K1p
1 01 1,1
D /D
0 0 3 2 1,0
40 100 150 200 300 400 n
s
Fig. 5.8. |4|
50
40
D3 – D2 30
× 100 αv
D2
0.50
Volute velocity coefficient k 3
0.40 k3 20
Volute angel αv degrees

10
0.30 8
2
k 3 × 100
4
0.20
0.5
42 57 71 106 142 212 263 354 424 495 565 595 706 1060
(ns) specific speed
Fig. 5.9. Volute constants Cv = C3 = k3 = 2gH as per A.J. Slepanoff |112|
5.8 CALCULATION OF DIFFUSER SECTION OF VOLUTE CASING

Diffuser connects spiral casing outlet with the delivery pipe of the pump. Velocity of flow Cd
gradually reduces from CV at final section of spiral section of volute to Cd the velocity at delivery pipe
(Cd = 3 to 5 m/sec.). In order to ensure uniform flow without any separation the angle of divergence is
normally selected as ε° = 8 to 10°. If the shape of spiral section at the last stage is not circular, the shape
is determined by assuming equal area of circular cross-section for the inlet of the diffuser and calculations
are made accordingly such that the axis is in a straight line. However, the final length of the diffuser
should be decided taking into account the construction feasibility of pump delivery flange with pipe
flange.
ε°  Rp − R f 
=  
2  L 
where RP and Rf are the radial length of the pipe and final spiral section of the volute casing, with
respect to the axis of the diffuser. Velocity at the diffuser outlet can be determined by the equation
Cd = φd 2gH . Value φd can be obtained from Figs. 5.6, 5.7, 5.8.
5.9 (A) DESIGN OF DIFFUSER

As similar to spiral casing the diffuser is also receiving the fluid from the impeller outlet and
converting the available kinetic energy of fluid into useful pressure energy (Fig. 5.10). It consists of a
number of diffuser passages kept at equal space around the circumference from inlet to outlet of the
diffuser. Each channel consists of a spiral section abc and diffuser section bcde. Spiral section of the
diffuser is constructed with constant width b3 = b2 + (0.04 to 0.05) D2 . The diffuser part forms a straight
channel with angle of divergence either in one plane or in both planes perpendicular to each other with
either straight or curved axis.
c d A–B
(a)
ε III III
e
dr b
α3
r θc b3
θt
dθ
A a3
I I
θ
II II
a 0
∆3
ε
II
III
I I
b II b3
III
Passage 1– 2 – 3 – 6 6–3–4–5
(b) 6
3
2 4
Fig. 5.10. Diffuser and return guide vanes for radial type centrifugal pumps (a) Diagonal (b) Radial
The diffuser passage is formed between two walls of the stage and is connected to the return
passage. The return passage guides the outcoming fluid from the previous stage diffuser to the next
stage impeller suction. The diffuser vanes and return guide vanes are often cast as a single unit.
The diffuser is of two types: diagonal and radial. In radial type diffuser the return passage is
connected by vaneless U-shaped passage, where in the fluid turns through 180°.
In diagonal type of diffuser, the diffuser and return blades are kept one after another with no
space in between them. Referring the Fig. 5.10, the section II–II, the channel, deviates in axial direction
and connects the return passage [Fig. 5.10 (a)]. These type of diffusers possess smaller dimensions in
radial direction and also gives higher hydraulic efficiency when compared to radial type diffusers.
Diffusers with return guide vanes are used in multistage pumps by which overall dimensions and
weight of the pump reduces considerably. At the same time, axial thrust at the impeller is balanced at all
regions of operation of pump.
5.9 (B) CALCULATION OF SPIRAL PART OF DIFFUSER PASSAGE

Referring to Fig. 5.10 under axisymmetric plane, ideal fluid flow conditions, the wall ‘a – c’ of
the spiral passage consists of cylindrical surface formed parallel to z-axis of the diffuser. Contour ‘a – c’
in its own plane perpendicular to z-axis, is the streamline of plane axisymmentric flow. Differential
equation of the streamline ‘a – c’is determined from the condition, that the flow of the fluid dr and rdθ
as per the coordinates is proportional to the corresponding resolved components of the absolute velocity
Cr and Cu.
dr Cr
=
rdθ Cu
In axisymmetric flow the tangential component of absolute velocity is determined Cu r = Cu2 R2 or
R
Cu = Cu2 2 . From continuity equation, the radial component of absolute velocity Cr is determined as
r
Q 2π R2b2Cm 2 bR
Cr = k = k3 = k3 Cm′ 2 2 2
2π r b3 3 2π r b3 b3r
dr b2 Cm′ 2
Therefore, = k3 = tan α3, is a constant
rdθ b3 Cu 2
b2 Cm′ 2
tan α3 = k3 = Constant
b3 Cu 2
dr
also = tan α3dθ
r
Integrating between limits θ1 = 0 when R3 = r and R3 = θ when r = r, the equation for the
streamline
a – c is r = R3 e θ tan α3 ...(5.11)
which indicates that the streamline is logarithmic spiral. Thus, the spiral part of the diffuser is designed
as logarithmic spiral.
5.9 (C) CALCULATION OF DIVERGING CONE PART OF THE DIFFUSER

The diverging cone part of the diffuser bcde follows immediately after the logarithmic part of the
diffuser. In this cone remaining kinetic energy is converted to pressure energy. The lateral cross-section
of the cone is designed as straight cone. The height of the cone at inlet a3 is determined by the triangle
bch [Fig. 5.10 (a)] as
RC – R3
a3 = – ∆3
cos α3
where RC is the radius at point C of the spiral canal, ∆3 blade thickness of inlet edge.
The inlet edge is always rounded off for shockness entry. RC will be
RC = R3eθC tan α3
2π
where θC = – ∆θ—angle at the centre of spiral canal. Angle ∆θ is determined approximately from
Zd
the triangle ‘bch’ and the triangle abc.
__ 2πR3
R3 ∆θ = bc sin α3 = sin2 α3
Zd
2π
or ∆θ = sin2 α3
Zd
R3  zd sin 2α 3 
π
So, a3 = e − 1 – ∆ ...(5.12)
cos α3   3
Number of Diffuser vanes Zd will be between 3 to 8. It will be always 1 or 2 blades more than
impeller blades. The best efficiency of diffuser can be attained when the entry section of the diverging
cone is in the form of a square i.e., a3 = b3.
The reduction in length due to blade thickness at entry is
a3 + ∆ 3
≈ 1.1 to 1.15.
a3
The angle to divergence ε = 10° to 12° at one plane, if the other plane is straight. If both the planes
diverge, then ε = 6 to 8°. Curved form of divergence cone axis enables to reduce the outer diameter of
the diffuser, which inturn reduces the weight of the pump. Hydraulic efficiency, however, reduces to a
certain extent. E.V. Dondoff [4], assuming that Cu r = constant at inlet divergent cone, suggests that
height of entry section of divergent cone can be determined by the equation.
 2k 
a3 = (R3 + ∆3) 1 − 1 − A2  ...(5.13)
 b3 
 
ωQ 2πQ
where A2 = =
Zd H m g Γb Z d
and K = Correction coefficient determined as a function of the specific speed ‘ns ’ (Fig. 5.12)
section AA–CC section CC–EE

c
Blades constructed
by point by point method
α8
6
7 α5 7 Return guide
5 8 18 8
3
4 9
10
passage 9 vanes
1 2
11 α4 α8 10
12
13
11
12
D4 = 315
14
15 16 13
16
17 14
D 5 = 375 15
16
D 2 = 308
17
11 Blades ε
90 °
α8 +ε+
(b)
r ϕ
A B
(a )
s
Blade construction and graph
– – as per circular arc method (b) Blades constructed by
– point by point method circular arc method
α
c
5
12 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 141516 17
l
Diffuser Vaneless Return guide vane
passage (c)
Fig. 5.11. Diffuser, vaneless passage, return guide vanes design and construction
(a) Vaneless ring between diffuser and return guide vanes
(b) Another construction of vaneless ring
(c) Velocity, angle of flow in passages.
K
1,4
1,3
1,2
1,1
1,0
0,9
0,8
0,7
70 75 80 85 90 95 100 ns 105
Fig. 5.12. Correction coefficient for the divergent passage of the diffuser
5.10 RETURN GUIDE VANES

Return guide vanes are used in multi-stage pumps. It is located immediately after the U-shaped
bend in the diffuser. Normally spiral shaped portion and the divergent portion of the diffuser are kept on
one side of a plate and the return guide vanes on the other side of a plate and are cast in manufacture as
one piece. This facilitates easy casting in foundry as well as easy machining. A circular plate forms as
disc between rear side of the impeller and spiral shaped diffuser passage as well as another similar
circular plate forms as disc between front side of the impeller and return guide vanes. These two
plates form the cover between impeller and diffuser. All other designs are used for single stage pumps.
(Figs 5.10 and 5.11)
5.11 DESIGN OF SUCTION CASING AT INLET OF THE IMPELLER

Suction or approach casing for a pump (Fig. 5.11) consists of (1) a straight convergent cone
(2) bend type curved convergent pipe (3) ring type chamber (4) spiral shaped chamber or casing and
(5) return guide vanes. (Fig. 5.13)
5.12 STRAIGHT CONVERGENT CONE

Straight convergent cone with angle of convergence ε = 17° to 21° are fitted infront of the suction.
Sometimes radial ribs 4 to 6 Nos, called ‘baffles’ are fitted to ensure uniform, axisymmetric normal
flow at suction (Cu1 = 0). An increase in velocity by 15–20% between inlet and outlet of the convergent
section is normally recommended.
If the space before the pump suction is limited, bend type convergent pipe is used with or without
radial ribs at the exit of the bend.
Ring type casing consists of a circular chamber of constant area followed by a converging type
annular ring kept before the impeller eye. In these types, shaft is extended from the impeller to the
suction side bearing through the ring casing. These pumps have bearings on both sides of the impeller.
However, flow velocity decreases due to gradual reduction in quantity, the area of flow remaining
constant along the ring. Due to uneven velocity distribution around the ring, fluid approaches impeller
inlet edge with non uniform, unequal velocity and also with vortex motion Cu1 ≠ 0. Due to centrifugal
force, at the bend Cu1 is not constant from shaft to inlet periphery. These type of casings are used mostly
in multistage pumps.
5.13 SPIRAL TYPE APPROACH RING

Spiral type approach ring followed by annular convergent ring at suction are used to overcome
the drawbacks in ring type constant area suction casings. Constant velocity at all point of the flow
passage in the spiral channel is maintained.
Spiral shaped suction casing or approach channel consists of an entry tube ‘10–9’ followed by
‘864 20’ spiral channel and a convergent annular rings ‘ab’ (Fig. 5.13). Spiral shape ends with a radial
rib, which avoids the fluid to enter back to the inlet approach tube. Total quantity ‘Q’ enters the chamber
at ‘10’ and passes into ‘point 9’. After point 9, almost half the quantity enters directly into the impeller
through convergent cone. Remaining quantity passes through the spiral passage of the casing, where
quantity gradually reduces due to uniform entry into impeller along the spiral passage. Flow velocity
‘C ’ gradually increases in the passage 10 to 9 and remains constant in the spiral passage i.e., from 9 to
0. Flow velocity ‘CC’ increases to impeller eye velocity ‘C0’, when fluid passes through convergent
annular bend ring ‘ab’. Normally the velocity before the annular ring CC = (0.7 to 0.85) C0 . Impeller
will be suspended between two bearings. The shaft passes through the suction casing to the suction side
bearing. Uniform velocity is ensured at the impeller eye in this type of design. It is recommended that
(a) (b)
4
a 3
b 2
1
0
1
b
a 2
3 4
(c)
a b 2
4 0
6 9
10
R8
a b 8 Rg
10
(d)
Fig. 5.13. Different forms of suction casing for centrifugal pump

(a) Approach bend with converging passage
(b) Concentric ring with constant area of cross-section
(c) Symmetrical half spiral casing
(d) Single spiral casing
3 2
4 1f 1
1
f 8 1 0
5 4 1
π 2 2
f1 = (D – d b )
4 1
3f 10
db
6
8 1
Dφ
D4
D1
D0
7 b
0 f4
1 1
2 f
2 1
3
4 8
5
6 α
7
8
D5
Fig. 5.14. Suction volute casing

D0
R8 = (krs – 1)
, R0 = (0.5 to 0.6) R8
2
R4 = 0.75 R8 , R9 = 1.5 R8
Coefficient krs is a function of ‘nS ’, the specific speed. The value krs can be taken from the graph
[Figs. 5.7, 5.8 (b)].
The velocity Cvi is calculated as CVi = ΦVi 2gH , where φVi is taken from the graph (Fig. 5.7).
0,60
u 22
84,0 84,5 84,5 100

0,55
Efficiency % η/ηmax
Head coefficient ψ =
80
0,50
0,45 60
0,40 40
0,35 20
0
0 0,02 0,04 0,06 0,08 0,10 0,12 0,14 0,16 ϕ
C m2
Flow coefficient φ =
u2
Fig. 5.15. Performance variation due to three different volutes with same impeller
5.14 EFFECT DUE TO VOLUTE

It is found that the increase in volute cross-section area is attained when volute is designed by
constant velocity method than by Cu r = constant method.
Increase in area of volute cross-section by about 5 to 7% may increase the overall efficiency by 2
to 5%. Optimum efficiency will shift to higher flow rate point.
Decrease in volute area decrease the maximum efficiency and shifts optimum efficiency point
towards lower flow rate. Shut off head slightly increases at higher specific speeds. Fig. 5.15 shows the
test results of the same impeller tested with three volutes.
6
LOSSES IN PUMPS
6.1 INTRODUCTION
Losses in pumps can be classified as:
1. Hydraulic,
2. Volumetric, and
3. Mechanical.
Determination of hydraulic losses by theoretical means is still not possible. Intensive research is
still going on. Since volumetric losses and mechanical losses can be determined accurately by theoretical
means, hydraulic efficiency is determined from volumetric, mechanical and overall efficiencies. However,
empirical formula for the determination of hydraulic losses is available by which hydraulic efficiency
can be approximately determined.
6.2 (A) MECHANICAL LOSSES

Power input ‘NI’ available from the prime mover output i.e., at the coupling side of pump shaft,
gets reduced by an amount of ‘∆N’ due to losses in bearings ‘∆NB’, due to losses in stuffing box, ‘∆NS’
and losses due to disc friction, ‘∆Nd’ i.e., ∆N = ∆NB + ∆NS + ∆Nd . Correspondingly power available at
the impeller side of the pumpshaft, Ni = NI – ∆N.
N N I − ∆N Ni
Mechanical efficiency, ηm =
i
= = ...(2.15)
NI NI N i + ∆N
∆ Nd )
6.2 (B) LOSSES DUE TO DISC FRICTION (∆
Losses created due to the rotation of a solid body, inside a closed and fluid filled chamber, is
called “Disc friction losses”. Pump impeller rotates as a solid body inside spiral casing chamber, which
is filled with fluid, possesses the same phenomena and hence losses created by the rotating impeller
inside a water filled spiral casing is the disc friction losses of the pump, ∆Nd.
Fluid inside the space between impeller shroud and casing wall rotates at half the velocity of the
impeller velocity. The induced moment of friction of fluid on the disc is equalised by the frictional
moment of the fluid on casing wall. Due to centrifugal force, fluid near impeller shroud is thrown
towards pheripery. This fluid returns back near the casing wall. As a result, a circulation i.e., a secondary
vortex flow prevails in this space.
147
From dimensional analysis, the moment of friction of disc, on one side, can be written as
M = Cf ρ ω2 r25
where, Cf — coefficient of friction.
ρ — density of the fluid.
ω — angular velocity of the disc (impeller).
r2 — outer diameter of the disc (impeller).
ωr2
2
Coefficient of friction, Cf depends upon the type of flow and hence Reynold’s number ‘R0’ =
ν
for the disc.
(a) For laminar flow (Re < 2 × 104) | 67 |
 S  0.0146 +  S  0.1256 
3
π r2
Cf = . + Re       ...(6.1)
Re S  r2    r2  
where, S — the distance of the casing hall from the wall of the rotating disc.
(b) For transition flow Re = 2.104 to 105 | 67 |
1.334
Cf = ...(6.2)
Re
(c) For turbulant flow
0.0465
Cf =
5 Re
A graph, Cf = f (Re ), is drawn in Fig. 6.1 for all the three regions of operation.
0,3 – 1
0,1 – 1
0,9 – 2
r2
0,7 – 2
0,5 – 2
lg C f 0,3 – 2
0,1 – 2
0,9 – 3
0,7 – 3
0,5 – 3
0,3 – 3
0,1 – 3
3 4 5 6 7
lg R e
Fig. 6.1. Cf = f (R)e

LOSSES IN PUMPS 149
Power lost in disc friction losses

2 Mω
Nd = = 2 ρCf ω3r5 ...(6.3)
constant
∆ NS)
6.2 (C) LOSSES STUFFING BOX (∆
Stuffing box consists of a chamber ‘4’ containing a
flexible asbestos packing ‘1’. Packing is kept in position 2 3 1
4
by the gland ‘2’. By tightening the gland bolts, the gland s
is axially moved towards the chamber and compresses the
packing. This packing has direct contacts with the shaft p0
σx
or shaft sleeve,‘3’. Since shaft or shaft sleeve is a rotating σr
R
r
element a small clearance will be existing between packing
and shaft sleeve or shaft, through which fluid passes from x dx
the impeller outlet through the space between casing and
rear impeller shroud. This leakage flow can be adjusted
by compressing the packings, with the help of gland since
packing is stuffed inside a chamber. This chamber is called
stuffing box. Although theoretically no flow through
pH
stuffing box can be made, practically small quantity of
σx
p0
water as droplets must come out through stuffing box in x
order to avoid (1) air entering into impeller through
stuffings box, (2) to cool the packings. Since this leakage Fig. 6.2. Stuffing box
quantity is very small, it is usually neglected.
Due to flexibile nature of packings the axial force σx created due to tightening the gland is changed
into radial for σr acting on shaft in radial direction.
σx = Kσr ...(6.4)
where K is the coefficient depends upon the packing property and is always > 1. In order to maintain
leak proof σx > p0, the pressure at the inner side of the casing and impeller shroud and very near to the
shaft. Pressure σx must gradually reduce from the gland to the impeller side. Considering an elementary
thickness ‘dx’ (Fig. 6.2) of the packing, equilibrium is maintained.
When, 2π (R +r) µ σrdx = – π (R2 – r2) dσx ...(6.5)
where µ1 is the frictional coefficient of packing. Combining equations 6.4 and 6.5 and rearranging.
dσ x 2µ1
When, = – dx.
σx (R − r )K
Taking σx = P0 and integrating ‘x’ up to length ‘l’.
2µ1 (l − x)
l
P0 2µ1
log
σx
= – ∫ K (R − r) dx = –
K (R − r )
x
 2µ(l − x ) 
 R − r 
or σx = ( P0 ) ...(6.6)
µ1
where = µ2
K
It is evident, that the pressure p, gradually increases and is maximum when x = l. It will be
l l
2µ2 2µ 2
(R − r ) 2µ 2 z
pmax = σx = 0 = p0 e = p0 e S
= p0 e ...(6.7)
l
Where, S is the thickness = (R – r) and Z is the number of packing rolls inside stuffing box = .
S
Elementary friction force, dT = 2π r dx µ1 σx
eµ l − x l
p0 e S 
µ1 2µ 2 l 
− 2µ 2
T = 2π r µ1 p0 ∫ e = π rS
2
s s  ...(6.8)
µ2 1− e
0  
 − 2µ
l 
π r 2 s µ1 l
2µ 2 1− e 2 a
Power NS = Tωr = . p0 e s   watts. Coefficient µ, is 0.02 to 0.1. About


const µ 2
5 to 7 (= Z) packing rolls are used for normal pumps. Practically frictional coefficient, µ considerably
reduces due to the introduction of cooling water as mentioned earlier.
2 1
3
l
p0 p
4 p0
s 7 ln
D dn
d
(a) Normal (d) With cooling

B
A
5
E
p0 D0
(b) With lantern ring at the middle (e) External cooling
δ
6 g
6
p0 p0
lu4
10
(c) With cooling circulation (f) External and internal cooling
Fig. 6.3. Different types of stuffing box arrangements and with cooling systems
LOSSES IN PUMPS 151
Fig. 6.4. Stuffing box with the classic cooling water jacket
cooling the outer diameter of the gland
Fig. 6.5. Stuffing box with unclear lantern ring for sealing water supply
Fig. 6.6. Stuffing box with externally cooled circuit to reduce the
temperature of the pumped medium in the gland area
Fig. 6.7. Stuffing box with lantern type end ring for cold water injection
Fig. 6.8. Stuffing box of special design with hollow shaft sleeve
to cool the inner diameter of the gland
Fig. 6.9. Stuffing box with double cooling effect and duplicate cooling
feed cooling inner and diameter of gland
LOSSES IN PUMPS 153
Fig. 6.10. Stuffing box with double cooling effect and single cooling
feed cooling inner and outer diameter of gland
Cu 2 , Cu1 , r1
Fig. 6.11. Stuffing box with double cooling effect and single cooling feed
and also introducing cooling liquid upstream of the packing
end ring for cooling inner and outer diamter of gland
Fig. 6.12. Gland area of feed pump with injection type shaft, intensive
cooling and differential type balancing device absorbing pressure
fluctuations of feed pump suction pressure sealing water pressure
6.2 (D) BEARING LOSSES ( ∆ NB)

Bearing losses depend upon the type of bearing used such as, ball, roller, angular contact, thrust
bearing. Based on the hydrodynamic theory of lubrication in bearings, power loss in bearings can be
calculated.
One such formula is given below. Power loss ∆NB in bearing will be
ω r.T 2π.η r
∆NB = = (ωr)2 . . l ...(6.9)
constant constant δ
u
where torque T = η 2πrl
δ
η — Coefficient of viscosity of the lubricating oil used.
u = ωr — Velocity of ball or roller centre.
r and l — Radius and length of the ball or roller.
δ — Radial clearance in the bearing.
6.3 (A) LEAKAGE FLOW THROUGH THE CLEARANCE BETWEEN

STATIONARY AND ROTATORY WEARING RINGS
Leakage flow is controlled by the clearances ‘b’. b = 0.003r, for smaller pumps and b = 0.2
+ (D1 – 100) 0.001 in mm for larger pumps. ‘b’ normally lies between 0.15 and 0.25 mm. Larger
clearance leads to higher volumetric losses and corresponding lower volumetric as well as overall
efficiencies. Figs. 6.13 and 6.14 indicate the change in the performance due to increased clearance.
2
120 600
Axial force in % of force under Q norm
H
H, η in % of (H, η) norm
100 500
η
80 400
60 300
40 200
1
20 100
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140

Q in % of Q norm
Fig. 6.13. Effect of clearance at shaft between 2 stages H, η and axial thrust
(1) Axial thrust under normal clearance 0.2 mm
(2) Under increased clearance 1.5 mm
LOSSES IN PUMPS 155
0.45 MM
0.575 MM
Without
20
balancing
0.64 MM
holes
18
0.74 MM
16
14
0.74 MM
Total head in metres
With 0.64 MM
balancing
12
holes 0.575 MM
0.45 MM
10
8
Average flow is 6.6 gpm/hole 26.4 gpm for all 4 holes

6
4
2
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Quantity of flow in Ips.
Fig. 6.14. Effect of wearing ring clearance and balancing holes

Referring of Fig. 6.15 the flow through the clearance QL1 can be determined from one dimensional
theory Q = K. AV = K. A . 2gH .
(a) (b) (c) (d)
Y X
(e) (f) (g)
Fig. 6.15. Different types of wearing rings
Applying this principle to the flow through the clearance ‘QL1’ or called as leakage flow, will be
QL1 = µ Ai pi − pI = µπ D b 2 gH ...(6.10)
2g i pi
r
where, Ai — Area of the clearance
Di — Clearance diameter
b — Clearance width
pi — Pressure before clearance
p1 — Pressure after clearance, at suction side of the impeller
pi − p1
Hpi — head loss in clearance
γ
µ — Flow coefficient.
Normally b = 0.003 r and should never be less than 0.15 mm for any type of wearing ring
construction.
The pressure drop across the wearing ring [Fig. 6.15 (a)] between any point inside wearing ring
and inlet
pi − p1 p − p1 p − pi p − pi
Hpi = = 2 – 2 = Hp – 2 ...(6.11)
γ γ γ γ
p2 − pi
Substituting the value for from the equation (3.89)
γ
 2
γu22   r  
Hpi = Hp – 1 −   for normal wearing ring ...(6.12)
8 g   r2  
2 
2
γu22  r2  1 −  r  
= Hp –     for damaged wearing ring ...(6.13)
8 g  r    r2  
Referring to the figure [6.15 (a)], the losses through the wearing ring consists of loss at entry, loss
in the passage and loss at exit.
LOSSES IN PUMPS 157
VL2
hc = Loss at entry due to sudden entry = 0.5
2g
VL2
he = Loss at exit, due to sudden exit = 1.00
2g
Loss in the passage having length ‘l’ and clearance ‘b’ and diameter ‘D’.
lVL2
hf = λ
8 gR
QL
where, VL is the velocity in the clearance =
πDi bi
Area πDi bi b
R = the Hydraulic Radius = = = i
Perimeter 2πDi 2
λlVL 2
So, hf =
4 gbI
Total loss hL = he + hf + hc = Hpi
 λli  VL 2
∴ Hpi =  0.5 + 1.00 +
 2bi  2 g
2
 λli   Q  1
=  + 1.5 ⋅  L1 
 2bi   πDi bi  2 g
1
QL1 = . πDi . bi . 2 gH pi ...(6.14)
λli
+ 1.5
2bi
where Hpi is calculated as per the equation (6.12) or (6.13). Comparing equations (6.14) and (6.11) µ
will be
1
µ=
λli
+ 1.5
2bi
For high pressure pumps Hpi will be higher due higher delivery pressure. The clearance cannot be
altered since efficiency has to be maintained at high level as well as for ease in manufacture. So the
leakage flow QL1 will be higher. Correspondingly, the volumetric efficiency and overall efficiency
reduce. To maintain efficiency at higher level, QL has to be reduced. This is achieved by increasing the
length of leakage path. Correspondingly, for the fixed value of area, µ value is changed. Different
wearing ring forms are shown in Fig. 6.15. Referring to Fig. 6.15.
pI − p x QL12 1
=
γ 2 g (µ1. A1 ) 2
px − p y QL12 1
=
γ 2 g (µ2 . A2 ) 2
( p y − p2 ) QL12 1
=
γ 2 g (µ3 . A3 ) 2
pi − p2 QL12  1 1 1 
∴ Hpi = =  2 + 2 + 2 
γ (µ
2g  1 1 A ) (µ A
2 2 ) (µ A
3 3 ) 
1  λ1l1  A1  
2 2
QL12  λ 2 .l2  A1   λ3 .l3
=  + 1.5 +  + 1.5    + + 1.5   
2g A12  2b1  2b2  A2   2b3  A3  

1
µ = ...(6.15)
λ1l1 λ 2l2  A1 
2
λ3l3  A1 
2   A  2  A 2 
+   +   + 1.5 1 +  1  +  1  
2b1 2b2  A2  2b3  A3    A2   A3  
In the similar manner, µ can be calculated for other configurations.

The value for λ is calculated similar to the procedure followed for pipes.
Equivalent pipe diameter ‘d’ for the clearance b will be d = 4R = 2b
Reynold’s number for the clearance b is determined as
2
u 
2b . ν 2s +  1 
ud 2
Re = = ...(6.16)
ν ν
u
since the velocity of the fluid, ui =.
2
Normal value of λ will be 0.04 to 0.08. For low viscous fluids, λ = 0.4.
l
For pumps of Di > 100 mm li the length of clearance passage = 0.12 to 0.15 and µ = 0.5 to 0.6.
DI
l
When Di < 100 mm = 0.2 to 0.25. Model analysis does not carried out for clearances. For proto-
Di
types, keeping clearance width ‘bi’ same, the length ‘li’ is increased. Increase in length li increases the
l
losses and reduces the leakage QL1. When 1 > 0.25, µ reduces only to a smaller extent, but li increases
Di
considerably. The type of wearing ring construction used depends upon pump construction. li should
always be ≥ 20 mm and µ ≤ 0.65 considering techno-economical condition.
LOSSES IN PUMPS 159
Prof. A.A. Lomakin |69| recommends that volumetric efficiency, ηvol can be calculated as
 1 
 η  = 1 + 0.68 nS .
–2/3
 V
6.3 (B) LEAKAGE FLOW THROUGH THE CLEARANCE BETWEEN TWO

STAGES OF A MULTISTAGE PUMP
p′ − p′
1 i
Hp3 =
γ
where p1′ = P1 + γHi, H1 = total head, and p′1 = pressure at the hub of the impeller.
p2 − p1 u22 − u 2h
Hp3 = H1 − +
γ 8g
u22   rh  
2
= H1 − H p + 1 −   
8 g   r2  
 
gH m u22   r 2 
= + − 1 −  h  
2u22 8g   r2  
Since, H1 – Hp = Hdy
QL3 = µ . πdh b . 2 gHp3 ...(6.17)
Vu
Fig. 6.16. Vortex formation at bend Fig. 6.17. Vortex formation due to sudden contraction
Fig. 6.18. Flow in divergent passage Fig. 6.19. Flow separation at imepller
outlet due to shroud
Cu
Cr
A B 1 2
Fig. 6.20. Velocity distribution at Fig. 6.21. Flow separation and return flow at the outlet
outlet of impeller edge of impeller due to break effect
q = 0,15 q=0
Q <1
Fig. 6.22. Secondary flow at q =
Q norm
y A
x
r
A
A–A
x y
Fig. 6.23. Secondary flow between shrouds Fig. 6.24. Flow separation at impeller outlet
LOSSES IN PUMPS 161
Diffuser blade
leading edge
Impeller blade
trailing edge
Gap "B" Gap "A"

Leakage
flow
Inlet Casing
guide
vane
Impe lle r
Impeller blade
leading edge
Fig. 6.25. Secondary flow in pump impeller at Fig. 6.26. Vortex on finite blade length
partical flow conditions
6.4 HYDRAULIC LOSSES

Hydraulic losses are the losses due to: friction in the main flow when fluid passes through:
(a) suction or approach pipe, (b) impeller vane passages, (c) diffuser or volute casing flow passages and
(d) outlet passage or discharge cone of the spiral casing of a pump. Friction arises due to (1) fluid flow
over the surface roughness of the above mentioned pump parts. Heat developed by friction is carried
away by water and (2) secondary flow prevailing at places of unequal distribution of pressure in the
flow passage. (3) vortex λ formation along the inner side of blade configuration, (4) wake formation
after the blades. Shock entry are a few examples for the secondary flow. Exact study on hydraulic losses
has not so far being done, as it is extremely difficult. Theoretically developed equations along with the
experimentally determined coefficients are used to determine the hydraulic losses.
In general, the shape of flow passage of each element is designed not only as per dimensions but
also to provide stream lined flow passages at entry as well as at exit of each elements of the pump in
order to ensure minimum hydraulic losses. For example, uniform flow at casing can be ensured only if
uniform flow exists at the outlet of the impeller. Similarily flow must be stream lined, steady and uniform
at the exit of the approach pipe, so that same type of flow can exist at the inlet as well as at the impeller
passages.
Hydraulic losses can be classified as follows: (1) Losses under steady flow conditions (a) relative
flow through impeller (b) absolute flow in casing, approach and exit passages (2) Losses due to unsteady
flow and (3) Losses of hydraulic nature but attributed to mechanical losses.
Surface roughness of the flow passage in pump parts, such as approach pipe, impeller, spiral
casing and exit pipe is the main cause for hydraulic losses. Smooth surfaces give lower hydraulic losses.
Impeller flow channel losses can be calculated taking relative velocity ‘w’. Average value of relative
velocity should be taken, since relative velocity in impeller across the circumferencial length is not
constant due to circular secondary flow prevailing due to finite vanes (Figs. 6.21, 6.22, 6.23, 6.24 and
6.25). Flow separation from the outlet edge of impeller due to insufficient kinetic energy in the boundary,
larger at all regions of operation except at optimum flow rate condition and subsequent increase in
losses in casing due to improper flow from impeller, are the causes for the development of secondary
flow. Spannhake | 110 | has given a detailed analysis about the secondary flow in impeller passages.
Experimental investigation in spiral casing has clearly indicated, the presence of unequal pressure
and velocity distribution not only due to non symmetrical flow from impeller, but also due to curvature
of the casing. Experiments conducted indicate about 2% velocity variation along the radial direction at
optimum flow region, and about 40% at Q = 0.4 (optimum region). So also under unsteady flow a higher
percentage of deviation in pressure and velocity exists at the return passage due to the presence of bend
kept after the diffuser of multistage pumps, which creates non uniform flow at the suction of the next
impeller.
At partial flow regions of operation, the pressure variation across the radial direction changes to a
larger extent at inlet of the pump impeller. Flow reverse takes place from hub to periphery. Due to the
presence of bend in the impeller, flow could not follow the passage, instead it again deviates from the
main stream, which again creates reverse flow at the outlet of the impeller (Fig. 6.25). Flow velocity
through the channel increases due to the restricted flow area. Apart from that due to larger difference in
pressure and velocity between leading and trailing surfaces of the impeller channel at partial flow regions,
the flow reverse takes place at the outlet of the impeller. It gradually extends in both direction along the
flow passage of the impeller, then to the casing on one side, extending to suction side of the impeller on
the other side. Due to this effect, the steepness of head discharge curve increases at higher specific
speeds. Rate of increase in steepness is higher for higher specific speed pumps.
ηh%
100
ηh as per A.A. Lomakin
ηh
As per A.J. Stepanoff
75
as per Stodila-Meizen
50
0 100 200 300 D q MM
Fig. 6.27. Comparison of hydraulic efficiency as recommended by different authors

LOSSES IN PUMPS 163
12
10
1
8
2
NT
N 6
%
3
2
0 70 140 210 280 350 420 ns

(1) Disc friction (2) Volumetric (3) Bearing and stuffing box
Fig. 6.28. Power loss = f (ns )
All flow passages in pumps are diffuser type passages, where in flow area gradually increases.
The velocity is changed into pressure. Angle of divergence of the diffuser passage must be between 5°
to 10°. Radius of curvature of bend portion R should be more than 7 to 8 times the width of the passage
R = 7 to 8 (Fig. 6.16). Losses ‘hf ’ due to sudden contraction and due to sudden expansion can be
calculated by using the standard formula,
V2 V2
For sudden contraction hf (contraction) = 0.5 and = 0.15 to 0.35 for gradual contraction.
2g 2g
For best results i.e., for minimum hydraulic losses, angle of convergence can be 17° to 21°.
(Vent − Vexi )2
For sudden expansion hf (exp) = φ ...(6.18)
2g
where φ the coefficient is ‘1’ for sudden expansion and 0.4 to 0.5 for gradual expansion if the angle of
divergence 8 to 10°. Since hydraulic losses are complicated, in nature, it is always calculated from the
experimental results.
Approximately hydraulic efficiency is assumed as ηh = η , where ηh = hydraulic efficiency and

η = overall efficiency, A.A. Lomakin suggests that
0.42
ηh = 1 – ...(6.19)
(log Dn0 − 0.172) 2
and prototype efficiency is calculated as
2
 
ηhp = 1 – ( 1– ηhm)  log D1nom − 0.172  ...(6.20)
 log D1nop − 0.172 
 
7
AXIAL AND RADIAL THRUSTS
7.1 INTRODUCTION
The impeller of the pump, when running inside casing, which is filled with the fluid, is acted on
by a number of forces. Sometimes these forces are significant in pumps either at all regions of operation
of pumps or when operated at other than optimum regions of operation. These forces must be properly
taken care of by proper construction of the pump.
These forces are divided into two types : (1) mass force i.e., weight of pump parts and weight of
the fluid filled inside the pump space and inertia force i.e., the centrifugal force and forces due to
coriolis acceleration and (2) surface force, acting on the pumps due to the fluid pressure and its reaction.
Total weight of the pump and the weight of the fluid inside casing, will be acting at its centre of
gravity in the downward direction, whereas hydrostatic pressure will be acting in upward direction as
buoyant force.
Inertia force is the centrifugal force of the rotating parts.
W 2
Fc = ωr
g
where,
W — weight of moving parts.
ω — angular velocity of the moving parts.
r — the eccentricity between centre of gravity of moving part and the centre of the axis of the
shaft.
If the centre gravity of impeller falls exactly on the shaft axis then r = 0 and the centrifugal force
is zero. This is achieved by dynamically balancing all rotating parts. Since inside surface of the impeller
is the only unmachined part among all rotating parts, only impeller is dynamically balanced, before
assembly.
The surface force ‘F ’ by the flowing fluid on impeller and casing consists of ‘FZ’, the axial force
and ‘Fr’ radial force. Axial force acting on the impeller is considerable whereas axial force on casing
equalises each other and hence zero. Correspondingly radial force acting on impeller, due to uniform
and constant flow at each and every point of impeller circumference, is zero, but radial force acting on
the casing is not zero as this force changes in magnitude and direction from tongue to delivery mouth of
the casing due to gradual increase in flow from impeller to casing.
164
AXIAL AND RADIAL THRUSTS 165
7.2 AXIAL FORCE ACTING ON THE IMPELLER

Referring to Fig. 7.1, the flow at outlet of the impeller consists of (1) main flow ‘Qa’ into the
casing, (2) leakage flow at the front end of the impeller, passing through the clearance between casing
and impeller front shroud, then through the wearing ring clearance and finally reaching the suction side
at impeller eye and (3) leakage flow at the rear end of the impeller passing through the space between
rear shroud of the impeller and casing wall, then through rear wearing ring clearance and finally either
passing through the stuffing box to atmosphere or passing through the balancing hole back to impeller
eye.
p2 r p2
Contour pL pR
A1 p R – pL
A2
r2
r
rh
Shaft
r
r0
axis z-axis
p1
Fig. 7.1. For axial thrust calculation

This fluid pressure acts on both shrouds and on both sides of the shroud i.e., at inner and at outer
side of the impeller shrouds. If FZ0 is the force due to fluid pressure at the outer side of the impeller
shroud and FZi is the force due to fluid pressure at the inner side of the impeller shrouds and since these
pressures are acting parallel to Z-axis, i.e., shaft axis, the total force acting in the impeller will be
FZ = FZ0 + FZi .
FZi the internal force is calculated by applying impulse momentum equation to the unit mass
passing through the impeller. If AT is the surface area of the two sides of shrouds and blades of the
impeller, and A1 and A2 are the area at the suction and delivery surfaces of the impeller, neglecting the
weight of the of the impeller and the weight of the fluid enclosed at outside and inside the impeller
passage the resolved component of net hydrodynamic force, applying Eular’s law, is written as,
W
FZ A 1+ FZ A 2 – FZi = – (CZ2 – CZ1) ...(7.1)
g
where FZ A1 and FZA 2 are the axial component of the pressure force on surface A1 and A2 of the impeller
respectively
W = γQ – Weight flow rate
FZ A 1 and FZA2 are the axial component of the absolute velocity at entrance and at exist respectively.
Axial force at the inner surface ‘FZ1’ cannot be determined, since pressure distribution at the inner
surface is not known due to the presence of the impeller vane. It can be determined, however, with the
help of Eular’s equation. In Eular’s equation, the blade induces force on fluid. The same force prevails
with negative sign if the fluid induces force in the surface, hence, the negative sign on the equation
(7.1). The direction of the force ‘FZ A 2’ at the surface A2 at the outlet edge of the impeller is perpendicular
to axis since CZ2 is perpendicular to axis. Hence, it is zero. The force ‘FZ A 1’ will be
Rc
FZA1 = ∫ pdA = R∫ pi 2πrdr=p1 . π (R02−R1h2) ...(7.2)

A1 h
where, p1 is the pressure at impeller inlet and is equal to hS the suction pressure. R1C and R1h are the
radius at periphery and at hub of the impeller eye. For normal entry the fluid velocity CZ1 = C0.
Pressure p1 at the impeller eye is the suction pressure which is negative, hence the direction of FZ1
will be opposite i.e., opposite to the fluid flow direction at impeller eye and is parallel to Z-axis (shaft
axis). Equation (7.1) can be written as
w γQ
p1π (R210– R21h ) – FZ1 = – g . C0 = – C
g 0
γQ
or FZi = C + p1π (R21c – R21h) ...(7.3)
g 0
Axial force ‘ FZ0’ acting on the outer surface will be integral of elementary hydrodynamic force
pdA cos ( p z ) on the surface i.e.,
FZ0 = ∫ pdA cos ( pz )

A0
The value dA cos ( pz ) is the projection of the external surface dA along the direction
Z, dAZ = rdθ dr .Therefore
R2 2π R2 2π
FZ0 = ∫ rdr ∫ pF d π – ∫ rdr ∫ pR d θ ...(7.4)
R0 0 Rh 0
where, pF and pR are the pressure at the frontside and backside of the impeller outer surface.
Since the space is a free surface at any radius r the angular velocity of fluid ‘ωf’ will be half of the
ω
impeller angular velocity ‘ω’ i.e., ‘ωf’ =
2
Referring to the equation (3.69), pressure at the space at any radius will be
u22   r  
2
p = p2 – γ 1 −    ...(3.69)
8 g   r2  
 
Therefore, the pressures at front and rear side space between impeller and casing, from outer
radius R2 to the eye radius R0 are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction and hence cancel each
other.
But the pressures at the rear end of the impeller from R0 and Rh changes as per equation (3.69),
whereas the pressure at the front and of the impeller is the suction pressure pS = p1. Equation (7.4) can be
written as
R0 u 22  r   
2
FZ0 
= ∫  p2 − γ 1 −   2πr dr
 
RH  
8 g  R  
2 
 p2 u 2  R02 + Rh2  
(
= γπ R0 − Rh  −
2 2
)
1 −
 γ 8 g 

2R22  
...(7.5)
∴ Net force FZ = FZ0 + FZi j

 p2 – p1 u 2  R02 + Rh2  
FZ = γπ R0 − Rh 
2 2
( − )  1− 2 
−
γQ
C0
 γ 8g  2R2   g
L F I OP rQ R02 + Rh2
2
iMMd2
G
H
u2
JK PQ − g ⋅ C
= γπ R0 − Rh H p − 8 g 1 − 2 R 2
N

2
0 ...(7.6)
A B
The value marked ‘A’ is normally very large when compared to the value ‘B’ in the equation (7.6).
Hence, the value B is usually neglected. The direction of this axial force will be opposite to the direction
of flow at suction i.e., the tendency of this force FZ is to remove the impeller from the shaft. This force
is carried over to rear bearing of the pump through the impeller nut and pump shaft.
When the wearing ring clearance is in fully damaged condition. Equation (3.70) should be
considered instead of equation (3.69).
u22  R22   r22 
p2 = p2 − γ    1 −  ...(3.70)
8 g  r2   R22 
R2
There, FZ02 = ∫ ( p2 − p f ) 2π rdr

R0
R2
u2  R  
2
r2    u2  r 2  
= 2π ∫   p2 − γ 2  2  1 − 2   − 2π  p2 − γ 2  1 −    rdr
R0 
8 g  r   R2    R22   
   8g
 
( ) 8ug  R R− R R22 + Rh2
2 2
R22
= γπ R2 − Rh + − 2
2 2 2 2
ln ...(7.7)
2
2
2
h Rh2 2 R22 
Net Axial force FZ = FZ02 (as per equation) (7.6) + FZ (as per equation) (7.7) ...(7.8)
Due to continuous operation of pump, erosion at the inlet and at the outlet of wearing ring passage
gradually removes the material of the wearing ring, as a result of this, wearing ring clearance increases.
RC
This wear is more in high pressure units for low specific speed pumps, nS = 50 to 80 and < 0.5.
R2
7.3 AXIAL THRUST IN SEMI-OPEN IMPELLERS

Axial thrust in semi-open impellers will be more than that in closed impellers, due to the fact that
the axial thrust on the rear shroud is partially balanced from (Point 2 to point 1) outlet edge to inlet edge
of the impeller due to equal pressure variation at both ends of rear shroud (Fig. 7.2). Net pressure at the
rear shroud will be
 1 u 22 – u 2S  H2 H2
FZR = γ (A2 – As)  H 2 −  ...(7.9)
 8 2g 
where A2 and AS are the surface area at radii R2 and
r2
RS .
r1
rh
At the front side i.e., at the suction side of the
impeller since there is no shroud, it is assumed that
the pressure between outlet and inlet edge of the
impeller i.e., from R2 to R1 varies in a straight line
Fig. 7.2. Axial thrust in semi-open impellers
form. Axial thrust will be
γH 2
FZ f = (A2 – A1) ...(7.2)
2
The resultant axial thrust will be
FZi = FZR – FZf = γ (A2 – As)
 1 u 22 − uS2  H2 
H2 −  – γ  (A2 – AS ) 2  ...(7.10)
 8 2g  
7.4 AXIAL THRUST DUE TO DIRECTION CHANGE IN BEND AT INLET

Actual axial thrust will be lower than the value calculated as per the equation (7.10) due to the
centrifugal force created at inlet due to the direction change from axial to radial in centrifugal pumps.
Since, there is no blade in this space only absolute velocity should be considered. Centrifugal force can
be calculated as
γ
Pt = k QC0 ...(7.11)
g
where k is the experimental coefficient 0.85 to 0.45 for nS = 50 to 250. This centrifugal force acts
opposite to the main axial thrust. Net axial thrust P will be
PNet = PZi – Pt ...(7.12)
For higher nS pumps Ft is small and hence Kt
neglected. For single stage radial type centrifugal
pump, axial force can be determined as
1,0
π 2 Dcp
P = (Dwi – d2h ) H3γ ...(7.13) dh
4 0,5
W
D
where Dwi is the diameter of impeller wearing 50 100 150 200 250 ns
ring, dh hub diameter and H3 is the average static
head H3 = 0.6 H for nS < 60 and 0.8 H for nS 60 Fig. 7.3. Coefficient to calculate axial thrust due to
direction change at inlet of impeller (at bend)
to 200. Experiments were conducted by the
Institute of Hydraulic Machines Moscow |131| based on the above equation. The above equation in final
form is written as
π
P = Kt γH (Dw2 – d2h ) ...(7.14)
4
The experimental coefficient Kt is given in Fig. 7.3.
7.5 BALANCING OF AXIAL THRUST

Balancing of axial thrust is carried out by the following methods:
(a) By proper use of rear bearing i.e., bearing near coupling side of the pump, such as ball
bearing, angular contact bearing, tapered roller bearing, or thrust bearing.
(b) By providing radial vanes at the outer side of rear shroud i.e., at the space between impeller
rear shroud and the casing wall [Fig. 7.5 (d)].
(c) By providing balancing holes, below the inlet edge of the impeller at the rear shroud. [Fig.
7.6 (c)]
(d) By providing balancing disc or balancing drum. [Fig. 7.6 (b)]
(e) By arranging opposed impellers either suction end facing each other i.e., single suction at the
middle and double delivery at both ends or suction end opposing each other i.e., double
suction and single delivery. This may be embedded into one unit as in double suction pumps
or individual impellers. [Figs. 7.4, 7.5 and 7.6 (a)]
FZ FZ
Fig. 7.4. Balancing by individual two Fig. 7.5. Balanced individual opposed impellers
suction facing impellers
Suction
connection
tube
Q Q D C
(a) Double suction (b) Balancing disc (c) Balancing hole (d) Radial blades
Fig. 7.6. Different methods of balancing axial thrust
Arrangement c, d are provided for single stage pumps whereas arrangements a and b are provided
for multistage pumps. Double suction pump is a single stage opposed impeller pump [Fig. 7.6 (a)].
Balancing by
(a) Balancing disc or drum

(a)
1 2 3 4 5 6
(b), (c), (d), (e), self balancing by impeller

positioning
(b) 1 3 5 6 4 2
(c) 1 3 4 6 5 2
(d) 1 2 3 4 5 6
(e) 1 2 3 6 5 4
Fig. 7.7. Different balancing methods by impeller position in multistage balancing.
7.6 AXIAL THRUST TAKEN BY BEARINGS

Coupling side bearing of the pump is always designed to take care of the axial thrust. For smaller
axial loads deep groove ball bearings are used. For higher axial thrusts, deep groove ball bearings are
replaced by angular contact ball bearings. For still higher axial thrusts the bearing is replaced by tapered
roller bearing or a pure thrust bearing along with ball bearing. Use of suitable bearing, keeps the pump
bearing housing compact, thereby pump weight is considerably reduced and also the cost.
7.7 RADIAL VANES AT REAR SHROUD OF THE IMPELLER

Location of radial blades at the rear shroud is shown in Fig. 7.8. The magnitude of axial thrust
reduction depends purely upon the size of the radial blades as well as the clearance between casing wall
and the radial blade. Extra power consumed due to this additional radial vanes does not exceed the
power spent for the additional clearance provided at the rear shroud to control leakage. This power
always remains constant. The blade width will be normally 3 to 4 mm. But it is difficult to maintain the
clearance between casing wall and the radial blade, since casing wall is an unmachined surface.
p2 p2
a
b
∆p C
r0
r8m
Fig. 7.8. Axial thrust balancing by radial blades
2 2 2
u 2 – u 2p u p – u2 u 2 – u2
a = p2 – γ ; b=γ ; c=γ .
8g 2g 8g
Due to the presence of rear radial blades, which is rotating at a blade velocity ‘u’ the fluid also
1
rotates at a velocity of ‘u’ instead of u as in the case of without radial blades condition. This reduces
2
the pressure at the rear space. At any radius ‘rp’ the pressure drop ∆p will be
3 γ 2
∆p = (u p – u2) ...(7.15)
8 g
when radial blades are present the radial thrust reduces to
 u 2p − uh2 
∆Fzp =
3 γ
8 g
⋅ π rp − rh 
2 2
 2 
(  ) ...(7.16)
In order to have perfect axial thrust balancing

FZi = ∆Fzp. ...(7.17)
The diameter of the radial blades can be determined from equation (7.16) and (7.17).
In some of the pump constructions, the radial blades are provided in casing wall instead of at
1
impeller rear shroud. Since blade is stationary, the fluid velocity will be u instead of ‘u’. In practice,
2
1
it is found that fluid velocity is slightly more than ‘ u’.
2
7.8 AXIAL THRUST BALANCING BY BALANCING HOLES

This method of balancing is done by providing an orifice hole below the inlet edge of impeller
blade, connecting the chamber kept between the impeller rear shroud and casing wall [Figs. 7.6 (c), 7.9].
Referring to the pressure distribution prevailing on both sides of impeller, non balancing of axial thrust
exists only at impeller eye area. The pressure is suction pressure (negative pressure) at the front side of
the impeller shroud below the inlet edge of the impeller, whereas, pressure at the rear side of the impeller
shroud is +ve (space C). Perfect balancing can be attained if these two pressures are made equal by
providing an orifice type hole (D) connecting these two spaces. Although theoretically the axial thrust is
balanced, practically a slight unbalanced force exists either +ve or –ve. This is due to the fact that, the
pressure drop across the front and rear wearing rings A and B are not equal owing to the difference in
wearing clearance at A and at B due to gradual wear in

running. The flow qL1 and qL3 are also not equal. The
pressure at chamber D is always slightly greater than
the suction pressure at impeller eye, due to hydraulic
losses in orifice. But magnitude of this axial thrust is
very small, and it is taken care of by bearing. This facility
enables to provide smaller capacity bearings.
C
The diameters of wearing ring ‘Di’ at both ends D
of the impeller are selected as equal. The sum total of

the area of orifices ΣAOri must be more than the wearing
ring area ‘Aw’, in order to have perfect balancing. Fig. 7.9. Axial thrust balancing by
Normally ΣAOri ≥ 4 to 5 A w for better cavitational balancing holes
property.
Although this process is simple and easy for manufacture, the flow quantity ‘qC3’ through the
orifice is larger than the normal ‘qL3’ through stuffing box, as a result of which the main flow ‘Qact’ is
smaller and the flow through the impeller Qth is larger. Volumetric efficiency ηv, overall efficiency η
and the total head ‘H’considerably reduce. Vacuum before the inlet edge of the impeller is also reduced.
Correspondingly, the cavitational characteristics also reduce, due to reduction in allowable HVac for a
wide range of operation of pump. Due to this drawback, this method is not recommended and not
followed for pump having low quantity and low head.
7.9 AXIAL THRUST BALANCING BY BALANCE DRUM AND DISC

Axial thrust balancing by balancing drum and by balancing disc provides perfect balancing. This
method is adopted in multistage pumps and is fitted after the last stage of the pump. The main advantage
of the arrangement is that, perfect balancing is achieved at all points of operation automatically and also
it can be used for any number of stages in pump. For trouble free running, provision must be given to
allow the rotating system to move slightly in axial direction in both directions (≈ 0.5 mm). Balancing
drum [Fig. 7.6 (a)] consists of a chamber, where the drum is located. This chamber is connected by a
Tube T
Q q3 ∆p d
p2 ϕ∆p d p5
b2
p5
ld2
b
K2
K1
Ra
ps Q
Re
p5
Rb
Σ Fzi Fd p4
R sh
p3 b
p4
Fig. 7.10. Axial thrust balancing by balancing disc

pipe to the impeller eye of the I stage impeller. The size of the drum is selected such that ΣFZ, the total
axial thrust of all the impellers, of the multistage pump is equalised by the axial force (FD) developed by
balancing drum in the opposite direction.
Practically, there may be a very small amount of unbalanced axial thrust, which is developed due
to fluctuation in the leakage flow q3. Also, there will be unequal balancing of axial thrust, when the
clearance between rotary and stationary number of the drum wears out, due to aging. Such unbalanced
forces are taken care of by bearings.
Balancing disc works under the same principle as that of balancing drum (Figs. 7.11 and 7.12).
The leakage flow q3 of the fluid from the last stage of the impeller enters the chamber (K1) located
between balancing disc (1) and stationary ring (2) through the axial clearances b. The chamber ( K2) is
connected to the impeller eye area of the I stage with the help of pipe.
When pump is running, the leakage flow (q3) from the main flow (Qth) through the impeller, under
the pressure p3 flows through the axial clearance (b) to the disc chamber K1 where the pressure is p4 and
then through the clearance (b1), with certain losses. Flow then enters the chamber outlet K2, from which
flow passes through the tube T, enter the eye of the impeller. The pressure drops from p5 to p1 which is
greater than the suction pressure PS (i.e., P5 > p1> pS ).
Suciton
p1 p0 Q
q3
F zI FzD
d y∂
d∂
Fig. 7.11. Balancing drum (another form) Fig. 7.12. Axial thrust balancing by balancing drum
Pressure (p4) in the chamber (K1) induces a force at the bottom of the disc clearance passage. If
this pressure (p4) is larger than total axial thrust Σ FZ, the moving disc moves away from the stationary
ring. The disc clearance (b1) now increases. This in turn increases the leakage flow (q3) and also the
losses in the clearance. As a result of this, the pressure (p4) drops down and the disc moves towards the
stationary ring which in turn reduces the clearance (b1) and losses in the disc. This process repeats and
the clearance (b1) goes on changing, until the pressure (p4) equalises the axial thrust ΣFZ.. At this stage
the clearance b1 remains constant. The leakage quantity (q3) flows through the tube to the impeller eye
of the first stage of the impeller.
The pressure drop (p4 – p5) at the disc clearance, the leakage flow (q3), the dimensions of the
clearance, the connecting pipe dimensions to carry the leakage quantity q3 back to the inlet of the Ist
stage impeller are to be determined as follows:
The pressure drop, ∆ p (p4 – p5) across the disc clearance, to get complete balancing of axial thrust
will be
ΣFZ
∆P = ...(7.18)
ψ π ( Ra2 − R 2h )
where, Ψ is the coefficient depending upon the pressure distribution across the disc Ψ < 1, Ra is outer
diameter of disc and Rh is the outer diameter of the shaft sleeve.
Taking an uniform change of pressure across the clearance ‘b1’, the coefficient Ψ depends upon
the dimensions of the disc only
2 2
 r  r  r 
(1 − φ) 1 + e  + (1 + 2 φ)  e  − 3  b 
 Ra   Ra   Ra 
ψ = 2 ...(7.19)
 r 
3 1 − b 
 Ra 
where, φ the coefficient depends upon the pressure drop at the entry to and exit from disc clearance and
the losses in the clearance and is taken as φ = 0.18 to 0.25.
The leakage quantity (q3 ) will be
∆p
q3 = µ2 π reb1 2 g ...(7.20)
γ
The flow coefficient µ will be
1
µ = ...(7.21)
( R − r )r r2
λ a e e + e2 + 0.5
2 Ra b1 Ra
The pressure p4 before the disc can be determined from the pressure drop across the axial clearances
b. i.e.,
 ω2 2 
γ
(p3 – p4 ) =  H ( Z − 1) + Hp − ( R2 − rS2 )  – ∆P – (p5 – ps) ...(7.22)
 8g 
where, H —Head developed per stage.
Z —Number of stages.
ps —Suction pressure at impeller eye of 1st stage.
p5 —The pressure in the balancing chamber outlet (not more than 5 to 8 kg/cm2 so
that the stuffing box can work without any trouble).
The pressure drop (p3 – p4) across the axial clearance (b) will be
p3 − p4
q3 = µs As 2 g ...(7.23)
γ
Knowing q3 from equation (7.20) and the pressure drop from equation (7.19) the area
q3
µs As = ...(7.24)
p − p4
2g 3
γ
For better operation the clearance b1= (0.0010 to 0.0012) Ra and will be 0.6 to 0.8 mm. Now,
hence the length ‘L’ for the clearance can be determined.
The radius Ra of the disc is selected slightly less than the outer radius of the impeller. The diameter
Rb = (1.2 to 1.5) Rsh where Rsh = the shaft radius. The inner radius Re is fixed, based on the sufficient
length (ld ) of the disc.
The pressure drop ‘Ψ∆p’ is taken as constant. The coefficient ψ is determined from the condition
that the force Fd determined from the actual pressure distribution is equal to the pressure distribution on
the complete surface of the disc i.e.,
Ra
∑Fzi = Fd = ψ ∆pd π ( Ra2 − Rb2 )= ∫ ∆p 2π rdr

Rb
Re Ra
= ∫ ∆pd 2π rdr + ∫ ∆pd 2π rdr ...(7.25)
Rb Re
The pressure distribution on both sides of the disc and the pressure drop ∆p change according to
radius. Pressure on the right side of the disc p5 is constant and approximately 4 to 8 kg/cm2, for trouble
free operation of stuffing box. The pressure ‘p4’ at the left side of the disc is also constant. The pressure
drops from p4 to p5 due to losses in the balancing disc clearance φ∆p where the coefficient φ will be
1.5
φ = 2 ...(7.26)
λld Ra  Re 
. + + 0.5
2bd Re  Ra 
where ld = Ra – Re and λ, the coefficient of friction, depends upon the Reynold’s number of the flow ‘Re’
2
u 
2b2 C a2 +  a 
 2 
Re = ...(7.27)
ν
where Ca is the flow velocity at entrance and ν the kinematic viscosity of the fluid. Normally λ = 0.4 to
0.8 and φ will be 0.15 to 0.25. The pressure drop (∆p) in the disc clearance can be taken as proportional
to radius of the disc. It can be expressed
Ra − r
∆p = ∆pd (1 – φ) ...(7.28)
Ra − Re
Substituting this value of ∆p in equation (7.21)
Re Ra
Ra − r
Fd = ∫ ∆ Pa 2π rdr + ∫ ∆ Pa (1 – φ) Ra − Re
2π rdr
Rb Re
(1 − φ) ( Ra + Ra R1 ) + (1 + 2φ) Re − 3R b  π R a − Re ∆pd

 2 2  2 2
( )
( )
=
3 Ra2 − Rb2
from which
2 2
 R  R  R 
(1 − φ)  1 + e  + (1 + 2φ)  e  − 3  b 
 Ra   Ra   Ra 
ψ = ...(7.29)
  R 2 
3 1 −  b  
  Ra  
 
∆pd ∆pd
The flow q3 = µd A3 2 g = µ2π Reb2 2g ...(7.30)
γ γ
1
where, µd = .
λ d Re R 2e
. + + 0.5
2b Ra R 2a
The length of the clearance ‘ly’ at the shaft sleeve before the disc will be
p3 − p4 p3 − p4
q3 = µy Ay 2 g = µy 2π Rh by 2g ...(7.31)
γ γ
where, by is the radial width of the clearance and µy the coefficient is
1
µy =
λl y
+ 1.5
2by
The pressure drop (p3 – p4) = (p2 – p5) – (p2 – p3) – ∆ pd
p2 = p1 + γ [H (Z – 1) + Hp] ...(7.32)
H — Total head of the pump
Z — Number of stages
u 22  Rb2 
(p2 – p3) = γ 1 − 2  ...(7.33)
8g  R2 
The length of the tube ‘lt’, connecting the suction side of the Ist stage and outlet chamber of the
disc is approximately the length of the pump assembly. The tube diameter dt is determined from the
equation (7.34)
p5 − p1
q3 = µt A – 2g
γ
πdt 2 p5 − p1
= 2g ...(7.34)
λlt γ
4 + 1.5
dt
7.10 RADIAL FORCES ACTING ON VOLUTE CASING

Radial forces in spiral casing, occur only where axisymmetry is not maintained in flow at the
impeller outlet. Theoretically, axisymmetry can prevail only at the optimum efficiency conditions.
Practically, axisymmetry cannot be maintained due to uneven flow velocity across the breadth at the
outlet of the impeller. At partial flow conditions due to less flow, the flow is in the form of diffuser, due
to larger area of casing, whereas at higher flow the flow passage becomes smaller and forms a convergent
passage. In all these cases, flow cannot be axisymmetric. In Fig. 7.13, the pressure distribution at the
inlet of the spiral casing and the location of minimum (F1) and maximum (F2) forces acting on the
casing are illustrated. The net radial force acting on the rotating shaft creates fatigue and deflection. The
clearance provided between wearing rings and between shaft sleeve and shaft must take care of this
deflection while the pump runs from minimum to maximum flow. The impeller side bearing or the front
bearing must be designed to take this radial load.
90
90
F1
180 p2 360 180 360

0
270
F2
270
(a) (b)
Fig. 7.13. Pressure distribution across volute
7.11 DETERMINATION OF RADIAL FORCES

Forces acting on the external (Fe) and internal (Fi) surfaces in x and y coordinates can be determined
as,
Fxe = ∫ p dA cos (nx)

Ae
for external surface ...(7.35)
Fye = ∫ p dA cos (ny)
Ae
where n is the normal to elementary surface considered

p is the pressure, taken from the known pressure distribution.
Applying moment of momentum equation between inlet and outlet, in order to determine the
internal forces.
– Fxi = ∫ ρ CndA C cos (C x) – ∫ ρ Cn dA C cos (C x)

Ae A1
...(7.36)
– Fyi = ∫ ρ CndA C cos (C y) – ∫ ρ CndA C cos (C y)
A2 A3
where, A1 and A2 are the inlet and outlet area of the impeller C and Cn are the absolute velocity and its
components, resolved normal to the surface dA.
ρ is the fluid density.
Since the fluid exerts a force on impeller, the negative sign is given for Fxi and Fyi. For normal
entry at inlet C = C0 and is parallel to axis. Hence, Cn = 0. The integral for the area ‘A’ becomes zero.
The equations are reduced to
– Fxi = ∫ ρ CndA C cos (C x )

A2
and – Fyi = ∫ ρ CndAC cos (C y) ...(7.37)

A2
Total forces, Fx = Fxe + Fxi and Fy = Fye + Fyi

Fy
and F = F x2 + F y2 and angle θ = Arc tan ...(7.38)
Fx
Experimental investigation on different pumps shows that the pressure is almost constant around
the circumference of the impeller outlet (or at inlet to spiral casing) at optimum efficiency condition i.e.,
flow is axisymmetric. At high flow rate, (above normal flow) the pressure falls from tongue to outlet of
spiral casing. At below normal flow conditions the pressure increases from tongue to outlet end of spiral
casing. At very small flow rate, the flow reversal takes place near the tongue due to high pressure. For
calculation purpose, it can be assumed that pressure variation is uniform i.e., in straight line, from
tongue to outlet of spiral casing at below normal and above normal flow rates (Fig. 7.13).
Total head is the sum of pressure head (Hp) and dynamic head (Hdy). Considering a uniform
straight line variation around the circumference of the impeller, the pressure at any angle θ of the volute
can be written as
 θ 
p = γHm = γ  Hp+ Hdy  ...(7.39)
 2π 
and dA = b2R2d θ and cos (nx) = cos θ in equation (7.31). The radial thrust on the external side will be
(Fxe)
2π
 θ 
Fxe = ∫ p dA cos (n x) = –
∫ γ  H p + 2π H dy  b2 r2 dθ cosθ
Ae 0
2π
θ
=– ∫ γ 2π Hdy b2 r2 dθ cos θ
0
γH dy 2π
γHdy
=–
2π
b2 r2 ∫ θ cos θ dθ – 2π
b2 r2 [ θ sin θ + cos θ]02π = 0
0
...(7.40)
2π
Since, ∫ cos θ dθ =0
0
The external force in y direction Fye will be
2π 2π
 θ  θ
Fye = – ∫ γ Hp +
 2π
H dy  b r dθ sinθ = ∫ γ
 2 2 H b γ d θ sinθ
2π dy 2 2
0 0
2π
γH dy γH dy
= − b2 r2 ∫ θ sin θ d θ = − b2 r2 [− θ cos θ + sin θ] 2 π
2π 0
2π 0
γH dy
=– b r (–2π ) = r Hdy b2 r2 ...(7.41)
2π 2 2
The forces Fxe and Fye calculated as per the equation (7.35) are directed in radial direction towards
axis, near the tongue i.e., towards the smaller sections of spiral casing. The radial forces at the internal
surface Fxi and Fyi can be determined from the experimental results. From the analysis, it is found that
the tangential component Cu2 at the outlet of the impeller is constant at all point around the circumference
→ → →
Since C2 = Cr 2 + Cu 2
– Fxi = ∫ ρ Cr2 dA C′2 (C2 x) = ∫ ρ C2r2 dA cos (Cr2 x)

A2 A2
+ ∫ ρ Cr2dA C′u2 cos (C′u2 x) and

A2
...(7.42)
∫ρ Cr2 dA C′2 cos (Cu2 y) = ∫ ρ C r2 dA cos (Cr2 y)
– Fyi = 2
A2
A2
+ ∫ ρ Cr2 dA cos (Cr2 y)

A2
Q
Taking the radial velocity at the outlet of the spiral casing as Cr20 = , radial velocity at any
πD2 b2
angle θ of the spiral casing will be
 θ 
Cr2 = 1 −  Cr20
 2π 
2π 2π
 θ   θ 
So, Fxi = ∫ ρ Cr20 1 −  b r d θ cos θ – ∫ ρ Cr20 × 1 − 2π  × Cu2′ b2 r2 d θ sin θ
0  2π  2 2 0
2π 2π
 θ   θ 
= ρ C2r20 r2b2 ∫ 1 − 2π  cos θ d θ – ρ Cr20 b2 r2 ∫ 1 − 2π  sin θ dθ
0 0
C 2r 20  Cu′ 2 1  C2  1 1
= 2b2 r2γ  −  b D γ r 20  − 
2 g  Cr 20 π  2 2 2 g  tanα ′ π  ...(7.43)
 2 
2π 2 2π
2  θ  b r d θ sin θ +
– Fyi = ∫ ρ Cr20 1 −  2 2 ∫ ρ Cr20
0  2π  0
2 2π 2
×  1 − θ  Cu′ 2 b2 d θ cos θ = ρC2r 2 0 b2 r2  θ 
 2π 
∫ 1 − 2π  sin θd θ
0
2π
+ ρ Cr20 C′u2 b2 r2  θ 
∫ 1 − 2π  cos θd θ
0
2
C r220 C r 20
= – 2b2r2γ = – b2D2γ ...(7.44)
2g 2g
gH m
where, C′u 2 = , Cr20 = radial velocity at impeller outlet at optimum efficiency condition, α′2 is the
u2
Cr 20
absolute angle at outlet of the impeller. tan α′2 = .
Cu′ 2
While calculating the forces acting on outside surfaces of the impeller, only the cylindrical surface
of the impeller outlet is considered. The calculated value will be slightly lower than the actual. The
direction of the resultant will deviate about 20° with respect to vertical towards the volute tongue. The
derived equations can also be applied for other regions of operation either for part loaded or for over-
loaded conditions.
A.J. Stepanoff |112| recommends following empirical rule for the radial thrust in pumps
  
2
Q
Fr = 360 1 −  

 Hb′ D ...(7.45)
  Qopt   2 2
 
where H — Total head, D2 — outer diameter of the impeller b2′ = b2 + 2t
b2 — Outlet breadth of impeller and
t — thickness of shroud at outlet.
7.12 METHODS TO BALANCE THE RADIAL THRUST

Hydraulically balancing the radial thrust at all regions of operation is achieved by providing flow
symmetry in casing design. Dividing the volute flow passage into two equally, symmetrical channels,
each channel covering 180° of flow and kept opposite to each other provides complete symmetry at all
regions of operations. Radial forces developed in each channel are equal in magnitude, but acting opposite
to each other at any point around the circumference, at all regions of operation.
In the same manner, number of channel can be increased. Provision of a number of vaned channels
more than two called, diffuser, provides perfect symmetry and equalises the radial thrust.
In some of the volute designs for single stage pumps two volutes, each covering 180° of total
flow angle, are provided, with two outlet mouths (Fig. 7.14). In some other designs, two half volutes
are provided each covering 180° of flow area from impeller outlet (Fig. 7.14). The total flow enters a
single outlet mouth of volute. In both cases, the radial thrust created at any point equalises between two
half volute thereby net radial force is zero.
In multistage pumps, the outlet flow from the impeller enters two spiral passage, which are kept
180° apart, which equalises the radial thrust.
diffuser section
(a) (b)
Fig. 7.14. Volute designs to balance radial thrust

8
MODEL ANALYSIS
8.1 INTRODUCTION
Actual pump parameters differ from the theoretical values, due to the presence of viscosity in real
fluid and complicated flow passages in pumps. Two identical pumps differ in quality due to the presence
of different dimensions of surface roughness in flow passages. Model analysis and model testing of
pumps give an option to overcome all the above mentioned difficulties and also gives all necessary
information to design new pumps, so that, these pumps can be operated in a wide range of operation,
with quality.
Two pumps, model and prototype units, can be identical, if these pumps are similar geometrically,
kinematically and dynamically. Geometrical similarity indicates linear proportionality of all dimensions
including surface roughness of pump parts between model and prototype units. Kinematic similarity
indicates that fluid flow direction in all elements of model and prototype, at identical points remain
same. Combining these two similarities, we get that the absolute, relative and blade velocities between
model and prototype are proportional but in the same direction. Dynamic similarity indicates the
proportionality of the forces acting at the identical points of model and phototype units. Referring the
Navier-Stokes equation for a three dimensional incompressible fluid flow, geometrical similarity and
kinematic similarity are included, if dynamic similarity is considered. Most important non-dimensional
parameters such as Reynold’s number (Re), Froude number (Fr), Struhaul’s number (Sh) and Eular’s
number (Eu) are considered for dynamic similarity for incompressible viscous flow through pumps.
These numbers must be same for model and for prototype.
CA wA
C A′ w A′
A
A′
βA = β
B′ αA′ = αA βA′ A′
B
uA′ uA
Model CA′ w A′
=
CA wA
Prototype
Fig. 8.1. Geometrical and kinematic similarity
182
MODEL ANALYSIS 183
Vl Inertia force
Reynold’s number Re = =
ν Viscous force
V2 Inertia force
Froude number Fr = = ...(8.1)
gl Gravitational force
V Inertia force
Struhaul’s number Sh = =
nl Unsteady, periodical forces
where V is the velocity, l is the linear dimension, ν is the kinematic viscosity, and n is the speed. During
model test, all the above three non-dimensional numbers cannot be studied simultaneously. Since these
three numbers do not depend on each other, they are studied individually. Reynold’s number is studied
for a pressure flow, closed conduit flow of viscous fluid, such as flow in fully submerged condition,
flow in pipes and flow of fluid through pumps under completely filled condition. Froude number is
studied for a free flow such as open channel flow, flow of ship in water. In pumps, this number is studied
under fully developed cavitation condition, where flow separation exists. Struhauls number is used for
unsteady, periodical flow, in pumps, impeller as a whole, propulsion of ships.
When volumetric forces are not considered, Reynold’s number and Froude number can be studied
together by another number called Eular’s number (Eu).
p Pressure force
Eular’s Number Eu = =
ρV 2 Inertia force
where p is the pressure drop.

Since geometric similarity is the proportionality of linear dimensions of identical parts of model
and prototype, using suffices ‘p’ for prototype and ‘m’ for model for all equation hereafter,
lp Dp Bp
lm = λl Dm = Bm
where ‘l’ is the linear dimension, D is the diameter, B is the breadth and ‘λl’ is the proportionality
coefficient.
Kinematic similarity in pumps indicate that flow directions are same for model and for prototype,
i.e., flow angles namely absolute angle ‘α’ and blade angle ‘β’ remain same in model and in prototype
i.e., αm = αp and βm= βp . Since linear dimensional are already proportional between model and prototype,
velocity triangles are similar i.e.,
Cp wp up Cmp Cup
= = = =
Cm wm um Cmm Cum
up πD p n p np
= = λl ...(8.2)
um πDm nm nm
Qthp πD p B p Cmp np
Theoretical Flow rate, = = λ3l ...(8.3)
Qthm πDm Bm Cmm nm
Dp Bp
For geometrical similarity, =
Dm Bm
Qp D p3 n p
Hence,
Qm = Dm3 nm ...(8.4)
Actual flow rate, Qa = ηv .Qth,
Qap ηvp .n ην p D3p n p

p
= λ3l = η . = ...(8.5)
Qam vm nm ηνm Dm3 nm
H thp Cup u p u 2p n 2p D 2p n2p

= λl
2
Theoretical total head,
H thm = Cum um = u 2 nm2
=
Dm2 nm2
...(8.6)
m
Actual total head, Ha = ηh Hth.
H ap ηhp n2p ηhp D 2p n 2p

Hence, = λ2l = ...(8.7)
H am ηhm n 2m ηhm D 2m n 2m
Theoretical power, Nth = γQH and actual power, Na = ηNth
N ap η p Nthp η p γ pQ p H p
= ⋅ =
N am ηm Nthm ηm γ m Qm H m
η p γ p D3p n p D 2p n2p η p γ p n3p D5p

= ⋅ ⋅ 3 ⋅ 2 2 = ⋅
ηm γ m D m nm D m n m ηm γ m nm3
D5m
η p γ p 5 n3p
= ⋅ ⋅ λl ⋅ 3 ...(8.8)
ηm γ m nm
If pumping fluid is same in prototype and in model γp = γm.
In order to compare the performance of different pumps, and also to get complete characteristics
of one series of pumps a term specific spread (ns) is used. It is defined as the speed of a pump which is
geometrically similar for one pump series and consumes 1 hp of power under 1 m of total head. The
efficiencies of these pump series remain constant independent of its sizes i.e., n = ns when N = 1 hp and
H = 1 m.
γQH
N (hp) = (where Q in m3/sec H in m and γ = 1000 kg/m3
75
From similarity laws for power
5/ 2
H  H  H 5/ 2
H ∝ ηh n2D2 or D2 ∝ ; D5 ∝  2 
 ∝
ηh n 2  ηh n  η5h/ 2 n5
N
Ν ∝ η n3D5 or D5 ∝
ηn 3
MODEL ANALYSIS 185
Combining both by removing ‘D’
N H 5/ 2 ηH 5 / 2
∝ 5 / 2 5 or n
2 ∝
ηn 3 ηh n η5h/ 2 n5
10,000
90%
000
10,
x= 00
1 ,0
x=
1,000
85%
10 0
x=
80%
100
10
x=
70%
10
0 100 200 300 400

Specific speed (n s)
Fig. 8.2. (a) Efficiency change for different sizes
x = 10 x = 100 x = 1,000 x = 10,000
Fig. 8.2. (b) Size of the unit (x)

n = nS if H = 1 m and N = 1 hp, Designating η as ηs (efficiency of the series) and ηh as ηhs.

where suffix ‘s’ indicates one series of pumps having same value of ns.
1/ 2
ns  ηs .1 ηh5 / 2 N  η s ηh 5 / 4 N
=  . 5/ 2  = 5/ 4 ...(8.9)
n  ηhs .1 ηH  ηhs ηH
If efficiencies are same for all pumps of same series i.e., for one value of ns,
n N
ηs = η and ηhs = ηh. So, ns = ...(8.10)
H 5/ 4
γQH 1000
Substituting the value N = = . Q.H
75 75
1000 n Q 3.65n Q
. ns = = ...(8.11)
75 H 3 / 4
H 3/ 4
Characteristics linear dimension in pump is the diameter D. So replacing l and D
V V
Struhaul’s No. Sh = or n =
nD S h .D
p gH V2
Eular’s No. Eu = . Since p = γH or γ = ρg, Eu = or H = . Eu
ρV 2 V2 g
The flow rate Q = AV
3.65n Q V A .V g3/ 4 K
ns = = 3.65 . 3/ 2 3/ 4 = . ...(8.12)
H 3/ 4 S h .D V ( Eu ) Sh Eu3 / 4
3.65 A g 3 / 4 A
where, K = which is constant for one series of pump, since is constant for one series
D D
of pump. The specific speed, ns is a function of similarity of Struhaul’s and Eular’s numbers and hence
similarity of Struhaul’s, Reynold’s and Froude numbers.
Each value of ns designates one series of pump, which has its own operating region at which
overall efficiency is maximum and hence the form, shape of pump of one series will be same for one ns
value. But forms and shapes will be different for each series. Specific speed ns completely defines the
characteristics of one series. (Fig. 8.3) shows impeller shape for each value of ns.
D2
D2
D 0 = D1
D2
D0
D0
D6T
D 6T
D1
D 6T
D0
D1
D2
D
D
D
D1
n s = 40 ÷ 80 80 ÷ 150 150 ÷ 300 300 ÷ 600 400 ÷ 600 600 ÷ 1200 1200 ÷ 2000
Fig. 8.3. Impeller shapes for different ns

MODEL ANALYSIS 187
The test results of a model pump i.e., a pump from one series having one value of ns, can be used
for developing other pumps in the same series (same ns value), if it is brought out in a non-dimensional
form. In pump industries, unit head (KH), unit discharge (KQ), and unit power (KN), are the non-
dimensional parameters used to study the pump characteristics of one series.
Quantity of flow, Q = ηV .πDB.Cm
For geometrically similar pump, B ∝ D and hence, DB ∝ D2.
For kinematic similarity in pump, Cm ∝ u and u= πDn. (n-speed is rps).
So, Q ∝ ηVπD2 Dn or Q ∝ nD3
Q
KQ = is constant for one series of pump and is called unit discharge.
nD3
Cu u
Similarly total head, H = .ηh. Since, Cu α u α nD, H α n2D2
g
H
KH = is constant for one series of pump and is called unit head.
n D2
2
γQH γ
Power N = ∝ nD3 n2 D2 α n3 D5
75 75
N
KN = is constant for the series of pump and is called unit power. Test results of the
n D5
3
model pump conducted at different speeds are reproduced in these three non-dimensional parameters
namely σ, η, KH , KN = f (KQ). This is called universal characteristics of pump and remains same for one
series of pump i.e., for pumps having same ns but with different n, Q and H. Substituting values KQ and
KH in specific speed ns equation, Q = KQ n D3, H = KH n2 D2.
3.6560n KQ nD3 219 KQ

ns = = ...(8.13)
2 2 3/ 4
(K H n D ) ( K H )3 / 4
8.1.1 Real Fluid Flow Pattern in Pumps

Real fluid flow pattern prevailing in pumps, at all regions of operations i.e., below optimum,
optimum and above optimum regions, is complicated and is far different from the theoretical flow
pattern. This necessitates proper streamlining of flow passages, and bringing the same while
manufacturing. Also identical flow pattern should be maintained for pumps of same specific speed, but
possessing different sizes.
One of the effective methods adopted, in practice is MODEL ANALYSIS based on mechanical
similarity of real fluid flow. Complete mechanical similarity cannot be achieved. For example, Reynold’s
number (Re) of flow cannot be maintained same at identical points of operation for different pumps of
same specific speed. This inturn changes the frictional coefficient (hf) and correspondingly the hydraulic
losses and efficiency. This is overcome by operating the pumps in automodelling region, where frictional
coefficient remains same for all Reynold’s numbers.
Also absolute value of surface roughness purely depends upon the manufacturing techniques
ε
adopted. This value will remain same independent of the pump size. So the relative roughness   will
D
be higher for small pumps and lower for larger pumps. As a result, the frictional coefficient ( f ) will be
lower for larger pumps, and higher for smaller pumps even though the pumps operate at same Reynold’s
number. Hydraulic losses will be higher and hydraulic efficiency will be lower in smaller pumps and
vice versa in larger pumps. This scale effect is taken into account by using theoretical equations with
practical experimental coefficients. Figs. 8.4, 8.5, 8.6 and 8.7 show the increase in efficiency of same
pump when relative roughness is reduced.
N H
kW M H
50
N
40
30 2
20 1
0 10 η
η%
80 0
60
40
20
0 3
0 25 50 75 100 125 Q,m /hr
Fig. 8.4. Effect of surface roughness on pump performance

(1) Original from foundry casting (2) After smoothening the flow passage
60
Head (H) m and efficiency %
40
20
12 18 6m
0 3 6 9 12
Discharge (Q) LPS
Fig. 8.5. Effect of improving surface finish of the impeller shrouds on pump performance
– – – Machined and polished
—— Rough surface 0.5 mm grain size
MODEL ANALYSIS 189
Pump type
2 × 1½ SB 33
Effect due to roughness change in impeller surface

H (m) total head
Due to reduction in
% efficiency
N (hp) input
grain size of moulding

sand by 50%
30
60
6
25
50
5
20
40
4
15
30
3
10
20
2
10
1
5
Discharge lps
Fig. 8.6. Effect of roughness on performance

– – – – Reduced roughness
——— Original
Pump type
2½ × 2 SB 26
Effect to reduction in relative roughness in impeller passage

20 m total head
% efficiency
hp input
by reducing the grain

size of the moulding
sand by 15%
70
15
60
6
50
5
10
40
4
30
3
20
2
5
10
1
Discharge lps
Fig. 8.7. Effect of roughness on performance

– – – – Fire sand
——— Regular sand
MODEL ANALYSIS 191
Convergent flow takes place in turbines whereas divergent flow prevails in pumps. Laws applied
to turbine cannot be applied to pumps. The relative values of volumetric and mechanical losses are
more in pumps.
As per model analysis, the total head of a pump increases with the square of the speed of pump,
theoretically, but practically a little lower. This equation is defined, based on the assumptions that
efficiency of model and prototype are same when operated at identical points. Actually, when speed
increases, cavitation characteristics of pump reduces, which inturn reduces the efficiency to a certain
extent.
This is confirmed by many authors. So also viscosity of the pumping liquid influences on hydraulic
efficiency.
8.2 SIMILARITY OF HYDRAULIC EFFICIENCY
V2 V2
Head loss ∆H ∝ = λ.
2g 2g
∆H V2
Hence, ηh = 1 – = 1 – λ. = 1 – const. λ
Hm 2 gH m
V2
Since is same for model and for prototype.
2 gH m
Prof. Nikuradse |67| stated that under auto model region of operation, the frictional coefficient λ
can be expressed as,
1
λ = 2 ...(8.14)
 R
1.74 + 2 log 
 ε
and hydraulic efficiency (ηh) can be written as,
Const.
ηh = 2 ...(8.15)
 R
1.74 + 2 log 
ε
Since absolute value of surface roughness (ε) is constant as it depends upon the manufacturing
process, whatever may be the pump size, a general form of hydraulic efficiency can be expressed as,
A
ηh = ...(8.16)
( B + log . D)2
Prof. A. A. Lomakin has suggested that A = 0.42 and B = – 0.172
0.42
ηh = ...(8.17)
(log D1nom − 0.172) 2
where, D1 nom is the reference inlet diameter calculated as per the equation (8.15) and is expressed in mm
based on the equation (8.17). Hydraulic efficiency for prototype from model efficiency can be written
as,
2
 log D1nom.m − 0.172 
ηhp = 1– (1– ηhm)  
 ...(8.18)
 log D1nomp − 0.172 
In Fig. 8.8 the curve is drawn as per equation (8.17) for the diameter 350 mm. Practically, the drop
in efficiency is found more due to non auto model effect. Graph B, ∆ηh = ηhp − ηhm is calculated as per
equation (8.18) for the same diameter 350 mm. This graph gives an idea of change in hydraulic efficiency
between prototype and model. This value can be taken for actual design.
ηh% ∆ηh%
90 4,5
80 A 4,0
70 3,5
B
60 3,0
50 2,5
40 2,0
30 1,5
20 1,0
10 0,5
10 20 40 60 100 200 400 600 1000 2000 4000 6000 10000
Dmm
Fig. 8.8. Hydraulic efficiency of pumps (A) and increase in hydraulic

efficiency between prototype and model (B)
8.3 SIMILARITY OF VOLUMETRIC EFFICIENCY

Qa
Volumetric efficiency, ηV =
Qa + ∆Q
1 ∆Q
or, = 1+
ηV Qa
where, Qa is the actual quantity of flow and ∆Q is the leakage flow through clearance, which can be
expressed as
∆Q = φAL 2 g ∆H L
where, φ = the flow coefficient, A—area of the clearance and ∆HL is the pressure drop across the
clearance. Flow coefficient φ depends upon the linear dimensions of the clearance and frictional
coefficient. Assuming the frictional coefficient is constant for prototype and for model and since absolute
values of clearance dimension are same for model and prototype.
φ p = φm
Suffix ‘p’ refers prototype and m refers model.
MODEL ANALYSIS 193
For geometrical similarity, linear dimensions of model and prototype are proportional i.e.,
Ap = K2 Am, where K is constant of proportionality for linear dimension. The pressure drop ∆HL is
proportional to the total head of the pump i.e., ∆HL ∝ H ∝ n2 D2.
∆H Lp
2
Hp  np 
So, 2  
∆H Lm = H m = K  nm 
∆Q p φp . Ap 2 g ∆H Lp
=
∆Qm φm . Am 2 g ∆H L m
2  np 
2 p 
n
= K2K   = K  nm 
3 ...(8.19)
 m
n
np
K3 . ∆Qm
1 ∆Q p nm
Therefore, = 1+ =1+
ηVP Qp np
K3 Qm
nm
∆Qm 1
= 1+ = or ηVP = ηVm
Qm nVm
Thus, volumetric efficiency of model and prototype remain same, when clearance dimensions are
same for model and for prototype and the flow through the clearance is fully turbulent. If the leakage
clearances are different, these values are determined as per equation (8.19). Correspondingly, volumetric
efficiency of prototype will slightly change from that of model. Since, clearance change will be negligibly
small, it is usually neglected.
8.4 SIMILARITY OF MECHANICAL EFFICIENCY

Mechanical efficiency, ηm is expressed as
γQth H m
ηm = ...(8.20)
γQth H m + ∆N m
where, ∆Nm is the total mechanical losses consisting of losses due to disc friction ‘∆Nd’, losses in
stuffing box, ∆NS and losses in bearing, ∆NB. Losses in bearings are proportional to square of speed (n2)
and losses in stuffing box is proportional to speed n (Equation 6.8). Losses due to disc friction occupies
considerably a longer percentage of mechanical losses whereas losses in bearings and stuffing box are
very small and hence it is neglected. Total mechanical losses are taken as disc friction losses only.
1 ∆N d
1 +
ηm = γQth H m
...(8.21)
∆Nd ∝ γn3 D5 = Cf γn3 D5

where, Cf is the frictional coefficient. Assumining Cfp = Cfm
∆N dp C fp γ p n3p D5p γ p n3p

= = K5 ...(8.22)
∆ndm C fm γ m n3m D5m γ m nm3
3
Np γ p Qthp H mp γp  np 
Power ratio, K5  
N m = γ m Qthm H mm = γ m  nm 
...(8.23)
1 ∆N dp
= 1 +
ηmp γ p Qthp H mp
K 5 γ p n3p
∆N dm
γ m n3m 1
= 1+ 3 = ...(8.24)
γ p  np  ηmm
 γ m Qthm H mm
5
k 
γ m  nm 
Hence, ηmp= ηmm. i.e., Mechanical efficiency of model and prototype remains same. So also disc
friction losses for model and for prototype has the same power ratio. Combining all the three efficiencies,
overall efficiency η will be
η p = ηmp ηvp ηhp ηvp .ηhp

= ...(8.25)
ηm = ηmm ηvm ηhm ηvm .ηhm
ηvp and ηvm remain same for same clearance ratio for model and for prototype. If not the volumetric
efficiency differs. Prof. A.A. Lomakin has recommended the following empirical law to determine the
mechanical efficiency and volumetric efficiency in terms of the specific speed (ns ) of the pump.
1
Volumetric efficiency, = 1 + 0.68 ns–2/3
ην
1 820
Mechanical efficiency, = 1+ 2 ...(8.26)
ηm ns
3.65 n Q
where, ns = .
H 3/ 4
9
CAVITATION IN PUMPS
9.1 SUCTION LIFT AND NET POSITIVE SUCTION HEAD (NPSH)

Allowable suction lift (HS) is referred as the vertical V
height difference between pump axis and water level in
suction sump. Referring to Fig. 9.1, suction lift hs = Z0s – Zsu.
p0
Reference line for the calculation of suction lift, to determine
cavitation characteristics for different pump installations is Cs
given in Fig. 9.2. For horizontal pumps, pump axis is always hs
taken as reference line. All measurement measured above
z s,0
pump axis are referred as ‘delivery’ and all measurements hfs
measured below pump axis are called ‘suction’. Energy in
suction line i.e., from suction sump (su) to the impeller inlet Z su Pat
edge of the pump (o) remains constant. So also the energy in
delivery line is constant. Mechanical energy is converted into
Zsu
hydraulic energy in impeller and added to the available energy

at impeller ‘blade’. Referring to Fig. 9.1, the energy equation sump [su]
between suction sump and the impeller inlet, before the inlet
edge of the blade can be written as Fig. 9.1. Suction lift determination
p0 C2 psu C 2su
+ Z0 + 0 + hf (s – 0) = + Zsu +
γ 2g γ 2g
p0 C02 p C 2su
+ = su + (Zsu – Z0 ) + – hf (s – 0)
γ 2g γ 2g
Since, (Zsu – Z0 ) = – hs, and Csu the velocity of fluid in suction sump, is zero
p0 C 20 psu
γ + 2g =
γ
– ( hs + hf s) ...(9.1)
In order to have a perfect cavitation free operation, the suction pressure ( p0) must be greater than
p0 pvp
the vapour pressure (pvp) of the pumping fluid at the pumping temperature i.e., p0 ≥ pvp or – ≥0
γ γ
195
i.e., must be always positive. Substituting this condition in equation (9.1). The Net Positive Suction
 p0 − pvp C 02 
head of the pump (NPSH)p = Hsv =  +
2g 
will be greater than zero or always positive.
 γ
Pump
centerline
Pump centerline
and datum elevation Datum elevation
outer diameter of inlet edge
(b) Single suction-vertical
Pump centerline
Datum elevation
Center line of the outlet edge
(c) Double suction vertical
Fig. 9.2. Reference level for suction head measurement
 p0 − pvp C 20 
i.e., Hsv =  +  ≥ 0
 γ 2g 
Combining equation (9.1) and (9.2)
 psu − pvp 
Hsv =  γ
 – ( hs + hfs) ≥ 0 ...(9.2)
 
 psu − pvp 
or   ≥ ( hs + hfs)
 γ 
 psu − pvp 
Taking   as (NPSH)A i.e., net positive suction head available and (hs + hf s) (NPSH)R
 γ 
i.e., net positive suction head required, the condition required for cavitation free operation will be
CAVITATION IN PUMPS 197
 psu − pvp 
(NPSH)A > (NPSH)R. Rearranging equation (9.2) and taking   = Hsu – Hvp suction lift (hs)
 γ 
will be
hs = Hsu – Hvp – Hsv – hfs ...(9.3)
For safe operation of pump, i.e., for net (NPSH)p, a reserve in Hsv is added and is written with a
coefficient φ . Normally φ = 1.15 to 1.4 and safe suction lift will be
hs = Hsu – Hvp – φHsv – hfs ...(9.4)
If the sump is open to atmosphere Hsu = Hatm. Atmospheric pressure at any altitude ‘∆’ can be
written as
 ∆ 
Hatm. = Hatm0 –   where Hatm0 is the atmospheric pressure at sea level. Hatm0 = 10.336
 900 
MWC = 760 mm of mercury column. If the pumping liquid is other than water patm0 = γw Hw = γl Hl
γl H l
or Hw = = Sl Hl
γw
γl
where Sl is the specific gravity = . Suffix ‘w’ refers to water and ‘l’ refers to liquid.
γw
∆
∴ hsw = H atm0 − − H vp − φH sv − h fs ...(9.5)
900
hsw
Corresponding liquid column hsl =
sl
TABLE 9.1: Atmospheric pressure at different altitudes
∆ 0 500 1000 2000

Hatm 10.336 9.7 9.2 8.1
The value of Hvp depends upon the temperature of the pumping fluid. It increases when the
temperature is increased. Fig. 2.9 gives the vapour pressure value at different temperatures for water.
Table 9.1 gives the atmospheric pressure at different altitudes.
Net positive suction head ((NPSH)p = Hsv) of a pump is defined as the total pressure at stagnation
condition at inlet of the pump above the vapour pressure of the pumping fluid at the pumping temperature.
 p C2   p 
Referring to the inlet of the pump and since  +  =  st  , stagnation
 γ 2g   γ 
   
p0 C 20 p
Condition, + Z0 + = ost + Z0
γ 2g γ
Absolute flow is axisymmetric in suction pipe i.e., from the fluid level in suction chamber, (point
‘su’) to the impeller inlet edge (point 1), whereas relative flow is axisymmetric on the impeller blade
surface, i.e., from inlet edge, (point 1) to outlet edge (point 2).
At the impeller edge (point 1), both absolute and relative flows are axisymmetric.
Writing down the Bernoulli’s equation between point ‘O’ and point 1, i.e., points immediately
before the impeller inlet edge and on the inlet edge of the impeller blade, and since absolute flow is
axisymmetric,
p0 C02 p1 C12
+ Z0 + = + Z1 + + hf (0 – 1) ...(9.6)
γ 2g γ 2g
In the same manner, writing down the Bernoulli’s equation between point ‘1’ and point ‘x’ [Fig.
9.3 and Fig. 9.6 (b)] on the impeller blade and since relative flow is axisymmetric.
Impeller eye (suffix ‘o’)
of blade (suffix ‘I’)
Pr. on blade inlet

Point of min.
(suffix ‘x’)
Measuring
Inlet edge
point
hs
2 2
C0
loading
C1
Blade
e
2g si d
hfs 2g P r.
2
Suction tank
C
pressure hsc
2g
e
sid
(or)
on
c ti
p Su
γ
h at Cavitation
hvp
Fig. 9.3. NPSH determination and cavitation inception at inlet
p1 ( w12 − u12 ) px ( w2 − u x2)

+ Z1 + = + Zx x + hf (1 – x) ...(9.7)
γ 2g γ 2g
Referring the inlet velocity triangle,
w12 − u 21 C2 u C
w21 = C21 + u21 – 2u1 Cu1 (or) = 1 – 1 u1 ...(9.8)
2g 2g g
Combining equations (9.7 and 9.8) and rearranging
p1 C2 C u p ( wx2 − u x2 )
+ z1 + 1 – u1 1 = x + Zx + + hf (1 – x) ...(9.9)
γ 2g g γ 2g
Combining equations (9.6 and 9.9)
p0 C 20 px  w2 – u x2  u1Cu1
+ Z0 + = + Zx +  x  + g + hf (0 – x) ...(9.10)
γ 2g γ  2g 
For cavitation free operation, minimum pressure px ≥ pvp the vapour pressure. At minimum pressure
 wx2 – u x2   wx2 – u x2 
px = px (min), velocity   =   . Adding (– pvp) on both sides of equation (9.10) and
 2g   2 g max
rearranging.
( p0 − pvp ) C02 ( px − pvp ) wx2 − u x2 uC
+ = + ( Z x − Z 0 ) + + 1 u1 + h f (0− x ) ...(9.11)
γ 2g γ 2g g
( p0 − pvp )C 02 uC
But + = Hsv and (Zx– Z0) is taken as = 0, since it is very small, 1 u1 = 0 for
γ 2 g g
normal entry in pumps. px min= pvp . Under critical condition for cavitation free operation. Equation
(9.11) will be
 wx2 – u x2 
(Hsv)cr =   + hf (0 – x) ...(9.12)
 2 g max
Since point (0) and point (x) are very near to each other at suction.
p0 C 20 p0 st p
+ Z0 + = + Z 0 = xst + Z x ...(9.13)
γ 2g γ γ
Combining equations (9.10) and (9.13)
pxst p  w2 − u x2  uC
+ Zx = x + Zx +  x  + 1 u1 + h f (0− x )
γ γ  2g  g
 pxst − px  ∆p0  wx2 – u x2  u1Cu1

  =
 γ  γ = ∆h0 =  2 g  + g + hf (0 – x)
 
...(9.14)
 w2 – u x2 
(∆h0)max =  x  + hf (0 – x) ...(9.15)
 2 g max
Comparing equations (9.12) and (9.15), it can be written as

(Hsv)cr = (∆h0)max
where, (∆h0) max is called as Maximum Dynamic Depression. It is evident that (Hsv)cr is a function of
kinetic energy of the flow at suction. Hence, dynamic similarity law can be applied between model and
prototype values of (Hsv). hf (0 – x) is neglected, since it is very small because of convergent flow pattern
between points 0 and x.
Dynamic depression can also be expressed in some other form. All functions, as far as cavitation
is concerned, take place at suction side and on the inlet edge of the blade (from point 0 to point ‘x’ on the
blade). Referring inlet velocity triangle under normal entry condition Cu0= Cu1= 0, C0 = Cm0,
C1 = C m1, u 20 + C2m0= w02 and u12 + C 2m1= w12. Due to vane thickness flow velocity increases
Cm1 = K1Cm0 where, K1 is the vane thickness coefficient
wx2 − u x2 w2x − u 21 w2x − w21 + C 12

( ∆ h0)max = = =
2g 2g 2g
w2x − w21 Cm21

= +
2g 2g
  w  2  w21 2
 Cm1  Cm2 0
=   w 
x
− 1 +  C  2 g ...(9.16)
 1  2 g m0
2 2
 Cm1    wx  
Taking, m=   and n =    – 1  ...(9.17)
 Cm 0    w1  
Substituting this value in equation (9.16)
w21 C 2m 0
(∆h0)max =n +m ...(9.18)
2g 2g
Experiments conducted on different pumps by different authors, indicate that m = 1.0 to 1.2 and
n = 0.3 to 0.4. Since, m and n are velocity ratios; similarity laws can be applied. Values of m and n
remain constant for pumps of same specific speed.
σ ) THOMA’S CONSTANT
9.2 CAVITATION COEFFICIENT (σ
Prof. Thoma |97| has defined cavitation coefficient (σ) as
H svcr = ( ∆h0 )max
σ= ...(9.19a)
H
Cu 2u2
which is a non-dimensional number. Substituting H = g ,
 wx2 − u x2 
H sv  2g 
=  C u 
H  u2 2 
 g 
indicates that σ represents velocity ratios, which is constant for model and prototype of same specific
speed, i.e., σm= σp .
However, this coefficient has certain drawbacks. For example, two pumps having identical inlet
conditions but different outer diameters, Hsv will remain same but H will differ and hence the value σ
changes. This is overcome by defining another non-dimensional expression, called Cavitation Specific
Speed (C).
Moscow Power Institute | 58 | recommends a relation between σ and ns as
( ns ) 4 / 3
σ= ...(9.19b)
4700
Based on intensive experimental investigation on cavitation on axial flow pumps, Leningrad
Polytechnic Institute |105| recommends the following equation to determine σ :
  4 δm   2
2
 (1 + β) +
 π l ∞ –u
1 w
   
 
σ= ...(9.19c)
2 gH
where, β—curvature and δm—maximum thickness.
9.3 CAVITATION SPECIFIC SPEED (C)

Professors Rudnoff | 104 |, Wislicenus | 133 |, Watson | 103 | and Karrassik | 54 | defined cavitation
specific speed (C).
4/3
5.62n Q n Q
C= , or Hsv = 10   ...(9.20)
( H sv )3 / 4  C 
This expression is similar to that of specific speed and hence called cavitation specific speed (C).
Normally, pump speed is selected based on cavitation specific speed. Increase in speed for the given
head and discharge of a pump, reduces the size of the pump. Due to reduction in area, the flow velocity
increases, which inturn increase the main friction losses and increased secondary flow losses. The
cavitational property reduces considerably.
In order to improve cavitational property, flow passage especially suction side of the pump must
be improved and well designed for better streamlined flow. This can be done only by proper construction
and efficient manufacturing technology. Since improvement in manufacturing of pump has its own
limitations, for example, surface roughness cannot be reduced below certain limit unless costlier
manufacturing processes are adopted. That’s why cavitation specific speed (C) has a narrow range of
operation unlike normal specific speed which ranges theoretically from ‘0’ to ∞, practically from 10 to
2500.
Cavitation specific speed (C) ranges from 800 to 1100. To improve C above 1100, improved
manufacturing and construction techniques must be adopted. Pump cost also considerably increases.
For normal design ‘C’ can be taken as 900 to 1100 depending upon the manufacturing process available
and speed is determined. For special pumps C is selected as C = 1200 to 1500.
9.4 CAVITATION DEVELOPMENT

When pressure at the point ‘x’ (Figs. 9.3 and 9.10) on the leading side of the impeller blade of the
pump, falls below vapour pressure of the liquid for the prevailing temperature of the pumping liquid, the
pumping liquid becomes vapour, 1 cc of liquid in the form of water, when converted into vapour,
occupies approximately 1780 cc of water vapour. Since the space available in between impeller blades
is very small, pressure instantaneously raises to a very high value. This pressure rise makes the vapour
to condense to liquid. Now the pressure falls below the vapour pressure and the liquid changes into
vapour. Likewise the pressure changes from high positive to high vacuum instantaneously, many times
in a second. The pressure rise is approximately in the order of 100 to 300 atmospheres. This sudden high
instantaneous fluctuating pressure rise gives a heavy hammer blow on impeller blades, like shock waves.
When pressure exceeds elastic limit of the material of the blade, metal is gradually removed from the
blade. This pressure fluctuation followed by metal erosion and subsequent corrosion is called cavitation.
Due to cavitation, impeller blades, shrouds, especially at inlet leading edge as well as other parts of
pump like suction side of casing get damaged. Flow does not follow streamlined or axisymmetric pattern.
Hydraulic losses increase; hydraulic efficiency and overall efficiencies considerably decrease. Huge
noise and heavy vibrations are produced. Life of the pump reduces. Under severe cavitation condition,
pump fails to work. At high vacuum, oxygen present in the fluid is released from the liquid, gets reacted
with the material of the impeller and other parts of the pump. The metal is converted into metal oxide.
This metal oxide, in the form of powder being weak, is carried away by the flowing fluid. Thus, corrosion
adds to the erosion in reducing the metal thickness increasing the roughness of the surface.
No metal is resistant to cavitation. Low strength metals gets corroded at a faster rate, whereas high
strength materials gets corroded at a slower rate. Phosphor bronze gun metal have more elastic and anti
corrosive property but possess low strength and smooth surface. Cast iron, malleable iron possess high
strength but gets corroded at a faster rate. Stainless steel SS304 and SS316 an anti corrosive and high
strength material is also used for pumps having more cavitating characteristics. Carpenter, Alloy 20 Ni
hard, Ni resist materials possess still higher strength and high anti corrosive quality.
Initial stage of cavitation does influence on parameters of pumps namely head, discharge, power,
efficiency and speed. When cavitation increases the rate of drooping down property of H-Q curve is
noticed. Entire system becomes unstable when pump runs under severe cavitation. Pump cannot be run
at this condition. Rate of flow, total head, power, efficiency and speed drops down suddenly and fluctuates.
Fig. 9.4 (a) shows a typical performance characteristics of pump under normal and at cavitation
operating conditions. (H-Q) and (η-Q) curves start droping down suddenly at certain flow rate when
50 80
η hs =
Critical NPSH (m) Efficiency %

H
0.5 m
H, N, η 40 hs = 2 m 70
H
Head (m)
h 60
30 s =3
.5
Cavitation Normal m
Critical
20 50
hs
N NPSH
=5
h
.5
s =
7 8
m
10 m NPSH 4
2 4
η 1 2
Q 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Flow Q [L/S]
Fig. 9.4. (a) Pump performance under Fig. 9.4. (b) The effect of cavitation on a centrifugal
normal and cavitating condition pump performance (effect of suction
lift hs and NPSH)
cavitation occurs. No further increase in flow is possible. When suction lift (hs) increases or NPSH
decreases (H-Q) and (η-Q) curves drop down more and more at a lower flow rate (Q) than the previous
value Fig. 9.4 (b). So also power discharge (N-Q) curve also drops down. The point, where it starts
droping down suddenly, indicates the inception of cavitation.
9.5 CAVITATION TEST ON PUMPS

Cavitation test is the process of the determination of the point of osciliation in Q, H, N, η, n, when
suction lift (hs) or NPSH (Hsv) or dynamic depression (or anti cavitating reserve) ∆h is changed from
maximum to minimum, when pump is running at one point of H-Q curve [Figs. 9.5(a) and 9.5(b)]. For
every operating point of the pump, there is one value of Hsv below which cavitation starts. Cavitation
test ends, the moment (Hsvcr), the critical value of Hsv or ∆h or hs is determined for all selected point of
operation. A curve joining all Hsv or hs values, obtained for different operating points gives the complete
characteristics (Hsv) = f (Q) or C or σ = f (KQ) (Fig. 9.11).
In closed test rigs, cavitation test is conducted by reducing the pressure in the space above water
level in the closed reservoir with the help of a vacuum pump.
Fig. 9.6 illustrates a schematic sketch of a cavitation test set up and Figs. 9.7 and 9.8 show the
actual cavitation test rigs for centrifugal pumps and axial flow pumps.
Essentially a cavitation test rig consists of a closed tank to which suction and delivery pipe lines
are connected. The delivery pipe has a venturimeter to measure the flow through the pump, a gate valve
to control the flow rate and a tapping point to measure the delivery head of the pump. The suction pipe
has a tapping point to measure the suction head of the pump and another tapping point to measure the
temperature of water. A mercury manometer is connected to the delivery and suction head measuring
points to measure the total head of the pump. Another mercury manometer is connected to the venturimeter
to measure the flow rate of the pump. All the measuring points are located with sufficient upstream and
downstream straight pipes (3D to 6D where D is the diameter of the pipe) before and after all flow
obstructions. A vacuum pump is connected to the closed tank to change the vacuum in the tank. A
mercury manometer is connected to the suction tapping point to measure the vacuum at the inlet of the
pump. Pump, to be tested is kept at the adjustable test bed. A variable speed DC dynamometer is connected
to the pump through a flexible coupling. Speed is measured by a tachometer. Torque output from the
DC dynamometer to the pump is measured by a dial indictator. Proper cooling arrangement is provided
at the stuffing box to avoid air entry into the pump through stuffing box and at the same time keep the
stuffing box at low temperature. Additional supply of water to the tank and removal of water from the
tank are carried out by separate gate valves. This arrangement is essential to keep the water temperature
constant as water gets heated due to constant circulation. The temperature of water is measured by a
thermometer fitted at the suction pipe.
Cavitation test is conducted as per the method suggested here. From the load test performance
graph, (i.e., H-Q and η-Q graphs) a few operating points are selected very near to maximum efficiency
point for (NPSH)p determination value (points 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 in Fig. 11.3). Pump is started with gate valve
in closed condition for radial flow centrifugal pumps, whereas gate valve in opened condition for mixed
and axial flow pumps. Speed is adjusted to run always at constant speed. The gate valve is adjusted so
that the pump runs at point 1. After attaining steady flow condition, suction head i.e., vacuum before the
impeller, total head, quantity power, speed are taken and efficiency is calculated. All the readings are
entered in a tabular form (Table 9.2).
TABLE 9.2: NPSH (Hsv) determination for H = ...., Q = ...., N = ...., η = .....
S.No. Suction Total Flow Power Effy η Speed n (NPSH)p

head hs head H rate Q N Hsvp
Net positive suction head of the pump, Hsvp is calculated by the formula
psu − pvp
Hsvp = – (Hs + Hfs)
γ
 psu  p
=  − hs − h fs  – vp
 γ  γ
= Vacuum manometer reading – Vapour pressure
Now, the suction head ‘hs’ is increased by operating the vacuum pump and the vacuum in kept
constant at one level. All values, mentioned above, are measured and entered in Table 9.2. In the same
manner, suction head ‘hs’ is increased further in step by step and experiment is conducted until unsteady
condition is attained.
Discharge, total head, power and efficiency remains same, up to critical value of (Hsvp). At Hsvp
critical, all readings suddenly drop down and fluctuates. Pump runs with noise and vibration. This
indicates that the pump is running under severe cavitation. No further increase in vacuum is possible
and no further test on pump could be conducted. The vacuum is reduced and the pump is brought to the
normal operating condition. Now, by adjusting the flow control valve, point ‘2’ is set in the test. The
experiment is repeated as mentioned earlier until (Hsvp) critical point is reached. Likewise the experiment
is repeated for points 3, 4, 5, i.e., for all selected points. A graph H, Q, n, η = f(Hsv) (or) hs (or) ∆h is
drawn taking values from the conducted test results for all points from Table 9.2. One such graph is
given for one operating point in Fig. 9.5 (a).
Since exact point of the beginning of severe cavitation could not be determined, 1 to 2% drop in
the values of normal flow rate, total head, power and efficiency i.e., 98 to 99% of normal flow rate, total
head, power and efficiency is taken as (Hsvp) critical and this is the value of (NPSH)p of the pump at
operating point 1 in load test curve of the pump. In the same manner, from the tests conducted (NPSH)p
at other selected points (points 2, 3, 4, 5) are determined. All (NPSH)p values are now plotted on the load
test graph to get Hsv = f (Q) curve. The minimum most point in this curve is the best point of operation
of the pump for cavitation free operation, which corresponds to maximum value of ‘hs’(Fig. 9.5).
Best cavitation free operating point need not be the best efficiency point of operation. For long life
of the pump, it is always better to run the pump at best cavitation free operating point, than at best
efficiency point.
In open test rigs, the cavitation test is conducted by closing the gate valve at suction line, keeping
the delivery gate valve at one position constant throughout the test. The experiment is repeated for
different positions of delivery gate valve.
Critical values of Hsvcr or (∆hcr or hsmax) depends upon the type of impeller i.e., specific speed (ns)
of the pumps. For low specific speed pumps ns < 100, H, Q, η, N curves remain constant with the
decrease of Hsv (or increase hs) until critical point is reached. At critical point i.e., when cavitation starts,
all these values suddenly drop, i.e., horizontal lines change to vertical lines in the graph. When ns is
increased, i.e., ns = 100 to 350, these values H, Q, η, N gradually reduce until critical point is reached
and then suddenly drops. In axial flow pumps ns > 450, there will not be a sudden drop after critical
point instead it will be gradual. Correct critical point, infact, cannot be determined.
55
H
50
N, kW
Q 40 45
Q 35 N
30 40
H 25
H 20 35
η
Q
lit/sec 30
η
Q
25
η%
20 80 η
15 75
1 to 2%
10 70
H s(cr)
H svmin ∆h (or) h s (or) H sv
65
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Hs m
(a) Schematic diagram (b) Centrifugal pump
Hm
H
60 Q. lit/sec
η% 190
50
η 180
80 40
170
70 30 η,%
60 20 80
N,kW 70
15 10 N 60
10 H,m
5 Q 1,2 7
L/S 1 2 3 4 5 6 8
0 15 H sv(min) 1,1 9
Q 1,0
10 10
5 11
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 H s,m
2 4 6 8 10 12 H sv
(c) Centrifugal pump (d) Axial flow pump
Fig. 9.5. Actual cavitation characteristics of pump
2 1
p1
∆h
pa
ps
1
Fig. 9.6. Schematic diagram of cavitation test rig

1. Control valve, 2. Flow measurement
206
Control
valve
Orifice
Collecting tank meter
Delivery Manometer
Manometer vacuum
total head
Manometer
flow
measurement
measurement
Speed
h
Thermometer
D.C. Dynamometer

Suction
Pump Power
Vacuum pump for test measurement
Fig. 9.7. Cavitation test rig for centrifugal pump

CAVITATION IN PUMPS
B
3 14 15 B
12 13 16
1 2 3 4 5 8
17
B 18
19
A
C 21
6 9
7 B
10
11
B B B
B
A
B B
20
C
23
A
B-Reference level for all 24 22

measurement Size 15 m × 6 m
Fig. 9.8. Cavitation and load test rig for axial flow pump
1. Power measurement 9. Manometer—total head measurement 17. Vacuum chamber level indicator
2. Speed measurement 10. Vacuum manometer 18. Vacuum tank
3. Torque arm 11. Base level-manometer 19. Air removal pump
4. DC Dynamometer 12. Vacuum box 20. Circulating pump
5. Pump under test (Axial flow) 13. Suction pipe 21. Water supply pump
6. Delivery pipe 14. Suction chamber 22. Outlet tank
7. Manometer for flow measurement 15. Control value 23. Venturimeter
207
8. Inlet cone (suction) 16. Vacuum chamber 24. Inlet tank
The gradual drop in pumps of higher specific speed is due to the decrease in efficiency at a faster
rate than in low specific speed pumps even before reaching the critical point of Hsv. That’s why critical
values of Hsv in these pumps are always determined from the efficiency graph η = f (Hsv), instead of
from the graph H, Q, N, = f (Hsv). Referring to the consolidated graphs (η-Q, H-Q) of different pumps of
different specific speed (Fig. 11.4) that for low specific speed pumps the η-Q and H-Q curves are more
inclined towards horizontal lines i.e.,more flat, whereas for high specific speed pumps the (H-Q) and
(η-Q) curves are more inclined towards Y-axis, which indicates that the percentage drop of efficiency in
high specific speed pumps are more than the drop in efficiency for low specific speed pumps. For the
same range of (Qmin to Qmax) operating region, efficiency variation in high specific speed pumps are
more than that in low specific speed pumps. This effect changes, the H, Q, η, N = f (Hsv) graph. Even
under cavitation in such high specific speed pumps, there may not be noise heard or vibration presence
felt or even cavitation erosion seen. That’s why, these pumps are not economical when operated under
cavitation.
The change in the appearance of cavitation and subsequent erosion in pumps depends upon the
impeller construction. In pumps with smaller specific speed, flow passages are radial. The length of the
flow passage depends upon the blade angle β, number of blades (Z) and the diameter ratio (D2/D1). At
the time of cavitation, the pressure at the inlet edge at the suction side of the blade, will be equal to
vapour pressure (hvp). For any further reduction in total head or increase in flow rate, this low pressure
(vapour pressure) area spreads over the entire area across the channel. No further reduction in pressure
is possible. Flow cannot be increased any further even the vacuum is increased further since the pressure
side and suction side pressure and hence the difference in pressure remains same, which is equal to the
difference between inlet pressure and vapour pressure, which exists across the complete flow passage
width between blades at inlet.
In impellers of high specific speed the passage area between two successive blades are wider but
with shorter lengths of blades. The vapour pressure will not cover completely the entire area at suction
side instead only partly, as a result of which further drop in pressure is necessary so that vapour pressure
can cover the whole passage area at inlet which results in for a higher flow rate.
Normally in axial flow pumps, two successive blades do not overlap. Hence, the drooping tendency
exists for more area before cavitation starts. Even at the time of cavitation, there exists a flow passage
between two vapour pressure regions, the area being approximately equal to the area prevailing between
blades at full closed condition of blades. In this passage the pressure is larger than vapour pressure and
there exist a flow even after cavitation, which results in the gradual drop instead of sudden drop at
critical point.
 C02   w21  w12

In pumps of smaller specific speed the term   is more predominant than   . In fact
 2g   2g  2g
 w21 
does not have any importance. In pumps of higher specific speed, the term   is more predominant
 2g 
 C 20  w2
than  , since 1 depends upon the pump head (H) [and hence the speed (n)] and number of
 2g  2g
blades (Z). The relative velocity w1 at inlet reduces when speed (n) is reduced or the total head (H) is
reduced or when number of blades are increased. In pumps of medium specific speed, maximum flow
rate for the given suction head at inlet can be increased by increasing the blade length i.e., extending the
blade into the impeller eye area at inlet and rounding off the inlet edge (Fig. 9.10). This increases the
inlet area and reduces the inlet velocity (C1). The blade, instead being purely radial at inlet becomes a
double curvature type, due to change in the inlet diameter D1 from hub to periphery. At outlet, however,
the blade is radial.
3
b2 2
D2
x
D2 DS = D0 o
2 D
b1
D0 = Ds
D1 D1
DH DH
Fig. 9.9 Impeller with cylindrical Fig. 9.10 Impeller with vanes extended into impeller
vanes (pure radial) eye at inlet (Double curvature at inlet)
In multistage pumps such as feed water pumps and in condensate pumps, the cavitation effect
is taken care of only for the Ist stage. The reduction in H, Q, Ν, η = f (Hsv or ∆h) curve is at a lower rate
than in single stage pumps. The reduction in these curves is due to the presence of vapour pressure at
inlet due to release of air and vapour, at low boiling point.
The deciding factor for cavitation inception is not the absolute value of unit hydraulic energy but
the value above the vapour pressure at inlet for the pumping liquid conditions. The value of unit hydraulic
energy above vapour pressure is called Dyamic Depression or anti cavitating reserve of suction (∆h) for
the pumping liquid at pumping temperature. When pumping liquids of high temperature such as boiling
water by feed water pump or by condensate pump, this anti cavitating reserve is attained by providing
higher suction pressure or higher suction head.
Sometimes in the graphs H, Q, N, η = f (Hsvp) efficiency curve alone slightly raises and then drops
down Fig. 9.5 (c), under critical cavitation, while all other curves drops down from normal values
[Figs. 9.5 (b) and 9.5 (c)].
Under critical cavitation condition, maximum relative velocity at the inlet edge of the impeller
blade occurs at point x (Fig. 9.6). Flow separation also takes place, and the losses increase. As a result,
efficiency drops down. Sometimes, flow separation and vortex formation does not take place at the
point of maximum relative velocity even under critical cavitation condition. This result is slight increase
in efficiency before sudden drop of efficiency.
Similar to equal efficiency ‘O’ curves equal ‘C’cavitation specific speed ‘O’curves are also drawn
on universal characteristics. Fig. 9.11 gives one such curve.
Figs. 9.12 and Fig. 9.13 give the normal places in impellers of different pumps, where cavitation
usually occurs and places of cavitation erosion, that usually occurs in axial flow pumps.
KH
0
900
80
0,10 C=
s=
30 0 1000
n
%
η = 60 1200
70 4
50 0 0 0
75
0,08 60 0 1500
80
7
80 0 0 0
83 1700
900
0,06 85 0
8 8 = 95 2000
87 0
86
85 2500
0,04
83 ns = 3000
80 3500
75 ϕ = + 20°
70 5000
0,02 60 4000 ϕ = +10°
η = 50%
ϕ = 0°
ϕ = – 7,5° ϕ = – 5°
0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5 0,6 0,7 0,8 0,9 1,0 1,1 KQ
η and C’ O-curves
Fig. 9.11. Universal characteristics of axial flow pump in KH-KQ co-ordinates with ‘η
Centrifugal pump
Axial flow
Suction side inlet Outlet Inlet

Axial flow
Centrifugal pump
Peripheral radial clearance Double suction Single suction

Mixed flow
Centrifugal pump
Suction tongue Volute tongue

Impeller and
diffuser inlet Volute
Fig. 9.12. Places affected by cavitation in different pumps
1½ – 2
<1
2–3
6–8 4
Inlet 75°
Outlet
2 mm
up to 4
Erosion depth
5 mm
3 mm
90°
up to 4
Fig. 9.13. Erosion in axial flow pumps due to cavitation
9.6 METHODS ADOPTED TO REDUCE CAVITATION

(a) Increasing Suction Pipe Size
Referring to equation (Eqn. 9.2) Hsvp, the net positive suction head of pump can be positive if the
frictional losses hfs is reduced. Increasing the suction pipe diameter (ds) reduces the suction pipe velocity
Cs2
(Cs). This considerably reduces the frictional looses (hfs) and velocity head at suction, thereby Hsvp
2g
can be made positive. This is done in all pumps mostly in agricultural, chemical process pumps, etc. The
suction pipe size is always greater than the delivery pipe diameter.
(b) Reducing the Suction Lift
Referring to equation (9.2), Hsvp can be positive if suction lift (hs) is reduced. This is done by
lowering down the pump with respect to the fluid level in suction sump. If suction lift reduction is
insufficient the pump level can be brought down below the fluid level in suction tank. Suction lift will
be negative (– hs). This is called suction head or positive suction. This is followed in industries, such
as furnance, oil pumping, boiler feed pumps, chemical process pumps etc.
(c) Increasing the Suction Tank Pressure
In case of pumping high temperature gaseous fluids at ordinary pressures and temperatures, vapour
pressure of the fluids will be very high. The term (p su – p vp) becomes negative. In order to
overcome this condition, suction tank is closed and the tank pressure is increased above the vapour
pressure of the fluid at the pumping temperature. This procedure is adopted in chemical industries,
especially where high temperature fluid pumping is carried out.
(d) Increasing the Width at Inlet of the Impeller
Similar to that of increasing the suction pipe size, the impeller inlet width is considerably increased
in axial direction. This method has been proved experimentally a good viable method. The minimum
pressure at point X on the inlet edge of the blade is

found to be higher than the vapour pressure which
avoids cavitation (Fig. 9.14). Cavitation specific
speed ‘C ’ considerably increases. The area at inlet
 π 
A0 (= πD0 b1) ≈ 2.5 to 3.0 A1  = ( D02 bh2  . By
 4 
increasing the breadth, b1 the percentage of quantity
of flow (Q) passing through every point of inlet edge,
with respect to the total quantity (Qt) entering the
Q
inlet v =   is less. Also the blade velocity u0
 Qt 
decreases. The inlet edge is extended into the
Fig. 9.14. Increased inlet width for non-
impeller eye area. Inlet edge of the blade is inclined cavitating operation
instead of horizontal. The blade velocity u0 from
hub to periphery increases as a result of which, the blade becomes a two dimensional and twisted,
instead of purely cylindrical at inlet. Due to reduced blade velocity at periphery, maximum relative
velocity wmax also reduces by which the cavitational characteristics of the pump ‘C’ increases. At the
periphery of the inlet edge, a reverse flow prevails and axial vortex exists before the inlet edge, which
also improves the cavitation property. The inlet edge is made sharp, because of this, flow separation at
inlet edge exists. Axisymmetric potential flow no longer prevails. Due to this effect, minimum pressure
is higher than vapour pressure. Unsteady vortex reversed flow at inlet mixes with the main flow and
goes back to the blade inlet. There is a constant and continuous exchange of energy in the liquid. The
cavitation specific speed ‘C ’ increases even up to 2200 to 2500, from normal value of 800 to 900.
However, hydraulic losses increase the flow velocity Cm does not change uniformly from inlet to outlet
edge.
(e) Provision of Inlet Guide Blades
Maximum dynamic depression ∆hmax is deter-
mined by the maximum relative velocity prevailing at
the entrance edge (Eqn. 9.18). Even by providing an
angle of attack at inlet, a reduction of local maximum
relative velocity could not be achieved. However, it
can be shown that by providing a prewhirl before the
inlet edge i.e., provision of Γ1 a circulation at inlet, a
reduction in w1max is obtained. This is achieved by
providing inlet guide blades, (Fig. 9.15) before impeller
eye at approach channel. Prewhirl increases ∆hmax by Fig. 9.15. Fitting with inlet guide blades
u1Cu1
an amount as per the total head equation. Total head, however, should not be changed due to
g
this prewhirl addition. Such Prewhirl is obtained by adding a circulatory flow to the main axial flow.
This circulating motion is achieved by the impeller rotation at a velocity u0 . Moreover, when inlet width
is higher a reverse flow also occurs at the periphery of blade inlet. Liquid coming out of the blade
H,N η, %
η
80
3
Axial clearance = 0.1D 0

70
60
H
1
2 50
2
40
30
1
20
1
10
2
100 200 Q, L/S
Fig. 9.16. Influence of inlet guide blade on performance

(1) without inlet blade (2) with inlet guide blade
at periphery receives considerable circulatory motion and mixes with the main flow entering the impeller.
Fluid is rotated and thus a prewhirl is developed. Experiments show that C increases up to 1200 to 1500
from normal value of 900–1000. Hydraulic efficiency is achieved by bringing back to normal velocity
at impeller blade outlet. If by the prevailing manufacturing process, surface finish of the impeller could
not be improved to get a good cavitational property, Prewhirl can be adopted by fitting inlet guide
blades. Cavitation specific speed ‘C ’ is improved to a considerable value in cylindrical or radial blades.
( f ) Provision of Axial Prewhirl Impeller (Inducers)
Provision of axial Prewhirl impeller, before the main impeller increases the pressure and also
gives a tangential component of velocity i.e., a circulatory motion. The reverse flow at the periphery of
the main impeller blade is shifted to the axial Prewhirl impeller (Fig. 9.18).
Inducer
Fig. 9.17 Pump fitted with inducer Fig. 9.18. Inducers

Cavitation characteristics is well improved from C = 900–1000 to 1200–1500 and in special cases
C is increased up to 2500 to 3000.
In Figs. 9.19, 9.20 and 9.21, a graph σ = f (ns) as recommended by Prof A.J. Stepanoff | 112 | is
given, which can be used for design.
Specific speed, double suction

500 1000 2000 4000 6000 10,000 20,000
Hydraulic institute
values of σ
Single suction
Double suction
35 71 142 285 428 713 1427 Metric
500 1000 2000 4000 6000 10,000 20,000 British

Specific speed, single suction
Fig. 9.19. Cavitation constant σ versus specific speed for

b.e.p. as recommended by A.J. Stepanoff
0.4
0.3 ηλ
70
0.
0.8 80
5
0.
0.2
90
0.
0.15
0.10
0.09
σ 0.08
0.07
0.06
0.05
0.04
η λ, %
70
0.03 75
80
85
0.02 88
90
0.015 92
25 30 40 50 607080 100 150 200 300

Fig. 9.20. Cavitation constant σ versus specific speed (metric units) for different efficiencies.
To convert ns to English units multiply by 14.15; ηλ is hydraulic efficiency (Rutschi)
0.40
9¼′′ impeller
0.35
6′′ 3. stage
0.30
8½ ′′
Cavitation constant, σ
0.25
0.20 3′′ 8. stage 2430 r.p.m.
0.15 2920
3540
b.e.p.
b.e.p.
0.10
3550 r.p.m. 9½′′
3300 r.p.m. 9½′′
2880 r.p.m. 9½′′
0.05
106 142
0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 British
35 71 142 178 214 250 Metric
Specific speed
Fig. 9.21. Cavitation constant σ versus specific speed for a constant speed head capacity curve
10
AXIAL FLOW PUMP
10.1 OPERATING PRINCIPLES AND CONSTRUCTION

Basically, axial flow pump consists of an impeller with impeller blades rotating inside a concentric
cylindrical annular housing. The impeller is followed by a diffuser with blades. A bell mouth shaped
suction inlet precedes the impeller. In some of the pumps, suction blades are provided with or without
suction hub. Suction hub has a sleeve bearing to support the pump shaft. The diffuser is followed by a
straight pipe and a bend or only bend depending upon the site conditions. Pump shaft is supported by a
main ball or roller bearing along with thrust bearing kept at the top of the delivery bend as well as by
(bush) sleeve bearing supports kept at the diffuser and at the bend before the stuffing box. The stuffing
box is located at the delivery bend in between the sleeve bearing and main bearing. In some of the
pumps, the pump shaft is also supported by a sleeve bearing at the suction hub, if the impeller weight is
high and it cannot be overhung as cantilever support.
Stuffing box
Delivery
casing
Diffuser
Impeller
Suction
casing
Fig. 10.1. Axial flow pump

216
AXIAL FLOW PUMP 217
Seal
Sleeve bearing
Outlet bend
Diffuser blades
Sleeve bearing
Impeller
housing
Variable pitch
impeller
Approach pipe
Fig. 10.2. Axial flow pump (vertical)

Impeller blades of axial flow pumps have double curvature form at inlet and at outlet due to the
change in diameter from hub to periphery. Absolute flow before and after the impeller and relative flow
along the impeller passage are axisymmetric and potential. There is no radial mixing. Under this condition,
each streamline is parallel to the axis of the pump. Fluid passes parallel to the pump axis i.e., along the
streamline. At any streamline u1 = u2 and Cm1= Cm2. Flow lines are in the form of a concentric tube or
circular cylinder. By spreading out the cylindrical tube, a plane surface is obtained, wherein blades are
located at equal distant apart starting from infinity and ending at infinity. The distance between two
successive blades is called pitch (t) and is equal to t = 2πr/Z, where ‘r’ is the radius of the streamline of
the cylinder and Z is the number of blades in the cylinder stream tube surface.
Basically, the principle of operation of the pump is the force of interaction and energy transfer
from the impeller blades to the fluid. There is no centrifugal force in these pumps. Energy transfer takes
place purely from kinetic energy to pressure energy i.e., diffuser effect. But diffuser pattern of flow has
its own limitations. Angle of divergence (x) should not exceed 8° to 10° and a strictly smooth streamlined
flow passage must exist, otherwise, flow separation at the boundary layer and corresponding flow
mixing between streamlines take place. Axisymmetric and potential flow no longer prevails. Thats why,
the design of axial flow pump is more complicated than the design of centrifugal pump.
For the given flow rate (Q), axial flow pumps possess, lesser dimensions and size, than all other
pumps. These pumps are adopted for low head and high discharge conditions. The surface of the blades
and flow passages are manufactured with high smoothness i.e., with very low surface roughness. Even
at high speed, these pumps give a very high efficiency due to less friction and less area of contact of
fluid with pump parts. However, at partial flow conditions, these pumps give a lower value of efficiency
than centrifugal pumps due to high secondary flow prevailing at all elements of the pump.
10.2 FLOW CHARACTERISTICS OF AXIAL FLOW PUMP

Basic requirement of hydraulic design of axial flow pump is to determine the dimensions and
shape of all flow passages of pump to get high efficiency at all regions of operation for the given value
of total head (H), flow rate (Q) and cavitation characteristics (s). Theoretically, maximum efficiency is
obtained when the flow is axi-symmetric and potential (irrotational and vortex free)
Under potiential flow condition, circulation (Gb) along the contour of blades of axial flow pump is
directly proportional to flow rate (Q) and the angular velocity of the fluid (ωf), not only at optimum
regions, but also at non-optimum regions of operation. Due to this, circulation and hence, total head
remain constant at all streamlines from hub to peripery.
10.3 KUTTA-JOWKOVSKI THEOREM

Forces acting on the blades of axial flow pump can be determined from the fluid flow over a plane
cascade system, obtained by spreading over the cylindrical section of flow passage of axial flow pump
(Fig. 10.3).
β
l
u
α δm
α
2 πr
t= t
z
Fig. 10.3. Profile in a cascade system

Flow in the radial direction i.e., perpendicular to the cylindrical section does not exist i.e.,
Cr the radial velocity is equal to zero. Flow is purely axial at all cylindrical sections, i.e., at all streamlines
flow pattern form is a plane flow or a two dimensional flow. The blades may be moving with a
circumferencial velocity ‘u’ perpendicular to the axis, which is equal to the peripheral velocity of the
impeller blades or stationary as in diffuser blades. Accordingly, relative velocity ‘w’ should be considered
for a moving blade system, whereas absolute velocity ‘C’ must be considered for a stationary blade
system. Assuming flow is incompressible, i.e., density ‘ρ’ is constant, the circulation ‘Γb’ around one
AXIAL FLOW PUMP 219
w 2m = wm
p 2 β2
b C
w 2u
t
t w 1u
w 2u
Pu A D B F
w2 wm
w∞
w1
w 1m = w m
β∞ w1
w 1u β1 β∞ β
P a d 2 β1
Pm = Pz E C
p1
Fig. 10.4. Pressure and velocity acting on a cascade system
blade of the plane cascade system can be determined by the closed contour abcd enclosing the blade.
Referring to Fig. 10.4 lines ab and cd are same lines located symmetrically with respect to the blade, at
a distance ‘t’, called pitch. Linear integral along these two flow lines are equal, but opposite in direction,
hence gets cancelled. Lines ‘bc’ and ‘da’ are parallel to the direction ‘u’ flow lines are opposite in
direction. Circulation Gb around the blade is
Γb = ∫ wds cos( w, s )
abcd
= ∫ wds cos(w, s) + ∫ wds cos (w, s) + ∫ wds cos(w, s) + ∫ wds cos(w, s)

ab bc cd da
= ∫ wds cos(w, s) + ∫ wds cos(w, s)

bc da
Γb = (w1u– w2u) t, taking unit width perpendicular to the paper and

anticlock-wise direction as positive. ...(10.1)
Flow through the blade ∆ Q = htw1m– htw2m where ‘h’ is the height of the blade from hub to
D − dh
periphery = , where D is the outer diameter, dh is the hub diameter and wm is the axial flow
2
velocity. Net force ‘P’ acting on the blade system can be resolved into two components, tangential (Pu)
and axial (Pz). Applying momentum,
Pu = ρ∆Q ( w1u– w2u) = ρht w1m (w1u – w2u) = ρhwmΓb  ...(10.2)
Pz = ρ∆Q (w2m– wm) + ht (p2 – p1) = ht (p2 – p1) 

Since w1m = w2m i.e., axial flow velocity is constant throughout the impeller blade, and applying
Bernoulli’s equation between points ‘1’ and ‘2’ and since Z2 = Z1, where Z is the level from a reference
point, the pressure
1 ρ
p2 – p1 = ρ (w21 − w22 ) = ( w12u + w1m2 – w22u – w2 m2 )
2 2
ρ
= ( w12u − w22u )
2
ρ
= ( w + w2u ) ( w1u − w2u )
2 1u
ρht ( w + w ) ( w − w )
Therefore, Pz = 1u 2u 1u 2u ...(10.3)
2
since the blade velocities are same at inlet and at outlet (uo= u1= u2= u3), due to axial flow. In order to
 w1u + w2u 
obtain the value   , inlet and outlet velocity triangles are combined into one.
 2 
w u∞ = w u2 + w u1
C u2 – C u1 C u2 – C u1 2
2 2
A D B
w∞ w2
C∞ ∆β
C1 w1
C2
C m= C z
α1
α∞ β1 β∞ β2
α2
C
C u1 w u1
C u2 w u2
u1 = u2
Fig. 10.5. Combined velocity triangle
Referring to Fig. 10.5 the vectors AC = w1 and CB = w2. Vector CD = w∞ is the geometrical
average of vectors AC and CB . Point D is the middle point on the line CD. Blade angles are β1 at inlet,
β2 at outlet and correspondingly β∞ for vector velocity w∞, i.e., for the line CD . From the velocity
triangle. (Fig. 10.5)
( w1u + w2u ) wm
= FD = wu∞ = ...(10.4)
2 tan β∞
Hence, PZ = ρhwu∞ Γ b
and Pu = ρhwm∞ Γ b
Since, w1m = w2m= wm= wm∞
AXIAL FLOW PUMP 221
Total force on one blade, P = Pu + Pz = ρhw∞ Γ b ...(10.5)
Since, wu∞ + wm∞ = w∞

For unit height, (h =1) Pu = ρhwm∞ Γ b
Pm = ρhwm∞ Γ b and P = ρw∞ Γ b ...(10.6)
w∞ Z
Pu u
π
2
β∞
β∞
P
Pz
Fig. 10.6. Forces acting on a blade in a cascade system

under ideal fluid flow condition
Force P in equation (10.6) is independent of the pitch ‘t’ of the blade. It remains same even when
pitch increases to infinity (∞) i.e., when cascade blade system changes to isolated blade. Also, circulation
‘Γb’ remains constant inspite of increase in flow due to increase of pitch ‘t’. The magnitude and direction
of the flow w∞ and β∞ remain same, at all points, i.e., before the blade from infinity, on the blade and
after the blade up to infinity. Equation (10.6) is called Kutta-Jowkovski equation. This equation also
indicates that the lift force P is perpendicular to the flow direction. However, exact location of the force
P on the blade can be determined only by experimental investigation. The equation (10.6) can also be
applied for conditions where the flow velocity Cm is not constant.
Lift force (Yp), the force perpendicular to the flow direction of w∞, P = ρw∞ Γb. Drag force,
Xp parallel to the flow direction of w∞ is zero.
(Cu 2u2 − Cu1u1 ) u (Cu 2 − Cu1 )
Total head, Hm = =
g g
Since, u 1 = u2 = u
From velocity triangle, Cu = (u – wu)
Γb
(Cu 2 – Cu1 ) = u2 − wu 2 − u1 + wu1 = ( wu1 − wu 2 ) =
t
u Γb
Hm =
g t
gH m t gH m 2πr 2πgH m
∴ Circulation on one blade, Γ b = = . =
u u Z Zω
2πrgH m 2πgH m
Total circulation on all blades, Γ = ZΓ b = u
=
ω
...(10.7)
10.4 REAL FLUID FLOW OVER A BLADE

While determining the force Pz in equation (10.5), Bernoulli’s equation (10.3) was written for an
ideal fluid flow. Equation for a real fluid flow can be written as
p1 w2 – u12 p2 w22 − u22
+ Z1 + 1 = + Z2 + + h f (1− 2) (= h fp )
γ 2g γ 2g
where, hfp = hf (1–2) is the profile loss in impeller.
Since, u1 = u2, Z1= Z2 in axial flow pumps and γ = ρg
1
p2 – p1 = ρ (w12 – w22) – γhfp
2
ρth fp
and actual force, Rz = (w12 – w22) – ρthfp = PZ – γthfp
2
= ρhwu∞ Γb – γthfp
for unit height, (h = 1) Rz = ρwu∞ Γb – γthfp ...(10.8)
i.e., the real axial force RZ is reduced and is less than the ideal axial force Pz by frictional losses γthfp.
The tangential force Ru = Pu= Γwz∞ Γb remains same, since the head developed remains unaltered.
Z
X
Ru = Pu u
Rz
β ∞+λ
λ
β∞
R
Y
γthfp
P Pz
Fig. 10.7. Hydrodynamic forces acting on a blade of cascade

system due to real fluid flow condition
The total force, R = ( Ru + R z ) turns towards the flow direction of ‘w ∞’ by an angle ‘λ’
(Fig. 10.7), where λ is the angle of incidence. Resolving the total force R into two forces, one parallel
and another perpendicular to the flow direction of ‘w∞’
Xp
Lift force, Yp = R cos λ and Drag force, Xp = R sin λ and tan λ = .
Yp
Loss of head (h fi = h fp ) , the profile loss in impeller is the work done by drag force Xp per unit
weight of the fluid (γtwz∞) along the direction of the velocity w∞ i.e.,
X p w∞ w∞ R sin λ R sin λ
hfi= hfp = = = ...(10.9)
γtwZ ∞ γtw∞ sin β∞ γt sin β∞
AXIAL FLOW PUMP 223
Head developed, Hm is the work done by the force Ru per unit weight of the fluid
uRu uR sin (β∞ + λ)
Hm = = ...(10.10)
γtwz∞ γtw∞ sin β∞
H m − h fp h fp
Impeller efficiency, ηi = Hm = 1–
Hm
w∞ sin λ
= 1− ⋅ ...(10.11)
u sin (β∞ + λ )
When angle of incidence λ increases, the drag force Xp increases. Correspondingly losses increase
and efficiency reduces.
From aerodynamics of airfoils the lift (Yp) and drag (Xp) of an airfoil are given by
w∞2
Yp = Cy. ρ .l ...(10.12)
2
w∞2
X p = Cx ρ .l
2
where ‘Cy’and ‘Cx’ are the coefficients of lift and drag respectively and ‘l’ is the chord length of profile.
uR sin (β∞ + λ) uY sin (β∞ + λ )
Manometric head, Hm = = ...(10.13)
γtw∞ sin β∞ Cm γt cos λ
Combining equation (10.12) and (10.13) and rearranging
l 2 gH m Cm cos λ
Cy = ⋅ ⋅ ...(10.14)
t 2
w∞ u sin (β∞ + λ )
10.5 INTERACTION BETWEEN PROFILES IN A CASCADE SYSTEM

Thin Straight Plates in Cascade System
Interaction between straight, thin plates in a cascade system was studied by many authors. Most
important is the work done by Prof Shlihandl | 67 |. Circulation Γ, given by plate cascade, is determined
by the formula.
Γpl.ca = Γpl . Lp = Lp π l w∞ sin i
where, Lp is the coefficient accounting for the deviation in flow of thin plate in a cascade system with
respect to the flow of thin isolated plate. In Fig. 10.6, the values of Lp determined by Shlihandl |67| as a
function of angle of attack (αp) and relative pitch t/l are given.
The coefficient Lp depends only upon the geometric parameters of the cascade system. This graph
can be used to determine the camber line of the real profile as first approximation. While determining
the value of the coefficient Lp, the following condition must be observed.
t 1 t  β
lplate = 2lprof . (or)   plate =   prof and α plate= α + .
l 2  
l 2
Lp
2,4
2,2
2,0
0
10
°
10
15
1,8
15
=
20
α
1,6
20
25
1,4
30
1,2
35
1,0
40
50
0,8
60
25 30
90
0,6 35
40
0,4
0,2
0
0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1,0 1,2 1,4 1,6 1,8 2,0 t/l
Fig. 10.8. Coefficient L = f ( , tl )

α for thin straight plate
10.6 CURVED PLATES IN A CASCADE SYSTEM

Flow over a curved thin plate cascade system adopted for axial flow machines as given by Prof.
E.N. Voznisenski | 130 | and further developed by V.F. Pekin | 84 |, A.F Lisohin | 65 | L.A. Semanoff
| 66 | and N.A. Kolokolsoff | 84 | is given below. While deriving the cascade theory, it is assumed that
(1) Profile thickness is neglected i.e.,the profile is a thin plate and (2) the curvature of the plate is an arc
of a circle. (Fig. 10.9)
C u2
y w2
C2
u
ds
x
w
l
y
w
s
β
y0
α r
t x0
T T T
w1
C 1 = C m1
C u1 = 0
u
Fig. 10.9. Thin curved plate in the form of an arc of a circle
in a cascade system (mean of a thick profile)
AXIAL FLOW PUMP 225
Two methods are adopted for the cascade design namely,

(i) Flow parameters are determined for the given boundary conditions (called direct method)
and
(ii) Geometrical characteristics of the developed cascade are determined as per the given flow
parameters under infinite conditions (called indirect method).
The integration method, given by Prof. Voznisenski, | 130 | determines the flow conditions of the
cascade system over a thin curved plate in the form of an arc of a circle i.e., direct method. Prof. Pekin
and Prof. Kolokolsoff developed systematic procedure to design the pumps by Indirect method.
Under integration method, the thin profile is considered as a vortex passage consisting of two
flows : (1) Plane flow over a cascade with equal velocity everywhere and (2) a vortex flow due to the
presence of circulation distributed over the entire length of the plate.
Net flow function ψ(t) at a point (s) situated at a distance ‘t’ from the starting point is the sum of
both vertices
ψ (t) = ψ0(t) + ψ1(t)
where, ψ0 (t) is the plane undisturbed flow and ψ1(t) flow due to circulation and is given as
t
dΓ
ψ1(t) = ∫ 2π ln r(s, t)
0
d Γ= d Γ (s) = v(s) ds is the circulation
dΓ
v(s) = —vortex intensity at the point s on the plate, r—distance from the considered point on
ds
the profile to the adjacent point with an elementary circulation d Γ(s)
t
1
2π ∫0
So, ψ (t) = ψ 0 (t ) + v (s) ln r(s, t) ds = constant ...(10.15)
However, the absence of infinite velocity at the outer end of the profile i.e., postulate Chapligin
indicates
ν(l) = 0
The flow equation for the cascade system, from an isolated curved thin blade is obtained by
modifying the integral equation (10.15) available for isolated profiles.The undisturbed plain uniform
steady flow function ψ0 is determined, from the geometrical average velocity w∞, instead of undisturbed
velocity from infinity before the blade inlet edge C∞ and simple function ‘ln r’ in the integral equation
vds
(10.15) for the vortex flow located on isolated blade, which is determined by d ψ1 = ln r , a more
2π
complicated flow function developed by the vortex flow i.e., circulation located on the elementary
distance ds of all profiles in cascade system is used i.e.,
k = +a
lim νds
dψ1 =
n → ∞ 2π
∑ ln ri ...(10.16)
k =− a
where, ri is the distance between flow point Z, where the flow function ψ is determined and the points
‘s’ on each blade of the cascade system.
Infinitesimal summation of logarithm leads to infinitesimal transformation under logarithm, which
can be expressed as trigonometric function.
The final form of flow function as given by Prof. Pekin in his paper | 84 | when l =1 i.e., relative
t
pitch, T0 = is
l
1 l
2π ∫ 0
ψ (t) = ψ 0 (t ) + v( s) ln K ds ...(10.17)
π π
where K= sin 2 ( xt − xs ) + sh 2 ( yt − ys )
T0 T0
l Γ1
and ∫ 0 v(s)ds =
l0
...(10.18)
β
where l0 = , the length of the curved plate with unit chord length and curvature β. The general
sin β0
form of the integral equation (10.17) is a function of various parameters given by
v(s) = f (T0, s, α, β, w∞x, w∞y, C)
where, α is the angle between the cascade axis (direction of blade velocity u) and the direction of
velocity w∞ i.e., α1. Taking into account equation (10.18), the above function can be rewritten as
Γ1
= f1(T0, α, β, w∞, C)
l0
where C is the constant of integration and can be obtained from the condition v(l) = 0 i.e., by applying
Postulate Chapligin.
Γ1
So, = f2(T0, α, β, w∞) ...(10.19)
l0
The disturbed flow due to the introduction of circulation on all the blades of the cascade system,
changes the flow direction by an angle ∆ α = α – α1. Angle ∆ α takes into account the influence of flow
on the profile by other profiles in the cascade system. The final form of the equation (10.19) is written as
Γ
= f3 (T0, α, β, ∆α) ...(10.20)
W∞ l0
∆ α is the angle between the direction of velocity w∞ and the chord of the profile. Equation (10.20) is
the final form of the integral equation (10.17) and (10.18) by which the flow over a cascade system is
determined by direct method. Prof. V.F Pekin and Prof. N.A. Kolokolsoff gave a systematic calculation
for a cascade flow under an additional condition of shockless entry (i.e., δ = 0) as given by Prof. I.N.
Voznicenski, which provides a simplified approach for the design as well as to develop pumps with
better load and cavitational characteristics. Shockless entry i.e., δ = 0 indicates no circulation at inlet
edge, which is written as v (0) = 0. The condition v(l) = v (0) = 0 leads one and the same design
procedure for pump and turbine. The equation (10.20) can be written as
Γ1
L= = f1 (T0,α, β)
w∞ l0
and, ∆α = f2 (T0, α, β) ...(10.21)
Equation (10.21) is solved by step by step integration of equations (10.17) and (10.18) by providing
(n +2) linear equations with (n +2) unknown values and with (n +1) points on the blade curve, determined
by geometric parameters of the cascade.
AXIAL FLOW PUMP
15° 10°
Γ1
w ∞ l0 β
20°
2.0
25°
30°
1.5
35°
50°
55°
1.0
40° 60°
65°
45° 70°
80°
0.5
T0 = t
l
0
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
Γ1
Fig. 10.10. w l β = f (T0, α )
227
∞ 0
Calculations were done for n = 4, 6, 8. It is found that, for a wide range of curvature β, the value
Γ1
χ= depends upon only T0 and α. A graph has been drawn χ = f (T0, α) (Fig 10.10). Also, it is
w∞ l0β
found that ∆α is +ve for all operating ranges of cascade parameters. For small ranges of α and β under
T
the condition T0 = >1, which corresponds to peripheral section of the blade of axial flow pumps of
l
higher specific speed such as ship propellers, ∆ α change is very small, not exceeding 1°. ∆ α increases
when curvature β increases and when α and T0 decreases (i.e., where l/t increases). When
α < 34 to 40°, ∆ α mostly depends upon β and T0 (Fig. 10.11). When α > 45°, which is mostly for
diffusers and hub sections of impeller blades, ∆ α value increases up to 15° and depends not only upon
α and T0, but also β. Following figures (Figs. 10.12 to Fig. 10.22) illustrate these variations for β changing
from 20 to 40°, at the interval of 2°.
∆α = f(T0 , β)β
5°
∆α t = 0,75
t = 0,8
4°
t = 0,85
t = 0,9
t = 0,95
3° t = 1,0
t = 1,05
t = 1,1
t = 1,15
t = 1,2
2° t = 1,25
t = 1,3
t = 1,35
t = 1,4
t = 1,45
t = 1,5
t = 1,6
1° t = 1,7
t = 1,8
t = 1,9
t = 2,0
t = 2,2
t = 2,5
t = 3,0
7° 8° 10° 12° 14° 16° 18° 20° 22° 24° 26° 28°
β
Fig. 10.11. ∆α = f (T0, β )
AXIAL FLOW PUMP 229
∆α ° = f(α , T0, β )
T0= 0,5
4
3 0,6
0,7
2
0,9
1,0
1 1,25
1,5
2,0
0 3,0
45 50 60 70 α°
Fig. 10.12. ∆α for β = 20°
∆α ° = f(α , T0, β )
5
T0= 0,5
4
0,6
0,7
3 0,8
0,9
2 1,0
1,25
1,5
1
2,0
3,0
0
50 60 70 α°
Fig. 10.13. ∆α for β = 22°
∆α ° = f(α , T0, β )
T0= 0,5
6
5
0,6
4
0,7
3 0,8
0,9
2 1,0
1,25
1 1,5
2,0
3,0
0
50 60 70 α°
Fig. 10.14. ∆α for β = 24°
∆α° = f(α, T0, β)
T0 = 0,5
7
6
0,6
0,7
4
0,8
0,9
3
1,0
2 1,25
1,5
1 2,0
3,0
0
40 50 60 70 α°
Fig. 10.15. ∆α for β = 26°
9
T 0= 0,5
0,6
6
5
0,7
4 0,8
0,9
3 1,0
2 1,25
1,5
1 2,0
3,0
0
40 45 50 60 70 α°
Fig. 10.16. ∆α for β = 28°

AXIAL FLOW PUMP 231
∆α ° = f(α ,T0, β )
T 0 = 0,5
10
8
0,6
7
6
0,7
5
0,8
4 0,9
1,0
3
1,25
2
1,5
2,0
1
3,0
0
40 45 50 60 70 α°
Fig. 10.17. ∆α for β = 30°
∆α ° = ( α,T 0, β)
12 T = 0,5
0
11
10
9
0,6
8
7
0,7
6
0,8
5
0,9
4
1,0
3
1,25
2 1,5
2,0
1 3,0
0
40 50 60 70 α°
Fig. 10.18. ∆α for β = 32°
∆α ° = f(α ,T0, β )
T0 = 0,5
13
12
11
10
0,6
9
8
0,7
7
0,8
6
0,9
5
1,0
4
1,25
3
1,5
2
2,0
1
3,0
0
40 50 60 70 α°
Fig. 10.19. ∆α for β = 34°
∆α ° = f(α ,T 0,β )
15
T 0=0,5
14
13
12
11
0,6
10
9
0,7
8
7 0,8
6 0,9
5
1,0
4
1,25
3
1,5
2
2,0
1 3,0
0
40 50 60 70 α°
Fig. 10.20. ∆α for β = 36°
AXIAL FLOW PUMP 233
∆α° = f(α, T0, β)
T0 = 0,5
18
17
16
15
∆α° = ( α, T 0, β)
16 T0= 0,5 14
0,6
15 13
14 12
13
11
12 0,7
0,6
10
11
9
10 0,8
0,7 8
9
0,9
8 7
0,8
1,0
7 6
0,9
6 5
1,0
1,25
5
4
4 1,25 1,5
3
3 1,5
2 2,0
2 2,0
2,5
1 1
3,0 3,0
0 0
40 50 60 70 α° 50 60 70 α°
Fig. 10.21. ∆α for β = 38° Fig. 10.22. ∆α for β = 40°
10.7 EFFECT OF BLADE THICKNESS ON FLOW OVER A CASCADE SYSTEM

The profile, determined as per the method given by Prof. Voznisenski, is dressed over the camberline
or the middle line with finite vane thickness (δ). However, vane thickness reduces the flow area of the
passage and correspondingly increases the flow velocity. The coefficient of area reduction can be
expressed as (Fig. 10.23).
wm A
X = C = A − ∆A
m
l
A
∆A
δm
α
χ)
Fig. 10.23. For the determination of flow area reduction coefficient (χ
due to dressing of thick profile on thin curved plate
l
where, A = t. l sin α and ∆A = ∫ 0 δ. dl and δ is the blade thickness measured normal to the chord
length l.
l
The integral ∫ 0 δ. dl can be approximately determined by applying Simpson’s rule at three points,
under the condition that (δm) the maximum thickness is at the middle. Since, the blade thickness area
(∆A) is very small when compared to flow passage area (A),
l 2
∆A ≈ 4δ m = δm . l
b 3
t . l sin α 1
So, χ= = ...(10.22)
2 2 δm
tl . sin α − δ m l 1−
3 3 t sin α
10.8 METHOD OF CALCULATION OF PROFILE WITH THICKNESS IN A

CASCADE SYSTEM
Most of the design procedures for pumps are carried out by direct method. The camber line is
determined and then dressed by a known profile. Thickness effect is corrected by repeating the design
until the velocity wm remains constant. The profiles are selected from the airfoil test results from Gottingen
profiles data or from NASA profiles data or from profile data of USSR research institute.
Most convenient design is obtained by conformal transformation of the profile from the given
parameters of the pump, by which theoretical blade profile with thickness is obtained. In most cases,
conformal transformation is done from the cylinder, either isolated or cascade system. Hodograph principle
is also used while adopting conformal transformation. This process simplifies the design procedure for
flow over a profile, where in the velocity of flow remains constant. Application of Hodograph method
by which, theoretical, flow velocity is also known which enables to find the flow of real fluid i.e., flow
with aerodynamic wake after the blade.
Most accurate method of getting the blade profile with thickness is the addition of vortex or
circulation, sources and sinks in the plane uniform steady flow over the blade system. Earlier vortex or
circulation (Γ) is added to the plain flow, to get thin profile of the cascade system. Prof. A.F. Lisohin
| 65 | and Prof. L.A. Simonoff | 66 | gave a systematic method to get profiles with thickness i.e., by
AXIAL FLOW PUMP 235
providing source (+q) and sink (–q) along with circulation ( Γ ), distributed over the profile. The skeleton
line or otherwise called as camberline or middle line, becomes a streamline inside the profile, where
there is no cross flow perpendicular to this camberline. Addition of a source very near to the inlet edge
and a sink very near to the outlet edge of the skeleton profile, enables to get the flow with profile
thickness. The rounded inlet edge and outlet edge with proper thickness are obtained by proper selection
and distribution of source (+q) and sink (–q). Outer edge contour of the profile which encloses the
camberline is also a streamline. Profile shape is obtained by the group of streamlines starting from
source kept at inlet and ending at sink kept at the outlet. The sum of intensity of source and sink is equal
to zero. Mathematically expressing these as
l
+
2
Qin + Qout + ∫ q(s)ds =0 ...(10.23)
l
−
2
Circulation, source and sink are selected in such a way that the combination of these, with the
plane flow gives rise to the profile of required specification to meet the head and discharge of the axial
flow pump. In order to get this, two conditions are observed.
1. The magnitude and direction of the infinite velocity w∞ or C∞ before and after the profile
remain same.
2. Closed contour encircling the skeleton of the profile is the profile as per the required parameters
such as magnitude and location of maximum profile thickness, radius of the roundness of inlet
and outlet edges of the profile etc.
First condition is fulfilled by proper distribution of circulation of vortex on the skeleton of the
profile as per the integration law
1
+
2
Γ1 = ∫ γ ( s)ds ...(10.24)
1
−
2
where, Γ1 is the circulation around one profile.
Second condition is attained by proper distribution of source and sink q (s) on the profile skeleton
to fulfil the condition as per the equation (10.23)
Absence of cross flow across the skeleton yields to an expression
w∞ + ν* = 0 ...(10.25)
2
 w + wu 2 
where, w∞ = wm2 +  u1 
 2
is the geometrical average of relative velocity of the plane flow and ν* the induced velocity at the point
considered on the skeleton of one profile, due to the disturbance created by adjacent profiles in the
cascade system.
Summation of these induced velocities, located on other profiles kept at a distance of ‘t’ from the
profile and the integration of these along the skeleton ‘s’ is
l
+
1 2
γ ( s ) sh Z 1+ q ( s )sin u1
νu* =
2t ∫ chZ1 − cos u1
ds
l
−
2
+l / 2
1 – γ ( s ) sin u1 + q (s ) shZ1
ν*m =
2t ∫ chZ1 – cos u1
ds ...(10.26)
–l / 2
2π
where , Z1 = ( Z 0 − Z ) and u1 = 2π (u0 − u )
t t
Due to complexity of the above equation, the integral is carried out by step by step method.
Selection of γ (s) and q (s)
Distribution of circulation γ (s), source and sink q (s) along the profile is carried out to get uniform
and even distribution of pressure and velocity over the profile from inlet edge to the outlet edge. Prof.
Ginsberg |37| has suggested, the following, for the distribution of circulation and source and sinks. For
γ (s) he suggested
γ (s) = A0 γ0 (s) + A1γ1 (s) + A–1 γ–1 (s) + A2 γ2 (s) + A–2 γ–2 (s) + A* γ* (s)
_
where, γ0 (s) = 1 − s 6
_
 0, when − 1 ≤ s ≤ 0 
γ1 (s) =  
 s (1 − s ), when 0 ≤ s ≤ 1 
− s ( s + 1), when − 1 ≤ s ≤ 0 
γ–1 (s) =   ...(10.27)
 0, when 0 ≤ s ≤ 0 
(2 s − 1)(1 − s ), when 0.5 ≤ s ≤ 1 
γ2 (s) =  
 0, when − 1 ≤ s ≤ 0.5
 −(1 + 2s )(1 + s ), when − 1 ≤ s ≤ −0.5
γ–2 (s) =  
 0, when − 0.5 ≤ s ≤ 1 
1− s
γ* (s) =
1+ s
y
+3
+ 5 X
2 +2
+1
x
0
5
–
2 –1
X –2
–3
Fig. 10.24. Profile coordinates

AXIAL FLOW PUMP 237
n
x
0 l
)
γ (s
)
q (s
α
t t
Fig. 10.25. For profile calculation—Distribution of circulation γ (s), source and sink q (s)
z ρ **
l
l +
s=+ 2
2
ζ1 Inlet edge
n
ζ2 Outlet edge
ρ2 +
δm
ρ** – l =s 2 0
2
h2 C
h1 δm S
Point s
Point
ρ* source
sink – l – B
2 δm
ρ*
2
Fig. 10.26. For profile calculation of inlet edge radius (ρ ρ *) and

ρ **) and profile thickness (δ
outlet radius (ρ δ m)
+ l
l 2
2
n
αK
x
δ+m 2
δm
– l S –
δm
2
2
Fig. 10.27. For profile calculation

– s
where, s = (s is the point selected on the profile (–3, –2.5, –2, –1, 0, +1, +2, 2.5, +3) and l is the
l
length of the profile. Centre of the skeleton line (mean line) is the origin. Profile length l is given as
 l l
 − to +  (Fig. 10.27).
 2 2
z
dV′
dv′ qn
γ ′n
dV
dVγ′ dVq′
+ l
K(x K, zK) 2 z
dVcr
γ ′s
dV
nk dVb
M(SK)
θ l/2
αK K
dV′
SK M
N(x, y) x
– l o x
2 o N
S l
–
N(s) 2
(a) (b)
w ∞s + V s′′
z
n ′′ x
+V
z
w∞z+V′′
∞
x
w
w ∞x+V ′′x
w ∞n + V′′n
α
x
(c)
Fig. 10.28. Determination of induced velocity on the skeleton of the profile
AXIAL FLOW PUMP 239
The value, A* γ* (s) corresponds to the flow with angle of attack over the cascade A* = 0 for
flow without angle of attack.
γ(s)
1.0 1– s 6 γ0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
– s(1 + s) 0.3 s (1 – s)
0.2
0.1
– 1.0 1.0
γ–2 γ–1 γ1 γ2
Fig. 10.29. Theoretical distribution of circulation λ (s)

Distribution of sources and sinks q (s) is given by Prof. Ginsburg | 37 | as
j =k
q (s) = ∑ BJ s j
j =0
Selection of number of points ‘j’ depends upon the selection of profile shape at the outlet edge,
whether rounded edge or sharp edge is required. For rounded edged profile
q ( s ) = B0 + B1 s + B2 s 2 + B * + B ** ...(10.28a)
where, B* is the intensity of the point source selected at the inlet edge of the profile (s = – l/2) and B**
the intensity of the point sink selected at the outlet edge of the profile (s = – l/2) in order to get rounded
edges, ρ* the radius at inlet edge and ρ** the radius at the outlet edge.
Coefficients A0, A1, ..., B0, B1, B2, B*, B** are selected to get the designed profile.
l δm sm
Taking vane solidity, . Maximum thickness ratio and = sm location of maximum
t (l / 2) l/2
thickness on the mean line.
The following equations are applied:
2
(i) 2 B0 + B2 + B * + B ** = 0
3
1 1 δ
(ii) B0 (1 − sm ) + B1 (1 − sm2 ) + B2 (1 − sm3 ) + B ** = 2 χ m w∞
2 3 l
(iii) B0 + B1sm + B2 sm2 = 0
8π ρ *
(iv) B*= . w∞ cos β ...(10.28b)
3 l
8π ρ **
(v) B**= . w∞ cos β
3 l
Equation (10.28a & b) is given based on the condition that the sum of all the sources and sinks
located on the mean line is equal to zero i.e.,
+l/2
l l
i.e., ∫ q ( s )ds + B* + B** = 0
2 2
...(10.28c)
–l/2
On integration of the above equation (10.28c), Ist equation is obtained. Second equation is obtained
based on the following condition:
+l/2
∫ q ( s )ds = χδmw∞
–l/2
where, χ is the coefficient of area reduction due to profile thickness and is determined approximately as
1
χ= ...(10.28d)
2 δm
1−
3 t sin α
The third equation is obtained based on the condition q (sm) = 0 i.e., change from source to sink
takes place at the point where maximum thickness is located (sm).
Fourth and fifth equations approximately determines the value ρ∗ and ρ∗∗ from the condition that
sum of all velocities from the source at inlet edge (ρ∗) and sink at the outlet edge (ρ∗∗) and the main
flow w1 at inlet and w2 at outlet is zero. The velocity due to circulation, other sources and sinks are
neglected,
l *
B
w1 = 2 at inlet
2π r1
l **
B
2
w2 = for outlet.
2πr2
Flow due to B* across the line h, the distance between the profile thickness at inlet and the mean
B*
line will be i.e.,
4
From Fig. 10.26, we can write
l B
w1 h 1 = .
2 4
ζ1 4 2
from which = ≈
r1 2π 3
ζ1 2
Taking, ρ* ≈ h1 =
ρ* 3
2πζ1 8π ρ * 8π ρ *
∴ B* = 2 . w1 = w1 = . .w∞ cos β∞
l 3 l 3 l
AXIAL FLOW PUMP 241
8π ρ **
In the similar way, B** = . .w∞ cos β∞
3 l
Solving the equations,
sm s (2 + sm ) sm (2 . sm )
B0 = 2 (1 − s 2 ) 2 K1 – m K2 – K3
m (1 + sm ) 2
(1 – sm ) 2
– (1 – 3 sm2 ) 2(1 + 2 sm ) 2 (1 − 2 sm )
B1 = K1 − K2 + K3
(1 – sm ) 2 2
(1 + sm )
2 2
(1 − sm ) 2
− 3 sm 3 3
B2 = K1 − K2 + K3
2 (1 − sm2 ) 2 (1 + sm ) 2
(1 – sm ) 2
B* = 2K2 and B** = –2K3.
δm
where, K1 = 8x w∞
ρ
4π ρ *
K2 = w∞ cos β∞
3 l
4π ρ**
K3 = w∞ cos β∞
3 l
For sharp edged outlet edge of the profile q(s) is written as
q ( s ) = B0 + B1s– + B2s– 2 + B3s– 3 ....(10.28e)
point source B* is applied at inlet edge of the profile and instead of radius ρ** at the outlet edge, the
included angle of the outlet edge is determined. The coefficients Bj are determined as
2
(i) 2B0 + B + B* = 0.
3 2
1 1 1 δm
(ii) B0(1 + sm ) + B1 ( 1 − sm2 ) + B2 (1 – sm3 ) + B3( 1 − sm4 ) = 2x w .
2 3 4 l ∞
(iii) B0 + B1 sm + B2 sm2 + B3 sm 3 = 0
8π ρ *
(iv) B* = w
3 l ∞
(v) B0 + B1 + B2 + B3 = – w∞ tan θ
sm sm sm
and B0 = K1 – K2 – K3
(1 + sm ) (1 − sm ) 3
(1 + sm ) (1 − sm ) 2
1 + 2 sm 1 + 4 sm + sm2 (1 + sm )
B1 = K1 + K2+ K3
(1 − sm ) 2 (1 + sm ) 2
(1 − sm )
− 3 sm 3 3 sm
B2 = K1 – K2 + K3
2 (1 + sm ) (1 − sm ) 3
(1 + sm ) (1 − sm )2
242
+y
–a –a
– x ––ab ––ab + x
–b –b
–y
0.0 46
0.0465
0.0467
0.0 469
4.0
4.01
4.0 2
4 .03
0.0 40
4
4 .0
4.05
0.0 485
4 .0 6
4. 0
7
0.0 48
0.0
8
5
4 .0

9
4. 0
0. 5
1
0 .5
2
0. 5
0. 5 3
4
0. 4 0. 5
2 6
0 .4 0.5
8
0 .3 0. 6
4
0. 3 5 0.6
0. 3 6
4
0.32 0. 5
5
0.7
t = 396
Γy Γ
vx = Γa = vy = Γb =
t 2π r 2 t 2π r 2
Fig. 10.30. Nomogram for the determination of coefficients ‘a’ and ‘b’
AXIAL FLOW PUMP 243
1 + 3 sm 2 2
B3 = K1 + K2 – K
(1 + sm ) (1 − sm )
2 3
(1 + sm) 2
(1 − sm )2 3
B* = 2K2
δm
and K1 = 8x w∞
l
4π ρ *
K2 = w
3 l ∞
K3 = w∞ tan θ.
In order to select the coefficients A0, A 1.... the values of γ (s) is substituted in equation
Γ1= ∫ γ ( s )ds for one profile
 Γ1 A1 + A−1 A2 + A−2 π 
A0 + 1.098  − + + + A *  = 0.
 l 12 48 2 
Major circulation is from the value A0 γ0(s). All other values only change the intensity of circulation
distribution at individual positions of the mean line, mostly near the outlet in order to get uniform,
smooth velocity distribution. Fig (10.29) illustrates the distribution of γ0, γ1....
Values A0, A1... must be properly selected in order to avoid uneven changes in profile shape,
unevenness in pressure and velocity distribution from inlet to outlet of the profile, since these coefficients
do influence much on the profile configuration. Usually, these values are suitably altered after obtaining
the results from Ist approximation. One such pressure distribution is shown in Fig. 10.57.
The main advantage of this process is that, profile shape can be suitably modified to get better
cavitational characteristics. Experimental verification shows that very good results are obtained in turbines
and pumps. However, this process is used only, when a good cavitational property is required, since this
method is a tedious and lengthy process.
10.9 (A) PUMP DESIGN BY DIRECT METHOD (JOWKOVSKI’S METHOD, LIFT

METHOD)
X
Referring to the Fig. (10.7) tan λ = . sin (β∞ + λ ) = sin β∞ cos λ + cos β∞ . sin λ. For normal
Y
entry Cu= 0, so, ∆Cu= Cu2 – Cu1= Cu2. In general, it can be written as Cu.
l gH m . 2sin β ∞ 2 (∆Cu ) sin β∞

CyR . = = ...(10.29)
t u.Cm (1 + cot β ∞ .tan λ) Cm (1 + cot β∞ tan λ )
l
where, t = is the vane solidity, T0 = t is the relative pitch
t l
Equations (10.9), (10.11), (10.14), (10.29) are the basic equations for axial flow pump design by
method of Lift and Drag. The same procedure is followed for axial flow diffuser design also. Prof. N.E.
Jowkovski developed this method for ship propellers at Moscow University, USSR. Later, his students
developed the practical design procedure for the design of axial flow pump. In this design, the profiles
for each radius of impeller blade or diffuser blade are selected from the known test results of many
profiles, tested in wind tunnels. i.e., Test results of different profiles for which the Lift and Drag
coefficients (Cy and Cx) as a function of angle attack ‘δ’ are known under infinite velocity condition
before and after, the profile and for isolated profile.
For pump calculations Cyc of casade system = 0.8 to 0.85 Cymax of the isolated profile. Cymax is
taken from wind tunnel test results of isolated profile Cy,Cx = f (δ) (Figs. 10.31 and 10.32) corresponding
angle of attack δ is used for the selected radius of the blade. From the combined velocity triangle and the
value of Cyc, using equation (10.29), vane solidity l/t is determined for the selected radius. The value of
C
X is determined by the expression tan λ = x . Normally, λ will be selected as 3° to 5°. While determining
Cy
the angle of incidences (λ), it is assumed that Cyc for cascade and Cy for isolated profile will have the
same influence on performance of pump impeller.
l
Angle of attack ‘δ’ and vane solidity t are the deciding parameters for the selected radius of the
impeller blade. Chord length is selected based on the profile strength and constructional possibility.
From the known values of l and (l/t), pitch ‘t’ can be determined. Profile form or profile shape for all
sections remains unchanged. Thus, the geometric parameters of the profile are obtained, based on the
lift of the known profile that’s why this method is called lift method of design of axial flow machine.
Drawback of this method is that the assumption is made that Cyc = Cyi which is not correct. This method
proves to be successful for low head pumps with smaller angle of blade rotation (5° to 8°), where l/t <<
1 i.e., vanes are spaced at a larger distance between them i.e., t is large, number of vanes Z is less (≈3).
But for higher head range, Cyc < Cyi, correction factors must be applied.
Fluid flow in pumps, designed by lift method with correct value of angle of attack (δ) and l/t, is
found to be a flow without separation. However, correct value of (Cyc /Cyi) could not determined. Also
drag coefficient Cxc ≠ Cxi . It is not possible to predict exact value of hydraulic efficiency (eqn. 10.11). In
order to overcome this drawback, test results of compressor (diffuser type) cascades, tested in wind
tunnels are taken for design of pumps. Instead of finding Cyc Cxc λ, from the test results, the magnitude
and direction of velocity before and after the cascade are simultaneously changed during the test.
Pressure and velocity on the profile are measured. Cyc and Cxc are calculated by using the equation for
which, values w1, w2, β1, β2, are already known and by constructing the combined velocity triangle the
values ∆wu (=∆Cu), Cu, β∞ are also known. Cyc is determined from equation (10.14). But λ depends on
Cy and Cx which makes difficult to determine correct value of λ. That’s why, Cyc is determined under the
condition (λ = 0). Since for smaller values of λ the difference between Cyc and Cyi is negligibly small.
Equation (10.29) when λ = 0 becomes
l ∆Cu
C yc = 2 sin β ...(10.30)
t Cz
From the known l, t, β∞ Cm and ∆Cu, CyR is calculated. In the similar manner Cx is determined, λ
is determined from Cyc and Cxc. This value is substituted again in equation (10.14). By repeating this
process correct values of Cyc, Cxc could be determined. Sometimes wind tunnel test results of profiles
are also given in the graphical form Cyc and Cxc= f (i), where ‘i’ is the angle between the tangent to
the camberline at entrance and the direction of w1 (Fig. 10.31). Results are also given in the form of the
flow deviation between inlet and outlet of the profile ∆β = β2 – β1, as a function of ‘i’ i.e., ∆β ,
Cxc = f (i) (Fig. 10.32).
AXIAL FLOW PUMP 245
C yc Cx
0,25
1,0 ∆β° Cx
0,8 0,20 40 ∆βmax 0,100

C yc
∆β x
∆β
0,6 0,15 30 0,075
C xc
C xp
0,4 0,10 20 0,050
0,2 0,05 10 0,025
– 10 – 5 0 5 10 i° – 20 – 10 i*0 +10 i°
(C y, C x) cascade = f(i)
Fig. 10.31. Cyc and Cxc for profile in cascade Fig. 10.32. ∆β
∆β, Cx = f (i) Allowable flow deviation
system as a function of angle of incidence (i) and drag coefficient as a function of (i)
For calculations ∆β = 0.8 ∆β(max) is taken, in order to have a flow without separation. Tests
conducted on different cascade systems in wind tunnels show that the velocity ∆β (determined as
0.8 ∆βmax) and corresponding values of Cyc and Cxc mainly depend upon l/t, β∞, whereas the influence of
blade curvature, blade thickness (maximum) are less. Angle (i), changes 5% depending upon the curvature
of the profile. Some other test results are also given as ∆β and Cyc as a function of β∞or β2 and l/t i.e., ∆β
(β2 – β1) = f (β∞ or β2) for different valves of (l/t) (Figs. 10.33 and 10.34) i.e., Cyc Cxc = f (i) ∆β, Cxc =
f (i).
Graphs given in Figs. 10.31, 10.32, 10.33 and 10.34 are experimental results on profile, when
working in a cacade system. Drag coefficient, Cxc and the value λ are higher than the values of isolated
profile (both for impellers and diffusers).
C yc l = 0,5
t
1,2
1,1
1,0
1,0
1,5
0,9
2,0
0,8
2,5
0,7
0,6
0,5
0,4
20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 β°∞
l 
Fig. 10.33. (Cyc) = f  , β ∞ 
t 
∆β*
42
39 2,0
l = 2,5
∆β* = 0,8∆βmax
36 t
5
1,
33 i = ±5°
1, 0
30
27 66
0,5
24
0,5
21
18
15
12
9
6
3
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 β°2
l 
Fig. 10.34. ∆β
∆β* = f  , β 2 
t 
ctg λ
l = 2,0
0,060 t l = 1,0
t
0,055
l = 0,666
0,050 t
0,045
0,040
0,5 1,0 1,5 2,0 2,5 3,0 ctg β∞
l
Fig. 10.35. tan λ = f (cot β ∞ and )
t
In order to determine the correct value of hydraulic loss, exact value of Cxc must be determined.
Cxc again depends upon the angle α. Since Cxc > Cxi angle ∠ic >∠ii. Hydraulic losses consist of (1)
Profile losses, which purely depends upon boundary layer on the profile surface and the wake formation
after the profile (2) End losses which depends on boundary layer on walls, which encloses the cascade
system (at periphery and at hub) and due to the clearance between casing and impeller and (3) Secondary
losses, arising due to cross flow existing at the channel passage due to pressure difference prevailing
between leading and trailing edges of the blades both in axial and in radial directions. Due to the presence
of casing, the flow is brought to rest at the casing surface. Centrifugal force is developed and boundary
layer is increased which complicates the flow further. Boundary layer at the hub is increased. In variable
pitch axial flow units, the radial clearance is increased due to blade rotation, which increases the end
losses or annular losses. It is essential to bring the diffuser inlet edge very close to the impeller outlet
AXIAL FLOW PUMP 247
edge, which will reduce the profile losses due to aerodynamic wake at the outlet of the impeller, as well
as shock losses at the entry to the diffuser.
10.9 (B) DESIGN OF AXIAL FLOW PUMP AS PER JOWKOVSKI’S LIFT

METHOD—ANOTHER METHOD
(i) For the given value of Q, H and hs the speed ‘n’ is determined as
3/ 4
 H sv 
nQ =   ...(10.31)
 10 
 C2 
where, Hsv = (Hat – Hvp) –  hs + h fs + s 
 2g 
The suction head hs and frictional loss are equal to zero (i.e., hs = 0, hfs = 0), since axial flow
pumps work under submerged condition. Hat = barometric pressure 10.336 MWC Hvp vapour
pressure for water at 15°C = 0.336 MWC and Cs is the eye velocity = C1, the absolute velocity
of the liquid at entry. Under normal entry condition C1 = Cm1 = Cm, where Cm1 is the meridional
or flow velocity at entry.
(ii) Suction specific speed C is selected as C = 800 to 1200 for preliminary calculation. Correct
value is obtained after the design. The speed (n) is calculated as per equation (10.31), which
gives a relation between (Hsv) and specific speed (ns). Prof. Suhanoff | 108 | recommends
that, for cavitations free operation, the Dynamic Depression (∆h) can be expressed as
 C12   w21 
∆h = m   + n  2g 
 2g   
where C1 — average absolute velocity at inlet
w1 — average relative velocity at inlet
m — the experimential coefficient, which is defined as the ratio of actual velocity
(C1) to average velocity (C1av ) at inlet =1.02.
n — the experimental coefficient, which is defined as the ratio of actual velocity
(w1) to average of relative velocity (w1av) at inlet = 0.2.
The value of ‘n’ should not be less than 0.2 and it depends upon the specific speed (ns).
Dynamic Depression (∆h) depends upon the impeller inlet diameter, the velocity on the
blade to inlet, and suction conditions. This equation is applicable only when flow is a non-
separated flow or near to that. Under separated flow condition the coefficient ‘m’ and ‘n’
depend upon the angle of attack.
In axial flow pumps, flow separation on the blade at inlet is due to pressure drop below
vapour pressure. Writting down the equation between point (1) and (X) at inlet.
p1 w2 − u12 px w 2 − u x2
+ Z1 + 1 = + Zx + x + 1hf(1 – x)
γ 2g γ 2g
since hf (1–x) = 0, Zx = Zl and u1 = ux for axial flow pumps
px p1 w2 – wx2
= + 1
γ γ 2g
Cavitation starts when wx = wmax i.e., px = pmin.

pmin p1 w2 – w2max
Hence the above equation can be return as = + 1
γ γ 2g
The coefficient ‘∆h’ is a characteristic coefficient of dynamic depression on the profile,
which depends upon the flow conditions, the form of profile and its geometrical parameters
 δm f m t 
 l , l , l , which depend upon the location of the profile in the blade system. That’s why
 
cavitational characteristics depend upon the pump constructon to a considerable extent
especially for axial flow pumps of high specific speed.
ns4 / 3
Thoma’s cavitation coefficient ‘σ’ is determined from the equation as σ = and Hsv = σH
4700
from which the speed ‘n’ can be calculated.
15°
αsle
14°
13°
0,8
12°
11°
1,0
10°
9°
t 1,5
8° 0,5

7° 0,6
6° 0,7
5° 0,8
0,9
4° 1,0
1,2
3°
1,4
1,6
2° 1,8
2,0
1°
0
0,01 0,02 0,03 0,04 0,05 0,06 0,07 0,08
 fm t 
Fig. 10.36. α sle = f  ,  for the profile of a cascade system—for shockless entry (α
α sle + 1°)
l l
AXIAL FLOW PUMP 249
Cavitation calculation also depends upon the relation between the average force to the maximum
force on the impeller.
pav
i.e. K =
pvmax
pv max = p1 – pmin, the maximum pressure depression on the profile, when compared to the
pressure on the profile.
2
 w1 
2 2
pv max p1 – pvp
p C  C 
= = 0 – hs –  1  = Hsv –  1  and pav = γ Cy  .
γ γ γ  2g   2g   2g 
Knowing the lift force of the blade, the area of the blade for cavitation free operation can be
calculated as
A
Z1 =
∆r pav
K is a function of profile form. As per Suhanoff K = 0.65, as per Rudinoff K = 0.55. K ≈ 0.9
for low specific speed pumps and K = 1.67 for profiles developed by Moscow Power Institute,
Russia.
The value of K >1 indicates that the load on the pressure side (concave side) of the profile is
more.
(iii) Impeller diameter D = K 3 Q n , where K = 4.5 to 5.4 and sometimes up to 6. For axial flow
pumps, higher value is selected. Value 6 is selected under special circumstances. If the value
K is small, cavitation effect will be earlier due to smaller eye diameter which leads to higher
flow velocity at inlet.
Outer diameter is always selected for economical flow velocity i.e., as minimum flow velocity
as possible to reduce the profile losses and cavitation. At the same time, higher value of outer
diameter increases the overall size of the pump.
(iv) Hub diameter dh is taken as dh = 0.35 to 0.6 Di for ns = 1100 to 800. However, hub diameter
should be selected to accommodate the impeller blade turning mechanism. Although
cylindrical hub is normally used for pumps of higher specific speed, sometimes concial hub
is adopted to get a better control on total head. Mostly the area ratio (A2/A1) = 0.85 to 0.9.
(v) For better efficiency, flow velocity Cm is selected as Cm = 0.74 2gH or Cm = (0.25 ± 0.05)
ω Ri . The value 0.25 is for periphery and Ri is the selected radius.
Hydraulic efficiency, η h = 0.86 to 0.89 and Impeller efficiency, ηi = 0.92 to 0.94.
Hi
Head developed by the impeller is calculated as Hm = and Hi = ηi Hm. Therefore,
ηh
ηh
H = Hm hh = Hi .
η1
(vi) Calculations are carried out as per Euler’s and Jowkovski’s formula. A relation between
hydraulic efficiency ηh and impeller effiency ηi is given by | 131 |
1
ηh = ηi ...(10.32a)
Cu22  A  C2
1 + ξd + ξ0  3  m 2
2g  A2  2 g
Where ξd is the coefficient of friction for the diffuser and ξ0 is the coefficient of friction
forthe outlet channel. A3 is the area of the diffuser inlet and A2 is the area of the impeller
outlet. ξd = 0.36 and ξ0 = 0.17 are the experimental coefficients. Another expression is
1
ηh = 4
ηi ...(10.32b)
–4 2 4 3
1 + 2240 ηd ns 3 K a + ξ0 × 00014ns K a
3 3
where Ka is the coefficient, Ka = 0.25 to 0.37; 0.25 is for ηh = 0.94 and 0.37 for ηh = 0.91.
(vii) Based on the experimental results, the angle subtended by the vane in plan should be
approximately 85° for peripheral profile and 115° for hub profile.
(viii) Number of blades Z = 3 to 6 for ns = 1500 to 450.
(ix) If the blade curvature is too much, which normally occurs at hub sections, a flow separation
occurs especially for a diffuser passage at an early stage. At the same time the blade should
have a minimum curvature and should not be a straight blade. Minimum curvature occurs
at peripheral section of the blade. Blade curvature must always be selected, so that correct
value of Cy is attained without any flow separation.
Based on the experimental results the empirical value of the relative maximum blade
fm
curvature recommended is = 7% for hub and 2% for periphery. Relative maximum
l
δm
thickness will be 10% at hub and 3% at periphery. The change of maximum blade
l
curvature and maximum blade thickness for other sections is selected such that smaller
variation at the top half of the blade and larger variation at the lower half of the blade is
δm
attained. Blade thickness at hub is selected based on the strength requirements and at
l
periphery as low value as possible to avoid undue vibration as well as facility to cast in
foundry. However, the danger of cavitation is more at the periphery, especially very near to
axial clearance between impeller and casing. If the blade thickness is reduced too low, the
force on the profile and cavitation increases steeply to a maximum and steeply decreases
on both sides of the blade. If the blade thickness is increased, the suction effect (hs) reduces
for a narrow range of angle of attack. If it is decreased suction effect reduces for a wide
range of angle of attack. That’s why, the blade thickness must be properly selected.
(x) All profiles of different sections are linked in such a way that their centre of gravity is in a
radial line and passes through the axis of the rod connecting the blade and turning mechanism.
This point will be mostly the centre point of maximum thickness and is usually at 0.4 to
0.5l depending upon the profile.
AXIAL FLOW PUMP 251
Force calculations, determination of Cy and selection of profile are carried out by the
following method :
Axial velocity, Cm = 0.74 2gH or Cm = (0.25 ± 0.05) ω Ri, 0.25 is for periphery and Ri is
the selected radius.
gH m H
Tangential velocity, Cu2 = , Hm = η and ηh = 0.85 to 0.87.
u h
Pressure difference between the blade inlet and outlet
p2 – p1 C u2 2
∆h = = Hi – and Hi = ηi Hm.
γ 2g
∆Rz
Axial component of the total hydro dynamic force will be = (p2 – p1) (2πRi), where Ri
∆r
is the radius of the streamline selected.
Tangential force acting on the blade is
∆Ru Cu 2 Cm
= γ (2πRi)
∆r g
Resultant force,
2 2
∆R  ∆Rz   ∆Ru 
∆r
=  r  + r  ...(10.33)
 ∆   ∆ 
 ∆Ru  Cm .
Angle, δ = tan–1   . Angle β∞ = tan–1 
∆
 z
R  Cu 2 
 u– 
2
The geometrical average relative velocity, w∞ is
Cm
w∞ =
sin β∞
The deviation angle, λ = (δ – β∞).
cos λ
Normal force acting on the blade is dY = dRz .
cos δ
Number of impeller blades are selected Z = 3 to 6.
Allowable maximum depression on the profile
∆pvmax C12
= Hsv – .
γ 2g
Average depression will be
∆pav = K∆pv max.
252
3,0
t t t
= 1,6 = 1,4 t = 1,0 t
l l = 1,2 l = 0,8
l l
Γc 2,8
Γ1 2,6 α = 12°
α = 12°
2,4
α = 12°
2,2 α = 12°
2,0
1,8 16°
16° 16° 16°
1,6
1,4
20° 20° 20° α = 12°
1,2
1,0 20°
24° 32° 24°
0,8 28° 24°
28 2 4 °
28° 32° 28° 32° 36° 24°
0,6 °
°
28° 32° 36° 32
0,4 36°
fm
0 0,01 0,02 0,03 0 0,01 0,02 0,03 0,04 0 0,01 0,02 0,03 0,04 0,05 0 0,01 0,02 0,03 0,04 0,05 0 0,01 0,02 0,03 0,04 0,05
l
Γc  fm t   fm t 

= ψ1  , , α  and m2 = α 0c − α 01 = ψ 2  , , α  for cascade
Γ1  l l   l l 
t t t t t
= 1,6 = 1,4 = 1,2 = 1,0 = 0,8
l l l l l
2°
16° α = 12° α = 12° α = 12°
1° 16° 16°
0
2 °° 20° 20° 16° α = 12° α = 12°
24 8 ° 24° 20°
αoc – α01
2 28° 24° 24° 24°

° 28°
32 32° 28° 28°
0 32°
32°
32°
– 1° 36°
36°
– 2° 36°
0 0,01 0,02 0,03 0 0,01 0,02 0,03 0,04 0 0,01 0,02 0,03 0,04 0,05 0 0,01 0,02 0,03 0,04 0,05 0 0,01 0,02 0,03 0,04 0,05 fm
l
Γc  fm t   fm t 
=f , , α  and m2 = (α 0c − α 01 ) = f  , , α  for cascade
Γ1  l l   l l 
Fig. 10.37
AXIAL FLOW PUMP 253
The value of K is suitably selected from 0.55 to 1.7 depending upon the profile selected.
Prof. Erimena | 31 | proved that, the pressure at the concave surface of the blade decides the
load on the profile, under normal working condition.
dY 1 l
Length of the profile l is determined as l = and can be calculated.
dr ∆pav t
Z
γ
f 
Relative maximum curvature  m  is determined from experimental results approximately
 l 
 δm 
7% at hub and 2% at periphery. Relative maximum thickness   is determined as 10%
 l 
f   δm 
at hub and 3% at periphery. The change of  m  and   between hub and periphery
 l   l 
are carried out as smaller at higher half of the blade and larger at the lower half of the blade.
The coefficient of lift (Cy) is determined as
dY 1
Cy =
dr w∞2
Zly
2g
fm l  f t
For the selected and , the value of αsle is determined from the graph αsle = f  , 
l t  l l
(Fig. 10.36) for a shockless flow. The angle of chord with respect to the axis (u-direction)
fm t
θ = β1 + α sle. The value α = θ – β∞. For the obtained value of α, , , the values of m1
l l
and m2 are obtained.
The value of Cy is calculated as
 fm 
Cy = 0.096 m1 100 + α + m2  ...(10.33a)
 l 
and α is calculated as
I
Cy 100 f m
αI = – ...(10.33b)
0.096 l
While doing so initially the value of α is taken from the calculation to find m1 and m2. Then
the determined αI is used to find new values of m1 and m2. The calculations are repeated
three to four times until Cy obtained from the graph is equal to previous Cy value.
For the given Cy of the cascade pmin and the correct value of hs is calculated as
2
C y  w∞ 
pmin =  
1.6  w1 
 n 
2
 Cm21   w12 n Q
and h1s = 10 –    2g – pmin 
  and C =
 90     2g  H a – hs 
3/ 4
 10 
 
(xi) The mean line of the profile is an arc of a circle. The radius of this arc
l2 f
R = + m ...(10.34)
8 fm 2
(xii) The Radial clearance is 0.001 Di (should not exceed 0.25 mm).
(xiii) Distance between blade outlet and diffuser blade inlet is 0.15 Di.
Diffuser Calculations
(i) Absolute angle α2, tangential component of absolute velocity Cu2 and meridional velocity
Cm2 at the outlet of the impeller are known, from which the inlet conditions of the diffurser
can be determined. Taking Cm3 = 1.05 to 1.07Cm2, in order to account for profile thickness
Cm 3
of diffuser blade, and since, Cu3 = Cu2, tan α3 = .
Cu 3
l
(ii) In order to get complete conversion of Cu2 into pressure, the value   is always selected
t
l
as > 1.5.
t
(iii) From the experimental analysis | 131 | it has been established that an additional angle (∆)
must be added over and above 90° for the diffuser blade angle at oulet in order to make the
flow tangential to the mean line and the flow can be purely axial at the outlet of the diffuser.
The following table (10.1) gives the value of (∆) for the selected l/t value.
TABLE 10.1
l
0.7 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
t
∆° 20.5 19.5 16.9 11.5 12.5 10.5
(iv) The mean line of the profile is an arc of a circle.

fm l
(v) The blade curvature and vane solidity are selected to get proper angle of divergence
l t
2ε for the flow passage between two diffuser blades and also to get constant axial velocity
at all sections between inlet and outlet as well as desired velocity distribution of Cm3 along
the radius before and after the diffuser. About 2ε = 6° at periphery and 8° at hub is
recommended which provides constant height (H) along the meridional plane. Further, the
fm
curvature should be selected so as to get sufficient value of Cy under non-separated
l
flow condition.
AXIAL FLOW PUMP 255
(vi) Selection of number of diffuser blades is normally (Zi + 1), where Zi is the number of
impeller blades. However, number of diffuser blades should be selected such that the inlet
l l 1 – sin α3
flow passage is a square. The for diffuser is determined as = . Length of the
t t 2 tan ε
blade
∆A
l = ...(10.35)
w12
∆rZC y
2g
From the known coefficient of lift (Cy), the profile and its characteristics can be obtained.
From the profile characteristics, the pressure pmin can be found out. An approximate value
of Cy = 1.65 pmin. The distance between impeller outlet edge and diffuser inlet edge is
recommended as 0.15Di, where Di is the impeller diameter.
Angle subtended by the diffuser blade in plan is found to increase 1.6 times at periphery
and 2 times at hub than that of impeller blade for ns = 450 to 750.
10.10 FLOW WITH ANGLE OF ATTACK

Indirect method suggested by Prof. Lisohen | 65 | , inspite of complicated and tedious process,
gives a very good agreement between theory and experiment. Hence, this method is used only when
there is an absolute necessity to improve cavitational characteristics of pumps for which entire process
has to be repeated again with corrections applied to the velocity distribution and the shape of the profile
already available from I set of calculation.
The direct method suggested as per Lift method as well as by Prof N. E. Voznisenski and Prof.
Pekin gives a flow on thin profile for shockless entry without any angle of attack [v(0) = 0]. For a flow
with angle of attack these processes do not give good results especially for cavitational characteristics.
For axial flow pumps, ux = u1, Zx = Z1. hf(1 – x) = 0.
px p1 w 2 − wx2
∴ = + 1
γ γ 2g
w1 − wmax
2 2
pmin p1
Then, = +
γ γ 2g
Circulation Γ for a flow over a cylinder can be written as Γ = 4πa.V∞ sin α, where a is the radius
of cylinder, α is the angle of attack i.e., angle between the direction of the velocity vector V∞ and the
horizontal line passing through the centre of the cylinder which is the profile or cascade axis (= direction
of blade velocity ‘u’), V∞ is the infinite velocity or undisturbed velocity before and after the blade. The
above equation can be written for a curved plate as Γ∗ = πlw∞ sin α, where l = 4a, the chord length of
the profile, w′∞ is the new infinite velocity of flowing fluid before and after the blade with an angle of
attack α. Normally α is very small (< ±5°), so sin α ≈ α and hence, Γ∗= πlw∞′α. Taking L as the ratio of
circulation of profile in cascade to isolated profile
Γc∗ = L.π lw′∞α ...(10.36)
Value of ‘L’ can be found from the graph (Fig 10.8).

Referring to the combined velocity triangle, (Fig. 10.5), β∞ is the angle of flow over profile for no
circulation. With ‘α’ as the angle of attack, the flow will be at an angle β′∞ = (β∞ + α). The new w′∞ and
w′u∞ are reduced since blade velocity u and meridional velocity Cm remain same.
The procedure for the calculation of flow over a thin profile with angle of attack is as follows:
Circulation Γb for a flow with angle of attack ‘α’ can be written as
2πgH m
Γb = ...(10.37a)
ηh zω
l
α
w ′∞
t
w′∞′
w∞
α
β∞
β′∞
Fig. 10.38. Velocity triangle for a flow with angle of attack
For the selected value of angle of attack α ≤ ±5°, circulation Γ* with angle of attack is
Γ* = Lπlw′∞α ...(10.37b)
Values β′∞ and w′∞ are determined from the combined velocity triangle. Value L is determined
from the graph (Fig. 10.8) for the given value of α.
Hence, the circulation Γ without any angle of attack is
Γ = Γb – Γ* ...(10.38)
Geometrical average velocity from the velocity triangle (Fig.10.38) w′∞ = w∞cos α.
Geometrical average angle β∞ for a flow without angle of attack is
β∞ = β′∞ – α ...(10.39)
From the known values of w∞, Γ and β∞, lift method or Prof. Voznisenski’s method can be
applied for design of axial flow pump.
10.11 CORRECTION IN PROFILE CURVATURE DUE TO THE CHANGE FROM

THIN TO THICK PROFILE
Methods suggested in lift method and by Prof. Voznisenski for the design of axial flow pumps,
give a thin profile in the form of an arc of circle. In real practice, blade system has thick profiles with
definite thickness instead of thin profile which is called camberline in profiles. Due to this additional
thickness, flow area in between two blades, in the cascade system reduces, which results in change in
relative velocity from inlet edge to the outlet edge of the profile. Flow velocity and the quantity of flow
also change. Correction factors are applied on blade curvature of the thin profile, designed by lift method
or Prof. Voznisenski’s method, in order to overcome this drawback, and the performance of pump
remains unaltered.
AXIAL FLOW PUMP 257
Blade thickness is always selected based on the strength and durability of hub section of impeller
blade, where the thickness is higher and based on technology in manufacture for the peripheral section
of impeller as well as for the diffusers, where the thickness is small.
Prof. S. M. Beelosirkovski, Prof. A. C. Genevski, Prof. Polovski, Prof. E. L. Bloch | 9, 105 |
developed method to overcome the drawback of change in performance due to the dressing of thin
camber line with thick profiles. This work was reworked by Prof. A.N. Papir | 85, 86, 87, 105 | by the
following procedure:
Profiles in cascade system consist of: (i) diverging passage type used in mixed and axial flow
pumps, where the relative and meridional flow velocities reduce from inlet to outlet and another,
(ii) converging passage type used in mixed and axial flow turbines, where the relative and meridional
flow velocities increase from inlet to outlet.
Apart from that, hydrodynamic machines are classified as: (i) machines with high aspect ratio
(l/t > 1.2 to 1.4) and (ii) machines with low aspect ratio (l/t < 0.5 to 0.7). In high aspect ratio machines,
fluid velocity on the blade is practically independent of the changes in fluid velocity before the blade
system. The direction of fluid velocity is practically same as the blade angle at outlet, whatever may be
the circulation. In low aspect ratio machines, the fluid velocity on the blade depends upon the fluid
velocity before the blade system i.e., depend upon the circulation around the profile or the load on the
blade | 105 |. This means that in high aspect ratio profile system, the fluid velocity direction at outlet is
independent of change in angle of attack and lift of the profile, where in low aspect ratio units, it mostly
depends upon the angle of attack and lift.
Based on the above factors the influence of profile dressing on a thin camber line, on pump
performance is found to be a function of two factors: (1) The change in the interactive force of thick
profile, when compared to that of thin profile, under ideal fluid flow conditions and (2) Effect of viscosity
on velocity distribution along the profile. Prof. A. N. Papir has developed an expression
∆f l 
= f  , β2  , which is given in a graphical form (Fig. 10.39). A short description is given below.
c t 
Outlet blade angle of thin profile under real fluid flow condition is given as
cot β2 = A cot β1 + B ...(10.40)
where, β1 and β2 are the inlet and outlet flow angle measured with respect to the blade velocity ‘u’ and
A and B are constants and are a function of geometrical parameters and lift in a cascade system.
1l
1− C cos β0
A= 4 t yi ...(10.41)
1l
1+ C cos β0
4 t yi
1l
C yi sin β0
2t
and B= 1l ...(10.42)
1+ C yi cos β0
4t
AXIAL FLOW PUMP 259
β0 is the flow angle under zero circulation

π β
β0 = −α+
2 2
C yi is the coefficient of lift under angle of attack i = 0
 dcy 
Cyi = 
 di  i =0
The coefficient A and B for a thick profile will be different and can be obtained by an approximate
formula
l d
At = A + a .   m ...(10.43)
t l
l  d
and Bt = B + b  , α, β m ...(10.44)
t  l
l l  δ
Functions a   and b  , α,β  , account for the thickness of profile m = δ m, relative thickness
t t  l
ratio which determines approximately the change in circulation in thick profile with respect to the
circulation in thin profile.
π
The result of Prof. Papir’s analysis is given in graphical form (Fig. 10.39), with θ2 = − β2 ( β2 is
2
∆f
the outlet blade angle) where θ2 is designated as indirect blade angle in x-axis and in y-axis where
c
fm d
fm = relative blade curvature of the camberline (thin profile) and c = m relative maximum
l l
∆f 1 β
thickness. The function c = tan . In the graph +ve direction is for pumps and –ve direction is for
2 2
∆f
turbines. From the graph it is evident that for high aspect ratio l/t > 1.2 to 1.4 correction factor,
, is
c
independent of angle of attack i.e., not depending upon the angle of direction ∆β but depends upon only
∆f
the flow direction at outlet, whereas for low aspect ratio  < 0.5 to 0.7  the correction factor
l
is
t  c
practically independent of outlet flow direction but mostly depends upon the angle of deviation ∆β i.e.,
depends upon lift force and angle of attack. For turbine cascade system the dependence with ∆β starts
earlier than for pump cascade system i.e., already when l/t = 1.
10.12 EFFECT OF VISCOSITY

The result of viscous effect on flow is the development of boundary layer at the surface. Under
non-separated flow condition the real fluid flow is on the surface of the thick profile instead of on the
surface of thin profile. Normally, at inlet, the profile thickness is always more at the convex surface of
the profile than at the concave side. As a result, the deviation in flow direction of viscous fluid when
compared to the flow direction of ideal fluid, will be always with lesser angle of curvature i.e., ∆β is less
in the cascade. Circulation in real fluid will be less than that in ideal fluid. This deviation will be larger in
pump, (i.e., divergent flow) than that in turbines (i.e., convergent flow). As a result, boundary layer
thickness at the convex surface will be higher in pumps than in turbines.
Effect of viscosity and subsequent reduction in hydraulic efficiency can be accurately calculated
from the boundary layer thickness in profile | 32, 64, 78 |. With sufficient accuracy, the effect of
viscosity on circulation can be taken as | 8, 16 |.
Γ
KΓ = = 0.86 to 0.93
Γth
KΓ increases when l/t increases. For pumps KΓ ≈ 0.9 and for turbines KΓ ≈ 0.95. It is essential to
take Γth = 1.1 Γ, where Γ is the circulation actual calculated as per the equation (10.7).
10.13 SELECTION OF IMPELLER DIAMETER AND SPEED

Flow velocity at suction eye under optimum condition is given as
C0 = Cm0 = (0.06 to 0.08) as 3

Qn 2 ...(4.24)
4Q _
For axial flow pump, Cm = ...(10.45)
πD (1 − d 2)
2
dh
where, d = , d is the hub diameter. Combining the above two equations and rearranging
D h
π
Q = (0.06 to 0.08) (1 − d 2 )3 / 2 .n.D3 ...(10.46)
4
Q
where, n is speed in rpm. Using non-dimensional parameter KQ = (where n is in rps) in the above
nD3
equation
1
Q= K Q nD 3
60
( )
3/ 2
 π 2 
KQ = 60 (0.06 to 0.08) 1 − d  ...(10.47)
 4 
Taking an average of 0.066 for the coefficient, which is practically used for all pumps,
_
KQ = 0.7 (1 − d 2 ) 3 / 2
For axial flow pumps hub ratio d = 0.4 to 0.6 . KQ is 0.32 to 0.54. Under maximum efficiency
condition, KQ = 0.4 to 0.5.
AXIAL FLOW PUMP 261
Mostly speed is determined for better cavitational characteristics for which cavitational specific
speed (C) is used
n Q
C= 3/ 4 ...(10.48)
 H sv 
 
 10 
Expressing C in terms of K Q
60 KQ n3 D3
C= 3/ 4
 H sv 
 10 
 
1/ 2
2/3 
H 
1/ 2
H 
C  sv  C 2 / 3  sv 
 10   10  ≈ constants
or nD = ...(10.49)
60 KQ1/ 3
2/3 15.3 KQ1/ 3
H sv
Since, C, KQ , H sv are very nearly constant for pumps. Taking C = 1000, = 1 K Q = 0.45 for
10
most of the pumps and K Q = 0.6 for very high specific speed pumps, nD ≈ 8.4 for normal units,
nD ≈ 7.3 for very high specific speed units (n is in rev/sec). Correspondingly uperi (= πDn) = 26 to
27 m/sec and ≈ 33 if C is higher and, uperi = 23 m/sec for very high specific speed units.
10.14 SELECTION OF HUB RATIO

Free vortex design is adopted while designing axial flow pumps. Circulation and total head developed
at all radii is constant, i.e., Cu r = constant. For potential flow and for normal entry Cu1 = 0. Blade
curvature (β) and geometric average blade angle (β∞) increase from periphery to hub. Blade becomes
a twisted blade with more twist at hub angle β∞ at hub and less at periphery. Karl Pfliderer | 97| has
suggested that outlet should not exceed 90°. Based on this he gave an expression
3 3/ 2
 _1   1  1.09ηh  1  n 2
 d  −   =   S ...(10.50)
 d  max  1+ p  tgβ 0a  365 
max
where, p is the head correction coefficient due to finite number of blades in impeller and β0a is the inlet
blade angle at hub section. However, based on the experimental results on a number of axial flow
pumps, Prof. Papir | 84 | has developed an expression for hub ratio selection, which is given below
3.65n(rpm) Q 219n(rps) Q
Specific speed, ns = 3/ 4
=
H H 3/ 4
π –
Flow rate through impeller, Q = D 2(1 – d 2) C m. From velocity triangle, flow velocity
4
 Cu 2  πd h n πd h n
Cm=  u −
–
 tgβ∞. Blade velocity at hub section, uh= = . D . = πDn.d (n in rps).
 2  60 D 60
gH m _
Tangential velocity Cu2 at hub, Cu2h = . Combining all the above equations, flow rate
ηh πDn.d
π 3 _  gH m 
Q= D n (1 − d 2 )  d −  tgβ
2ηh π 2 n 2 D 2 d ∞
4  
Hm Q
Substituting the value of unit head, KH = 2 2 and unit discharge, KQ = in the above
n D nD 3
equation
π2  gK H 
KQ =
4
( )
1 – d 2 d −
 2ηh π 2 d 
tgβ∞ ...(10.51)
Substituting this in specific speed equation

 gK H 
(1 − d 2 )  d −
219π  2ηh π 2 d 
ns = 3/ 4
tgβ∞ ...(10.52)
2 KH
A graph KH= f (ns) (Fig. 10.40) is drawn based on the test results of different specific speeds (ns=
450 to 1600) having ηmax ≥ 85% taken from universal characteristics. The values KQ ranges from 0.4 to
0.6 in these pumps. However, KQ is taken as constant and = 0.5 for all pumps and β∞ for hub is taken as
38° although it ranges from 35° to 40°. These values are substituted in equation (10.51) and a graph dh =
f (ns) is drawn (Fig. 10.41). Experimental results are also indicated in this graph. Dotted line indicates
the recommendation given by K. Pfliderer | 97 |. Fig. 10.42 gives the combination of above two graphs
(Figs. 10.40 and 10.41). It gives a relation dh = f (KH)opt
(KH)opt
0,2
0,1
0
500 1000 1500
(n s) opt
Fig. 10.40. (KH)opt = f (ns)op

AXIAL FLOW PUMP 263
dh
D
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4 d
D min as per
eqn. 10.45
0.3
0.2
0.1
200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400 2600 2800 3000 (n s) 0
 dh 
 D  = f (ns )opt
Fig. 10.41. d = 
dh
D
0,6
0,5
0,4
0,3
0,05 0,10 0,15 0,20 (KH)opt

as per equation
as per Pfliderer
dh
Fig. 10.42. d = = f (K H )opt
D
l
10.15 SELECTION OF  t  — ASPECT RATIO AT PERIPHERY
peri
A major part of losses occur in impeller due to high velocity of flow and the divergent passage.
Profile loss is the sum of frictional losses and losses in divergent passage. Aspect ratio plays a very
important role. Frictional losses increase when (l/t) ratio increases but loss due divergence decrease. It is
necessary to find optimum value of (l/t) for which the sum of these two losses are minimum. Based on
the equation (10.1), we can write for a divergent passage as
ZΓ Γ
wu2 – wu1 = = ...(10.53)
2π r t
Bernoulli’s equation for real fluid flow through impeller passage will be
ρ
∆p = (p1 – p2 ) + 2 – w2 ) = γh
(wu1 u2 f ...(10.54)
2
where, hf is the combined losses in impeller passage.
For constant head at all radii in impeller passage, under optimum condition
2πgH gt ( H + h f )
Γ= = ...(10.55)
ηh ωZ u
Since, H = Hm. ηh = (H + hf) ηh
From the cascade analysis, the force due to losses i.e., drag force ‘X’ will be
X = t sin β∞ and ∆p = γt hf sin β∞
w∞
and lift will be Y=γ (H + hf) t + γthf cos β∞ ...(10.56)
u
w∞2 w∞2
Using coefficients X = Cx ρ l, Y = Cy ρ l = ρ w∞ Γ
2 2
l w∞2 l w∞
3
and wz = w∞ sin β∞, hf = Cx = Cx
t 2 g sin β ∞ t 2 gwz
2Γ 2(Cu 2 − Cu1 ) 2Cu 2 gH
and Cy = = = ηu ...(10.57)
lw∞ w∞ (l / t ) w∞ (l / t ) h
∴ For normal entry, Cu1 = 0

∆Cu = Cu2 – Cu1 = Cu2 = Cu
3
hf l w∞
hf = = Cx ...(10.58)
H t 2 gHwz
Equation (10.58) shows that losses are the function of aspect ratio l/t and the relative velocity
w3∞ . The geometrical average relative velocity w∞ will be maximum at periphery. Hence, major
percentage of losses in impeller of axial flow pump occurs at periphery of the impeller passage.
Losses in impeller consist of profile losses arising due to friction in impeller passages and subsequent
wake formation at the outlet of the impeller cascade system and non profile or secondary losses arising
out of secondary flow in impeller passage due to pressure difference between leading side and trailing
side of blades as well as due to clearance between casing and impeller blades. Since, flow in impeller
passage is under fully developed turbulent region, where ‘f ’ is independent of Reynold’s number, the
losses depend upon Cy and Cx, a relation between Cx and Cy can be written as
Cy = a C 2x + bCx + C ...(10.59)
AXIAL FLOW PUMP 265
where a, b, c are constants, depend upon the geometry of blade system. Substituting the values of Cy
and Cx from equation (10.12) and rearranging
1  2 gHw∞ t Cu w∞2 w∞3 l 

 a . + b + C . 
2 gH t 
hf = 2 ...(10.60)
wm  ηh u l gH
Q H
Using non-dimensional coefficient, KQ = 3 and KH =
nD n D2
2
 Cu  1  gK H  1
w∞ =  u −  cosβ = nD π −  ...(10.61)
 2  ∞  2ηh π  cosβ∞
Substituting these values in equation (10.59)
2
π  2 gK  π − gK H  l 1  gK H 
hf = a 2 2 H
4 KQ  ηh π cos β∞  2π ηh  t
+b
2ηh π cos 2 β ∞  π − 2η π 
 h
gK H  l 
3
1 
π − 
2 gK H cos β ∞  2π ηh  t 
+c 3 ...(10.62)
l 
In axial flow pumps, KQ is mostly constant for all ns values. Taking, KQ = constant h f = f  , K H 
t 
Differentiating the equation (10.62) up to first approximation with respect KH and equating it to
zero,
_
dh f 2ag  gK H  bg  gK H  l
=  π−  −  π − 2πη  t
dK H η2h π cos β∞ 
2
π η h 
2 2
ηh π cos2 β∞ h
2
C  gK H   gK H  l
2
−  π−   π+   = 0
2π ηh 
...(10.63)
2 gK H2 cos β∞ 
3
2π ηh   t
gK H
Taking, L = π–
2πηh
gK H
M = π+
πηh
gK H
N = π–
πηh
g 2 cos 2 β ∞ K H2 b
S = ⋅
η2h 2
π LM C
4 g 2 K H2 cos3 β∞ N a
T= ⋅ ...(10.64)
ηh2 π2 L2 M C
l
  = −S + S2 + T ...(10.65)
t opt I
Differentiating the equation (10.63) up to second approximation and equating it to zero
l 2 cosβ ∞ a
  = ...(10.66)
t opt II  π 2 ηh  1 c
 gK  – 2
 H
Equations (10.65 and 10.66) are more or less found to be same. From the test results of pumps
having η > 85% it is found
a b
= 8.15 and = – 15
c c
From fundamental equations
u = π Dn, where n is the speed in rps
Cu gH gnD
= = K
2 2π D n η h 2 π ηh H
4Q _ 4nDKQ
CZ = =
πD (1 − d h )
2 2
π (1 − d 2h )
CZ 4 KQ
tan β∞ = = ...(10.67a)
2  gK H 
( )
C
u− u π 1 − dh  π −
2  2π ηh 
The value KQ for axial flow pumps ranges from 0.4 to 0.6. Hydraulic efficiency, (ηh) is more or
less constant for all pumps (≈ 90%).
Substituting these values in equation (10.67), β∞ changes from 14° to 18°. At higher values 24° to
l
34°. Taking β∞ is constant for all ranges of KQ and KH equation (10.66) leads to  t  is directly
 opt
proportional to (KH)opt i.e., a straight line variation. Practically, for each value of KH , there exists a
l 
range of β∞, but this variation is negligible. A relation   = f (KH)opt is drawn in Fig. 10.43. Possible
 t opt
variations in angle β∞ is also indicated with dotted line in this figure. It is seen that this graph coincides
l
with the values of l/t of tested pumps.   can be selected from this graph to get better cavitational
 t opt
characteristics.
AXIAL FLOW PUMP 267

t peri
1,4 β∞
1,2
1,0
0,8
0,6
0,4
0,2
0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 (K H)opt
 
Fig. 10.43.  t  = f (KH )opt , β ∞ at η
peri max condition
l
Professor Wislicenus | 133 | has recommended the selection of vane, solidity   as
t
l Z r2
= log ...(10.67b)
t 2sin β∞ r1
Prof. A.J. Stepanoff |112| has given a chart for the selection of hub ratio, aspect ratio and number
of blades as a function of specific speed (ns). (Fig. 10.44).
Hub ratio
1,1
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
60
50
35
55
45
30
40
1,0
65
0.
0.
70
29
0.
0,9
0.
40
–
42
5
2v
5
–
0,8
–
3v
4v
0.
3
Vane spacing//tt
–
0.
0,7
2v
5
–
3v
0.
33
0,6
0.
0.
–
63
4v
57
2v
5
7
–
–
3v
0 .4
3v
0,5
25
–3
v
0,4 5
4 3 vanes
2
1272
424 495 565 636 706 778 848 919 990 1201
1060 1131
Specific speed
Fig. 10.44. Hub ratio number of vanes, and l/t ratio for axial flow pumps (as per Stepanoff)
10.16 CALCULATION OF HYDRAULIC LOSSES AND HYDRAULIC

EFFICIENCY
Total hydraulic losses, (hf) is the sum of hydraulic losses in approach channel (hfa), in impeller
(hfi), in diffuser (hfd) and in discharge channel (hf 0)
hf = hfa + hfi + hfd + +hf 0
Relative values are
hf h fa + h f i + h fd + h f 0
hf = = = h fa + h fi + h fd + h f 0
H H
Losses in approach and discharge pipes are calculated as
C02 Cd2
hfa = Ka and hf(0) = K0
2g 2g
where, Ka and K0 are the coefficients at inlet and at outlet respectively and Co and Cd are the velocities
in approach and delivery pipes respectively. hfi + hfd are the losses in impeller and diffuser, respectively
which are classified as losses in blade system and also called as internal hydraulic losses. Prof. Staritzky
| 105, 121, 122, 123, 124 | has shown in his paper that for the given value of head coefficient (KH or ψ),
the relative head loss (hf) in pump depends upon the flow coefficient (KQ or φ) and has a minimum
condition.
Losses in impeller are of two types: (1) Profile losses arising due to friction on the blade and wake
formation at the outlet of the blade system and (2) Non-profile or secondary losses arising due to the
circulatory flow in blade passage, and cross flow through clearance between casing and impeller developed
due to pressure difference between convex and concave side of the blade. Non-profile losses are negligible
(≈ 5% of total impeller losses) when compared to profile losses, relative head loss in cylindrical section
for any radius of the impeller blade will be,
w∞ sin λi C2 (1 + tan 2 β ∞i )
h fi = = ...(10.68)
u sin (β∞i + λ i ) u tan β∞i (tan β∞i . cot λi + 1)
where λi average incidence angle for the blade as a whole and the blade velocity ‘u’ corresponds to the
peripheral section. Similarly, relative head loss in diffuser can be written as
w∞ sin λd (
C2 1 + tan 2 α∞d )
( )
h fd = = ...(10.69)
u sin (α∞i + λ d ) u tan α∞d tan α∞d . cot λ d + 1
From the velocity triangles, (Fig. 10.45)

Cm 2 2Cm
tan β∞i = and tan α∞d =
Cu 2 u
u−
2
From fundamental equation,
gH m
Cu2 = and Cma= Cmi = Cm2, Cu1d = Cu2i
ηh u
AXIAL FLOW PUMP 269
w2 C2 C Cm4 C4
m2
wu2 Cu2
u
w1 C1 Cm3
Cm1
u
Cu3
(a) Impeller (b) Diffuser
Fig. 10.45. Flow through impeller and diffuser of axial flow pump
Q H
Using non-dimensional coefficients, KQ = 3 and KH = (n is in rps), the above equation
nD n D2
2
can be modified as
8ηh KQ
tan β∞i = ...(10.70)
2π ηh − gK H
2
8ηh KQ
tan α∞d = ...(10.71)
gK H
gK H
Taking the value ρ = , the above equation can be written as
1 − 2π 2 ηh
2
1  4KQ 
ρ+  2 
ρ π 
hfi = ...(10.72)
1 4 K Q ctgλi
1+ ⋅
ρ π2
2
1  4 KQ 
(1 − ρ) 2 +
1 − ρ  π 2 
h fd = ...(10.73)
1 4 KQ
1+ . ctgλd
(1 − ρ) π 2
Losses in the approach and discharge channel can be expressed as
h f ( ap ) Cm2( ap )
h f ( ap ) = = ζap
H 2 gH
h f (e) Cm2 (0)

and, hf 0 = = ζ0 ...(10.74)
H 2 gH
Cmi Ai
where, Cm(a) = = xi Cm(i)
Aap
Cmi Ai
and, Cme = = xeCmi ...(10.75)
Ae
Ai Ai
where, = xa , = x0 , Ai , Aa , A0 are the area of flow of impeller passage, approach channel
Aa A0
immediately before the impeller inlet and the discharge channel immediately after impeller exit. Cmi is
the flow velocity in impeller. These two expressions can be expressed in non-dimensional form as
8ηh KQ2
h f ( a + 0) = (ζa χ2a + ζ0 χ20 ) ...(10.76)
g π2 K H
h f = h fi + h fd + h fa + hf 0 ; ηh = 1 – h f
It can be seen that ηh =f (KQ, KH, cot λi , cot λ d χa, χ0, ζa, ζ0 ηh )
Based on the experimental results on pumps of η > 85% the values are taken as χa= χ0= 1, ζ0 + ζa
= 0.124, ηhΙ = 0.86, cot λi = 25.6, cot λ d = 46.16. Since, ηh appears in the equation on both sides, the
equation is solved by trial and error method until two successive values of ηh are equal. Prof. Staritzky
graphically gave this equation in coordinates KH – KQ, since all performance graph for pumps are always
represented in these coordinates only (Figs. 10.46, 10.47 and 10.48).
h, η
0,9
0,8 η
0,7
0,6
0,5
0,4
hK
0,3 h0
0,2
10h a
0,1
0
0,5 1,0 1,5 2,0 K Q
— l
Fig. 10.46. Hydraulic loss and efficiency as a function of (KQ) h , η = f (KQ) for   ≈1
 t  peri
AXIAL FLOW PUMP 271
KH
0
50
0
0,24
60
=
s
n
0,22
0
%
80
85
0,20
=
H
η
0,18 0
100
0,16
m
on
ηr
0,14 0
120
0,12
0
140
0,10 0 0
80% 16
0,08 0
200
0,06
75%
0,04
70%
0,02
0
0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5 0,6 0,7 0,8 0,9 1,0 1,1 1,2 1,3 1,4 K Q
 
Fig. 10.47. Universal graph KH = f (KQ , η , ns) for   ≈1
t peri
KH
0,14 85 %
0
η s=
50
70
s=
0,12
n
0
00 1700
60
80
2 00 15
n s= 1
00
0,10
20 00
10
%
0,08 80
2600
0,06
70% 60%
0,04 3000
0,02 3500
0 4000
0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5 0,6 0,7 0,8 0,9 1,0 1,1 1,2 1,3 1,4 1,5 1,6 1,7 1,8 1,9 KQ
 
Fig. 10.48. Universal characteristics KQ = f (KH , η , ns) for   ≈ 0.3 when KH = 1
t peri
10.17 CALCULATION OF PROFILE LOSSES USING BOUNDARY LAYER

THICKNESS δ **| 67, 105, 106|
10.17.1 Notations and Abbreviations

S2
B — ∫ w( s ) ds value of integration
S1
C — Constant of integration (with suffix)

— Suction specific speed (without suffix)
Cm — Axial (meridional) velocity
D — Outer diameter
d — Hub diameter
d — Hub ratio
G, G1 — A parameter depends on Re**
g — Acceleration due to gravity (= 9.81 m/sec2)
H — Total head of the pump
He — Ratio of two boundary layer thicknesses
hs — Suction head
hf — Loss of head
H
KH — Unit head = (n — in rev/sec)
n D2
2
Q
KQ — Unit discharge = (n — in rev/sec)
n D3
1 — Chord length
n — Speed (rpm)
p — Pressure
p1 — Pressure loss to friction
pmin — Minimum pressure (non—dimensional)
Q — Discharge, flow rate
q — Source and sink
Re — Reynold’s number
r — Radius
s — Distance of any point on the profile from inlet edge
—
s — (s/l), Non-dimensional distance on the profile
t — Pitch
u — Vane velocity
w — Relative velocity of fluid (velocity of fluid on the vane)
— w
w — Non-dimensional relative velocity =
w1∞
Z — Number of vanes
α — Absolute angle
—
U — Non-dimensional velocity ratio.
β — Vane angle
Γ — Circulation
γ — Specific weight of the liquid
δ∗ — Displacement thickness
δ∗∗ — Momentum thickness
δ **
δ∗∗ — — Non-dimensional momentum boundary layer thickness
l
η — Efficiency
AXIAL FLOW PUMP 273
χ — Ratio of transition end point to laminar point

on the profile
ρ — Density
σ — Cavitation constant (Thoma’s constant)
v — Kinematic viscosity
τ — Shear stress
SUFFIXES
1 — Inlet conditions to the vane
2 — Outlet conditions to the vane
u — Tangential component theoretical (average) values
f — Frictional losses
lam, 1 — End of laminar region, Laminar region
tr, t — End of transition region, Transition region
tu, e — End of turbulent region, Turbulent region
P — Profile losses
I, III, V — Streamlines from hub to periphery
i — Any streamline
m, min — Minimum conditions
Hydraulic losses in axial flow pumps are due to:
(1) friction over the blades (viscous flow), and the aerodynamic wake after the blades and
(2) vortices in other places such as: (a) leakage losses through the radial clearances, (b) losses in
flow passages between vanes due to the pressure differences between concave and convex surface of
vanes and (c) losses in the hub of the impeller due to increased boundary layer thickness (Fig. 10.49).
Secondary flow
Periphery through clearance
Secondary flow
through hub
Hub
Fig. 10.49. Type of secondary flow in cascade of axial flow pump
Losses due to friction on blades and due to wake formation after the blades are grouped as profile
losses, whereas losses due to other effects are classified as non-profile losses or secondary losses, because
of the finite length of blades.
Since profile losses form major percentage of the hydraulic losses (about 96%), non-profile losses
are usually neglected and hence hydraulic losses are assumed to be equal to profile losses. Experimental
investigations also confirm that the error in such assumption is very negligible ≈ 1% | 13, 105 |.
Several methods for calculating profile losses in a cascade system of fluid machinery are available;
some taking into account the profile losses in the cascade system only, | 74, 75, 114 |, and some other
taking into account the profile losses in the cascade and in the wake, | 67, 92,115 |. A comparison of the
above method shows that the method suggested by Prof. Loisanski gives more accurate results than
other methods | 14,106,142 |.
10.17.2 Determination of Profile Losses and Hydraulic Efficiency

At the outlet end of the profile, the two boundary layers, coming out from concave and convex
surfaces are separated from one another up to a certain distance (Fig. 10.50) from 2 to ∞. At point ∞
these two layers join together. Neglecting the non-uniformity of the velocity distribution in this region
(∞ – ∞), it can be written as
δ2*
p2 = p2∞; δ*2 = δ2**, H2 = ** =1
δ2
a 2∞ (K )
re
rm re a w y
2∞
fo
w
ni su
U res t
2
p
w
2
ti on
ra
e pa a
s e
w ar
F lo
Flow at the outlet edge
e
Blade exit
e
w
edge
1
p1∞
1∞
w
Fig. 10.50. Flow at the outlet from the profile in a cascade system
(boundary layer development at wake)
p
– 0,4
1
– 0,2
0 l
0,5 1,0
0,2
2
0,4
0,6
0,8
(1) Pressure side (2) Suction side
Average value
Instantaneous value
Fig. 10.51. Pressure distribution along the profile in a cascade system
AXIAL FLOW PUMP 275
Considering the flow of fluid (Fig. 10.7), the component of force PZ due viscosity is reduced
to RZ by an amount γthf .
δ**2
TABLE 10.2: Values of α and
δ**
2e
1–α
 w 2e  α δ**2
 w  α 1 – α – He α
2∞ 2 1+ δ2e
2
Hcr = 1.3 2.8 Hcr = 1.3 2.8
0.9 0.190 0.687 0.544 0.74 0.718 0.663

0.92 0.154 0.747 0.631 0.79 0.769 0.722
0.94 0.116 0.808 0.721 0.84 0.823 0.786
0.96 0.078 0.871 0.812 0.89 0.879 0.853
0.98 0.040 0.935 0.905 0.942 0.938 0.924
1.0 0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
1.1 – 0.21 1.347 1.504 1.352 1.35 1.45
2 H e +5
 we  δ**2  w  2
α = 1–   ** = 1 –  e 
 w2∞  δ 2 e  w2∞ 
Von Karman’s momentum equation, applied to the boundary layer, can be written as
d δ** dw τ0
w2 + (2δ**+ δ* ) w = ρ ...(10.77)
dS dS
The expression for the complete pressure loss can be written as
δ2**
p′ = γhf = ρw22∞ ...(10.78)
t sin β2∞
The value of all quantities in section 2–2 (Fig. 10.50) of the equation (10.78) must be expressed
through the values of the outlet end of the profile.
From impulse momentum equation a relation between δ**e and δ**2 can be obtained as | 143, 10 |
α2 δ2** 1− α
1–α– He < ** < ...(10.79)
2 δe α
1+
2
2
 w  δe*
where, α = 1 –  e  and He = ...(10.80)
 w2∞  δe**
and, we = wcritical.
276
 δ** 
Fig. 10.52. He curve = α = f  **  for He = 2.8 to 1.3
2
 δ2e 
AXIAL FLOW PUMP 277
From the analysis of different authors, | 14, 92 |, it is found He changes considerably. For non-
separated flow with high Reynold’s numbers and for convergent flow passages He = 1.4 to 1.3. For
conditions very near to flow separation, He = 2.0 to 2.8.
Square and Young | 140 | obtained, from the experiments conducted on isolated profiles with
δ2**
smaller relative thickness and with smaller lift coefficient, a relation between α and which can be
δ**
e
expressed as
He + 5
δ2**  w  2
=  e  ...(10.81)
δ**
e  w2∞ 
we
Equations 10.79, 10.80 and 10.81 were analysed for the values 0.9 < < 1.1 and 1.3 < He< 2.8.
w2∞
(Table 10.2)
From the analysis it was found that the line He = 1.3 and line He = 2.8 lie in between the lines as
per equation 10.79 when α is small i.e., (we /w2∞) → 1, all lines are very close together and hence, He
can be assumed as 1.4 for practical purposes. This was also confirmed by Zicin and Mologen | 143 |.
Table 10.2 gives the values as per equations 10.79, 10.80 and 10.81 (Fig. 10.52 gives graphical
representation of the above equations).
Combining equations 10.78 and 10.81 and taking He=1.4, the pressure loss can be expressed as
3.2
 we  δe**
p′ = γhf = ρ (w2∞ )2.   . ...(10.82)
 w2∞  t sin β2∞
3.2
p′  w  δe**
hf = = (w2∞)2 .  e  ...(10.83)
γ  w2∞  gt sin β2∞
Hydraulic efficiency of the pump (ηh) will be
H H − hf
ηh = ηprofile = or ...(10.84)
H + hf H
It is evident from the equation 10.88, that the values of δe∗∗, the momentum boundary layer thickness
at the outlet end of the profile, should be determined in order to calculate the loss of head (hf) and
subsequently the hydraulic efficiency (ηh).
A method to determine the momentum boundary thickness at the end of the profile (δ∗∗ e ) for different
conditions of flow, is given below.
δ **)
10.17.3 Determination of Momentum Boundary Layer Thickness (δ
(a) Basic assumptions made for the changeover from one region to another
The nature of flow of fluid over the vane changes from laminar at inlet edge of the profile to
transition and then to the turbulent at the end of the profile. The momentum thickness at the end of the
profile (δe** ) should also be calculated according to the prevailing condition. If the flow starts from
laminar at inlet stagnation point and ends with turbulent region, it is necessary to find the momentum
thickness at the end of laminar region (δ**l ) then momentum thickness end of transition region (δtr
**) and
finally the momentum thickness at the end of the vane (δtu

**
) . During this process, it is assumed that
at the end of at the beginning of
δl ** (laminar) = δ tr** (transition)
region region
at the end of at the beginning of

δtr** (transition) = δtu** (turbulant) ...(10.85)
region region
(b) Determination of End Points

(i) End point of laminar region: The method suggested by Prof. E.M. Minski | 79 | has been
–
taken for the determination of the end point of laminar region (s l ), which gives the relation between this
point, Reynold’s number based on inlet conditions (Rel) and the point of minimum pressure on the
profile ( Sm ) , which is taken from the known non-dimensional pressure distribution curve of the profile.
It can be written as
—
Sl = Sm + S ...(10.86)
The graph (Fig. 10.53) S = f (Rel) is drawn from various experimental data collected by him. The
Reynold’s number is calculated by the equation
w .l
Rel = 1∞ ...(10.87)
ν
and the non-dimensional pressure is calculated as
0.30
0.25
0.20
0.15
0.10
0.05
6
12 14 16 18 20 × 10
0 6 6 6 6 6 w.
2 × 10 4 × 10 6 × 10 8 × 10 10 × 10 R**
e = v
—
Fig. 10.53. S = f (Re**) determination of end of laminar region (Minski)
AXIAL FLOW PUMP 279
u 2 − w2
p = ...(10.88)
2 gH
(ii) End point of transition region: Zicin and Mologin | 143 | suggested a relation between the end
point of transition region (Str) and that of laminar region (Si) as a function of pressure ratio, ( p ). It is
written as
 Str 
χ=   =f(p)
 Sl 
( p1 / γ )
pmin +
p w21∞ / 2 g )
p = m = ...(10.89)
p0 ( p1 / γ )
1+
( w12∞ / 2 g )
p1 C2
= 10 – hS – m , pmin = 1– w2max
γ 2g
From the experiments of Zicin and Mologin at different conditions, a relation betweem pm and χ
is given (Fig. 10.54), from which χ can be determined and hence Str .
3
x
4
2.5
3
2
1.5 1
2
1.0
0.4 0.45 0.5 0.55 0.6 0.65 0.7 pm 0.75 0.8 0.85 0.9 0.95 1.0
Fig. 10.54. χ = f (pm) determination of end of transition region

–
(1) Concave surface—diverging passage (2) Convex surface—diverging passage

(3) Convex surface—converging passage (4) Concave surface—converging passage
(c) Determination of momentum thickness for different conditions of flow ( δ** )

Substitutitng these parameters into the impulse momentum equation (10.77)
w′δ**
Taking, f= G ...(10.90a)
w
τ0
and φ= G ...(10.90b)
ρw 2
wδ**
where, f is the form factor, φ is the frictional coefficient, G is an expression depending on Re** = .
ν
Assuming that ‘f ’ is a function of velocity distribution on the profile, and the pressure gradient, influences
‘f ’ only through G which depends only on Re** . The expression for impulse momentum equation can be
rewritten in the following form | 14, 143, 67, 99, 135, 142 |.
F ( f ) = a – bf ...(10.91)
where, a and b are constants depending upon the type of flow.
For laminar flow, a = 0.44; b = 5.8;
For transition flow, a = 0.9; b = 6.5;
For turbulent flow, a = 1.17; b = 4.8 if Re > 5 × 106
a = 1.25; b = 4.8 if Re < 5 × 106
Combining 10.90 and 10.91, we get
S
wδ** a (b −1)
Re** =
ν
=
νG w(b − 2) ∫w . dS ...(10.92)
0
Taking, G1 = G . Re** ...(10.93)

S
a
∫w
(b −1)
G1 = . dS ...(10.94)
ν w(b −2) 0
The expression for δ** can be obtained depending upon G1 for each region of flow.
(i) Laminar region: For laminar flow as per Prof. Loisanski | 67 |
G = R**e
ν
and hence, δ** = G1 ...(10.95)
w
The above equation has been rewritten substituting its values to suit the present work | 105, 106 |
 0.44
Sl
∫w
4.8
δ** =  5.8 . dS ...(10.96)
wl Rel
 0
Rel** = wl δl ** Rel ...(10.97)
where, Rel** is the Reynold’s number based on δ**

l at the end of laminar region.
(ii) Transition region: Zincin and Mologen | 142 | has determined a relation for G as
G = 1259 ( Re**) – (1/10) ...(10.98)
(10 / 9)
ν  G1 
δ** =
w 1259 
Correspondingly ...(10.99)
AXIAL FLOW PUMP 281
The above expression is transformed into a convenient form for the present work as | 105, 106 |
(10 / 9)
 Rel  St  
=  0.9 ∫ w . d S + Ctr  
5.5
**
Retr ...(10.100)
1259 wtr 4.5 
  Sl  
where, Ctr, the constant of integration, is determined from the parameters at the end of laminar region as
per the condition 10.79
Ctr = wl 5.5 . δl ** . Gtr ...(10.101)
( )
and Gtr = 1259 Rel**( ) −1/10 ...(10.102)
The value of δtr** will be
Retr**
δtr** = ...(10.103)
Rel wtr
If the flow starts from transition region directly Ctr = 0.
(iii) Turbulent region: For turbulent region, as per Prof. Loisanski | 67 | suggested that
For Re< 5 × 106
G = 79.5 Re** ( )1/ 4 ...(10.104)
(4 / 5)
ν  G1 
δ**
w  79.5 
and = ...(10.105)
If, Re > 5 × 106

G = 153.2 (R**)1/6 ...(10.106)
e
ν  G1  (6 / 7)
and δ** = ...(10.107)
w 153.2 
Above expressions are rewritten to suit the present work | 105, 106 |
For Re > 5 × 106
Stu =1

Re1
w3.8 . d S + Ctu 
4/5
Re** = 2.8  1.25 ∫ 
...(10.108)
79.5 wtu  Str 
where, Ctu is the constant of integration, and is determined from the condition (equation 10.85) and
calculated from the conditions at the end of transition region as
Ctu = w3.8 . δtr** . Gtr ...(10.109)
** 1/ 4
Gtu = 79.5 ( Retr ) ...(10.110)
**
Retu
and δtu** = R w ...(10.111)
el tu
m+1 5
4
2°
= =
m
=
m
n
0.9 0.9
3
=
n
0.8 0.8
0.7 0.7
0.6 0.6
log G 1
0.5
0.4 0.4
4 5 6
= = =
m m m
0.3 0.3
–
m
0.2 0.2
1 2 3
= = =
n n n
0.1 0.1
m
n 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 n+1
log (R**
e )
( )10
9
**
Fig. 10.55. log G1 (Re**) = f (log Re**) for Gtr = 1259 Re
If, Re > 5 × 106
6/7
 Stu =1 
 Rel  
Re** =  1.17 ∫ w . dS + Ctu  
3.8
...(10.112)
153.2 w2.8  
 Str

Ce = wtr 3.8 . δ**

tr
. Gtu ...(10.113)
where, Gtu = 153.2 ( Retr** ) 1/ 4 ...(10.114)
**
Retu
and δtu** = ...(10.115)
Rel wtu
AXIAL FLOW PUMP 283
3.0
4
2.9
2.8
3
2.7
log G 1
2.6
2
2.5
1
2.4
2.3
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
log R**
e
( )6
1
Fig. 10.56. log G (Re**) = f (log (Re**)) for Gtu = 153.2 R**
etu
Entire procedure for the calculation of profile losses has been tabulated and given in chapter 13.
This procedure has been experimentally verified with an actual pump test. Hydraulic efficiency
actual is 1% less than the hydraulic efficiency calculated as per the procedure given above.
10.17.4 Computer Programme

A computer programme in C++ has been developed to determine the profile losses using above
mentioned equations and is given in chapter design with an example.
10.18 CAVITATION IN AXIAL FLOW PUMPS

In Fig. 10.57, theoretical pressure distribution over a peripheral section profile of an impeller
blade is given for one value of Q, H, n, hs (or Hsv), which corresponds to one point on the graph Q, n,
H, η, N = f (hs or Hsv) (Fig. 11.3), under non-cavitational condition. Under constant H, Q, n, N, η, any
change in hs changes the overall pressure distribution from inlet to outlet of the pump. Since, total
head H remains constant, change in hs, increases the suction head and reduces the delivery head. A
part of delivery head is transferred into suction head. From the figure, it is seen that a sudden reduction
in pressure prevails at the suction side of the profile very near to the blade inlet, more or less at one
point.
284
1,5850
r = 145.4 mm section III
1,1307
2,1160
P
r = 122.8 mm section I 0,9
r = 168 mm section V
P P
0,8
0,9 0,9
0,7
0,8 0,8
0,6
0,7 0,7
0,5
0,6 0,6
0,5 0,4
0,5
1,5850
2,1160
0,4 0,4
1,1307
0,2
0,4
0,2 –5
2
+ 25 0,2
5
0,4 –
+5 –3 –2 –1 0 +1 +2 +3 2 0,4 + 52
–2 2 –2
–0,1
–3 5 –1 0 +1 +2 +3 –3 –1 +2 +3
0 +1
2
–0,1 –0,2 –0,1
–0,2 –0,3 –0,2
–0,4
–0,3

–0,3
–0,5
–0,4 –0,4
–0,6
–0,5 –0,5
–0,7
–0,6 –0,6
–0,8
–0,7 –0,7
–0,8 –0,8
as per original selection of γ(s)
after redistribution of γ(s)
Fig. 10.57. Pressure distributions along the profiles at sections I, III, V

AXIAL FLOW PUMP 285
Since this sudden decline in pressure is acting only on a very small area of the blade, total head or
lift on the profile is not affected. When hs is further increased, the low pressure acting area at the suction
side of the blade gradually increases but it does not affect lift on the profile.The total head remains
constant. Further increase in suction head reduces the delivery pressure below the required pressure to
provide the required total head, with the result, the total head reduces. Reduction in pressure at suction
side increases the relative velocity. Since outlet velocity remains same, the diffuser effect of the passage
increases, which in turn increases frictional losses, due to the high velocity and eddy losses due to
increased diffuser effect. Efficiency also reduces. In centrifugal pumps, the rate of drop in pump parameters
is almost sudden. When specific speed of pump increases the rate of drop is less. In axial flow pump,
this drop will be gradual (Fig. 10.58) i.e., complete flow separation takes place in low specific speed
pumps, whereas partial separation only takes place, at higher specific speed pumps. This is due to the
fact that even under cavitation in high specific speed pumps, lift force exists and hence partially head is
developed. Pumps working under such condition are called super cavitating pumps.
Q
190
180
170
η,%
80
70
60
H,M
7
1,2 2 3 4 6 8
5
1,1 1 9
1,0 10
11
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 H s(m)
Fig. 10.58. Cavitation test results on an axial flow pump

Always pumps design is carried out for a non-separated flow condition, since flow passage is a
divergent passage. Experiment shows that separation of flow exists in pumps. Increase in the length of
profile although reduces the diffuser effect but increases friction. So an optimum profile length for
minimum loss must be established. A systematic analysis conducted by Prof. Howell, | 42, 43 |on diffuser
l
type cascade system enables to select optimum value of   as a function of outlet blade angle ‘β2’. In
t
axial flow pump relative velocity ‘w’ is higher at periphery. Impeller friction losses are more, cavitation
effect is more predominant at periphery.
 l l
  is selected as per Howell’s graph (Fig.10.34) and  
t hub t peri is selected from A.N. Papir’s
l
graph. (Fig. 10.43)   for intermediate radii are selected by interpolation in order to get a smooth
t
change over from hub to periphery.
Circulation Γ and the total head are proportional to the angle of deviation of flow in impeller
blade ∆β = β2 – β1
Γ = (Cu2 – Cu1) t = t Cm (cot β2 – cot β1)
More the value ∆β, higher the value of total head. But increase in total head, increases the angle of
divergence of flow passage. In order to provide a flow without separation, divergence should be limited
l
to less than 10°. Correspondingly, ∆β must be reduced. That’s why,   must be selected based on
 t  hub
∆β.
Experimental investigation shows that a perfect non-separated flow can be achieved when
∆βnom= 0.8 ∆βmax, where, ∆βmax is the value given by Prof. Howell, ∆βnom can be calculated from the
geometric parameters of the pump. Howell’s graph can be used under fully turbulent condition of flow
where frictional coefficient ‘f ’ is independent of Reynold’s number Re i.e.,
w1l
Re = ≥ (2 to 2.5), 105
ν
Thoma’s constant σ is determined as
σ=
( wx2 − ux2 ) ...(10.116)
2g
( wx2 − u x2 )max 2
wmax − u2
Critical value, σcr = = ...(10.117)
2 gH 2 gH
‘u’ is constant in axial flow pump for the given streamline from inlet to outlet. Normally for axial
flow pump  
l
is selected <1.0 to 1.1, taking into consideration, profile curvature and maximum
 t  peri
thickness under cavitation free operation. Maximum relative velocity on the profile under zero angle of
attack is given by Prof. A.A. Lomakin | 70 | as
 4 dm 
wmax = (1 + β)  1 +  w∞ ...(10.118)
 π l 
where, dm is the maximum profile thickness and β is the angle between chord and the tangent to the
curvature at the outlet. Experimental results confirm the validity of this equation even up to 1.5 to 2° of
angle of attack. For higher angle of attack, σcr increases proportionately.
Cavitational characteristics is always determined by (l/t), value at periphery. Since, maximum
thickness (dm) the angle of deviation ∆β and (l/t) at peripheral section are smaller than these values at
other sections, the profile can be assumed as equivalent to a thin straight plate. The coefficient of lift for
thin plate can be written as
β 
Cy = 2 π sin  + α  ≈ πβ ...(10.119)
2 
uC y lw∞2 sin (β∞ + λ )

Total head, H= ...(10.120)
2 gtCZ cos λ
AXIAL FLOW PUMP 287
4Q 4nDKQ
For velocity, Cm = = ...(10.121)
πD 2 (1 − d 2 ) π(1 − d 2 )
 gK H  1
Relative velocity, w∞ = nD  π −  ...(10.122)
 2πηh  cos β∞
From the above equation, it is seen that
l
σcr = f (D, d , β∞, λ,
—
, n, KH, KQ )
t
—
For axial flow pumps, KQ= 0.4 to 0.6, d = 0.4 to 0.6, KH = 0.04 to 0.22
Angle β∞ is a function of KQ for constant values of KH . Substituting the values of KQ and KH in the
equation (10.61), (β∞)av for peripheral section is found to be
(β∞)av ≈ 20° for KH = 0.22 to 0.15
(β∞)av ≈ 23° for KH = 0.09 to 0.08
(β∞)av ≈ 26° for KH = 0.055 to 0.045
Substituting equations (10.113), (10.114), (10.115) and (10.116) in equation (10.110) and the
l 
value β∞ from the above determined value, a relation between σcr= f  , K H  is established taking an
t 
average value of KH = 0.09 to 0.08 for all the three values of β∞.
2
0.555  l  l
σcr = + 0.7351   + 0.2419 K H  
 t ...(10.123)
KH t
Constants can be determined if necessary for each value of β ∞ . Taking into consideration
already established relation   = f (KH) (Fig. 10.43), A graph σcr= f (KH) is drawn (Fig. 10.59).
l
 t  peri
σ
4,0
3,5
3,0
2,5
2,0
1,5
1,0
0
0,05 0,10 0,15 0,20 0,25 (KH)opt
Fig. 10.59. σ = f (KH) for axial flow pump

Actual test results on different axial flow pumps are also marked in this graph, which shows that
l
theoretical equation coincides with actual results. However, it is also found that   should be
 t  peri
l
selected a little more than the value obtained from the graph   = f (KH) for better value of σcr. But
 t  peri
maximum efficiency will shift to higher side of head (lower side of quantity) from the optimum value.
l
The amount of shift in efficiency can be found from the graph   = f (KH).
 t  peri
While designing the impeller blade, apart from peripheral section, other sections must also be
verified with equations (10.113), (10.114), (10.115) and (10.116) (Fig. 10.59) and corrected if necessary
so that cavitation characteristics of the pump at all sections are within the allowable range.
A.J. Stepanoff | 112 | has recommended the selection of l/t, d and number of impeller blades for
axial flow pump based on specific speed. This recommendation can also be used for axial flow pumps
Fig. 10.34 (b) l/t, zi, d = f (ns) for axial flow pumps as per AJ. Stepanoff.
( ns ) 4 / 3
Moscow Power Institute, Russia has recommended a relation between (σ) and ns as σ =
4700
based on the anticavitating property at inlet.
10.19 RADIAL CLEARANCE BETWEEN IMPELLER AND IMPELLER CASING

dm
Mutual interaction between two
successive impeller blades, when they rotate
inside a housing, having a clearance between
Radial Blade
impeller and impeller housing is of clearance
+
importance due to the presence of cavitation
in clearance. Pressure difference between δ
convex and concave surface of the blade
induces a flow through the radial clearance. casing
The disturbance created by one blade may Fig. 10.60. Erosion and cavitation at radial clearance
induce further disturbance in the following
blade, since all the blades are moving at
constant angular velocity. Due to high velocity of flow of fluid through the clearance, metal erosion
and clearance cavitation occurs. Increase in radial clearance increases cavitation and also increases
end losses i.e., hydraulic losses. Experiments conducted by different authors |84, 88| show that this
radial clearance (Fig. 10.60) recommended as δ = (0.10 to 0.15)l, where l is the chord length of the
profile. Some authors recommend 0.001D, where D is the impeller diameter. In multistage units, however,
this radial clearance should accommodate technological considerations in manufacture and assembly
of pumps. Minimum requirement for technological consideration will be δ the radial clearance should
be 0.15 to 0.2 mm independent of pump size. In multistage units, where diffuser of the previous stage
comes before the second stage impeller. The clearance is doubled i.e., δ = (0.2 to 0.25) l or 0.002D.
AXIAL FLOW PUMP 289
However, it should be remembered that provision of guide vanes at approach pipe i.e., before the first
stage impeller reduces the performance both in energy and cavitation.
0.7
0.6
1
maximum efficiency, n 0.5

2
s
0.4
0.3
dh D
0.2
0.1
0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.010 0.012
relative gap width s/d 2
Fig. 10.61. Recommended radial clearance in axial flow pumps
10.20 CALCULATION FOR AXIAL FLOW DIFFUSERS

In axial flow pumps, the inlet conditions of diffuser blade depends upon the outlet conditions of
flow from impeller blade of the pump. At the outlet of the diffuser, the flow is always axial. The kinetic
energy of the fluid coming out of the impeller is converted into pressure energy and the spiral motion of
fluid at the outlet of the impeller is brought to pure axial motion.
Cm6 = C6 and Cu6 = 0
The outlet axial velocity (Cm3) from the impeller will be equal to the axial velocity at the diffuser
inlet (Cm4) before the inlet edge.
Cm3 = Cm4
On the blade at inlet of the diffuser the axial velocity Cm5 will be more than Cm4 due to vane
thickness. Taking thickness factor ‘Kd’ for the diffuser inlet
Cm5 = Kd Cm4
The tangential component of absolute velocity of fluid at the outlet of the impeller (Cu3) is equal to
the tangential component of absolute velocity at the inlet of the diffuser (Cu4) before and on the diffuser
blade inlet.
Cu3 = Cu4 = Cu5
Due to the absence of the blade velocity u4= u5 = u6, combined velocity triangle for a diffuser
will be as follows (Fig. 10.62).
C ′∞
C1′
C 2 = Cz
r
∆β′
β′2
r β′∞
β′1
C ′u1
Fig. 10.62. Combined velocity triangle for diffuser

From the velocity triangle (Fig. 10.62),
2
C 
C∞5 = Cm25 +  u 5 
 2 
2Cm5
and tg α∞ = C
u5
Applying the basic theory of cascade system to the diffuser blades, the parameters and coefficient
of lift for hub and periphery sections are determined.
Applying Jowkovski’s theorem for diffuser profile (Fig. 10.63)
Rud = ρCm∞ Γ1d
= ρCm∞d tCu5 ...(10.124)
Referring Fig. 10.63,
yd
Rd = cos λ and Rud = Rd sin (α∞d + λd)
d
x′ R ′v
β′∞ λ′
β′∞
R ′Z
R′
y′
Fig. 10.63. Forces acting on axial flow diffuser

AXIAL FLOW PUMP 291
sin (α∞d + λ d )
Rud = yd ....(10.125)
cos λ d
sin (λ ∞d + λ d )
= ρcycd C2∞d ld = ρCmd∞ td Cu5
cos λ d
ld Cm 5 ZCu 5 cos λ d 2 sin 2 α ∞d cos λ d

∴ Cycd = C = sin (α + λ ) ...(10.126)
td ∞d sin (α ∞d + λ d ) ∞d d
From velocity triangle (Fig. 10.62) for hub section,
Cm 5
tan α5 = C and α6 = 90°
u5
∴ ∆ α = α6 – α5 = 90° – α5
From the values ∆α and α6 from Howell’s diagram (Fig. 10.34) the l/t value is determined.
Taking λd = 0 as first approximation Cyd is determined from graph (Fig. 10.34). Taking (Zd)
number of diffuser vanes, the length of profile (ld) is established. Number of diffuser vanes Zd is
normally selected as (Zimp+1), and λd ≤ 0.2D, similar to that equations (10.9) and (10.11) for impeller
blades, Hydraulic loss for a diffuser will be determined as
xd C∞d ρC xcd . C∞2d ld tan λ d C ycd C 2∞d . ld

hfd = γt C = = ...(10.127)
d md 2γtd sin α ∞d 2 g sin α∞d td
Since α6 = 0, the diffuser blade length will be longer than impeller blades and also due to more
number of blades, hydraulic loss in diffuser will be higher than that in impeller. Based on experimental
results, circulation Γd in diffuser will be normally (0.75 to 0.8) times of impeller circulation. This in
turn reduces hydraulic loss and compensates for the increase in hydraulic loss due to increased length. A
better diffuser design will be when (α∞d) between hub and periphery is 5° to 6°. (l/t) for diffuser under
normal value of α∞d can be reduced by increasing the pitch of the blade about 25%. This can be
achieved by reducing number of diffuser blades.
10.21 AXIAL THRUST

Axial component of the hydrodynamic force acting on the blade (PZB) can be determined from
Jowkovski’s theorem (Equation 10.5). Elementary axial force (∆PZB) acting on elementary strip of ‘dr’
at a radius ‘r’ can be written as
∆PZB = Z ρΓ1 w∞u dr
R
Total force, PZB = Ζ Γ1ρ ∫ w∞u dr
rh
Mu
Pu
Pz dr r
P Pz
R
z
l
b
α
Mu
Mz
a c
y Mz
Pu u
Fig. 10.64. Axial thrust on axial flow pump
Cu 2
From velocity triangle, w∞u = u –
2
gH m Z Γ1ω
Cu2 = and Hm =
uηh 2πg
Combining all the equations and integrating for the entire blade
2πγH m
R
 gH m 
PZB = ∫ ∆Pz = ηh ∫  r − η 2  dr
rh  h 2ω r 
H m   rh  R
2
gH
= πR2 γ 1 −   − 2 2m − ln 
ηh   R  ω R ηh r 
Hm  − 2 gK 1
= πR2 γ 1 − d − H2 − ln  ...(10.128)
ηh  ηh π dh 
Axial force between hub diameter and shaft diameter
Hm
PZh = π (rh2 – rs2 ) γ
ηh
Since, rS << rh it can be neglected.
Hm
PZh = πr2h + γ ...(10.129)
ηh
Hm  gK H 1
Total axial force, PZ = PZB +PZh = π R2 γ 1 − − ln  ...(10.130)
ηh  ηh π 2
dh 
11
TESTING, PERFORMANCE EVALUATION
AND REGULATION OF PUMPS
11.1 INTRODUCTION
A graphical representation of the relation between basic parameters of pump is called characteristics
of pump.
Fluid flow through pump passages at non-optimum region is complicated. All available analytical
methods, to determine the correct pattern of flow passages do not give exact solutions. Only by the
analysis of experimental results, flow pattern can be determined. Inspite of this, the exact relation between
the parameters of pump is not available. Most useful method of understanding the interaction between
pump parameters and further analysis of the flow pattern is by a graphical representation of the relation
between the parameters.
Pump characteristics are represented by total head (H), power absorbed N, suction condition HSV
(σ (or) ∆h (or) C) and efficiency (η) as a function of flow rate (Q) at rated speed (n).
η, H, N, HsvC (or σ) = f(Q, n)
These graphs are also presented in non-dimensional parameters such as unit head (KH) and unit
power (KN) as a function of unit discharge (KQ). More detailed analysis is also carried out by graphical
representation of non-dimensional parameters viz. suction characteristics (σ) and efficiency (η) as a
function of (KQ) i.e., KH , KN , η, σ = f (KQ, n).
11.2 PUMP PERFORMANCE—RELATION BETWEEN TOTAL HEAD AND

QUANTITY OF FLOW
Ha (1 + p ) (Cu 2u2 − Cu1u1 )

Total head Hth = (1 + p)Hm = (1+ p) = .
hh ηh g
For normal entry Cu1 = 0 and from velocity triangles. (Fig. 4.1)
Q cot β 2
Cu2 = u2 – Cm2cot β2 = u2 –
πDB
H th  u22 Qu2 cot β2 

1+ p
= Hm =  g − πD B .g  ...(11.1)
 2 2 
293
Diameter (D2) and breadth (B2) are constants for the pump to be tested. Equation (11.1) represents a
drooping down straight line characteristics with Hm in y-axis and Q in x-axis. If the pump is tested at
constant speed ‘n’, u2, the blade velocity is also constant, since D2 is constant. H–Q graph is a straight
H
line inclined at an angle of β2 with respect to y-axis, since cot β2 = (Fig 11.1). Maximum head is
2 Q
u2
Hmax = , when Q = 0.
g
Th
eo
β2
(H
–Q
)c
urv
e
n
C B
Cm α Q
Cu α H
H th
D E
1. (H–Q) Theoretical infinite blades

2. (H–Q ) Theoretical-finite blades
β2 3. (H–Q ) actual
2
h 11—frictional losses α Q
h 12—secondary losses
u2 Hm
g
H H th
2
1
2
u
0.586
g
Ha
hf1
h f2
Q 3 3′
Fig. 11.1. Theoretical (H–Q) curve developed from outlet velocity triangle
If blade angle β2 is changed, keeping the speed ‘n’ constant, the slope of the H–Q line also changes
(Fig. 11.2). Drooping down H–Q characteristic prevails so long β2 < 90° since cot β2 is positive. When
β 2 = 90°, H–Q curve becomes horizontal and parallel to x-axis, since cot β 2 = 0. When
β2 > 90° the H–Q curve slope is towards upward direction since cot β2 is negative. β2 < 90 is used for
pumps and blowers. β2 = 90° is used for air compressors.
TESTING, PERFORMANCE EVALUATION AND REGULATION OF PUMPS 295
H H
β2 = 90°
A β2 < 90°
A B
H th = f(Q)
D D
H th = f(Q) F
F
N H a = f(Q) E
H0
B
η = f (Q)
η.max
H a = f(Q) C
E
QF QN Q(w 2) Q(w 2)
(a) (b)
H B
β2 > 90°
H T = f(Q)
A
F
D E
H a = f(Q)
Q(w 2)
(c)
Fig. 11.2. Theoretical and actual (H–Q) curve for different β 2 values at one speed
Although hydraulic efficiency (ηh) in equation 11.1 is assumed to be constant, practically it is
changing. ηh is maximum only at the point where Hydraulic losses are minimum. This point is called
maximum efficiency point. The head and discharge of pump for which it is designed will be at this
maximum efficiency point. At this point, profile losses and secondary losses are minimum. At all other
point of operation, secondary losses and shock losses increase which increases total hydraulic losses
and hence reduces hydraulic efficiency. At low flow rates, recirculation losses also prevail and it increases
when the flow rate ‘Q’ is further reduced, as a result, the theoretical H–Q curve which is a straight line
changes to a drooping down curve (Fig. 11.2). Hydraulic losses are in general proportional to the square
of flow rate. That’s why, actual H–Q curve is an approximate parabola.
Actual pump characteristics consisting of total head (H), input power (N) and efficiency (η) as a
function of flow rate (Q) for one speed (n), and for one value of β2 < 90° is represented in a graphical
form (Fig. 11.3).
n = 2900 rpm
HM D 2 = 236 mm
N hp
18
17
16
15
HT
14
η% N
60 13
50 12
η
40 11
30 10 H vac H vac
20 9 8
10 8 Reserve 7
7 6
H vac
6
5
lit/sec
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 3
Qm /hr
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Fig. 11.3. (a) Actual pump performance H, η , N, Hsv = f (Q) for one value of
outlet blade angle β 2 and one speed ‘n’
H, m η, %
80 90
η
80
1 2 3 4
60 5 70
60
40 50
40
20 H 30
20
0 10
N 0
hs m 400
6 hs 200
4 0
2
0
100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 Q, lit/sec
Fig. 11.3. (b) Performance of centrifugal pump D = 700 mm, n = 960 rpm
In Fig. 11.4, the performance variation of H–Q, η–Q and N–Q for pumps of different specific
speeds is given.
100
1
1 4
max
75 6
%η/η
7
5 7
50
6
25
0
250
7
200
6
150
BEP
1
5
100
%N/N
5 6
4
50 3
2 7
1
0
7
180
6
160
5
140
4
3
120
BCP
2
%H/H
100 1
80
60
0 25 50 75 100 125 150
% Q/Q BEP
Fig. 11.4. Performance of pumps at different specific speeds (ns)
(1) – ns = 65, (2) – ns = 105, (3) – ns = 155

(4) – ns = 210, (5) – ns = 280, (6) – ns = 400,
(7) – ns = 650.
Referring to Fig. 11.4 it is seen that efficiency, η = f (Q) is not constant. It increases from zero
flow rate to a certain value of Q and then decreases for further increase in flow rate. Head and quantity
at maximum efficiency point is the best operating point for the pump. However, for safe operation,
pump is operated at 90 to 95% of the maximum efficiency point.
Since the blade velocity u α Dn, for the given blade angle ‘β2’ of the pump, and if the diameter of
the impeller ‘D2’ is increased, keeping the speed ‘n’ constant, H–Q curve shifts parallel upwards with
respect the original (H–Q) curve and vice versa. The same pattern exists, if speed is increased keeping
diameter constant. [Fig. 11.6 (a) and (b)].
Based on the model analysis and the loss analysis, an expression between total head (H), flow rate
(Q), and speed (n) can be written as
H = An2 + BNQ + CQ2 ...(11.2)
This graph H = f (Q, n) will be a hyperbolic paraboloid with main axis coinciding with H0-axis
and the peak at the origin. The symmetrical plane passing through H0-axis makes an angle φ with the
plane (Q, H) (Fig. 11.5).
B
tan 2φ =
A+C
n)
(H ,
Hc M
H c = f(Q)n = c
H0 H b = f(Q)
Hb n=b
Ha
B
Qc
, n)
(Q
=a Qb
f(Q ) n
Ha =
c
Qa
b
n=
n=
a
φ
n=
0
Q0
Fig. 11.5. (H–Q) curve for different speeds (3D diagram)
In Fig 11.5, a number of H–Q graphs for different speeds n = a, b, c are drawn. Each H–Q graph
is a parabola for one value of speed ‘n’.
Entire space diagram lies in the first quarter of H–Q graph. Line OM is a parabola and is obtained
from the hyperbolic paraboloid of the symmetrical plane formed by the plane (Q–H) with an angle φ.
Resultant section of the hyperbolic paraboloid consists of n = constant i.e., n = a, n = b, n = c and
corresponding H–Q curves Ha = f (Qa) Hb= f (Qb) and Hc= f (Qc) etc. The plane H = constant is a
hyperbola. When H = 0, Q = Qmax. The plane changes instead of hyperbola, into a straight line coinciding
with asymtode and passing through origin (line OB in Fig 11.5). In Fig. 11.5 the 3D space diagram is
shown representing different (H–Q) curves for different speeds ‘n’. The same pattern of change prevails
when diameter (D2) is changed at constant speed n [Fig. 11.6 (b)].
A set of congruent curved parabolic lines, (H–Q) curves, each for one speed n = a, b, c, are
drawn in Fig 11.5.
The line OM joining all peak points of (H–Q) curves in (Fig. 11.5) is same as OM in Fig 11.6.
Hence, H–Q curve for any speed n = n can be drawn from the known H–Q curve for one speed from
model analysis. Congruent property of the lines is maintained under non-separated flow and non-cavitating
conditions.
H,m
30 n0 =
9 60 M
0,10
0,20
0,30
r pm
0,4 0
0,5 0
25
0, 6 0
5
0
0 ,6
0, 5
0, 78
0,7
0,880
0 ,7
5
2
0,84
20 0 . 8 84
η= 0, 2
n 1 = 750 0 ,8 0
15 0 ,8,78
0 ,7 5 0
0 0 ,7
n 2 = 600 0 65
10 0, 6 0
0,
n 3 = 500
5
0 0,60
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
Q,lit/sec
(a) Centrifugal pump
Fig. 11.6. (a) Performance (H–Q) change due to speed change ‘n’ for the same diameter D2.
Universal (H–Q) graph with equal efficiency ‘O’ curves
Hm η = 76 77 7
8 89 80 81
50 81 8
07 9
78
76
40 %
30
∆h
av 2
20 ∆h
av 3
10
0
5 10 15 20 25 30 Q L/S
Fig. 11.6. (b) D1 > D2 > D3

(H–Q) performance due to diameter change for the same speed n.
00
KH =6
0% ns
0,18 6
=
η 00
=5
65 η s
0
60
C=
0,14
7 00
70 75
0,12 800 ϕ=+12,5°

80
85
82 90 84
84 86 0
0,10
85
83
%
87
82
η=
1000
81
0,08 80
1100
75
1200
%
0,06
70
1300
C η=
=1
ϕ=8.75°
15
0,04 40
0
00
16
00
65
18
60
0 0 1 90 0 0
55
0,02 50
ϕ =+5°
20
ns=5000
0
ϕ=–5° ϕ=0
0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5 0,6 0,7 0,8 K Q
Axial flow pump
Fig. 11.6. (c) Axial flow pump (with ‘C’ curves)

In practice, pumps are operated for a range of total head and flow conditions. In order to achieve
this, pump is run at different speeds ranging from minimum to maximum allowable speeds. Test results
are plotted in one graph called universal graph. Universal characteristics of a pump consists of a series
of (H–Q) curves for different speeds over which, η = constant, 0-curves as well as Hsv or hs or
∆h or σ = constant 0-curves are plotted. This graph [Fig. 11.6 (a), (b), (c)] provides a complete range of
operation of pump to meet the head and flow rate of the site conditions, at any one of the speeds selected
under high efficiency conditions. The method of drawing universal characteristics is given in
Fig. 11.7.
1. H–Q curves of pump test conducted at different speeds are plotted in one graph.
2. Another set of graphs η = f (Q) for different speeds are drawn in one graph, selecting the scale
of x-axis i.e., Q-axis same as that selected in H–Q curve. (Fig. 11.7)
3. A horizontal line parallel to x-axis i.e., Q-axis is

Hm
drawn. This line meets all (η–Q) curves at two 50
rpm 60 70 C3
points (one point before maximum efficiency
n6 = 1040
point, and another point after the maximum 75 C2
40
efficiency point). This horizontal line represents n5 = 960 78 C1
one value of efficiency at different speeds. n4 = 880 M3 75
79
30
4. All the meeting points (in η–Q curve) are now R n3 = 800 M2 M1 70
transferred to meet corresponding (H–Q) curve. 20 n2 = 720
5. All the points, so obtained in H–Q curve are joined G
60
E B1 L
together. This curve will be either in full 0-shape n1 = 640
10
or part of 0-shape. This O-curve is the equal A1 D
efficiency curve, the value of which is obtained
0
from the corresponding horizontal line drawn in 100 100 300
η–Q graph. η ,%
6. In the similar manner, a number of equal efficiency 80

T N
curves can be drawn on (H–Q) curves. 70 A
B
n6 = 9
60
n 5 880
= 1 60
7. A line is drawn passing through the turning points
n 4 00
n 3 720
n 2 = 640
04
=
=8
of all 0 curves (O–C2 Fig. 11.7). This line is the
n1
0
=
40
best operating line for the pump. The centre point F
K
p S
of all 0-curves through which the best operating
line passes is the best point of operation (Point 20
M2). At this point, the efficiency is highest. The
head, discharge, speed, and efficiency values can 0 0
100 200 300
be read from this universal graph. Corresponding Q, lit/sec
power observed can be obtained from the N–Q Fig. 11.7. Construction of universal
graph. Power can also be calculated from the characteristics of pump (H–Q) curve at
universal graph taking η, H, Q, at maximum point different speeds and equal efficiency ‘O’
M2 (OC3). curves obtained term (η η –Q) curves
8. Boundary conditions of operating range are also drawn in some of the universal graphs, which
limits the operating range of the pump lines OC and OC3. The boundary line at low flow rate
(OC3) is determined based on efficiency considerations, i.e., based on economical power
consideration, whereas the boundary conditions at higher flow rate is determined based on
cavitation considerations, efficiency and percentage of overload in power allowance (line OC1).
9. A smooth line drawn joining all maximum efficiency points of (η–Q) graph, also gives the
range of operating regions.
This line is same as the line drawn in universal graph. However, optimum efficiency conditions
need not be optimum cavitation conditions. Cavitation condition is more important than efficiency
condition for safe, continuous operation of the pump.
11.3 PUMP TESTING

Pump testing is carried out in special test stand, mostly at research institutes, manufacturing
industries dealing with pumps etc.
The main aim of pump testing is to obtain, complete characteristics of pump for commercial
exploitation. Mostly the test is conducted to establish working characteristics i.e., to find the characteristics
H, N, η = f (Q) at rated speed. Universal characteristics is drawn by conducting tests at different speeds
for further analysis and at the same time to confirm the correctness of the theoretical design with practical
results.
Tests are also conducted to find the pressure and velocity distribution before, after and on the
elements of the pump to find the behaviour of the pump at various operating regions. This will enable to
find hydraulic losses at each element, to find the stability of pump at specified regime, to find the
influence of each element on other elements of pump.
Tests are classified into development test and production test. Production tests are conducted on 1
in 10 pumps manufactured at 5 to 6 predetermined operating point such as 2 points before b.e.p, one or
two points, at, or, very near to b.e.p and 2 points after b.e.p [Fig. 11.3 (b)]. These tests are conducted to
maintain the quality of pumps. Development tests are intensive tests conducted on new designs and also
at regions where results are not available for existing pumps, in order to find the bevaviour of the pump
completely at all conditions of operation and also to verify and correct the theory to adopt efficient
design procedure. Intensive tests are carried out on model pumps in order to develop efficient prototype
units of higher capacity, which cannot be tested. (example, circulating pumps, condensate pumps etc.)
Tests are also conducted with other fluid, instead of the original liquid. High capacity units are tested in
air instead of water. Pumps used for pumping liquids other than water are also tested in water. The
results obtained are corrected for original fluid pumping (example, oil pump, pulp, hot-water pumping,
milk, acid, alkaline, distilled water pumping etc).
Mainly two types of tests are conducted on pumps :
1. Test on open test rig to determine the load tests and
2. Tests on closed test rigs to determine load and cavitation tests, but mostly cavitation tests.
(a) Load Tests Conducted on Open Test Rig

In Figs. 11.8 and 11.9 an open test rig is presented.
pd = pat
Delivery
tank
Delivery pipe
hd
H st = hs + hd
X = XG + XV
G
HT
XG
Pump
Xv
V
Suction
hs
Z1
ps = pat pipe
Suction
tank Foot valve
and stainer
Fig. 11.8. Schematic diagram of an open test rig

7
H
S
3
Scale
h2
4
H
h3
5 6
l
2 1
Fig. 11.9. Open test rig for load test on pumps

The pump to be tested (1) takes water from one end of the open type water tank (2) through
suction pipe (5) and delivers through delivery pipe (3) to the other end of the water tank. The two ends
of the tank is separated by a plate, which is fitted with a V-notch (4). Wave suppressors and flow
straighteners are provided before V-notch, in order to ensure proper flow before reaching notch. Flow
regulation valves are fitted, one at suction (6) and another at delivery pipe (7). One differential U-tube
manometer (H) is connected to the pressure tappings at the suction and at delivery of the pump to
measure the total head of the pump. Another U-tube manometer (S) is connected, one end to suction
tapping and another open to atmosphere, to measure the vacuum at the inlet end of the pump. Mercury
is used as manometric liquid. A water gauge is used at the tank before V-notch to measure the head over
V-notch in order to calculate the flow rate of the pump. Another water gauge is used to find the water
level at the other end of the tank, where suction pipe is attached. Sufficient height of water above
suction entry is maintained to avoid air entry. The speed is maintained constant throughout the test. A
tachometer is attached to the prime mover shaft to measure the speed. Input power to the pump is
measured by the swinging field AC/DC dynamometer.
Load test stand for axial flow pump testing is same as that of centrifugal pump test stand, except
that suction and delivery pipe diameters and the collection tank size will be larger to accommodate high
flow rate. For total head measurement, some other manometric liquid of slightly higher density than
water other than mercury is used as manometric fluid or inclined tube manometers with slighlty higher
density than water as manometric fluid are used.
Before starting the pump for test, a thorough check is made on pump, coupling, prime mover,
lubricating oil in pump and prime mover bearings, cooling of mechanical seal and stuffing box, sufficient
level of manometric fluid in manometers to measure complete range of total head and suction head,
suction regulating valve fully opened and sufficient water in water tank to keep suction entry point bell
mouth under fully submerged condition as well as sufficient water height to avoid air entry into suction
pipe. The delivery regulating valve will be in fully closed condition in case of centrifugal pump testing
whereas in fully opened condition for axial flow and mixed flow pump testing. Manometer tappings are
in closed condition to avoid sudden peak pressure reaching the manometer at the time of start. Sill level
in V-notch is entered from the water gauge in tank.
The pump is started and brought to the speed, at which the pump is to be tested. The speed is
maintained constant throughout the test by adjusting the speed regulator of the prime mover. The swinging
field dynamometer is adjusted at this speed such that the torque arm is in horizontal position with
weighs on the weighing pan. Pressure tappings for manometer are opened. The pump is run for sometime
so that all readings i.e., tachometer reading, manometer readings, water gauge readings are at steady
level. Under the steady level condition, head over V-notch for flow measurement, total head and suction
head manometer readings, weight in the dynamometer pan and speed are noted and entered in a tabular
form. Since delivery regulating valve is in closed condition, flow rate is zero and water level in tank is
at the sill level.
After entering all the readings in Table 11.1 flow rate, total head, input power, efficiency, unit
discharge, unit head, and unit power are calculated using relevant equations. The results should be
immediately entered, in a graph is drawn i.e., graphs H, Ni, η = f (Q) are plotted (Fig. 11.3) on the same
graph sheet.
TABLE 11.1: Test on centrifugal/mixed/axial flow pump
Type of Test : Development/Production Test

Pump No.
Testing Stand No.
I Impeller Diameter, D = mm IV Inclined manometer limb angle θ° = ... R°
II V-Notch Constant: K V Specific gravity of manometric liquid Sl = ...
III Speed (n) = rpm VI Arm length in Dynamometer (L) = ... m
VII Temperature of liquid = ... C°
VIII Sill level reading = ... m
h 1( mm)  (C .2) 
(C3) H = (Sl – 1) =  (V) – 1) m of H2O 
1000  1000 
h2( mm )  (C .4) 
(C5) hs = (Sl – 1) =  (V) – 1) m of H2O
1000  1000 
5/2 5/2
(C7) Q = K (h3) = (II) (C.6) m /sec 3
γQH 9.81 × 1000 × (C .7)(C 4)

(C8) N0 = = kW
const 1000
2πn × 9.81× W × L 2 × 3.14 × (III) (C.9)(VI)
(C10) Ni = = kW
60 ×1000 60 × 1000
60Q 60 (C.7)
(C12) KQ = 3 = III.(I)3 =
nD
(60) 2 H (60) 2 (C .3)
(C13) KH = = =
n2 D 2 (III)2 (I) 2
(60)3 Ni (60)3 (C.10)

(C14)KN = =
n3 D 5 (III)3 (I)5
TESTING, PERFORMANCE EVALUATION AND REGULATION OF PUMPS
S.No. Total Total Vac. Suction Water Flow rate Output Weight Input Efficiency Non-dimensional Remarks
head head H mano head level Q= power in power η units
mano Rdg h2 hs h3 k h3 N0 Pan W Ni
Rdg h1
KQ KH KN
mm m of mm of m of mm m3/sec kW Kg kW — — — —
of Hg H2O Hg H2O
C8
C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 C7 C8 C9 C10 C11 = C12 C13 C14 Valve
C10
condition
1 Full
close
10 Full
open
305
Delivery regulating valve is slightly opened to regulate the flow rate to the next position. All
readings are entered in the table 11.1 and all the values are calculated. In the same manner experiment is
repeated from full closed position to full open position of the delivery regulating valve. It is necessary to
take more number of readings near optimum efficiency point.
In case of centrifugal pump, test is conducted from full close position to full open position, whereas
in case of mixed and axial flow pumps, test is conducted from full open to partly closed condition until
a break or surge in (H–Q) curve appears. Further test on mixed and axial flow pumps can be conducted
only if the power capacity of the prime mover permits and pump runs under steady flow conditions
without any oscillations in readings.
Normally, test on centrifugal pumps are conducted at different speeds to get the universal graph.
In axial flow pumps, tests are conducted for different impeller blade pitch (φ) at constant speed.
In some of the test stands a thermometer is attached to measure the temperature of water before
entry into the pump. It is essential to keep the temperature of water used for pump to remain same during
the entire test period. For this, a separate valves are fitted to the water tank to allow additional water
from other source and to drain water from the tank if the level of water in the tank is in excess.
(b) Pump Test in Closed Test Rig (Figs. 9.7 and 9.8)
Cavitation test on pumps can be conducted only in closed test stands. Details of such tests and the
graphical reference of the test results (performance of pump) are given in chapter 9.
Load tests can also be conducted in closed test rigs by keeping the pressure in the tank equal to
atmospheric pressure. This is done either by opening the tank to atmosphere or keeping the pressure in
the space in the closed tank at atmospheric pressure.
11.4 SYSTEMS AND ARRANGEMENTS

A system, in a pumping plant, consists of suction and delivery pipe lines along with all fittings
such as sudden or gradual reducer or expander, all types of valves, such as gate valve, non-return valve,
butterfly valve, etc. Tee or cross joints etc. A system is an already available pipe layout in the field to
suit the actual conditions; for example, city water supply, multi storied buildings, layout in chemical,
fertilizer and in power station etc. It consists of different lengths and diameters of pipes, fitted with
various pipe fittings.
The level between inlet and outlet end of the system may be equal or different. Total resistance
offered by a system is the sum of major and minor losses in the system along with the level difference
between inlet and outlet end of pipe
Hsy = hs + hfs + hd + hfd+ Σhfmi for all fittings attached to this pipe line.
Suffix s is for suction and d is for delivery. Major friction losses in pipe are expressed as hf =
flv 2 v2
and minor losses are expressed as hfmi = K , where K is the constant for that particular fittings
2 gd 2g
attached to the main pipe.
fls vs2 fld vd2 vs2 vd2

∴ Hsy = (hs + hd )+ + + ΣKs + ΣKd ...(11.3)
2 gd s 2 gd d 2g 2g
Q 4Q
Since, v= =
A πd 2
16 fls Q 2 16 f d Q 2
Hsy = (hs + hd ) + +
2 gπ 2 d 5s 2 gπ 2 d d5
16Q 2 16Q 2
+ Σ(Ks) + Σ(Kd) ...(11.4)
2 gπ 2 d 4s 2 gπd 4d
Since, flow rate Q is constant through both pipes
2
 dd 
Q = asvs= ad vd , i.e., d2s vs = d d2 vd or vs =   . vd
 ds 
In equation (11.4) the values ls, ld , ds, dd, are constants for the already laid piping system, g, π, f
are constant. Hence, it can be expressed as
Hsy = Hst +(Ksm + Kdm + Kmis + ΣKmid)Q2 = Hst + KQ2 ...(11.5)
where, K = Ksm + Kdm + ΣKmis + Σ Kmid
16 fls 16 fld K s 16 K d 16
Ksm = , Kdm = , Kmis = , Kmid =
2 gπ 2 d s5 2 gπ 2 d 5d 2 gπ 2 d s4 2 gπ 2 d 4d
and static head (level difference between inlet and outlet points in a pipe line
Hst = hs + hd
Hp
2
= const. Q
A–Operating point
A
2
C 2 – C1
2g
H sy
2
H dy = h f +
+ Z 2– Z 1
p2
X2 – X1 = X
H p = H sy
h f = hfs + hfd
h fd
p2 – p1
H st
p
γ
z2
v
p 1 hfs
Hst =
X2
X1
z1
Fig. 11.10. (Hp) pump and Hsv = Hst + Hdy and location of operating point (A)
+H
Q–H
F D
B hfd
C HT = H
Hd H st H
A
0 h fs Q
P Hs E
–H
Fig. 11.11. System head for positive suction head

Equation (11.5) represents a parabola (Fig. 11.10) in Hst–Q coordinates. If Hst = 0, the parabola
starts from origin. Parabola will be more curved upwards if length of pipeline is increased, pipe diameter
is reduced, pipe fitting are increased, or pipe fittings are changed, gate valve partly opened, change of
gate valve, with non-return valve or globe valve etc. which totally increase the value ‘K ’ for minor
losses. If the system arrangement is reversed. The parabolic curve comes down.
This parabolic curve for any system is an already available graph since all values are already
available from site conditions, and constant K from reference manuals.
(a) Pump System Curve Construction

In Fig. 11.11 (a), a pumping system working between suction tank A and the delivery tank B is
shown. Tank B is at a higher level than Tank A. Both the tanks are above pump level i.e., the system in
suction side is with positive suction (suction head). OE is the system curve for the suction pipe and is
drawn in the reverse direction, below the water level in the suction tank (A). CD is the system curve for
the delivery pipe and is drawn above the water level in the delivery tank B. The vertical distance between
CD and OE is the total system head for the given flow rate point Q. Curve CF is the total system curve
(i.e., OE + CD). The meeting point of this curve with the (H–Q) curve of the pump at F is the operating
point. The vertical distance Hs gives the manometer reading in suction pipe and the vertical distance Hd
is the manometer reading in the delivery pipe.
(b) System in Series

If two systems A and B are kept in series, then total resistance of the systems is the algebraic sum
of individual resistances of systems A and B. Since same quantity of flow passes through both pipes
QT = QA = QB and HSYT = HSYA + HSYB ...(11.6)
In Figs. (11.12 and 11.13) equation (11.6) is illustrated in a graphical form.
Hp
H 8
A 1. Static height between
delivery and suction
)
y 7=6+3 2. Delivery and suction tanks
(H s
ad pressure difference
he
m 3. Total static head (H st ) = (2 + 1)
s te
Sy 4. Delivery and suction velocity
head difference
6=4+5 5. Delivery and suction pipe
3=2+1 friction losses (h fd + h fs)
p 2 – p1
5 6. Total dynamic head (H dy )

2
γ
7. Total system head H sy = H st + H dy i.e. (H sy – Q)

p 2 – p1
8 . Pump head (H p) i.e. (H p – Q)

H st +
1
γ
H st
Fig. 11.12. (Hsy) system head construction

A number of Q lines at frequent intervals, from origion to Qmax parallel to Y-axis i.e., Q = constant
lines are drawn in the graph having HSY(A) – Q and HSY(B) – Q graphs (Fig. 11.13). The two ordinate
lengths are added to get the point of HSYT = HSYA + HSYB for one value of Q. Similarly, other HSYT
points for other Q are determined. A smooth curve joining these HSYT points give HSYT = f (Q) curve for
combined series operation of two systems. The same procedure is followed for many systems connected
in series based on the equation (11.6). If the H–Q curve of the pump is overlapped on the combined
system graph, point A is the operating point, when both systems work. Several systems operating in
series is equal to one system with higher system head.
Q = constant lines
Hp – Q
HSYT — Q (including static heights)

A — Operating point
Hs1 + Hs2 + R1 + R2
R2
R1 + R2 R1
Hs1 + Hs2
Hs2
R1 + R2
R1 R2 Hs1
HSYT = HSYA + HSYB, HSYA = HS1 + R1, HSYB = HS2 + R2

Fig. 11.13. Two systems in series
(c) Systems in Parallel

If two systems 1 and 2 are operated in parallel (Figs. 11.14 and 11.16), the total quantity (QT) is
the sum of individual quantities passing through each system and the total resistance is equal to individual
resistance of each system i.e.,

Q T = Q1 + Q2 and HSYT = HSY1 = HSY2 ...(11.7)
Many horizontal lines, i.e., H = constant lines, are drawn at frequent intervals from origin to shut
off head, in the graph where HSY1 – Q and HSY2 – Q curves are drawn. Individual horizontal distances
between y-axis and HSY1 and HSY2 are added together to get QT = Q1 + Q2. The same procedure is
followed for many systems in parallel operation i.e.,
QT = Q1 + Q2 + .... + Qn and HSYT = HSY1 = HSY2 = HSY3 = . . . . = HSYn
In Fig. 11.14. systems operation is parallel is illustrated.
Q = Q1 + Q2
Q = Q 1+ Q 2 H Q2
Q1 H sy1
Q2
Q1 H sy2
3
A
H sy = H sy1 = H sy2 2
q1 H sy = H sy1 + H sy2
y2
y1
q2
Hs
Hs
H sy1
H sy2
2
1 2
q1 Q Q
q2
q= q 1+q 2
(a) without static head (b) with different static head
Fig. 11.14. Pump with two systems and operating points

If H–Q curves of the pump is inserted on this combined graph. Operating points where both
systems are in operation is point A and operating points when one any system is in operation is indicated
by points 2 and 3.
(d) Determination of Operating Point

H–Q curve of the pump to be connected to the system (between suction and delivery lines,
i.e., point ‘s’ and ‘d ’) is overlapped on the available HSY – Q curve, the meeting point ‘A’ is the point of
operation of the pump. Point A changes for different H–Q curve of the pump, for example, H–Q curve
for different speeds, with the same Hsy–Q curve or with the same pump but with different (Hsy–Q) curve
(i.e., system curve with different fittings). Head and discharge at point A will be the operating parameters.
This parameter need not be the optimum parameter of the pump. Power consumption and efficiency can
be obtained from Ni–Q and η–Q curves for the pump at point ‘A’.
11.5 COMBINED OPERATION OF PUMPS AND SYSTEMS

(a) Pumps in Series [Fig. 11.15 (a) and Fig 11.15 (b)]
If two pumps are operated in series, then the total quantity is equal to the individual quantity of
each pump. The same quantity passes through all pumps. Total head is the sum of heads developed by
individual pumps i.e.,
Q T = Q1 = Q2 and HT = H1 + H2 ...(11.8)
Same procedure is followed for many pumps operated in series i.e.,
Q T = Q1 = Q2 = ........ = Qn and HT = H1 + H2 + ........ + Hn
In order to get the combined HT = f (Q) for combined operation in series, a number of
Q = constant lines are drawn in the graph where individual H1 – Q and H2 – Q curves are already drawn.
Total head of all pumps running together HT is obtained by adding individual total heads as H1 and H2
for the same Q. A number of points so obtained is joined together by smooth line, which gives HT – Q,
for two pumps in series.
If system line (Hsy – Q) is overlapped on this graph, point A′′ is the operating point when both
pumps are operated in series. Point A is the operating point when individually any one pump is operated.
Point ‘A’ will be the operating point, when only one system (instead of both) is operated with one
pump.
H
Q – H (1 + 2)
A′′
R 1+2
C1 d
D1
Q – H (1,2) H (1+2)
A′
A
2 1 2H 0
R 1,2
H0 D
C
P2
P2 P1
2Hst H H 1,2
Q T = Q 1= Q 2 HT = H1 + H2 s1,2
P1
a Q
0 Q 1, 2 Q (1 + 2)
Fig. 11.15. (a) Pumps in series Fig. 11.15. (b) Pumps in series (H–Q) curve
(b) Pumps in Parallel (Fig. 11.16)

If two pumps are operated in parallel, then both pumps work under the same head. Total quantity
(QT) is the sum of the quantities of the individual pumps i.e.,
HT = HA = HB and QT = QA + QB
A number of H = constant lines are drawn in the graph where individual (H–Q) curves of pump C
and D are available. For one value of H = constant line, QA and QB lengths are added together to get QT.
In the similar manner a number of H = constant points are selected and QT is determined. A smooth line
joining all these QT points give the combined graph (HT – Q).
If a system curve (Hsy – Q) is overlapped on the combined (HT – Q) of the pump and individual
(HA – Q) and (HB – Q) graphs of the pumps, the operating point 3 is when both pumps operate and points
1 and 2 are when any one pump is operated.
Same procedure is followed for many pumps when operated in parallel.
HT = HA = HB = ........ = Hn and QT = QA + QB + ....... + Qn
H p 1+ p 2
for construction Q T = Q 1+ Q 2 series
px
Q2
Q1
Hp
3
2 p1 || p2
1
H sy parallel
p1 p2
Q1 p1 p2
Q2
Q sy < Q 1 + Q 2
operation Q
0 Q
Fig. 11.16. Two different pumps operated in parallel Fig. 11.17. Comparison of series and
Q1 + Q2 = QT, H1 = H2 = HT parallel operation
Regulation of pumps in series or parallel is also achieved by sudden switching off of one or two
pumps. This method saves the power requirement to the pump.
B (a) in series A
(b) in parallel
Fig. 11.18. Schematic diagram for two pumps to operate (a) in series and (b) in parallel
11.6 STABLE AND UNSTABLE OPERATION IN A SYSTEM

(a) Stable Operation
In Fig. 11.19. (H–Q) curve of pump meets (Hsy–Q) curve of a pumping system at two operating
points A and B.
H unstable stable ∆H< 0 unstable

H stable ∆ H > 0
∆H < 0
Q ) sy QK Q) y Drooping down
∆Q A (H – (H – s characteristics
∆QB K
C K
A A B A A0 (H –
C Q)
O,C p
∆H > 0
(H p2
O QB –
+ z2 – z 1
Q) z2
QA p QB Qsy
QA
Q A0
z2 – z1
HC
∆H = H sy – H p
P2 – P1
Ho
Q
g
∆H = H sy – H p z 1, p 1
H pc =
Q
Fig. 11.19. Stable and unstable operation Fig. 11.20. Stable and unstable operation
in pumping system in pumping system
H–
Q
H 0 = H max
(H – Q) p
Rasing characteristics
Fig. 11.21. Condition for stable operation H0 = Hmax

At both point A and B, condition Hsy =Hp is prevailing. But, actually point A is the stable
operating point and point B is the unstable operating point. Let the quantity at point A is shifted to the
higher side of the quantity by a smaller amount (∆QA). At the new point Hsy > Hp. ∆H = Hsy– Hp > 0.
Pump supplies quantity at a lower pressure (Hp), whereas the system is at a higher pressure (Hsy). Pump
cannot supply flow against high pressure of the system. The flow gradually reduces until pump pressure
(Hp) is equal to system pressure (Hsy). Same situation occurs when flow is reduced by a small amount
i.e., (– ∆QA). Now, Hp > Hsy , ∆H = Hsy– Hp < 0. Pump supplies water at a higher pressure than the
system pressure. This difference in pressure causes an increase in quantity. This increase in quantity
reduces the pump pressure (Hp) and increase the system pressure (Hsy), until both the pressures are
equal i.e., until point A is attained. Entire process is automatically carried out. Pump can operate only at
point A where the condition is Hp = Hsy. Hence, point A is a stable operating point.
(b) Unstable Operation

Normal head-discharge curve for a centrifugal pump will have a shape of gradually rising
characteristics, when quantity of flow is reduced from maximum to zero flow condition (Fig. 11.20). In
some of the pumps due to heavy secondary losses at very flow rates, head-discharge curve of the pump,
droops down instead of raising after attaining maximum head at certain quantity (point K) in Fig. 11.20.
Always shut off head (Q = 0) will be the highest head in (Hp– Q) curve for all pumps of good design. But
due to high secondary flow at low flow rate, (Hp– Q) curve droops down and the shut off head will be
lower than the normal value.
In Fig. 11.20, point B is the meeting point of the (Hsy– Q) and (Hp– Q) curves. A small increase in
quantity (+ ∆ QB) moves the operating point to the right hand side of the graph (+ Q direction). At this
stage, system pressure Hsy is lower than the pump pressure (Hp), ∆H = Hsy– Hp < 0 (negative value) as
a result pump supplies more quantity to the system, which makes the point to move further to the right
hand side (+ Q direction). Point B cannot be reached at all. Pump supplies more and more quantity to the
systems until point A in attained.
If the quantity is slightly reduced (–∆QB), it can be seen that pump pressure (Hp) is lower than
system pressure (Hsy).
∆H = Hsy – Hp > 0.
Unstable Stable
∆H = H sy – H p< 0
H
∆H = H sy – H p > 0
+ ∆Q C + ∆Q A
ρ ε A D 2
K
C E
M B
O N 1
QC
HD
HB
QA
Hp
Hc
H ′N
Fig. 11.22. Stable and unstable operation in pumping system

The quantity of flow is reduced further until pump
reaches the point (Q = 0). At this stage, pump runs with H
regulating valve in opened condition, but there will not
be any flow in the system. Here again point B cannot be D
∆H
reached. Point B is the unstable point. This region is B

A ∆Q
called unstable region curve OBK in Fig. 11.20. This
unstable effect will exist in all pumps if (HP–Q) curve O
droops down at lower flow rates. The pump should not
be operated in this region. C
Ho
H syo < H o
However, pumps can be operated at stable

condition even when drooping down characteristics
prevails at low flow rates. In Fig. 11.19, the shut off
head of pump (at Q = 0 ) is lower than the shut off head
of the system. In Fig. 11.23 pump shut off head is at a Fig. 11.23. Condition for stable operation at
higher level than system shut off head. System curve unstable region Ho > Hsyo
and pump curve meet at point B, which is located at
unstable region of pump characteristics. The condition ) sy

of point B in Fig. 11.24 is same as the condition of H ∆Q B –Q
(H
point A in Fig. 11.20. Any small increase in + ∆QB
increases Hsy and decreases Hp i.e., ∆H = Hsy – Hp > 0 (Curve OB)
H po > H syo
∆H > 0
(+ve). Due to higher resistance in system, quantity B (H
–Q
reduces. This reduction continues until point B is O )p
reached. Any small decrease in flow rate (–∆QB ) C ∆ H = Hsy – H p
makes Hp > Hsy or ∆H = Hsy – Hp < 0. Higher pressure
H syo = H po
Hsy0
in pump increase the flow to the system until point B
H0
is reached. Therefore, point B is a stable point although
it lies on the drooping down side of pump
characteristics. Mathematically, stable condition will Q
dH sy dH p
exist if > Fig. 11.24. Condition for stable operation in
dQ dQ unstable region
An example of this condition is illustrated in Fig. 11.25.
H
K R K
2′ C
A
O 5 n E
C B
1
H2 F
H 5 H max
H1
Q ′ 2 Q A Q2 Q 5 Q1 Q (a) Q (b) Q
Fig. 11.25. Change of unstable operation into stable operation due to

(a) static head change (b) due to system resistance change
Referring to Fig. 11.25, point ‘1’ is the stable operating point of the system. When delivery tank
water level raises, the operating point, due to static head change to point ‘2’ and ‘2 ′ ’. Point ‘2’ is the
stable operating point, whereas point ‘ 2′ ’ is the unstable operating point. This unstable region starts
from point ‘5’ and above. Maximum height of water level in the tank can be up to point ‘K’. Further
increase in water level leads to reverse flow (Refer section 11.7).
11.7 REVERSE FLOW IN PUMP

H
P
R K
A
N O Accumulator
Tank p 2
C
Q2
S P Tank To system
Qp Q1
–Q Q
Fig. 11.26. Reverse flow in pump
In Fig. 11.26 a pumping system is illustrated where in the system i.e., suction and delivery pipe,
remain same. A closed delivery tank (Condenser, Accumulator) is attached to the system. Quantity Qp
enters the tank from pump whereas a quantity Q1 leaves the tank to another system. Quantities Qp and
Q1 are independent of each other. If Qp > Q1, water level in the tank gradually raises. Correspondingly,
pressure p2 also increases. Since system remains same, the pattern of dynamic part of system curve
remains same, whatever may be the quantity Q2, increase in pressure p2 and raise in level Z2 in the tank.
Change is only in the static head i.e.,
p2 − p1 C 2 − C12
Hsy = + ( Z 2 − Z1 ) + 2 = H st + H dy
γ 2g
p2 − p1 C 2 − C12
where, Hst = + ( Z 2 − Z1 ) and H dy = 2
γ 2g
Due to this, (Hsy–Q) curve raises parallel to the previous (H sy–Q)curve (Figs. 11.21 and
Fig. 11.26). Point A moves towards left and point B towards right along (Hp–Q) curve. Still QA > QB.
However, at one condition, the increase in static head makes (Hsy–Q) curve will be tangent to (Hp–Q)
curve at point K (Fig. 11.26). Any further increase in pressure p2 or level Z2 raises (Hsy–Q) curve above
(Hp–Q) curve. Operating point K moves to point R, where only further increase in H sy is possible. i.e.,
to the area of reversible flow. Flow moves from the tank to the pipe. This induces a reversible water
wave. Pressure p2 reduces. Operating point R moves to point N. Because flow reduction is possible only
along the curve R.N, any further reduction in pressure moves the operating point from N to A and then
gradually to S, because only at point A, further reduction in pressure is possible. Thus, a cycle is completed.
This cycle repeats so long as there is no change in the system. Pressure fluctuates at a faster rate. If the
flow flucuation is large, the unstable condition starts even earlier when operating point is at A. Even a
small disturbance in pressure can induce unstable condition, if operating point is very near to point K.
Reverse flow prevails until Hst = H0 (at Q = 0) i.e., shut off head. When Hst < H0 pump starts
pumping with operating point at A or below point A under stable condition. When QA < QK stable
operation of the pump is not possible.
dH sy dH p
< from Q = 0 to Q = QK . Hence unsteady flow prevails between these two points.
dQ dQ
Quantity ‘Q’ passing through the system will be either Q = 0 or Q = QK. At this region reverse flow
takes place. Drooping down characteristics at low flow rate is the unstable region so long Hst > H0. It
becomes stable when Hst < H0 and stable operations starts from the condition Hst < H0 to the condition
Hst = H0. The same thing will happen even pumps are running in parallel or in series. The only difference
is that combined characteristics must be studied. However, a raising characteristics of H–Q curve from
Qmax to Q0 i.e., up to shut off head is the best H–Q curve for stable operation.
Such pressure fluctuations quite frequently occurs in boiler feed water storage drums, condensers,
accumulators and in pipes with elastic properties.
This effect is more predominate in pumping compressible fluids such as gas, air especially pumping
to storage cylinders.
A series of sudden and high intensity fluctuations can create oscillations in the system. Constant
flucuations of low intensity quite frequently appears in the delivery line. Disturbances created by
aerodynamic wake after the impeller blades, flow over volute tongue, flow over diffuser blades, uneven
angular velocity of the rotor (in case of gas and air pumping) are a few instances of creation of disturbances.
If the frequency of the disturbance does not coincide with the frequency of the system, the amplitude of
such oscillations give a very low effect on performance even when the pump works near maximum head
point (K) and pump work under stable condition. If the disturbance frequency is very nearly or exactly
equal to system frequency, resonance effect is created and the pump will work in the unstable operation
even when pump is working far away (point A) from maximum head point K.
The frequency of operation of the system depends on dimensions of the delivery pipe and does not
depend upon the speed of rotation.
A reduction in accumulator energy increases the frequency of oscillation which inturn increases
the amplitude of pressure fluctuations. The energy waves developed due to pressure fluctuations, either
direct and indirect, combined together, which can create high intensity shock waves. However, increase
in frequency of the amplitude of fluctuations increases a self breaking effect.
A change in quantity of flow is created by the change in circulation, provided sufficient time is
available. When total, combined self oscillating frequency of the system is reduced or in other words,
when oscillating frequency increases, circulation time almost reaches the condition for one cycle of
oscillation. This almost stops further increase in the amplitude of the oscillation, with the result, energy
is dissipated under low accumulator energy. Circulation is inversely proportional to speed or tangential
velocity of the blade. As a result, any pump working in the unstable region, when speed is reduced up to
certain limit will work in stable condition at all flow rates. The limited speed will be higher where
system conditions are low.
Boiler feed pumps, compressors working under high speed has a very little time to adjust, will
undergo unstable operation even when accumulator energy is small. Stable operation in boiler feed
pumps can be obtained by having continuous raising characteristics from full open to full close i.e.,
without any drooping down characteristics at partial flow. Experimental investigation shows that reduction
in number of impeller blades and low outlet blade angle β2 will provide a stable raising pump (H–Q)
curve. Better results are also found when the impeller blades are extended into impeller eye at suction
i.e., increasing length of the blade at suction side. (Fig. 9.10) High specific speed pumps have raising
characteristics.
Diverting part of fluid from delivery line to suction line is also one of the reasons for unstable
operation for pump.
11.8 EFFECT OF VISCOSITY ON PERFORMANCE

The performance of water pumps, when used for viscous liquid pumping, changes considerably
from water performance. Many authors already worked on this area. Prof. A. A Burdhakoff, Prof. R.E.
Sheshenko, Prof. D.A. Suhanoff, Prof. B.D. Baklanoff, Prof. M.D. Aizentein, Prof. A. T. Ippan | 4 |,
Prof. A.J. Stepanpoff | 112 | are a few authors to be mentioned.
In chemical industries, centrifugal pumps, of ns = 80 to 135, are used for pumping viscous liquids.
Spiral casings are used, instead of diffusers, in most of the pumps, because, when pumping viscous
liquids, the flow velocity in pump parts is less than that for water pumping. Coefficient of reaction
ρ = 0.7 and number of blades Z = 5 to 6, depending upon the viscosity of the pumping liquid. Fig 11.27
gives the test results of a pump of ns = 85, for different viscous liquid pumping.
Hm
50
47
44 ν= 0 0 09
2
41 cm /se c
w a te r
38
0 ,1 3 8
35
32
0 ,5 9 5
29
H = f(Q ) 1 ,5 0
82
26
=
3 ,6 9
s
n
23
8 ,5 5
20
1 2,2 8
N kW 1 8,8 0 1 2,2 8 1 8,8 0
18 8 ,5 5
3 ,6 9
16 1 ,5 0
14 0 ,5 9 5
η =f (Q )
12 ν = 0,00 9
W a ter
10
8 η%
ν = 0 ,00 93
6 80 W ate r
4 72 0 ,1 3 8
η =f (Q )
64
0 ,5 9 5
56
48
1 ,5 0
40
82 3 ,6 9
32 =
ns 8 ,5 5
24
1 2,2 8
16
1 8,8 0
8
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Fig.11.27. Actual performance variation due to change in viscosity of liquids test

results conducted on the same pump ns = 85 n = 2875 rpm
Prof. D. A. Suhanoff mentioned that the major losses involved in viscous liquid pumping are the hydraulic
losses due to friction and disc friction losses. Head loss in pumps is due to high friction, while power
loss is due to high disc friction. So, the important factor to decide the effect of viscosity on pump
ωr 2
performance is Reynold’s number Re = , since the theoretical head, hydraulic losses depend upon
ν
only Reynold’s number. However, shock losses do not depend on Reyonld’s number. Shut off head
(Ho) for the viscous liquid pumping and for water pumping remain same i.e., Hov= Ho, when Q = 0. Due
to complicated flow pattern prevailing in flow passages, analytical methods aided with experimental
correction coefficients are used to convert water parameters into viscous parameters for pumps of ns =
50 to 130. The results are given in Figs. 11.28 and 11.29.
2,5
2,0 m′
1,6
Example 1,2
4
1,0
r = 16 cm Re = 2,5.10
n ′ = 0,73
0,8 k′
n = 1450 rpm
0,6
ν = 1.5 cm 2/sec k ′ = 0,93
0,5 n′
m ′ = 1,28
0,2
1,0
0,7
0,3
0,5
0,4
47
39
33
29
25
21
17
13
12 11
10 9
7
4 3,5
2,5
1,5
0,125
6 5,5
5 4,5
0,15
0,25
1,2
0,8
0,4
0,6
0,3
50
43
35
31
27
23
19
15
r2w
2
8
25
20
16
12
10 5
70
50
1
0,
30
c
20
e
/s
2
n = 960 rpm
cm
16
05
n = 1450 rpm
12
0,
=
n = 2900 rpm
ν
4
10
8
6
5
4
3
2,5
5 6 8 10 20 30 40 50 1 2 5 1 2 5 1 2 5 1 2
3 4 5 6
2 2
Impeller radius 'r' in cm 10 10 10 r ω 10
Re = ν
319
Fig. 11.28. Nomogram k′′ , m′′ , η′ = f (Re) to convert water parameters to equivalent liquid parameters
Experimental analysis indicates, that, for pumps of low ns and impellers with both shrouds, the
performance of viscous liquid pumping and that for water pumping remain same at maximum efficiency
point. When viscosity increases, total head reduces. It is found, sometimes that, the total head, for
viscous liquid pumping is slightly higher than that for water pumping at smaller viscosity ranges. This is
due to the absence of axial vortex at slightly increased viscosity. Cu2 reduces at a little lower rate when
compared to Cu2∞, which not only compensates for the increase in hydraulic friction losses and also
increase in total head. However, this compensation cannot be made, when viscosity increases further.
The similarity laws cannot be applied directly, due to insufficient data for viscous liquid pumping,
since a change in speed, changes Reynold’s number. However, for low viscous liquids i.e., for liquids
with high Reynold’s number having ν = 5000 stokes, the performance of viscous liquid pumping coincides
with that of water pumping, even when speed changes in a wide range. Model analysis must be considered
including Reynold’s number also.
In order to compare the characteristics of different viscous pumping liquid, Prof. D.A. Suhanoff
H  N 
gave a relation between head coefficient k (= KH) = , power coefficient m = (= KN) =  3 5  ,
2
n D 2
 γn D 
and efficiency (η) as a function of Reynold’s number (Re). The result obtained by him are given in a
nomogram k′, m′, η′ = f (Re) (Fig. 11.28). His results perfectly agree with the experimental results of
different viscous fluid pumping for the same pump and same viscosity for different pumps.
The variation in k, m and η = f (Re) is attributed to the increased friction losses and disc friction
losses especially when Re < 7*103. At low Reynold’s number η reduces to a greater extent than ‘k’ and
‘m’. When Re > 3*105, calculation by dimensional analysis gave more accurate results. The error will be
more, especially, when the speed is changed.
Comparing the pump characteristics for different Reynold’s numbers (Re), when unit quantity
KQ = Q/nD3 is constant, Prof. Suhanoff, suggested that relative efficiency ratio (η′), relative power ratio
(m′), and relative total head ratio (k′) can be used for all practical purposes as a function of Reynold’s
number (Re) i.e., η′, m′ and k′ = f (Re). These values are given as
ηv mv kv
η′ = , m′ = , k′ = ...(1)
η m k
The values with suffix (v) attribute to viscous liquid and without suffix for water. Fig. 11.28 is a
consolidated nomogram, giving all the above mentioned details for easy calculation. This nomogram
has been developed based on the experimental results from many authors.
The procedure is as follows :
(1) A few points, very near to the maximum efficiency point are selected on water performance
graph (Fig. 11.3) of the pump and η, m and k are calculated.
ωr 2
(2) Reynold’s number is calculated using the formula Re = .
ν
(3) From Fig.11.28, the relative coefficients η′, m′ and k′ are found out for the obtained Reynold’s
number.
(4) Using equation (1) the values kv, mv, ηv are determined.
(5) The head and power of the viscous liquid can be calculated from the formula Hv = kv n2D2
and Nv = mv γ n3 D5 and ηv = ηη′.
, K′ = liquid = K′Q 2/3 1,0
Another method of calculation is :
(6) Shut off head Ho, when Q = 0, is obtained from the pump performance graph for water.
0,9
Qwater H Hwater
Hov = Ho.
0,8 KH
H
0,7
Qliquid
0,6 KQ
KQ′ =
0,5
0,4
1,0
0,9
0,8 1,0
1
0,7 0,9
KC 2
0,6 0,8
Cwater
Cliquid
3
Kη
0,5 0,7
K′C =
4
0,4 5 0,6
ηwater
ηliquid
0,3 0,5
K′η =
0,2 0,4
0,1 2 6
10 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 3 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 4 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 5 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 910
Q lit/sec. 3
Re = 10
D cm.νt cm2/sec.
′ , K′H′ , K′η′ , and K′C′ = f (Re)

Fig. 11.29. Coefficients K′Q
1 — as per Ajenshtein (nsi = 51, 60 to 70); 2 — as per Suhanoff (nsi = 82 to 130); 3 — as per Ippen (nsi = 90 to 115);
321
4— as per Stepanoff (nsi = 82); 5 — as per Ajenshtein for cavitation (nsi = 60 to 100)
(1) Under constant speed, and the change in pumping liquid viscosity, the (H–Q) for water
pumping changes, in such a way that the specific speed for both liquid pumping remains
same (Fig. 11.29).
3.65 n Q 3.65 n Q v
ns = = nsv = ...(11.9)
H 3/ 4 ( H v )3 / 4
The (H–Q) curve droops down more when viscosity increases (11.27). Suffix (v) is for
viscous liquid and without suffix is for water.
From the equation (11.9), we get
3/ 2
Q  H
= 
 H v 
...(11.10)
Qv
From the equation (11.10), it is seen that the coefficients, kH, kN, kη and kC (Fig. 11.29)
obtained at maximum efficiency point, remain same for all other selected points of water
pump performance. So all other values can be obtained from the above correction coefficient.
(2) Shut off head (Ho) for water pumping is taken from the water pump performance graph.
This is same for viscous fluid pumping also, since shut off head is independent of viscosity
of pumping liquid.
(3) From Fig. 11.27, it is seen that under viscous liquid pumping, the power required increases
more or less by the same value for a wide range of flow rate.
Power (N) is given by
γQH
For water pumping N = constant . η
γ v Qv H v
For viscous liquid pumping, Nv =
constant ηv
Combining these two, we get N < Nν or
QH γ  Q H 
<  v ×  v v ...(11.11)
η  γ  ηv 
 gv   Qv H v  hv γv
 g  ×  QH  > h = η′ or kQ kH γ > η′ ...(11.12)
Qv Hv
Where kQ = and kH = ...(11.13)
Q H
Combining equations (11.10) and (11.13), we get
gv
5/2
g k H > kη ...(11.14)
Equation (11.10) and (11.14) give a relation between the correction coefficient for head, flow rate
and efficiency for viscous liquid pumping. Absolute values of these coefficients must, however, be
determined experimentally. Fig 11.29 gives the values of these coefficients as a function of Reynolds
number (Re).
Qnor
Re = , where Dequ = 4 D2 b2 k , where k is the correction coeficient (≈0.9) and also equal
( Dequ . ν )
to k = 1/K2, where K2 is the area restriction coefficient at outlet.
In Fig. 11.29, another graph is also given containing the variation of the cavitation specific speed
(C). The correction coefficient kc = Cν /C = f (Re). From the graph it is seen that when Re > 7.103 the
coefficient kQ, kH are nearly equal to one (i.e. kQ = kH = 1), which indicates that, the increase in
hydraulic losses between water pumping and viscous pumping is same i.e., the effect of viscosity is
negligible.
The drop in overall efficiency kη indicates that disc friction losses are increasing. At Re < 7.103,
the hydraulic friction losses considerably increase, which is responsible for reduction in efficiency. The
disc friction loss will be low.
In practice, it is found that, pump performance comparison for viscous liquid pumping with that of
water with respect to Reynolds’s number, give an error of ±5% for ns = 85 to 130.
11.9 PUMP REGULATION

The process of changing the characteristics of system and that of pump to meet the output
demand is called regulation of pumps. By this, the operating point of (Hsy–Q) and (Hp–Q) curves will
meet the required output head and discharge.
Regulation is done by several methods namely (1) Flow regulation by valve control system; (2) by
transfer line control system; (3) by speed control of the pump; (4) by diameter control of the impeller of
the pump; (5) by impeller and diffuser blade adjustments and (6) by changing the static height in suction
and delivery tank.
(a) Regulation by Delivery Valve Control

This method is simple, but with heavy hydraulic losses in the control valve. Regulation is done by
a regulating valve fitted at the delivery pipe. Fig. 10.30 shows the performance by delivery valve regulation
process. By adjusting the valve, either closing or opening, the (Hsy–Q) curve changes (curves oAx1,
oAx2, oAx3). Each curve is for one position of gate valve opening.
H ∆H c
Ax3 η wx Ax2
Ax1
H sy
A
C Hp
η
Hp
H sy
ηHy
Q
Qx
QA
Fig. 11.30. Regulation by delivery control valve

Due to the adjustment in valve, the system resistance is changed by which, the operating point
moves either upwards or downwards along the (Hp–Q) curve. Hydraulic losses are higher due to
obstruction created by the valve and pump efficiency reduces considerably. However, due to simplicity,
this regulation is widely used. Flow regulation by suction valve, although possible, is not carried out for
100 %
Load test on centrifugal pump

20
— with delivery valve control

– – with suction valve control ×
90
80
15
Total Head (H) m
70
60
(η) Efficiency %
50
10
40
30
Power (N) kW. 5
20
10
0 5 10 15 20
Q. Flow rate lit/sec
Fig. 11.31. Performance of pump
(a) operation of delivery valve with full opening of suction valve
(b) by operation of suction valve for one position of delivery valve opening
incompressible fluids like water, oil etc. due cavitation problem, since regulation of suction valve increase
total suction head. However, for compressible fluid, suction valve control is carried out since density
increases due to fall in pressure, which reduces the flow quantity. Moreover, unstable condition area
moves toward left hand side of H–Q curve, more for air and less for gas. Fig. 11.31 illustrates the graph
for valve regulation by suction control valve and by delivery valve control.
In Fig. (11.30), A is the operating point when the delivery control valve is at full open condition.
Points Ax1, Ax2, Ax3 are the operating points when control valve is gradually closed. Dotted lines
corresponds to the (Hsy–Q) curves for different opening position of the suction valve.
(b) Regulation by Transfer Line Method

In low specific speed pumps, the power of the pump reduces when control valve is gradually
closed. Maximum power occurs when control valve is at full opened condition. But in axial flow pumps,
power of the pump increases when flow rate is reduced or the control valve is gradually closed. In such
installations a transfer line is always provided. The flow from the transfer line is sent back to the suction
sump. When the control valve in the main line is gradually closed, part of the flow from the main line is
transferred to transfer line. But pump supplies at constant flow rate, thereby power is kept constant and
below overloading capacity.
This method is adopted in axial flow pumps in general for all pumps, where N–Q curve has a
raising characteristics, when flow (Q) reduces. In order to have minimum power at the time of starting,
centrifugal pumps are always started with delivery gate valve in fully closed position while axial flow
pumps are started with delivery gate valve in fully opened position. So a transfer line i.e., a parallel pipe
is connected to the main supply line. This transfer line discharges the pumping fluid back to the suction
tank. While starting, the transfer line valve is kept open and main line valve is fully or party closed.
After starting, the main line valve is gradually opened and transfer line valve is gradually closed until
required quantity in the main line is attained. Fig. 11.32 illustrates the regulation by transfer line.
N
H r
L N = f (Q)
H = f(Q) D B
R F
K M
C R+r
P
Nm
NK
R H st
A E
R
r r
A Qc Q p Qm
0 QC Q
Qp
R – Main line
QK
r – Transfer line
QM = Qc + Qp
Fig. 11.32. Regulation by transfer line (r) OEPD-Transfer line,

ACKB-main line(R), OEMF-combined line (R + r)
In order to maintain a steady flow, especially at low flow rate, recirculation method of regulation
is often followed instead of regulating by gate valve. A part of the main flow from the delivery line is
brought back to suction reservoir in order to maintain constant level. The suction reservoir is also
constructed with greater depth. Referring to Fig. 11.33 the flow will be safe so long as the level in the
reservoir is above the line ‘a–a’ i.e., above the entrance of suction pipe. For the safe operation of pump
without cavitation, the water level in the suction reservoir should be maintained at ‘h2’. If the liquid level
falls below the value ‘h1’, the recirculation line is automatically activated and the operating curve shifts
from curve R to R + r. Out of total quantity ‘QH’ a quantity QC passes through the recirculation line and
the balance through the main line (line r). The recirculation quantity maintains constant level of water in
the sump and pump also operates safely. Recirculation line operates until the liquid level in the reservoir
raises to ‘h2’. At this level recirculation line is closed. Between the point h1 and h2 pump operation is
safe.
In Fig. 11.32, parabola AB is the main line characteristics and parabola OD the characteristics of
transfer line. OEF is the combined system characteristics (AB + OD) with transfer line opened. Parabola,
LKM is the characteristics of pump. Under transfer line (OD) in closed condition, the operating point is
K. QK is the quantity through the main line AB. When transfer line is opened, operating point is M. QC is
the quantity passing through the main line and QP is the quantity passing through transfer line. Total
quantity QM = QC + QP. The power NM consumed is less than power NK.
H R r R+r
H
QC QH Q onm Q
h2
h1
a a
Fig. 11.33. Pump characteristics during constant recirculation through transfer line
In Fig. 12.38 most commonly adopted circulation pump in ships is illustrated. For light weight
provision, the outlet bend is provided with flow ribs and the inlet is provided with a main circular
cylinder suction entry alongwith a side pipe entry. Due to the flow from the side entrance, unequal
pressure and velocity distribution prevails at the inlet, which induces cavitation, noise, vibration. In
order to improve the performance, inlet vanes are provided.
Referring to Fig. 11.34 curve R is the H–Q curve of the axial flow pump, when flow is through the
main entrance, this curve is less steeper. H–Qa curve is the performance of the same pump, when flow
is through the side entrance. This curve R1 and R2 are more steeper due to heavy secondary losses at
inlet. Experimental investigation | 4 | shows that when the speed is reduced from n = 100% to n = 60%
severe cavitation prevails, when flow takes place through side channel. The flow Qa at n = 60% is found
to be ≈15 to 20% of normal flow QH. Steady flow prevails up to the suction reservoir height up to ‘hs1’
where the inflow to the reservoir is equal to outflow from the pump. Steady flow exists during the height
hs1 to hs2. The flow becomes unsteady if the height in the suction reservoir falls below hs1.
R2
Q – Ha
Q–H n = 100%
R1
n = 60%
R
hs2
hs1
Qa QH
Fig. 11.34. Axial flow pump performance when side channel emergency
line is in operation under speed change
(c) Regulation by Speed Control

Already known that the change in speed of the pump, moves the (Hp–Q) curve of the pump
parallely up or down depending upon the increase or decrease in speed. Since the system is not altered,
The (Hsy–Q) curve remains same. As per model analysis, total head increases as square of the speed and
quantity increases in proportion to speed.
H n1 Ay
H A xn
η
A1 B1
H1 Ax Ayn ny
n2
B2
A2 n
H2 n3 B3 A3
H3 nx
R2
C η
ηx = ηxn
Hy
H st
R1
Qx Q
Q3 Q2 Q1 Q QA
Qy
Fig. 11.35. Regulation by changing speed Fig. 11.36. Regulation by changing speed
328
8 IHPN ROTODYNAMIC PUMPS (CENTRIFUGAL AND AXIAL)
— O.D 225 φ
80 % η
20 Hm
O.D 222 φ 4 × 3 5 ms6

. O.D 219 φ
222 × O.D 215 φ
×× O.D 211 φ
225 225
219
15
60
6
215
211
225 225
222
222 219
10
40
4
219
215
211
20
2
5
0 8 16 24 32
Q LPS
Fig. 11.37. (a) Effect of changing diameter on performance

I Tested with OD of 250ϕ

II Tested with OD of 247 ϕ
I
II III Tested with OD of 244 ϕ
IV Tested with OD of 241 ϕ
V Tested with OD of 238 ϕ
H(m)
III
η
N(hp)
IV
80 %
20
II
III
15
60
6
III
V
10
40
4
II
20
5
2
III
IV
0 5 10 15
Q LPS
Fig. 11.37. (b) Effect of changing diameter on performance

22
%
50
%
55
%
20
60
%
60%
18 (H p–Q)
65
%
16 70
%
% 55
75
14 %
50 φ 250
φ 240
12
φ 230
–Q ) φ 220
(H s y
10
φ 210
φ 200
8 φ 190
φ 180
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 LPS
240 480 720 960 1200 1440 1680 1920 LPM
144 28.8 43.2 57.6 72 86.4 100.8 115.2 m 3/hr
Quantity Q
Fig. 11.38. (H–Q) curve for different outer diameter D2 at one speed ‘n’
Head (m) Efficiency %
Theory
68
3
G∝D
l
c tua
yA
60
tit
an
Qu
5.2
Quantity (Q) H s
Efficiency %
4.5
18
60
3.8
15
50
2
H∝D
Head
3.1
12
40
2.3
9
30
200 220 240mm
Diameter (D 2)
Fig. 11.39. Effect of impeller outer diameters (D2)

reduction on pump performance
b2
β′ 2 H
D 2c
B
D 2i
Hd D
E
C′2 Hc C
D 2m
d1
u2 B
C ′ u2
α′2 C2
u2
α′2
F
D 1m
Q
O C m2 O
Q c Q d,
u2
Fig. 11.40. For the calculation of probable diameter reduction
∆D
2
K
∆D D – D ′2
=k 2
2 2
C2
C ′2
1,2
0,8
0,4
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 n s
Fig. 11.41. Experimental coefficient k for turning impeller diameter

with respect to η s as per “RUTSCHI”||
Qn1 n1ηv1 H n 21 ηh1 N n1 n31 ηm 2

n1
= , = 2 and = 3
Qn 2 n2 ηv 2 H n 2 ηh 2 N n2 n2 ηmi
n2
In Fig. 11.35 (Hp–Q) curves for three different speeds are drawn, over which the (Hsy–Q) curve C
B3 B2 B1 is overlapped. The operating points are B3 B2 and B1 on each speed curve. It can be seen that
although by model analysis points are obtained, efficiencies are not equal. At point ‘B1’ efficiency is
maximum. But efficiencies at other two point B2 and B3 are less than maximum efficiency. The
(Hsy–Q) curve must be altered in order make the pump to work at maximum efficiency at all speeds.
However, the loss in efficiency due to speed change is negligible when compared to other methods i.e.,
regulation by delivery valve control method, as well as changing the impeller diameter keeping speed
constant. This method of regulation is economical. There is no limit, provided prime mover capacity is
sufficient to run the pump at such speed. Danger of cavitation is avoided completely. This method is
adopted only for a single stage units. For pumps in series or parallel, valve control method is always
carried out keeping pump speed constant for all pumps.
(d) Regulation by diameter control (Outer diameter trimming to meet the desired
head and discharge)
Instead of change in speed, which requires a prime mover with speed changing facilities to a
greater extent, which involves huge cost, a change in diameter of impeller at constant speed is carried
out in chemical industries. As per model analysis,
Q1 D13 ηv1 H1 D12 ηh1 N1 D51 ηm 2

= 3⋅ , = 2⋅ and = 5 ⋅
Q2 D2 ηv 2 H 2 D2 ηh 2 N2 D2 ηm1
Here also the (Hp–Q) curve for other diameters, changes parallely with respect to original
(Hp–Q) curves. Loss of efficiency in changing the diameter is very high when compared to the loss of
efficiency is changing the speed. Maximum efficiency also reduces for other diameters. This is due to
the fact that flow at outlet is not streamlined flow when outer diameter is trimmed. There will be fully
developed, separated flow at outlet edge of the impeller followed by an aerodynamic wake. Secondary
flow increases considerably. Because of this, flow in diffuser and in outlet element is also a fully developed
separated flow. As a result, hydraulic efficiency reduces to a greater extent, volumetric efficiency also
reduces to a smaller extent. Mechanical efficiency very slightly decreases due to reduced disc friction
loss. Overall efficiency reduces to a greater extent. However, in some impellers when impeller diameter
is reduced very slightly, the efficiency improves slightly due to improved, better, flow pattern at the
outlet of impeller at the passage between impeller, and diffuser, at the diffuser and at outlet elements.
Figs. (11.37, 11.38) show the performance of pump with different diameters but with the same speed.
The system curve is also shown in the same graph. Comparing the curves Figs. 11.35, 11.36, 11.37 and
11.38, it is evident that efficiency drop in changing diameter is high when compared to the efficiency
drop in changing speed. In Fig. 11.41, given the experimental results giving the limit up to which the
diameter of impeller can be safely reduced to get better performance i.e., without sacrifice in efficiency.
If the same impeller with different trimmed outer diameters is tested in the same spiral casing or
diffuser, it is found, than ηmax, for each trimmed diameter lies on the corresponding point, such that
3 2
Q1 D  H D 
ª  1  and 1 ª  1 
Q2  D2  H2  D2 
The change of Q in proportion to D3 is due to the change of Cm2 and the flow area ‘A2’ perpendicular
to Cm2 in direct proportion to the impeller diameter.
Referring to Fig. 11.40, the H–Q curve for the original diameter is curve AB. The required values
of H and Q are given by point ‘C’. A line is drawn from the origion ‘O’ to pass through ‘C’ and then to
meet the original H–Q curve AB at point ‘D’. This indicates that
2
 D2c   Qc   H c 
  ª  ª 
 D2d   Qd   H d 
This method has been suggested by Berjourn of France |176| and later accepted by other countries.
Although theoretically H ∝ D2 and Q ∝ D3 practically, the outer diameter ‘D2’ must be trimmed
to a value slightly higher than the value calculated as per the law H ∝ D2, in order to compensate for the
quantity which follows Q ∝ D3. However, it is found that, this correction is not necessary if the law
suggested by Berjourn is applied.
(e) Regulation by Static Head Change

(1) Static Head Fluctuation in Delivery Reservoir
In Figs. 11.42 and 11.43, pump (H–Q) curve with a drooping down characteristics regulation by
static head change is shown. Water level in the suction tank is taken as (origin, O–O, i.e., x–axis–
Q-axis) reference line. Pump 1 supplies water through the delivery pipe 2 to the reservoir 3. Water level
in the delivery reservoir corresponds to the static height H, H1, H2 and H3 which is obtained by the
meeting point of system curves AE, A1E2, A2E2 and A3E3 , with pump (H–Q) curve. Points B, B1, B2 and
C are the corresponding operating points. Pump operation will be stable between heads H and H2 i.e.,
between points B and B2. For further increase in height H2 to H3 by reducing the flow rate QB2 to QB3,
the system curve A1E1 raises parallel to x-axis and will meet the pump (H–Q) curve at two point. (see
Fig. 11.43). This corresponding to the level in the reservoirs a2b2 and above. The flow rate is 0 < Q <
QB2 the pump
operation becomes unstable in this region. When the H H1
pump head is raised further, the system curve A2, E2 O
goes up and will touch the H–Q curve at one point a2
C. The moment pump operating point reaches point H2
O
C, the operating point momentarily shifts to point
A2 and there will not be any flow. Since the system a1
head is higher, the operating point further shift
B2
towards left side (Fig.11.26) and will be operated at C
B1
point A (Fig. 11.26), where the flow will be reversed.
H st2
H st
This sudden change creates huge noise vibration and
water hammer which depends upon the flow rate and H st1
S
length of the pipe. Flow in positive direction will C

Q
start only when the water level goes below a1, b1
Fig. 11.42. Regulation by static head change
which corresponds to the head H1. Pump operation
will be always unstable between H2 and H3 and
above.
H E3 3
C E2
A3 E1 a3 B3
B2 a2 B2
A2
B1
A1 E
a1 B1
B
Tank
Q
–H
A a
H1
2
H3
H
H2
To the
system
1
0
Q lim QB π Q
Fig. 11.43. Static head fluctuation in delivery reserve

In order to avoid such unstable operation, pump (H–Q) curve must be a gradual raising
characteristics up to Q = 0, i.e., without any drooping characteristics at low flow rate or other arise the
curve A2–C will be a raising curve as a continuous curve of C B2–B1 . This fluctuation of water level in
delivery tank normally exists in systems, where condensers and accumulators are fitted in the delivery
line.
(2) Regulation with two different (H–Q) Curves of the Pump

In Fig. 11.44, a system operation with two different
Q–H
(H–Q) curves, one with less drooping characteristics
indicated by (H–Q)B. Continuous line and another with max B A H stmax
B H stmin
higher drooping characteristics (H–Q)A indicated by dotted min
A
line are shown. It is evident that the higher drooping
(H–Q)A curve (dotted line) is recommended and accepted QBmin
for automatic regulated operation by a pressure control QAmin
H
relay, if the fluctuations are large and quite frequent, Q amax
because of smaller difference between Qa max and Qa min Q bmx
for the given Hmax to Hmin. These values are also very close
to the regular flow rate. But the range between Qb max and Q
Qb min is large for the same head valuation Hmax to Hmin for
the curve of B (continuous line curve (H–Q)B. It is necessary Fig. 11.44. Regulation by two different
to bring down the value (Hmax – Hmin) in order to get safe (H–Q) curves of the pump
automatic regulation. If the operating point (Hmin) is at the
right side of maximum efficiency point, the pump may be overloaded due to power increase or pump
may be unsteady due to cavitation. Hence, necessary care should be taken in fixing the normal regular
operating point (Hmin) especially when automatic relay is fitted. Pump automatically starts at (Hmin) and
automatically stops at (Hmax). Normally this pressure difference will be 2 to 3 kg/cm2.
(3) Static Head Change in Suction Reservoir

In Fig. 11.45, two different (H–Q) curves of pump are given (H–Q)a and (H–Q)b. Curve CE is the
system curve. Static height Hs2 corresponds to low water level in the suction reservoir, and Hs1 corresponds
to the high water level in the suction reservoir. Taking the low water level in the suction tank as the
normal operating condition, the operating point is B with parameters HB, QB and NB. When water level
reaches the higher level, the head will be HA and the parameters are QA, HA, NA, corresponding to point
A. The power increase ∆N = NA – NB. Prime mover must be capable of taking this excessive power, if
not, regulation is carried out by operating the control valve until QA reduces to Q′B and NB′ . The difference
in head HA–HB = h3 is the loss created by the control valve. The control valve system, although simple
but not efficient. The efficiency loss will be more. That’s why when any system operates under larger
and frequent suction or delivery reservoir level variations, system will be operated with another H–Q
curve with larger drooping characteristics by this the change in Q, N, will be considerably small than in
the lesser drooping characteristic of (H–Q). However, best and efficiency method is always changing
the speed of the pump. The same system is adopted when delivery tank fluctuations take place.
(Q – H)a
E
(Q – H)b
A
h3
B
HA
H S1
H S2 HB
0 Q
QB
01
QA
Q–N
∆N
Q–η
NA NB
0 Q
Fig. 11.45. Static head change is suction reservoir
(4) Regulation by Impeller Blades and Inlet Guide Blade Rotation

A small rotation of inlet guide blades before impeller blades, to some extent, changes the input
energy to the impeller, which in turn changes the total head of the pump for the same quantity of flow.
Efficiency almost remains same in this process. However, regulation can be done only to a very small
range. Efficiency and head drop very much for further changes. Hence this method is not adopted in
pumps. But the blade rotation is widely used with variable pitch adjustable impeller blade axial flow
pumps. It is not possible in fixed impeller blade propeller pumps.
2∞
W
∞x
C 2x = C 1x
W
C 2x
1x
W
2a
W 1aC
W
C 2a = C 1a
a
W∞ 2a
α1a
α1x
Fig. 11.46. Regulation by impeller blade pitch control

When impeller blade is rotated with respect to its own axis, the angle of attack is changed. If angle
of attack is increased, area between two blades, axial velocity, tangential velocity, total head, circulation,
lift, quantity of flow increase. The geometrical average velocity w∞ absolute and blade angles also
change. In Fig. 11.46 continuous line is for the original value and dotted line is for increased angle of
attack. Reducing angle of attack by rotating the impeller blade in opposite direction reduces all values
mentioned above including efficiency. At maximum efficiency, total head increases slightly because
total head depends upon the curvature of the profile. As already explained in chapter 10, it was shown
that hydraulic efficiency ηh is equal to
w∞ sin λ
ηh = 1 −
u sin (β∞ + λ)
Relative velocity w∞ reduces only a little for a larger value of reduction in angle of attack. Value
sin (β∞ + λ) reduces to a greater extent, with the result, hydraulic efficiency drops when angle of attack
is reduced or when impeller blade is rotated in the opposite direction (–∆β∞ ). Up to a reduction of
β∞ = 23° to 25°, efficiency drop is only very little. Futher reduction in angle of attack reduce efficiency
significantly.
11.10 EFFECT OF THE PUMP PERFORMANCE WHEN SMALL CHANGES

ARE MADE IN PUMP PARTS
1. Filing the trailing side of the outlet edge of the impeller blade raises (H–Q) curve (Figs.11.47,
11.48, 11.49 and 11.50) to a certain extent. Efficiency may remain same or may increase. But
normally decreases.
2. Filing the leading side of the outlet edge of the impeller blade drops (H–Q) curve. Efficiency
also drops (Fig. 11.51 and 11.52).
3. Instability in (H–Q) curve at low Q can be removed shifting the inlet edge of the impeller
blade towards eye.
4. Thinning the inlet edge by filing both sides of the blade especially more on the leading side,
less on the trailing side and rounding off the inlet edge reduces drooping nature at unstable
region.
5. Increasing the eye diameter D0 near inlet edge of the impeller blade and sometimes shifting the
inlet edge inside improves NPSH.
6. Increasing the blade length at hub and decreasing the blade length at periphery of the inlet
edge, in other words, increasing the inclination of inlet edge with respect to outer shroud improves
NPSH.
7. Filing the volute tongue removes the unstable nature at low Q, but Q reduces at higher flow
rate.
8. Increase in volute area may increase the overall efficiency but optimum efficiency shifts to
higher Q. Reduction in volute area will reduce overall efficiency and the optimum η shifts to
lower Q.
Original vane
thickness Vane thickness
after ‘underfiling’
A
Metal
removed
Fig. 11.47. Underfiling of outlet tip of pump blade (Filing the

training ride of outlet of impeller blades)
w2
w 2F 60
Total head (H) and efficiency %
C2
β2 β
24m
C 2F C m2F C m2
2F
C u2 40
C u2F
u2
18
(a) QF = QHF > H 20

12
60
6
40
β2 β C m2 C m2F Blunt exit tips
2F
Tapered exit tips
C u2 = C u2F 20
u2 0 3 6 9 12 L/s
Discharge (Q)
(b) HF = H QF > Q
Fig. 11.48. Discharge velocity triangles Fig. 11.49. Effect of tapering-off the trailing
for underfilled vanes side of the impeller exit tips
120
Head – Cap
100
Head – Per cent of normal

80
Efficiency %
Eff %
60
0 10
40
20
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Capacity, Per cent of normal
A Q = Capacity normal
Q1 = Q
B Q 1 = Capacity after ‘underfiling’
Head – capacity normal B = Vane spacing normal
Head – capacity after ‘underfiling’ A = Vane spacing after ‘underfiling’
Fig. 11.50. Changing pump performance by impeller underfiling
C
A
d
dF
d = dF Removed by
underfiling
Removed by Overfiled
overfiling
E
Underfiled
Fig. 11.51. Underfiling and overfiling vane tips
w1
w 1F
c m1 c m1F c 1 c1F β1F
β1
c u1
c1 w0
δ
δF
Fig. 11.52. Underfiling and overfiling vanes

12
PUMP CONSTRUCTION AND APPLICATION
12.1 CLASSIFICATION
Pumps are classified into following groups :
(1) Pump types : Centrifugal, Mixed, Axial
(2) No. of stages : Single, Two, Multistage
(3) Type of connection : Series of parallel
(4) Type of construction : Horizontal or Vertical
(5) Type of casing : Volute or diffuser type
(6) Type of pumping liquid : Water, Milk, Acid, etc.
(7) According to usage : Agricultural, Domestic, Chemical, Boiler feed pumps,
Circulating pumps, Condensate pumps, Borewell pumps,
Cryogenic pumps etc.
Some of the most commonly used pumps are discussed here.
12.2 PUMPS FOR CLEAR COLD WATER AND FOR NON CORROSIVE LIQUIDS
Pump used for pumping non-corrosive oil or clear water such as domestic, irrigation, industrial,
drainage etc., are of either vertical or horizontal construction. The main shaft mounted with impeller is
supported by one or two ball or roller and/or thrust bearings as well as one bush bearing support
depending upon the type of usage. Pumps for agriculture use are mostly with one bearing with bush
bearing support. Impeller is mounted on the shaft as cantilever. Heavy duty pumps and high speed
pumps have two bearing supports along with one or two bush bearing supports. The ball or roller
bearings are lubricated by oil or special grease, while bush bearings are lubricated by pumping fluid
itself. Stuffing box provided will have labyrinth packing of carbon powder impregnated to asbestos
packing to avoid air entry into the pump through stuffing box. Pumping liquid from the delivery is
circulated through lantern ring provided at the stuffing box. Axial thrust is taken care of by ball or
angular contact or roller bearings. In case of high axial thrust, a thrust bearing along with ball bearing is
provided. In some of the pumps balancing holes or rear vanes are provided in order to take care of axial
thrust. In multistage pumps balancing discs are provided or opposed impeller construction is used to
balance the axial thrust. Figs. 12.1, 12.2 and 12.3 illustrate different types of pumps used for pumping
clear cold water or for non-corrosive solutions.
In this book only a few pumps of special applications and their constructional features are discussed.
339
38
Fig. 12.1. (a) End suction single stage pump with single bearing support and with
closed impeller. Casing support—Back pullout type
Fig. 12.2. Single stage centrifugal pump (splitcasing, bracket supported)

PUMP CONSTRUCTION AND APPLICATION 341
(a) (b)
Fig. 12.3. Single stage double ball bearing high speed pump
Fig. 12.4. (a) End suction single stage pump with semi open type impeller
and with double bearing support
Fig. 12.4. (b)

Fig. 12.5. Pump with mechanical seal and with cooling arrangement
Fig. 12.6. Vertical single stage radial type centrifugal pump ns = 170
4
1
6
3 2
Fig. 12.7. In line pump

1. Rear bracket, 2. Casing, 3. Wearing ring, 4. Stuffing Box, 5. Bearing housing, 6. Impeller
Fig.12.8. Two stage domestic pump with centrifugal type impeller

13
4 5 6
10 11 12
1 14 15
16
7
8
9
Fig. 12.9. Two stage domestic pump with centipetal type impellers
Fig. 12.10. Horizontal double suction pump for high head ns = 250
Fig. 12.11. Horizontal opposed impeller 2-stage pump ns = 180
4 5
1 2 3 6 7 8 9
Fig. 12.12. Multistage pump with double entry with opposed impellers
Fig. 12.13. Multistage opposed impeller pump with intermediate channel

connecting two numbers of two stage pump
12.3 OTHER PUMPS

(a) Sump Pump
Radial type centrifugal pumps can operate theoretically up to 10.00 m suction but practically up to
7 m suction when pumping water is at normal temparature and atmospheric pressure at suction sump.
If the sump water level is more than 10 m depth, centrifugal pumps cannot take water from suction
sump. The pump has to be lowered down in such a way that suction conditions are well within the limit
for safe cavitation free operation. Hence, in open wells, pump and motor are lowered down for safe
operation, mostly in agricultural, domestic areas as well as in some industries.
Sump pump is one type of pump, wherein the pump is lowered down such that pump is immersed
in water. The delivery pipe from volute of the pumps delivers water at floor level or to a delivery tank.
The prime mover is an electric motor directly connected to pumps through a long shaft. This is enclosed
by a concentric tube. The shaft is supported by bush bearing support very near to the impeller and
another bush bearing supports near pump coupling at the top. If the shaft is too long, intermediate
supports are provided. Axial thrust bearing is provided in between pump coupling and top bush bearing
support. The bearing is lubricated by a separate lubricating grease or lubricating oil. A stuffing box is
situated immediately above the lower bush bearing. Labyrinth packings are provided according to the
type of liquid pumped such as acids, alkaline, neutral, distilled water, or ordinary water. Lower bush
bearing is lubricated by pumping liquid, if it is water or by water if pumping liquid is other than water
through a lantern ring. Top bush bearing and intermediate bush bearings are lubricated by lubricating oil.
Sump pump is mostly a volute type radial centrifugal pump. Figs.12.14, 12,15, 12.16 and 12.17 illustrate
different types construction of sump pumps. Sump pumps are used for a delivery height of 10 to 15 m
while suction head will be (0.2 to 0.5 m) of positive suction.
20
3
8 = — HOLES
4 M
267
57
320 292
E
35 A
30° B G
34 D 280 & 380

5
0 MANHOLE
0 60
30
40
12 A
‘J’ NO. OF HOLES

DISCHARGE ‘K’ SIZE OF HOLES
M
0 MAX
0 MAX
D
20
C
8 20
C
12
Fig. 12.14. Sump pump wet pit type Fig. 12.15. Sump pump dry pit type
Fig. 12.16. Sump pump vertical (channel pump) Fig. 12.17. Sump pump vertical (channel pump)
(b) Deepwell Turbine

If the volute type centrifugal pump is replaced by a diffuser pump, the pump is called a deepwell
turbine pump. When the depth of suction well is more than 15 m, the cost of sump pump is increased
considerably, due to increased length of shaft, enclosing the tube and delivery tube. Pump cost is
reduced by modifying volute into a diffuser by which overall size is reduced. Pumping water is sent
through the shaft enclosing pipe, by which separate delivery pipe is avoided. A separate delivery bend at
the ground level is fitted to the shaft enclosing pipe, in order to divert water [Fig 12.18 (c)]. Top bush
bearing, the stuffing box and thrust bearing are now located at the bend to make the shaft pass through
box and straight to the prime mover, whereas water is diverted from vertical direction to horizontal
direction. Top bush bearings and intermediate shaft supports are lubricated by pumping liquid itself. The
bush bearing at the bottom is located at diffuser. However, in some of the pumps assembly, all bush
bearings are lubricated by a separate lubricating oil. But, lubricating oil mixes with the pumping liquid.
Hence, this system is provided where lubricating oil mixing with pumping water does not affect the
quality of water at end use. The depth of pump can be increased by adding more number of stages.
Pumps can operate at a greater depth. Present pumps are operated for a depth of 150 to 200 m for clear
cold water pumping. Although pump efficiency is very high about 82 to 88%. Overall efficiency of
these pumps will be very low about 30 to 35% due to power loss in shaft, connecting prime mover at the
ground level and pumps at the bottom, immeresed inside the sump. These pumps are used not only for
open wells but also for bore wells.
δ
145
3
φ 250
φ 340
580
290
185
180
1
2600
φ 340
2
147
φ 340
129
(a) (b)
Fig. 12.18. Deepwell turbine pump
10
11
12
13
14
16
15
17
(c)
Fig. 12.18. Deepwell turbine pump

H ,M η,%
30 80
H 70
26
22 60
η
18 50
14 40
5 7 9 11 13 1 5 Q ,lit/se c
Fig. 12.19. Submersible pump Fig. 12.20. Performance of the submersible pump
Fig. 12.21. Impeller, diffuser and return guide vanes
The pump can be radial, mixed or axial flow type. Fig. 12.18 illustrates deepwell centrifugal, and
mixed flow pumps. The prime mover can be electric motor with direct or indirect drive or I.C. engine
with belt drive
(c) Submersible Pumps

In order to avoid the heavy transmission loss in deep well pumps, the prime mover is also located
along with the pump at the bottom as a mono block construction. The transmission shaft and the
stuffing box are eliminated. The electric motor is located at
the bottom below the pump, in the bore well. Both pump and
motor are submerged in water. Water passes over the electric
motor and then to the pump suction. The electric motor is
completely sealed and is cooled by the pumping liquid. The
motor is completely sealed and filled with lubricating oil for
lubrication of bearings. Water cannot enter the motor. Bush
bearing supports are provided at the diffuser of each stage
and are lubricated by pumping liquid itself. Figs. 12.19, 12.20
and 12.22 illustrate the submersible pump. Axial thrust is taken
care of by an axial thrust bearing kept at the bottom of the
motor. In some motors, axial thrust pad is used which acts as
axial thrust balancing device. A long delivery pipe connected
to the pump delivery takes water from pump to the delivery
point. Since pumps are connected to electric motors only,
speed of the pumps will be synchronous speed 1500, 3000
rpm. These pumps cannot be operated at different speeds as
in the case of deepwell pumps. Both turbine pumps and
submersible pumps are manufactured to suit different borewell
sizes. Due to higher value in length-diameter ratio of the prime
mover when compared to ordinary motors, the efficiency of Fig. 12.22. Submersible pump view
prime mover is less when compared to ordinary motors, since
the diameter of the prime mover is controlled by the borewell size. Depending upon the power required
to run the pump, the length of the motor is altered. Due to non-provision of correct length diameter ratio
for optimum efficiency, these motors always have lower efficiency.
(d) Oil Filled Motor Pumps

In case of open well, however, the electric motors can be made for optimum length diameter ratio
so that motor can run at optimum efficiency. The pump is mounted at the bottom of the electric motor.
Both the pump and motor are suspended by chain and submerged in water at the suction sump. The
pumps is a radial or mixed flow pump. The delivery from the pump passes over the motor, which acts
as a cooling liquid for motor. Motor is completely sealed and filled with oil for bearing lubrication. Two
ball bearings, one at the top of motor, another at the bottom of the motor are provided. Pump impeller is
mounted on the extension of the motor shaft. Instead of stuffing box, oil seals or mechanical seals are
used at the shaft to get a leak proof joint between impeller and motor. Delivery pipe for these pumps may
be rigid metallic or plastic pipes or a flexible plastic pipe. This arrangement makes these pumps to be
situated at any point in open well. These pumps are mostly single stage or two stage diffuser pumps.
Water from diffuser passes over the motor at the outer periphery of the motor and then converges into
the delivery pipe after the motor. Normal operating height of these pumps will be 10 m to 15 m.
(Fig. 12.23).
2 5 3 1
4 6 7 8 9
Fig. 12.23. Oil filled motor pump
1. Impeller, 2. Delivery channel, 3. Casing, 4. Seal, 5. Compression spring,
6. Stationary ring, 7. Bronze ring, 8. Rotating spring, 9. Suction stainer
Fig. 12.24. Mixed flow pump (horizontal) Fig. 12.25. Moulding
Submersible pumps and deepwell turbine pumps are used for irrigation, industrial, circulating,
mining in open well type as well as for borewells. These pumps occupy major percentage in application
than any other high capacity pumps. Two types are used : (1) Transmission type and (2) Borewell type.
Transmission type consists of three parts: (1) pump is located at the bottom, (2) driving part and
supporting part located at the ground level and (3) the intermediate supports located at frequent intervals
of the delivery pipe. Because of its unique application, the pumps and supporting parts have a special
construction. These pumps must have a limited outer diameter and must be in cylindrical form at outside
to suit the borewell. Due to this restriction, these pumps have a number of stages connected in series,
depending upon the pumping head. Normal operating head varies from 25 to 400 m. Some of the special
designs have head up to 600 m. Pump itself has three sections: (1) the entry to the 1st stage through
suction net fitted to the 1st stage, (2) impeller radial or mixed and (3) the diffuser with return guide
blades for smooth entry to the 2nd stage suction or in general to the next stage suction. Every stage is
symmetrical to each other. Each stage assembly consists of vaneless suction entry, impeller, with both
shrouds closed type for radial type and semi open mixed type with only rear shroud for mixed flow type.
Axial flow type units are also used but mixed flow type units occupy a major percentage of deepwell or
submissible pumps.
Fig. 12.26. 30° coxe angle diffuser with impeller for vortex design
(short curve construction for plane vane developments)
12.4 AXIAL FLOW PUMPS

Axial flow pumps are used as circulating pumps for stationary conditions and for irrigation systems.
Quantity of the pump ranges from 0.2 to 18 m3/sec, total head from 1 m to 22 m. Pumps work always
under positive suction head. The impeller will be always under drowned condition. Mostly pumps are
operated in vertical condition. Horizontal pumps are rarely used. In both systems, pump is immersed in
water or pumping liquid as such total head is very low, pumps cannot operate with suction. Propeller
pumps have fixed impeller blade system. Variable pitch impeller blade pump is combination of 5 to 7
propeller pumps where in impeller vanes can be adjusted to different blade positions. Figs. 12.27, 12.28
and12.36 illustrate vertical variable pitch axial flow pump. Construction of all axial flow pumps will be
same, but with modifications to suit the site conditions after pump at the delivery line. The rotating
mechanism for impeller blades is located inside the impeller hub. A long rod passes through the shaft and
extends a little beyond pump coupling. By rotating this rod, impeller blades are rotated. Pump has to be
stopped for blade adjustment. Now-a-days, pump impeller blades can be adjusted and regulated by a
separate regulating mechanism by which pump need not be stopped for impeller adjustment.
Suction end of the pumps forms the shape ‘bell mouth’ in order to provide smooth entry without
flow separation at inlet. Impeller is mounted on the shaft as a cantilever element. Impeller is located
inside a cylindrical housing. The contour in axial direction will be curved to suit the impeller blade
rotation and at the same time minimum clearance is maintained at all positions of impeller blade. The
impeller is followed by an axial diffuser which has a bush bearing to support the shaft which passes
through the diffuser. Diffuser is followed by a bend or followed by a straight pipe and then bend to suit
the site conditions.
The shaft supporting the impeller at one end as cantilever is supported by two bush bearing
supports and one axial thrust bearing. One bush bearing is located at diffuser, which is lubricated by
pumping water itself while another bush bearing is kept at the bend. In case of intermediate pipe between
bend and diffuser, intermediate bush bearing supports are provided in between bend and straight pipe.
These bearings are also lubricated by pumping water itself. A stuffing box with labyrinth packing is
provided after the bush bearing at the bend to avoid leakage of water from bend to atmosphere. Axial
thrust bearing is provided at the top, above stuffing box and below pump coupling to take care of axial
thrust. Bearing is lubricated by a separate lubricating oil or grease. The body of the pump is supported
by external supports in such way that pump is immersed inside the suction sump. Axial pump construction
is very simple, easy to maneuver, occupy smaller floor space. Efficiency ranges from 85 to 92%,
Fig. 11.6 (c) illustrates universal characteristics of an axial flow pump. Although propeller pumps are
operated at optimum efficiency condition without any deviation, due to sharp fall in efficiency at other
regions, variable pitch pumps are used for a wide range of operation without any appreciable loss in
efficiency. The only drawback in these pumps is that pumps must be started only at full open condition
for minimum power consumption at the time of starting the pump. Hence, in some of the installations,
a transfer line connecting the pump delivery and suction sump is provided along with main line. At the
time of start, main line will be closed and transfer line will be opened. Gradually transfer line will be
closed while main line will be opened, until required flow in main line is achieved. This type of arrangement
keeps the pump operated at high efficiency.
In order to reduce the height of the pump in transport type units, the outlet bend is made as 90°
short bend with a number of ribs to guide water. (Figs. 12.27, 12.28, 12.29 and 12.30).
10
8
Fig. 12.27. Vertical axial flow low depth-circulating pump

1. Suction mouth, 2. Impeller housing, 3. Impller blade, 4. Diffuser blade,
5. Shaft bush at diffuser, 6. Delivery bend, 7. Shaft, 8. Bearing, 9. Coupling, 10. Delivery flange
Fig. 12.28. Vertical axial flow high depth circulating pump
570 PCD SECTIONAL VIEW OF AP-5

φ
500
1620
750
470φ
750 PCD
700φ
1415 250
Fig. 12.29. Horizontal axial flow propeller pump

Introduction of such short bend at the outlet of the pump creates uneven pressure and velocity
distribution as well as increased hydraulic losses, which reduces the total head of the pump. Provision
of radial ribs at the bend reduces the effect of such
drawbacks. However, experimental investigation on
such bends with ribs reduces efficiency by 7 to 9%.
In some of the pumps, a cylindrical enclosure to
ensure a smooth flow at bend is provided around
the shaft and the shaft is not in contact with the
pumping liquid. This also reduces overall efficiency
by 10 to 12%.
In transport type axial flow pumps, a side
entrance apart from main entrance at suction is
provided. Suction will not be a bell mouth shaped,
instead a straight cylindrical piece with additional side
opening. This suction element will have a number of Fig. 12.30. Condensate pump (double
suction)
axial ribs and impeller nose. (Fig.12.38).
Flow from the main entrance is slightly deviated
by the side entry if liquid which is streamlined by axial suction ribs, kept radially connecting the impeller
nose and suction casing. When flow is only from the side opening, pump works only at 15 to 20% of
normal working. This system is adopted in ships. Performance of pumps is found to be better if the ribs
at the 90° bend placed in a streamlined position in the form of a profile. It is found that the performance
of the pump remains same as that of ordinary construction i.e., with long low head bend, but the total
height of the pump is considerably reduced. The hydraulic losses remain same even at 1.1 times normal
flow rate.
12.5 CONDENSATE PUMPS

Condensate pumps are either single stage or two stage radial type centrifugal pump. Two stage
units are common. Selection of number of stages depend upon the parameter of the pumps and its
characteristics. Based on the methods adopted for pump regulation, construction of pump is selected.
Condensate pumps can be either vertical (used in ships) or horizontal (for land use). Vertical pumps are
selected based upon the suction head available. Pumps of turbodynamic type are of horizontal type
because required section head can be easily obtained only in such horizontal type. The size of the pump
is also considerably smaller. Pumps are always erected very near to condenser in such a way that pump
is always filled with water. Flow velocity in suction will be 0.5 to 1.0 m/sec and in delivery
2 to 3 m/sec. Top most point of suction flange of the pump is always kept in line with the highest water
level in the condenser. This line is the level where boiled water and steam mixture exists at the boiling
temperature for the pressure prevailing at the pump suction. Also liquid and vapour are at separated
condition. In the absence of water, steam mixing line or insufficiency with respect to the impeller size
the liquid entering the pump will be a liquid vapour mixture which will produce unstable, with noise and
non-uniform working of impeller especially at limiting condition of operation.
4
2
3
Fig. 12.31. Single stage condensate pump
1. Impeller, 2. Stuffing box bush, 3. Lantern ring for seal, 4. Lantern ring for air entry pretention
Fig. 12.32. Two stage condensate pump

1. Impeller, 2. Intermediate bush bearing support, 3. Upper bearing support, 4. Transfer pipe
Fig. 12.33. Multistage horizontal opposed impeller with external crossover

pipe connection condensate pump
Fig. 12.34. Two stage horizontal opposed impeller singe entry and double exit condensate pump
A single stage condensate pump is given in Fig.12.31. Impeller 1 is located at the bottom and the
suction flange is at the top. Shaft is supported by three bush bearings 2 lubricated by water taken from
delivery line through a filter in order to avoid construction materials, sand etc. to get into the units
bearing clearances. A ball bearing support is provided at the top of the pump. Axial thrust is balanced by
vent holes provided at the impeller back shroud. Stuffing box is provided above the bush bearing and
condensate water is circulated through lantern rings provided near bush bearing. Another lantern ring at
the middle of the packing material is provided through which air is sent to get perfect sealing.
A two stage condensate pump is shown in Fig.12.32. First stage impeller is provided at the bottom
of the pump. The suction flange is located at a higher level in order to keep impeller always immersed in
water and also air entry through the stuffing box is stopped. Second stage impeller is located above the
first stage impeller and in the opposed position to balance axial thrust. First stage impeller develops1/3 of
total head and second stage impeller develops 2/3 of total head. Pumps are also designed to develop
equal head by each impeller. Shaft is supported by two bearings: (1) Lower bearing is a bush bearing
(2) Located inside casing between two stages and lubricated by hot water. Top bearing (3) is either bush
bearing or angular contact ball or roller bearing to take care of the excess unbalanced force. If an axial
thrust bearing is used at the bottom, the top bearing will be bush bearing. Fluid coupling can be used in
case ball bearing is used at the top. If not flexible coupling is used. Wearing ring at impeller is provided
in case the pump rings near are at cavitating zone. The clearance will be more than the normal. Mostly
clearance will be filled up with a mixture of vapour and liquid. Stuffing box is provided at the second
stage impeller. If the pump runs under low head or near cavitation region, lantern ring if provided. If
pump operates at higher head, lantern ring need not be provided. To avoid air entry through stuffing box,
condensate water is circulated. In some design, water from external source is circulated in order to
circulate water even when pump is not running. Packing materials must be checked periodically and
changed since packing materials become hard at a faster rate especially at high temperatures. Casings
are made from bronze, Impellers are made from monel metal (1/3 Nickel and 2/3 Copper), and shaft is
from stainless steel material.
Condensate pumps operate over a wide range of operating area. Radial and axial thrusts must be
balanced in order to avoid fatigue stress on the shaft. Owing to the position, second stage impeller,
located near delivery point will be running at positive pressure, whereas first stage impeller is mostly at
the suction pressure. Axial and radial thrusts of second stage is higher than that at first stage especially
when operated at low discharge condition. To avoid high value of axial and radial thrust, first stage
impeller will be a double suction impeller and second stage will be two identical impellers located opposite
to each other by which axial thrust is perfectly balanced and pumps can work at a wide range of
operation. To avoid radial thrust, volute casing of first stage will be a concentric circular passage in
some of the condensate pumps. (Figs. 11.33 and 11.34).
Condensate pump operates under 94 to 97% vacuum at a temperature of 25 to 30°C. Although
temperature is low, yet liquid will be very near to vapour state due to high vacuum, due to low vapour
pressure at low temperature. Thats why, condensate pumps are located below the condensate in order
to ensure only liquid entry at the suction of pump. Pumps will be always filled with water (No priming
is necessary) and will not have any vapour mixing. Positive pressure will prevail at impeller inlet, around
0.5 to1.0 m head. Due to high vacuum at inlet, cavitation becomes most important aspect in condensate
pumps, than overall efficiency. Cavitational coefficient C ranges from 1500 to 2500 in condensate
pumps. Stuffing boxes are properly cooled from external cold water supply. Two labyrinth rings are
usually provided, one at the middle and another very near to the impeller to avoid air entry into the
condenser. Condensate itself is circulated through labyrinth packings. In some designs condensate
supply to the labyrinth near impeller and air to the labyrinth at the middle are supplied at low pressure,
since stuffing box always works at low pressure (1.0 to 1.5 ata).
Condensate pumps are of horizontal or vertical type. Figs.12.30, 12.33 and 12.34 show a horizontal
type condenser used for land operations such as boiler plants for power stations, industries etc., condensate
is taken from the delivery line and passed through stuffing box labyrinth to avoid air entry into pump not
only at working condition but also at idle condition thereby correct vacuum is always maintained.
Where pump is working at very near to cavitation condition, or at cavitation condition air bubble,
released from the liquid is collected at the top chamber of the section chamber and taken out by a
vacuum pump. Ball or roller bearings are lubricated by consistent lubricant.
12.6 FEED WATER PUMPS

Feed water pumps, used in power stations to supply almost boiled water to boilers are, low
discharge and very high head pumps running at very high speeds. Feed water enters the pump from
deaerator and is delivered into boiler at nearly boiling temperature. In order to avoid cavitation at the inlet
of the first stage, impeller inlet is designed with large area. Positive suction pressure is always maintained
at inlet of the first stage impeller. Impellers of all other stages are same type, since all other stages work
under above atmospheric pressures.
Feed water pumps must run continuously in parallel with other similar pumps at all conditions and
under stable conditions. Pump characteristics (H–Q) must be a drooping down characteristics from
Q = 0 to Q = Qmax. Due to high temperature, of operation, all pumps parts must be manufactured with
high accuracy. Proper clearances must be ensured so that pump can run smoothly without undue
vibration even at high temperature of pumping liquid passing through the parts. Power capacity of pump
will be very high in the order of 12 MW to 35 MW. Delivery pressures are very high such as 200 to 300
ata.
Speed ranges from 3000 rpm to 25000 rpm. Total head ranges from 400 to 650 m. Feed water
pumps must possess : (1) high quality manufacture and stable, continuous operation, (2) high efficiency,
(3) high quality, quick and efficient regulation, (4) less weight for the given specification and (5) must
be brought to operating condition i.e., to meet the demand in a very short time (15–20 sec.).
Under very high speed of operation, in order to avoid cavitation, booster pumps are used before
feed water pumps. High speed steam turbines or electric motors are used as prime movers.
Feed water pumps are mostly multistage stage type pumps. Diffuser blades, return guide vanes
are made in one disc. Impellers and diffuser and return guide blade discs are mounted one after another
on the shaft, inside a drum. Concentricity is maintained between impellers and diffusers, when assembly
is carried out inside the drum. Axial thrust is balanced by the balancing disc, which is a separate
assembly made after assembly of all impellers, diffusers as well as inlet and outlet flow passages.
Stuffing boxes are cooled by external supply of water for which, special annular ring is provided.
Bearings are lubricated by consistent lubricants. Since electric motors operate at a relatively low speed,
more number of stages are used. High speed turbine run pumps have less number of stages. Booster
pumps are used to have a sufficient suction head at the first stage impeller inlet of the feed water pump.
Mostly these pumps are double suction type pumps. Since distilled water is at almost boiling temperature,
oxygen released from water chemically react with the material of the pump and erodes the material
gradually. In Figs. 12.35 and 12.36 feed water pumps are illustrated.
Fig. 12.35. Multistage pump with side suction for high head pump
Fig. 12.36. High temparature horizontal type feed water pump
12.7 CIRCULATING PUMPS

Circulating pumps are used for cooling main
liquids. In power plant, circulating pump is used to
cool the condensate. Pumps draw water from a
pond, sent to the condensate, where it receives heat
from the condensate under indirect method. Hot
water from the condensate is brought to the pond
and sprayed in cooling towers. Water is cooled by
the atmospheric air and reaches the pond back.
Circulating pumps are normally fitted near the pond
which is located far away from power station. These
pumps work under a low head involving main
friction in long delivery pipe and resistance offered
by the condense but handles large quantity of water.
These pumps must work consistently in parallel
with other similar pumps. High capacity double
suction pumps or high capacity axial flow pumps
are normally used as circulating pump.
Centrifugal Pumps are used more than axial
flow pumps due to high power consumption at part
load by axial flow pumps. Pumps work under positive
suction head. Flow velocity in pipe will be
approximately 2.5 to 3.5 m/sec. Variable speed
electric motors are often used for flow regulation.
Two pumps in parallel are always used as circulatory
pumps. Second pump will be operated only when Fig. 12.37. Vertical double suction circulating
pump and ns = 270
the load is increased. Flow from the circulating pump to condenser is determined from the quantity of
steam to be condensed into liquid at the boiling temperature i.e., removal of latent heat, under normal
load. A reserve of 10 to 15% extra will be added. If the circulating pump supplies water to other cooling
systems such as oil cooling etc., proportionate increase in discharge must be taken into account. Total
head of the circulating pump will be the resistance offered by condenser tubes and connecting pipes
between pump and condenser. Total static head will be very small in the order of 0.5 to 1 m. Total
(dynamic and static) head will be around 7 to 9 MWC. The speed of rotation will be always higher
around 3000 rpm. Quick and fast regulation is essential for circulating pumps since quantity must be
sufficiently enough only to remove latent heat of the condensate. The quantity of the condensate depends
upon the output. Hence, as and when output load changes, quantity of circulating pump must be changed
accordingly without delay. Change in flow is achieved by increasing the speed of the pump, since in this
method efficiency of the pump is higher and maintained more or less same during other speeds. Flow
control by regulating valve adjustment is not recommended since it involves heavy loss in efficiency and
corresponding increase in power of the prime mover.
Vertical double suction pumps, which posses higher suction characteristics and also minimum
axial thrust. Moreover, vertical pumps occupy smaller area and provides a smooth lined inlet passage.
(Fig. 12.37).
3 6
1
2
Fig. 12.38. Vertical axial flow circulating pump
Stuffing box is provided at the top of the shaft and in contact with suction volute. In order to
avoid air entry into the pump, water is taken from the delivery side of the pump and is passed through
lantern ring kept at the middle of the labyrinth packing in the stuffing box. Bush bearings at both ends of
the shaft give proper alignment and lubricated by lubricating oil.
Fig. 12.38 illustrates a vertical axial flow pump. As against normal pumps, the pump shaft is
enclosed by a circular cylinder, to avoid, the liquid to come in contact with the shaft. Bush bearings at
the end of the bend and at the diffuser (9) keeps the shaft aligned. Inlet guide blades (1) with the impeller
nose (2) provides proper flow direction at inlet. Impeller (6) is followed by a diffuser (8) and a bend
with guiding ribs to guide the circulating water as well as to distribute the load above the bend to the
bottom through these ribs.
12.8 BOOSTER PUMPS

Booster pumps are used in a system where feed water passes through deaerator and the deaerator
could not be located at correct height due to the conditions in site in order to provide sufficient positive
suction at inlet to condensate pump or feed water pump, so that these pumps can work without any
cavitation. Because of booster pumps, dearerators could be located at a great height (about 10 to12 m).
Because of positive suction for cavitation free operation, feed water pumps and condensate pumps can
work at high speed without any cavitation effect. Operation of the system with deaerators at a height of
3 to 4 m is more rational than using a low speed feed water pumps. The cost of economiser will be low,
when a booster is used, because, low pressure economiser need be used before the feed water pump.
Moreover, the feed water pump can be located very near to the boiler which reduces the length of high
pressure delivery pipe line erected between pump and boiler.
Since high speed feed water pumps can be used, deaerators can be kept at a greater height, low
cost low pressure economiser can be used and high pressure feed water delivery pipe length can be
considerably reduced, by using a booster pump. All modern power stations use booster pumps before
feed water pump as well as before condensate pumps. A greater advantage is that a very high speed
turbine run (speed ranging from 10000 to 25000 rpm) single stage feed water pump, instead of high
speed (3000 rpm) electric motor run multistage centrifugal feed water pump can be used. Always
booster pump capacity will be at least 50% more than maximum flow rate of feed water pump, since at
full load operation ≈ 30 to 35% of condensate drawn from deaerator is recirculated in deaerator through
recirculating line. Such recirculation of condensate through deaerator improve the quality of feed water.
This process improves the function of high pressure boilers.
The positive suction head at suction of the pump, taking water at boiling temperature from deaerator
is determined from the static height of the deaerator above pump and the losses in the suction pipe of the
pump. Providing enough positive suction at inlet of the pump is very important especially when the
liquid is at a high temperature, (102 to 150°C), because even 1°C change in temperature changes
suction head by 0.6 to 0.7 MWC.
It is essential to test the model of the suction pipe connecting deaerator and booster pump, for
minimum loss condition and reproduce the same to the natural prototype unit.
In order to get positive suction at inlet of the pump for the boiling liquid pumping, instead of
increasing the absolute pressure the boiling pressure is decreased by reducing the temperatures of the
liquid at entry of the pump. In order to achieve, a cooling unit is provided between deaerator and pump.
Condensate from the condenser passes through the cooling tubes to deaerator. Feed water from deaerator
to pump passes through the space between tubes of the cooler and then to the pump. Introduction of
cooler decreases the effectiveness of the heat cycle of the plant. Less the effectiveness achieved, if
temperature reduction is larger. Although use of cooler is not economical, it becomes essential for
conditions when there is no possibility of using a booster pump or it is essential to get more positive
suction if after using booster pump.
The quantity for a booster pump is determined as the sum of quantity passing through the feed
water pump, recirculating quantity in deaerator and the excess reserve quantity estimated (10 to 40%
of Q). Deaerator quantity should never be less than the feed water pump capacity. The head for the
booster pump is the sum of all losses from booster pump to feed water pump, static height difference
between these two pumps. Pressure needed at the suction end of feed water pump is determined
taking into account the partial evaporation at inlet of the feed water pump, for example, if the temperature
of liquid is 107°C, but the temperature at the inlet of feed water is 115°C due to preheat the increase
in head will be 0.8 kgf/cm2. This pressure increase should also be accounted for booster pump head
calculation. Normally booster pumps operate at 20 m to 60 MWC depending upon the construction,
specific speed of feed water pump, relative height (static) difference between booster pump and feed
water pump, pressure at by pass line if any. Operating speed is determined by the suction head
available.
Booster pumps and condensate pumps are similar in construction. Both pumps draw water from
closed suction tank under pressure. Booster pumps are single or two stage pumps. First stage impeller
will be a double suction type depending upon the flow rate required. In most cases, booster pump with
deaerator is taken as one unit for pumping hot water. A recirculation line from the delivery of the pump
to the deaerator is also provided if necessary.
Booster pumps are always connected and run along with either condensate pumps or feed water
pumps as one unit in order to reduce the length of pipeline between booster pump and other pumps,
which in turn reduces the friction loss thereby increase the total head. Also total space occupied is less.
However, initial cost will be more.
Condensate pumps are low power pumps. For higher economy and increased effectiveness in
operation, booster pump and condensate pumps are connected as single unit. Steam turbine is used as
prime mover. Both these pumps are assembled on the same shaft since total head and quantity pump for
these two pumps are nearly same. Speed of these pumps are selected for anti cavitation characteristics
in both these pumps. Connecting pipeline is a complicated inside construction. This model is tested for
losses. Improved model only is used in prototype site construction. Fig. 12.39 shows the condensate
and booster pump together.
Booster pump is located above condensate pump and it is a two stage unit. By providing opposed
impeller construction, axial force is reduced almost to zero. Ist stage impellers have wide inlet end to
take care of the positive suction available. Head developed by each stage impeller is equal to 50% of total
head. Booster pump bearings are lubricated by the condensate at 25°C whereas pumping temparature of
fluid in booster pump will be ≈ 105°C and condensate is deaerated to remove oxygen. High speed single
stage condensate booster pumps are also used. But oxygen removed deaerated water at high temparature
is used. Axial thrust in such cases is done by balancing holes and balancing disc. Top bearing is a ball
and roller bearing arrangement (3) lubricated by lubricating oil supplied by the screw type oil hub which
supplies oil from the casing. Oil is cooled by an air cooler (5).
Fig. 12.39. Condensate booster pump
Feed Water Booster Pumps

Booster pumps are considered as first stage pump of feed water pump. These two pumps are
combined together and driven by turbine. The suction pipe between booster pump and feed water pump
is considerably reduced. Due to vast difference in speed, feed water pump is directly connected to the
prime mover and booster pump through a gear drive in order to run at a reduced speed. A one way non-
return valve is fitted in the pipeline connecting feed water suction and booster pump delivery.
Outlet
4
Feed
water
entry
2
Fig. 12.40. Feedwater booster pump

PUMP CONSTRUCTION AND APPLICATION
8 6 4 2 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 30 32 34 36 38
10 28 40
11 9 7 5 3 1 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39
12
13
41
42
43
44
45
46
Fig. 12.41. Non-dog pump with S-type impeller (impeller is semi-open type)
369
In Fig. 12.40 a combined feed water booster pump is given. Booster pump runs at a lower speed
through a gear reducer box. (1) Both pumps are centrifugal, vertical type and spiral casing type impeller.
(2) It is a double suction impeller bush bearing. (3) Ball bearings (4) and roller bearings (5) are used to
support the shaft. Axial thrust is almost zero due to the adoptation of double suction impeller. Air entry
through stuffing box is avoided by the lantern ring provided at the middle of labyrinth packing. Lantern
rings get water supply from the delivery pipe of pump; through connecting tube.
12.9 PUMP FOR VISCOUS AND ABRASIVE LIQUIDS

Pumps are used not only for pumping water, oil, acids, alkaline, neutral, high temparature liquids
but also for pumping liquids with solids, paper pulp, molasses and such similar chemical solutions, and
even pumping abrasive liquids. These pumps are used to transport such liquids from one place to
another. Pump performance normally do not change so long as the solids in suspension does not exceed
7% of the total quantity of pumping liquid performance of such pumps remain same as that of water.
However, when abrasiveness of the liquid is very high, consistency of the pumping liquid exceeds 7%
or the space between rotary and stationary members must be larger. The wearing outer ring clearance
must be flushed with water for trouble free operation of the pump. The pump must be made in a special
design. These pumps are called ‘channel pumps’ since flow passages are in the from channel. Fig.
12.42 gives one such pump used for slurries. Typical construction of these pump is that the flow
passages are wider, volute casing is made in the form of a concentric circle instead of spiral shape,
without any change in area of cross-section, wearing ring and stuffing box are cleaned by water supplied
from external source to avoid solid in suspension entering the clearance, thereby cooling the internal due
to rubbing.
Fig.12.42. Slurry pump for low concentration

(a) (c)
(b)
Fig. 12.43. Slurry pump for high concentration (closed impeller)
Fig. 12.44. Pump for low concentration paper pulp Fig. 12.45. Pump for high concentration
(semi open type impeller) paper pulp
In Fig.12.43 more free spaces between impeller and

casing is provided. The impeller blades are made in S-form
with only two blades. Wearing ring clearances near stuffing
box is guarded by the self pumping action of the blade, which
is done by the holes made at the rear shroud of the impeller.
Fig. 12.44 is the pump for pumping paper pulp.
Impeller is a semi open type with 2 to 3 blades only. To
avoid the abrasion of paper pulp with space between water
and stationary parts, separate covers are attached so that the
main casing will not be affected. The stuffing box is provided
with lantern ring, through which clear water is circulated.
Fig. 12.45 is given pump assembly of thick pulp which is
used in textile mills, paper pulp and other industries where
thick consistent fluids are to be pumped. Impellers are made
in the form of a screw and semi open type. The inlet edge is
made a little sharp for smooths entry of the fluid. Mostly anti
corrosive steel is used such as stainless steel SS316 or liquid
contact area.
Fig. 12.46 is a pump used for abrasive solution mixer
with water pumping in places, such as power stations, mines
Fig. 12.46. Pump for abrasive liquids
etc. Here also a special lining is provided around the casing
Fig. 12.47. Single stage vertical high temperature oil pump (for petroleum liquid)
especially at the space between rotating and stationary area of pump to avoid erosion of main casing.
Mostly materials used are anti abrasive steel such as maluable iron or steel mixed with manganese.
Fig.12.47 pump is a multistage pump used in petroleum industries.These are very high pressure
pump work up to 1000 m and the liquid temperature is around 400°C. Provision for thermal expansion
is provided at all spaces between rotary stationary elements. The pump is always started when the pump
elements temperature is equal to pumping fluid temperature.
Fig. 12.48. Multistage pump for high temperature oil pumping
4567321
Flow Diagram
Fig. 12.49. Multistage drum (Barrel) type water flow pump with opposed impellers and
with double casing and double volute
In order to achieve, pump is preheated by filling the pump with the pumping fluid initially at the
running temperature. After attaining normal conditions, pump will be started. These pumps should not
be started without preheating. These pump are also used for pumping chemically reactive solutions, that
could easily catch fire. Pump materials are selected to have anti corrosive property. Stuffing boxes are
properly cooled and sealed by circulating clean water through lantern rings or by suitable liquids which
will not affect the quality of the pumping liquid when it mixes with pumping fluid through leakage in
stuffing box. In some of them, mechanical seals are used instead of stuffing box arrangements. These
seals are cooled by external source. In some of the constructions, double suction pumps are used
instead of diffuser type multistage pumps. To avoid cavitation, the first stage impeller is specially designed.
An axial pre whirl pump is used before the first stage impeller. Bearings are cooled by external oil
supply, which acts as a lubricant as well as coolant for bearing. Axial thrust is balanced by balancing
disc. In some pumps (Fig.12.47) opposed impellers are used to equalise the axial thrust. Entire assembly
is carried out inside an outer casing. Hence, these pumps have two enclosures, one to accommodate
impeller, diffuser, return guide passage of each stage. The entire stage assembly is accommodated inside
second enclosure which contains suction and delivery months. Different types of pumps used for
pumping clear cold water or non-corrosive solutions.
Fig. 12.50. Light weight high speed engine driven monoblock pump
In Fig. 12.50 a light weight (casing 1½ kg and impeller 1/2 kg) portable pump is made up from
aluminium alloy for anti-corrosive properties. The pump runs at 6000 rpm. The impeller is especially
designed for cavitation free operation at inlet. The vanes at inlet are of double curvature design. The
pump is coupled to a petrol engine as a monoblock. This pump is used for agricultural and for industrial
application.
13
DESIGN OF PUMP COMPONENTS
Design No. D1-A

DESIGN OF A SINGLE STAGE CENTRIFUGAL PUMP
1. Specification
Total Head (H) = 13.8 m (42 feet)
Quantity (Q) = 16.0 lit/sec (210 gpm), Speed n = 1800 rpm, Size 80 mm × 65 mm (3′′ × 2½′′)
2. General dimensions
3.65n Q 3.65 × 1800 × 0.016

Specific Speed (nS) = = = 115.2
(H ) 3/ 4
(13.8)3 / 4
It is a radial type centrifugal pump.
Q 0.016
Norminal diameter, D1nom = 4.5 × 103 3 = 4.5 × 103 × 3 = 93.1 mm.
n 1800
0.42
Hydraulic efficiency, ηh = 1 –
(log D1 nom − 0.172)2
0.42
= 1– = 0.87 or 87%.
(log 93.1 − 0.172) 2
1 1
Volumetric efficiency, ηV = −2 / 3 = = 0.968 = 96.8%.
1 + 0.68 ns 1 + 0.68 (115)−2 / 3
Assuming mechanical efficiency, ηm = 0.96.
Overall efficiency, η = ηh .ηV .ηm = 0.87 × 0.968 × 0.96 = 0.808 or 81%.
γQH 9.81 × 1000 × 0.016 × 13.8
Output power, No = = = 2.17 kW (2.91 hp).
const. 1000
375
No 2.17
Input power, Ni = = = 2.68 kW (3.59 hp)
η 0.81
Assuming an overload of 15%, Input power Ni = 1.15 × 2.68 = 3.1 kW = 4.12 hp.
Ni 3.1 × 60
Torque, T= = = 0.0165 kN.m.
ω 2 × π × 1800
Taking the shaft material as ‘En8’ (Mild Steel), Ultimate Stress (fm) = 35 N/mm2 and taking factor
of safety (FS) as 2 for uniform speed of rotation.
fm 35 17.5 × 1000 × 1000
Working Stress, (f S ) = = = 17.5 N/mm2 = = 1.75 × 104 kN/m2
FS 2 1000
16T 16 × 0.0165
Shaft diameter, (dS) = 3 = 3 = 0.01687 ≈ 17 mm.
πf S π × 1.75 × 104
Taking fatigue stress (bending and shear) into account, minimum shaft diameter dS is taken as
25 mm, dS = 25 mm.
Hub diameter, dh = 1.25 dS = 1.20 × 25 = 30 mm.
3. Inlet dimensions
Q 0.016
Theoretical discharge, (Qth) = = = 0.0165 m3/sec
ην 0.968
For the suction pipe diameter, DS = 76.4 mm, eye diameter of the impeller is taken as 76.4 mm
(3′′), the axial velocity at impeller eye (C0 ) is
4Qth 4 × 0.0165
C0 = = = 3.6 m/sec.
πDS2
π × (0.0764) 2
The diameter of the inlet edge of the impeller blade is taken as 90 mm. The flow velocity before the
inlet edge of impeller blade (Cm0) is Cm0 = 0.06 3 Qth n 2 = 0.063 0.0165 × (1800)2 = 2.26 m/sec.
Qth 0.0165 × 1000

Inlet breadth, B1 = = = 25.8 ≈ 26 mm.
πD1Cm1 π × 0.09 × 2.26
Taking, K1= 1.4, Cm1 = K1 Cm0= 1.4 × 2.26 = 3.164 mps
πD1n π × 0.09 × 1800
u1 = = = 8.49 m/s ≈ 8.5 m/s.
60 60
Assuming normal entry, (Cu1 = 0), Inlet blade angle ‘β1’ will be
C 3.164 
β10 = Arc tan  m1 = = 0.3722  = 20.42°
 u1 8.5 
Allowing an angle of attack δ ≈ 4.5°, β1 = β10 + δ = 20.42 + 4.5 ≈ 25°
DESIGN OF PUMP COMPONENTS 377
4. Outlet dimensions
H 13.8
Manometric head, H m= = = 17.23 m.
ηh 0.87
Cu 2
Taking, Cu 2 = = 0.5
u2
−
H Cu 2 u2 Cu 2 u 2
Hm = = =
ηh g g
First Approximation
gH m 9.81 × 17.23
u2 = = = 18.45 m/s.
Cu 2 0.5
60u2 60 × 18.45
Outer diameter, D2 = = = 196 mm.
πn π × 1800
Taking, Cm3 = 0.8 Cm0 = 0.8 × 2.26 = 1.81 m/sec.
w1
Taking, K2 = 1.2 and = 1.18.
w2
K 2 w1 Cm3 1.2
sin β2 = sin β1 . . . = Sin 25 × × 1.18 × 0.8 = 0.3419.
K1 w2 Cm 0 1.4
Cm 2 K 2 Cm3 1.2
Outlet blade angle, β2 = 19.99° ≈ 20° = = × 0.8 = 0.687
Cm1 K1Cm 0 1.4
Outlet flow velocity, Cm2 = 0.687 Cm1 = 0.687 × 3.164 = 2.18 m/sec.
D2 + D1  β + β2 
No. of blades, Z = 6.5. . sin  1 
D2 − D1  2 
196 + 90  25 + 20 
1 + = 6.5 sin   = 6.71, Z is taken as 7.
196 − 90  2 
ψ = 0.6 (1 + sin β2 ) = 0.6 × 1.3420 = 0.8052.
2ψ 1 2 × 0.8052 1
p= ⋅ 2 = × 2
= 0.2915
Z r  7  90 
1−  1  1−  
 r2   196 
H∞ = (1+p) Hm = (1.2915) 17.23 = 22.26 m.

Second Approximation
2
Cm 2  Cm 2 
Outlet blade velocity, u2 = +   + gH ∞
2 tan β2  2 tan π2 
2
2.18  2.18 
=
2 tan 20
=   + 9.81 × 22.26 = 18.07 m/sec
 2 tan 20 
60u2 60 × 18.07
Outlet diameter, D2 = = = 0.191 m. or 192 mm.
πn π × 1800
D2 Ist approximation (D2I = 196 mm) and D2 IInd approximation (D2II = 191 mm). Closely agrees.
Final value of outer diameter D2 is taken as D2 = 200 mm.
Cm 2 2.18
Cm3 = = = 1.82 mps.
K2 1.2
Qth 0.0165
Outlet breadth, B2 = = = 0.0144 mm. ≈ 15 mm.
πD2Cm3 π × 0.2 × 1.82
(d) Verification for flow coefficients:
1 1
K1 = = = 1.414.
Zδ1  7 × 0.0005 
1− 1− 
πD1 sin β1  π × 0.09 × sin 25 
1 1
K2 = = = 1.195
Zδ 2  7 × 0.0005 
1− 1− 
πD2 sin β2  π × 0.2 × sin 20 
Cm1 3.164
w1 = = = 7.49 m/sec.
sin β1 sin 25
Cm2 2.18
w2 = = = 6.37 m/sec.
sin β2 sin 20
TABLE DIA-1: Vane development for radial type centrifugal pump
(a) Ist method Z=7
Cm 2πr δ
S. No. r Cm b w δ t=
w Z t
mm m/sec mm m/sec mm mm
1 45 2.26 25.8 7.49 0.3017 5 40.3919 0.1238
2 50 2.22 23.65 7.39 0.3004 5 44.8798 0.1114
3 60 2.14 20.45 7.19 0.2976 5 53.8558 0.0928
4 70 2.06 18.2 6.98 0.2951 5 62.8319 0.07958
5 80 1.98 16.5 6.78 0.2920 5 71.8078 0.0696
6 90 1.89 15.4 6.58 0.2872 5 80.7838 0.0619
7 100 1.81 14.5 6.37 0.2841 5 89.7598 0.0557
 Cm δ  1 Bi + Bi+ 1 Bi + Bi+ 1
 +  β tan β B = r tan β ∆r = =x × ∆r θ = ∑∆θ
w t 2 2
= sin β (ri+1 – ri) = ∆θ rad deg
0.4255 25.2 0.4702 47.26 0 0

0.005 45.759 0.228
0.4118 24.3 0.4519 44.25 0.228 13°
0.01 41.7745 0.4177
0.3904 22.98 0.4241 39.2989 0.6457 37°
0.01 37.3248 0.3733
0.3747 22.0 0.4041 35.3506 1.0190 58.4°
0.01 33.7885 0.3379
0.3616 21.2 0.3879 32.2263 1.3569 77.8°
0.01 31.0262 0.3103
0.3491 20.43 0.3725 29.8260 1.6672 95.5°
0.01 28.7518 0.2875
0.3398 19.87 0.3613 27.6776 1.9547 112°
379
380
TABLE D1A-2: Another method
S.No. r Cm b w sinβ = β tan β B= x= ∆r x × ∆r θ = ∑∆θ δ
KCm 1 Bi +1 + Bi
mm m/sec mm m/sec dia. = ∆θ rad deg mm
ω r tan β 2
1 45 3.164 25.8 7.49 0.4224 25° 0.4660 47.6872 0 0 4.8
45.7015 0.005 0.228
2 50 3.075 23.65 7.39 0.4161 24.6° 0.4575 43.7159 0.228 13.1° 5.2
40.7973 0.01 0.408
3 60 2.896 20.45 7.19 0.4028 23.8° 0.4400 37.8788 0.636 36.5° 5.7
35.8415 0.01 0.3584
4 70 2.717 18.2 6.98 0.3893 22.9° 0.4226 33.8043 0.995 57° 6.01

32.3839 0.01 0.3238
5 80 2.538 16.5 6.78 0.3743 22° 0.4037 30.9636 1.319 75.6° 5.91
29.9494 0.01 0.30
6 90 2.359 15.4 6.58 0.3585 21° 0.3840 28.9352 1.619 92.8° 5.76
28.1926 0.01 0.282
7 100 2.18 14.5 6.37 0.3423 20.0 0.3643 27.45 1.961 112.4° 5.22
 Cmb − Cm 
δ (mm) =   t(mm).
 w 
Cmb1 = K1 Cm1, Cmb2 = K2 Cm2
Design No. D1-A1 Computer Programming in

C++ FOR RADIAL TYPE CENTRIFUGAL PUMP IMPELLER AND VOLUTE
/ * as per 19.11.98 * /
# include < studio. h>
# include < conio. h>
# include <math. h>
include < process.h>
float Q, H, n ;
float K1,K2
float eff, eff_h, eff_ vol, eff_ m;
float n_s Dn, n_i, N_i max. d_s, d_h, Q1_1, H_m ;
double CO, B1,B2,B3 ;
double temp, t1,Z1 ;
double U1,U2 ;
float Z,t,fs, Cu2_dash ;
int c, count = 1, nn ;
float delta, d] t, g = 9.8 1 ;
float si, p, H_inf ;
float beta 1, beta2 ;
float D1, D21, J ;
float Cm1, Cm11, Cm2, Cm21 ;
float A,B, k1, D22, K21, tp ;
float Doll, Do12, Co11, co 12, Km1, Km2 ;
float X, R, Y, U21, U22, beta, Cm, T, W1, W2 ;
float rI [10] ;
float Fs, Ys, W, G [10], C, D, E, F ;
float AVgG, drI, dO SdO, SdrI, Gby 2pi ;
float RR [19], nb [19] ;
float BB [19], AVgB, dR ;
float dQ, Qi ;
float R2, R3, Row, K ;
int theta [ ] = {0,45,90,135,180, 225, 270, 315, 360} ;
Void print_ heading ( ) ;
Void head_impeller () ;
Void head_imp 1 ( ) ;
Void imp 11er () ;
Void head_volute () ;
Void volute () ;
Void head_volcir () ;
Void volute_ cir () ;
Void main ()
{
clrscr () ;
printf (“CENTRIFUGAL PUMP DESIGN - RADIAL TYPE | N”) ;
/ * INTIAL SPECIFICATION * /
Q=
H=
n=
printf (“/n/n INITIAL SPECIFICATIONS / N”) ;
printf (“Q = %f m3/sec/n”, Q);
printf (“H = %f m/n”, H) ;
printf (“n = %f rpm/n” n,) ;
/ * BASIC PARAMETERS * /
N_S = CEIL (3.65* n* sqrt (double (Q) )) / pow (double (H), 0.75)) ;
printf (“Enter the value of a (4.0 to 4.5) : ” ) ;
scanf (“%f ”, &A) ;
Dn = ceil (A * 1000* pow (double) Q/n, 0.3333)) ;
temp = log 10 (Dn) ;
eff_h = 1– (0.42/ pow ((temp – 0.172), 2)) ;
eff_vol = 1.0/ (1+0.68* pow (n_s, –2.0/3.0)) ;
printf (“Enter the value of Mechanical Efficiency (0.92 to 0.98) : ” ) ;
scanf (“%f ” & eff_m) ;
eff = eff_ h*eff – vol* eff – m;
printf (“/n/n BASIC PARAMETER /n”) ;
printf (“n_s = %g/n”, n_s) ;
printf (“Dn = %f mm/ n”, Dn) ;
printf (“eff_h = %f/n” eff_h) ;
printf (“eff_vol = %f\n”, eff _ vol);
printf (“overall efficiency = %f/n”, eff) ;
n_i = (9.81 * Q * H) / (eff) ;
N_imax = 1.1* N_i ;
printf (“power input Ni = %f KW/n” N_i) ;
printf (“Ni maximum = %f KW/n”, N_imax) ;
/* SHAFT& HUB DIAMETERS * /
T = (N_imax * 60 * 1000) / (2*3.14*n) ;
printf (“Enter the value of Ys in Kgf/sq.mm : ”) ;
scanf (“%f ”, & Ys);
printf (“/n Enter the value of Fs :”) ;
scanf (“f ” & Fs) ;
fs = (YS * 9.81*1000000) / FS ;
tp = (16*T) / (3.14*fs) ;
d_s = pow (double) tp, 0.333 ) ;
d_h = 1.25* d_s ;
printf (“/n SHAFT AND HUB DIAMETER /n”) ;

printf (“T = %f Nm / n”, T) ;
printf (“Shaft diameter d_s = %f m /n”d_s) ;
printf (“Hub diameter d_h = %f m/n”, d_h) ;
fflush (stdin) ;
getch () ;
clrscs () ;
/ * INLET DIMENSIONS * /
Q1_1 = Q/ eff_vo1 ;
/* first approximation * /
printf (“Enter the value of B (0.06 to 0.08) : ” ) ;
scanf (“%f ”, &B) ;
CO = B * pow (Q1_1*n*n), 0.333) ;
temp = (4*Q1_1) / (3.14*CO) ;
DO11 = sqrt (temp) ;
DO12 = sqart (tempt +(d_h*d_h)) ;
printf (“/n/ tDo11 = %f m”, DO11) ;
printf (“/n Enter new DO11 ; ”) ;
scanf (“%f ” & DO11) ;
printf (“/n/tDO12 = %f m” Do12) ;
printf (“/n Enter new DO12 : ”) ;
scanf (“%f ”, & DO12) ;
CO11 = (4* Q1_1) / (3.14 * (DO11* DO11)) ;
CO12 = (4* Q1_1) / (3.14* (DO12*DO12)) ;
printf (“/n Final value of DO12 is : %f m”, DO12) ;
printf (“/n Enter the value of J (0.8 to 1.03) : ” ) ;
scanf (“%f ”, & J) ;
D1 = J * DO12 ;
printf (“/n Enter the value of Km1 ; ” ) ;
scanf (“%f ”, &Km1) ;
Cm1 = Km1 * sqrt (2*g*H) ;
B1 = Q1_1/(3.14*D1*Cm1) ;
U1 = (3.14* D1* n) / 60 ;
temp = Cm1/U1 ;
betal = atan (temp) * (180/3.14) ;
printf (“betal = %f degrees”, betal) ;
printf (“/n Enter the value of dit in m: ”) ;
scanf (“%f ”, &d1t) ;
printf (“/n Enter the value of Z : ” ) ;
scanf (“%f ”, & Z) ;
betal = betal*(3.14/180);
K1 = 1 / (1-(Z*d1t) / (3.14* D1*sin(betal))) ;
Cm11 = K1*Cm1 ;
getch () ;
clrscr () ;
printf (“/n/n INLET DIAMENSIONS /n”) ;
printf (“Q 1_1 = %f m3 /sec / n”, Q 1_1) ;
printf (“DO11 = %f m/n”, DO11) ;
printf (“DO12 = %f m/n”, DO12) ;
printf (“CO = %f m sec/n”, CO) ;
printf (“CO11 = %f m/sec/n”, CO11) ;
printf (“CO12 = %f m/sec/ n”, Cm1) ;
printf (“Cm1 = %f m/sec/n”, Cm1) ;
printf (“B1 = %f m/n”, B1) ;
printf (“U1 = %f m/sec/n”, U1) ;
printf (“D1 = %f m sec/n” D1) ;
printf (“betal = %f degrees /n”, betal* 180/3.14) ;
printf (“K1 = %f /n”, K1) ;
getch () ;
clrscr () ;
print_heading () ;
printf (“%d %s.5f %8.5f %8.5f %8.5f %8.5f/n”,
count, Cm1, tan (betal), betal* (180/3.14), sin (betal), K1) ;
while (( fabs(Cm-Cm11)> 0.001) && (count<10))
{
count++ ;
Cm = Cm11 ;
temp = atan (temp) ; / * in radians * /
t1 = 3.14*D1*sin (betal) ;
K1 = 1/ (1-((Z*d1t) /t1)) ;
printf (“%d %8.5f %8.5f %8.5f %8.5f/n”
count, Cm11, tan (betan), btetal* (180/3.14), sin (betal), K1) ;
Cm11 = K1* Cm1 ;
{;
printf (“%d %8.5f %8.5f %8.5 %8.5f
%8.5f/n” count, Cm11, tan (betal), betal* (180/3.14)), sin (betal), K1) ;
printf (“-------------------------------------------------------- /n”) ;
/* OUTLET DIAMENSIONS * /
H_m = H/eff_h ;
printf (“/n Enter the value of Cu2_dash (0.5 to 0.8) : ”) ;
scanf (“%f ” & Cu2_dash ) ;
U21 = sqrt (g*H_m) / Cu2_dash) ;
D 21 = (60* U21) / (3.4*n) ;
printf (“/n Enter the value of × (0.8 to 0.95) : ” ) ;
scanf (“%f ” & X) ;

Cm21 = × * Cm 11 ;
printf (“/n Enter the value of K2 (1.1 to 1.25) : ”) ;
scant ( “%f, & K2) ;
printf (“/n Enter the value of R = W1 /W2 (1.1 to 1.15) : ”) ;
scanf ( “f ” & R) ;
printf (“/n Final vlue of betal from table : % f degrees / n”, betal* 180/ 3.14) ;
temp = R * × * S in (betal) ;
beta 2 = as in (temp) ;
Z1 = 6.5 * (D2+D1) / (D21-D1) * sin (betal+beta 2) / 2.0) ;
getch () ;
clrscr () ;
printf (“/n/n OUTLET DIMENSIONS : /n” ) ;
printf (“Hm = %6.3 f m/n” H_m) ;
printf (“U21 = % 8.4 f m/sec/n”, U21) ;
printf (“D21 = %f m/n”, D21) ;
printf (“Cm21 = %f m/sec/n”, Cm21) ;
printf (“beta 2 = %f degrees/ n”, beta 2* 180/3.14) ;
printf (“Z1 = %f m/n”, Z1) ;
printf (“Enter the value of Y (0.6 to 0.65) : ”) ;
scanf ( “%f ”, &Y) ;
Si = Y +0.6* sin (beta 2) ;
temp = pow ( (D1/D21), 2.0) ;
p = (2*Si/Z) * (1/ (1-temp) ;
H_inf = (1+p) * H_m ;
printf (“Si = %f / n”, Si) ;
printf (“p = %f / n”, p) ;
printf (“H_inf = %f m/n”, H_inf) ;
/* SECOND APROXIMATION * /
temp = Cm21 / (2* tan (beta 2) ;
U22 = temp + sqrt (temp* temp + (g*H_inf) ) ;
D22 = (60*U22) / (3.14*n) ;
Cm2 = Cm21/K2’
B2 = Q1_1/(3.14* D21* Cm2) ;
K21 = 1/ (1_(Z*dlt) / (3.14* d21* sin (beta2))) ;
printf (“/n/n SECOND APPROXIMATION : /n”) ;
printf (“U22 = %f m/sec/n”, U22) ;
printf (“D22 = %f m/n”, D22) ;
printf (“B2 = %f m/n”, B2) ;
printf (“K21 = %f /n”, K21) ;
getch () ;
clrscr ;
printf (“/n/st/t/ FINAL VALUES /n/n”) ;

printf (“/n/stZ = %f /n”, Z) ;
printf (“/n/tB1 = %f m/n”, B1) ;
printf (“/tB2 = % f m/n”, B2)
printf (“/n/tCm1 = %f m/sec/n”, Cm1) ;
printf (“t Cm2 = %f m/sec/ n”, Cm2) ;
printf (“t DO11 = %f m /n”, DO11) ;
printf (“t DO12 = %f m /n”, DO12) ;
printf (“t D1 = %f m /n”, D1) ;
printf (“t D21 = %f m/n”, D21) ;
printf (“t D22 = %f m/n”, D22) ;
printf (“n/t betal = %f degrees /n”, betal* (180/3.14) ;
printf (“/tbeta 2 = %f degrees /n”, beta 2* (180/3.14) ;
printf (“/tK1 = %f /n”, K1) ;
printf (“/tK21 = %f /n”, K21) ;
impeller () ;
volute_cir () ;
volute () ;
}
/*End of main prgm*/
/* VANE DEVELOPMENT (SINGLE CURVAURE) * /
void impller ()
{
int i ;
count = 1 ;
sdr I = drI = 0,
nn = 7 ;
printf (“/n Enter the no of values (7 to 10) : ”) ;
scanf (“%d”, % nn) ;
printf (“/n Enter the value of rI in m :” ) ;
for (i = 0 ; i <nn ; i ++)
scanf (“%f ”, &rI [i] ;
getch () ;
clrscr () ;
head_impeller () ;
for (i = 0 ; < nn ; i++)
{
sdrI = SdrI + drI ;
drI = rI [i+1]– rI [i] ;
W1 = Cm11/sin (beta2) ;
W2 = Cm21/sin (betal) ;
Cm = Cm1 + (2* (( Cm1–Cm2)/ (D1– D21)) * SdrI) ;
W = W1 + (2* (W1–W2) / (D1– D21) * SdrI) ;

t = (2*3.14* rI [i]) /Z ;
D = d1 t/t ;
temp = cm/w + D ;
beta = as in (temp) ;
F = tan (double) beta) ;
G [i] = 1 (rI [i]* F) ;
B = Q1_1/ (2*3.14* rI [i]* Cm) ;
printf (“/n%1d %6.4f %7.5f %7.4f %7.5% %6.3f %7.5f %7.5%”, count, rI [i]),
SdrI, Cm, W,t, (beta*180/3.14), F,B) ;
count++ ;
}
printf (“/n------------------------------------------------------------------- /n”) ;
getch () ;
clrscr () ;
head_imp1 () ;
SdO = dO = 0 ;
for (i = 0 ; < nn ; i ++)
{
AVgG = (G [i] + G [i+1]) /2 ;
drI = rI [i+1]-rI [i] ;
dO = AVgG * drI ;
printf (“/n %6.2f %5.2f ”, G [i], SdO*180/3.14) ; if (i < nn –1)
printf (“/n/t/t/t %6.2f %5.3f %5.3%f ”, AVgG, drI, dO) ; SdO = SdO + dO ;
}
printf (“/n----------------------------------------------/n”) ; return ;
}
void volute ()
{
int i ;
W = (2*3.14*n) /60 ;
R2 = D21/2 ;
Gby 2pi = (g*H_m) W ;
printf (“/n/mn Enter the value of R3 (1.03 to 1.05) : ”) ;
scanf (“%f ”, & R3) ;
B3 = B2 + 0.05* D21 ;
R3 = R3 * R2 ;
printf (“/n Enter the value for R : ”) ;
for (i = 0; i< 10 ; i ++)
scan f (“% f ”, & nb [i]) ;
print f (“/nEnter the values for B : ”) ;
for (i = 0 ; i < 10 ; i ++)
scanf (“%f ”, &nb [i] ;
printf (“/n/n R3 = %f ”, R3) ;
printf (“/nB3 = %f ”, B3) ;

getch () ;
clrscr () ;
Qi = count = 0 ;
head_volute () ;
for (i =0 ; <10 ; i++)
{
count++ ;
BB [i] = nb [i] /RR [i] ;
BB [i+1] = nb [i+1]/ RR [i+1] ;
dR = RR [i+1]-RR [i] ;
printf (“/n %2d % 6.4f % 6.4f %6.4f/t/t %7.5f ”,
count, RR [i], nb [i], BB [i], Qi) ;
if (i = = 9) ;
{
exit (1) ;
}
AVgG = (BB [i] + BB [i+1] /2 ;
dQ = Gby 2pi * aVgB * dR ;
Q i = Qi + dQ ;
printf (“/n/t/t/ %6.4f %6.4f %7.5f ”, AvgB, dR, dQ) ;
if (i = = 9)
{
getch () ;
clrscr () ;
head_volute () ;
}
}
getch () ;
clrscr () ;
return ;
}
void volute_ cir ()
{
int i ;
count = 0 ;
K = (720 *9.81*H_m*60)/(2*n*Q) ;
printf (“/nk value is : %f ”, K) ;
getch () ;
clrscr () ;
head_volcir () ;
for (i= 0 ; < 9 ; ++0
{
count ++ ;
Qi = (theta [i] * Q )/360 ;
Row (theta [i] /K + sqrt (2 * theta [i] * 0.135)/K) ;
printf (“/n %1d %3d %8.6f %6.4f ”, count, theta [i], Qi, Row) ;
}
getch () ;
return ;
}
void pirt_heading ()
printf (“/n/n”) ;
printf (“--------------------------------------------------------/n) ;
printf (“Sr. No. Cm1 tan (betal) betal sin (betal) Ki /n”) ;
printf (“--------------------------------------------------------/n ”) ;
return ;
}
void head_impeller ()
printf (“n/n/”) ;
printf (“-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------\n”);
printf (“SNo rI SdrI Cm w t beta tan (beta) B\n”);
printf (“------------------------------------------------------------------------------------\ n”);
}
void head _ imp1 ()
printf (“\n\n”)
printf (“-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------/n”) ;
printf (“ G Avg (G) drI do sdo /n”) ;
printf (“------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ /n”) ;
return ;
}
void head_volute ()
printf (“/n Volute Trapezoidal - free vortex /n”) ;
printf (“/n/n ) ;
printf (“-----------------------------------------------------------/n”) ;
printf (“S.no r b B avgB dr dq gi/ n”) ;
printf (“ ------------------------------------------------------- /n”) ;
return ;
} void head_ volcir ()
{
printf (“/n volute circular - free vortex /n”) ;
printf (“/n/n”) ;
printf (“---------------------------------------------------------/n”) ;
printf (“S.no theta qi row /n”) ;
printf (“------------------------------------------------------- /n”) ;
return ;
}
Fig. D1-A1. Pump assembly

18 19 20 Total Head
(H) m
Specification : H = 13.8 m (42 ft)
90 % Efficiency (η) %
Q = 16 lit/sec (210 gpm)

Input (N) kW
η = 1800 rpm
N not to exceed 3.73 kW (5 hp)
British
H-Q 1800 rpm Size : 75 mm × 64 mm
(3 ′′ × 2½ ′′)
3.4
85
17
3.0 3.2
75 80
15 16
H-Q 1600
m
2.8
40
70
14
rp
14
00
00
Q
16
18
2.6
η-
65
13
Q
η-
η-
H-Q 1440
2.4
60
12
2.2
55
11
00
2.0
50
10
18
Q
N-
1.8
45
9
1.6
40
0
1 60
N -Q
1.4
35
m
44 0 rp
1.2
30
Q1
6
N-
1.0
25
5
0.8
20
4
0.6
15
3
0.4
10
2
0.2
5
1
0
0
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Flow Rate (Q) lit/sec
Fig. D1-A2. Performance curves

90
φ
28.3° 0.10
0.00
8P9
1 3 °1 8
′
3 7° 4
8′
59
°4
8′
79
°5
4′
98°
18 ′
Fig. D1-A3. (b) Impeller plan

8
61.6
7
53.9
6
46.2
5
38.5
4
30.8
23.1 3
2
15.4
Detail on volute sactions 148

1
7.7
26
Fig. D1-A4. Volute casing

Fig. D1-A5. Pump photo

Design No. D1-B

DESIGN OF A MULTISTAGE CENTRIFUGAL PUMP
1. Specification
Flow rate Q = 100 m3/hour, Delivery pressure p2 = 75 ata, Suction pressure ps = 4 ata, Pumping
liquid : water at 100°C, Specific weight of water ‘γ’ at 100°C = 958 kg/m3. Pump is run by a turbine at
a speed n between 7300–7800 rpm.
2. Selection of Pump Type

p2 − p1 75 − 4
1. Total head of the pump, Hth = = × 104 = 741 m.
γ 958
2. Selecting the speed ‘n’ as 7500 rpm.
2/3
 100 
Head per stage is : H/Stage = 0.0165n4/3 Q2/3 = 0.0165 . 75004/3 ×   = 220 m.
 3600 
741
3. Number stages, Zst = = 3.21.
220
741
Taking number of stage, Zst = 3, H/Stage = = 247 m.
3
3.65n Q 3.65 × 7500 0.0278

4. Specific speed, ns = = = 74
H 3/ 4 (247)3 / 4
It is a radial type centrifugal pump.
5. Taking cavitational specific speed, C = 800
5.62n Q 5.62 × 7500 × 0.0278

C= = = 800
( H SV ) 3/ 4
( H SV )3 / 4
5.62 × 7500 × 0.0278

(HSV)3/4 = = 8.78 m.
800
HSV = (8.78)4/3 = 18.126 m.
pvp
Vapour pressure at 100°C for water = 1.03 ata.Taking hfs= 4 m,
γ
and hs= 0 m Flooded Suction
and Flow veocity at inlet C = 8 m/s
p1 − pvp  C12 
 h
– s + h + 
(HSV) nett = 2 g 
fs
γ 
 4 − 1.03 82 
=  × 104 − 0 − 4 –  = 23.175 m.
 958 2 × 9.81 
(HSV) nett > HSV. So, the pump will be safe against cavitation at this speed and all elements of all 3
stages can be designed identically.
3. Basic Parameters
3
Q 3
0.0278
6. Nominal diameter at inlet, Dinom = 4.25 × 103 = 4.25 × 103 × = 98 mm.
n 7500
0.42 0.42
7. Hydraulic efficiency, ηh = 1 – = 1 – = 0.854.
(lgDinom − 0.172) 2 (log 98 − 0.172) 2
1 1
8. Volumetric efficiency, ηv = −2 / 3 = = 0.96.
1 + 0.68ns 1 + 0.68 (74) – 2 / 3
However, ηv = 0.90 due to high temperature pumping and 3 stages of pumping.
9. Overall efficiency η from the figure for nS = 74 and D0 = 98 mm, η = 0.78.
γQH 9.81 × 958 × 0.0278 × 741
10. Power, Ni = = = 248.2 kW
η 1000 × 0.78
Taking 15% extra to allow for overloading, Input power Ni = 1.15 × 248.2 = 285.5 kW
Final value of Ni = 290 kW.
11. Shaft Diameter (dS)
Taking material for shaft as SS 316, ultimate strength = 40.4 N/mm2
Due to high temperature of operation, factor of safety is taken as 4.
Working stress is
40.4
= = 10.1 N/mm2
4
60 N 60 × 290 × 1000
Torque T = = = 369.2395 N.m.
2πn 2 × π × 7500
3
16T 16 × 369.2395
dS = = 3 = 0.057 m = 57 mm, taken as 60 mm
πf S π × 10.1 × 106
12. Impeller hub diameter at inlet (dh)
dh = 1.3 dS = 1.3 × 60 = 78 mm can be taken as 80 mm dh = 80 mm.
Q 0.0278
13. Theoretical quantity, Qth = = = 0.03062 m3/s
ηv 0.90
3 2
14. Velocity of water at impeller eye, C0 = 0.06 3 Qth n 2 = 0.07 0.03062(7500) = 8.39 m/sec.
4Qth 4 × 0.03062
15. Impeller eye diameter, D0 = + d h2 = + (0.08)2 = 105.1 mm can be taken
πC0 π × 8.39
as 105 mm.
4. Inlet Dimensions
16. Inlet diameter D1 is taken as D1 = 110 mm.
πD1n π × 0.11 × 7500
u1 = = = 43 m/sec.
60 60
17. Taking flow velocity before the inlet edge of the blade C0m is equal to flow velocity at impeller
eye C0 = 8.39 m/s and coefficient of contraction at inlet due to blade thickness K1 = 1.5. Flow
velocity at inlet Cm1 = K1 × C0m = 1.5 × 8.39 = 12.585 m/sec.
18. Taking normal entry at inlet. Blade angle at inlet β1
 Cm1 12.585 
β1 = Arc tan  = = 0.2927  = 16.3°.
 u1 43 
Taking angle of attack at inlet ∆β1 = 8.7° β1 = 16.3 + 8.7 = 25°.
19. Check up for K1
1 1
K1 = = = 1.489
Zδ  8 × 0.06 
1− 1− 
πD1 sin β1  π × 0.11 × sin 25° 
Cm1 12.585
Relative velocity at inlet w1 = = = 29.78 m/s.
sin β1 sin 25
Qth 0.3062
20. Inlet breadth, b1 = πD C = = 0.01018 m or 10.18 mm; but taken as 11 mm.
1 0m π × 0.11 × 8.39
Final values : Cm0 = 8.39 m/s, K1 = 1.5, Cm1 = 12.585 m/s, w1 = 29.78 m/s, β1 = 25°, D1 = 110
mm b1 = 11 mm.
5. Outlet Dimensions
H 247
21. Hm = η = = 289.2 ≈ 290 mm.
h 0.854
 Cu 2 
22. Taking Cu 2 =   = 0.5 coefficient of reaction ρ = 1– 1 Cu 2 = 1 – 1 × 0.5 = 0.75
 2 
u 2 2
Cu 2 u 22 0.5u 2 0.5 × u 2 9.81
Hm = = .290 = .u= . 290 = 75.43 mps.
g g 9.81 0.5
60u2 60 × 75.43
D2 = = = 0.1921≈ 192 mm
πn π × 7500
w1
Taking = 1.15 K2 = 1.27 Cm3 = 0.9 Cm0 = 0.9 × 8.39 = 7.551 m/s,
w2
Cm2 = K2 Cm3 = 1.27 × 7.551 = 9.5898 m /sec.
w1 K Cm3 1.27
23. sin β2 = sin β1 = 2 = sin 25° × 1.15 × × 0.9 = 0.3703
w2 K1 Cm 0 1.1
β2 = 21.74° ≈ 22°.
D2 + D1 (β 2 +β1 ) 0.192 + 0.110° (25 + 22)
24. Z = 6.5 sin = 6.5 × × sin = 9.46
D2 − D1 2 0.192 − 0.110° 2
However, number of impeller blades Z1 is taken as 8.
25. ψ = 0.65 + 0.6 sin β2 = 0.65 + 0.6 sin 22° = 0.8748.
2ψ 1 2 × 0.8748 1
26. p = ⋅ 2
= ⋅ 2 = 0.3256
Z D  8  110 
1−  1  1− 
 D2   192 
27. Hth = (1 + p) Hm = (1.3256) 290 = 384.4 m.

2
Cm 2  Cm 2 
28. u2 =
2 tan β2
±   + gH th .
 2 tan π2 
2
 9.5898   9.58987 
=   +   + 9.81 × 384.4 = 74.41 mps .
 2 tan 22   2 tan 22 
60u2 60 × 74.41
29. D2 = = π× = 0.190 m, but final diameter D2 is taken as 192 mm.
πn 7500
Q 0.03062
30. Breadth, b2 = πD C = = 6.723 ×10–3 m = 7 mm.
2 m3 π × 0.192 × 7.551
Check up:
w1 29.78
w2 = = = 25.8957 m/s
1.15 1.15
Cm3 = 0.9 Cm0 = 0.9 × 8.39 = 7.551
Cm2 = K2 × Cm3 = 1.27 × 7.551 = 9.5898 m/s
Cm 2 9.5898
sin β2 = = = 0.3703
w2 25.8957
β2 = 21.74° ≈ 22°
1 1
K2 = = 8 × 0.006 = 1.27.
Zδ 1−
1−
πD2 sin β2 π × 0.192 × sin 22
6. Leakage Through the Suction Side Wearing Ring
Hp
31. ρ =
H m or Hp = ρ Hm = 0.75 × 290 = 217.5 m.
This pressure prevails at the outlet of the first stage impeller (point J in Fig. D1B-1). Taking
wearing ring diameter D1 = 120 mm (i.e., thickness is 7.5 mm), pressure head at the entrance
of wearing ring at suction side when liquid passes through the passage between the front
shroud of the impeller and suction side casing.
ω2 2
32. Hi = Hp – (r2 – ri2 )
8g
(2π × 7500)2   0.192  −  0.120  

2 2
   
602 × 8 × 9.81   2   2  
= 217.5 –
= 217.5 – 44.14 = 173.36 m.
Taking simple straight type wearing ring where in the length of the wearing ring is li = 40 mm
and clearance is bi = 0.2 mm and frictional coefficient for the flow through the clearance λs=
0.065, the coefficient of discharge.
1 1
33. µS = = 0.3536.
li 0.065 × 0.04
λ1 + 1.5 + 1.5
2bi 2 × 0.0002
34. Leakage flow through the wearing ring clearance at suction end (HS = 4 ata = 4 × 10.366
= 41.344 m).
qS = µS . 2 π ri bi 2 g ( H i − H s )
= 0.3536 × 2 × π × 0.06 × 0.0002 × 2 × 9.81 × (173.36 − 41.344)

= 1.3569 × 10–3 m3/s = 1.3569 lit/s = 4.89 m3/hr.
7. Leakage Through the Shaft Bush Clearance between First Stage and Second
Stage Impellers
35. Total head at point G, HG = H1 = 247 m.
ω2 2 2
Total head at point F, HF = Hp – (r 2 – r h)
8g
2
 2π × 7500  1
= 217.5 –   8 × 9.81 (0.097 – 0.04 )
2 2
 60 
= 217.5 – 59.86 = 157.64 m.
Pressure drop, ∆H = HG – HF = 247 – 157.64 = 89.3615 m

Taking clearance between shaft and bush bearing bis = 0.2 mm and length of bush bearing
lis = 40 mm and λ2 = 0.065.
1 1
36. µ2= = = 0.3535
l2 40
λ2 + 1.5 0.065 + 1.5
2b2 2 × 0.2
37. q2 = µ2 2π r1S b2 2g ∆H 2
= 0.3535 × 2 × π × 0.04 × 0.0002 × 2 × 9.81 × 89.3615

= 0.7441 × 10–3 m3/s or 0.74.41 l/s = 2.68 m3/h.
8. Determination Balancing Disc Dimensions

38. Total Axial force by 3 Impellers p1
  2 r12 + rh2  ω2 
F 1 = γ π (ri2 – rh2 )  H p –  r2 – 
  2  2 g 
  0.062 + 0.042   2 × π × 7500  

2
1
= 985 × π (0.062 – 0.042) (217.5 × 3) −  0.097 −   8 × 9.81
2
 
  2  60 
= 3716.45 kg = 36458.35 N.
39. Taking, allowable pressure in the disc, pd = 20 kg/ cm2
F1 3716.45
π (R2d – rd2 ) = = = 185.82 cm2
pd 20
Taking, rd = rh +10 = 40 + 10 = 50 mm.
π (Rd2 – 52 ) = 185.82
185.82
Rd = + 52 = 9.17 cm. ≈ 90 mm
π
Ld = 90 – 50 = 40 mm.
Taking radial clearances between shaft hub and casing after the last stage of the impeller
S1 = 0.25 mm, length of the clearance L1 = 100 mm and the axial clearance between stationary
and rotating balancing disc S2 = 0.2 mm and taking λ3 = λ4 = 0.065.
1 1
40. Coefficient of flow µ3 for the bush bearing = = = 0.26
l1 100
λ3 + 1.5 0.065 + 1.5
2 S1 2 × 0.25
li J A E
S2 C
bi
L2
Rg
l
F G
r2
rBm
δ
B X
ri
rg
S1
rBm
L1
Fig. D1B-1. Balancing disc
1 1
41. Coefficient of flow, µ4 = = = 0.3535
ld 40
λ4 + 1.5 0.065 + 1.5
2S2 2 × 0.2
42. Total head at the delivery end of last stage of impeller (point A)
pS 4
HA = (H1 + H2 + Hp ) – = 247 + 247 + 217.5 – = 707 m.
γ 0.958
43. Total head (at point B) before the shaft bush
ω2 2 2
HB = HA – (r – r )
8g 2 h
2
 2 × π×7500  1
44. HB = 707 –   (0.0972 – 0.042) = 647.14 m.
 60  8 × 9.81
Flow through the clearance in balancing disc S2 and the flow through the clearance in the
bush S1 are equal i.e.,
45. q3 = µ3 2 πrh S1 2 gH B – H X = µ4 .2π rd S2 2 g ( H X − H E )
HB − H X µ4 . 2πrd S2 0.3535 × 0.05 × 0.0002

∴ = µ3 2πrh S1 = 0.26 × 0.04 × 0.00025 = 1.3596
H X − HE
(HB – HX ) = 1.8486 (HX – HE)

HB + HE = 2.8486HX .
Pressure at the balancing chamber C is equal to the sum of the suction pressure and frictional
losses in the connecting pipe between chamber C and impeller eye. Normally pipe size will be
25 mm to 40 mm to reduce the frictional losses. Since, the flow through the pipe is very small
about 1 to 1.5 lit/sec and the pipe size is very large, flow velocity is connecting pipe will be
negligibly small. Taking frictional losses to be 1 to 2 m, which can be verified afterwards, and
4 × 104
taking hf = 2 m, Total head at the balancing chamber HE = + 2 = 43.75 m.
958
Substituting this value in the above equation
647.14 + 43.75
HX = = 242.5406 m.
2.8486
∴ q3 = µ3 × 2 π rh × S1 2 g ( H B − H X )
= 0.26 × 2 × π × 0.04 × 0.00025 × 2 × 9.81(647.14 − 242.54)

= 1.4555 × 10–3 m3/sec = 1.4555 l/s = 5.24 m3/hr.
46. Taking length of the connecting pipe lp = 3 m, diameter dp = 25 mm and f = 0.015.
fLQ 2 .16
hf =
2 gπ 2 d 5
0.015 × 1.46 × 1.46 × 3

= = 0.51 m.
1000 × 1000 × π2 × (0.025)5 × 2 × 9.81
which indicates that the assumption is safe.
100
47. Volumetric efficiency = = 90.8% which is also safe.
100 + (1.3569 + 1.4555) × 3600
1000
9. Axial Thrust due to Centrifugal Force created due to the Turning of Liquid at
Impeller Inlet
49. Reaction due to the turning force developed due to centrifugal force in one impeller
γQth 958 × 0.03062 × 8.39
F21 = .C0 = = 25 kg.
g 9.81
For 3 impeller F2 = 25 × 3 = 75 kg.
50 Additional axial force due to wear in the wearing ring at suction side
u22  r 22 r 22 r 22 + r 21 
F3 = π (r22 r12 )γ  2 ln + − 2
– 
 r2 − r1
2 2 2
8g r1 2r 1 
958 × 74.892
= π (0.0962 – 0.062)
8 × 9.81
 0.0962  0.096 
2
0.0962 + 0.062 
 ln   + − 2  = 1598 kg.
 
 0.096 − 0.06  0.06  2 × 0.062
2 2

Total axial force = 3716.45 + 1598 – 75 = 5239 kg.
TABLE D1B-1: Vane development
r b C′m w t δ sin β
Q Cm δ Cm δ
S.No. m m = mps m m = +
2πrb w t w t
1 0.055 0.011 8.39 29.78 0.2817 0.0432 0.006 0.1389 0.4206
2 0.06 0.010 8.290 29.32 0.2827 0.0471 0.006 0.1274 0.4101
3 0.07 0.009 8.0903 28.396 0.2849 0.055 0.006 0.1091 0.3940
4 0.08 0.0077 7.8906 27.47 0.2872 0.0628 0.006 0.0955 0.3828
5 0.09 0.0074 7.6907 26.548 0.2897 0.0707 0.006 0.0849 0.3746
6 0.096 0.006 7.551 25.896 0.2916 0.0762 0.006 0.0787 0.3702
1 Bi +Bi + 1
β° tan β Bi = =x ∆S ∆θ c = x × ∆s θ
r tan β2 2
rad deg
25° 0.4636 39.22 0 0

38.14 0.005 0.1907
24.2° 0.4497 37.06 0.1907 10.93°
35.19 0.01 0.3519
23.2° 0.4287 33.32 0.5426 31.09°
31.75 0.01 0.3175
22.5° 0.4143 30.17 0.8601 49.28°
28.84 0.01 0.2884
22° 0.4040 27.5 1.1485 65.8°
26.68 0.006 0.16
21.74° 0.3986 25.86 1.3086 74.98°
403
10. Design of Diffuser

51. Flow rate ‘Q’ through the diffuser
Q = Q + q2 + q3 = 100 + 2.68 + 5.24 = 107.92 m3/hr.
52. Radius of the inlet edge of the diffuser r4 = r2 + 3 mm = 96 + 3 = 99 mm.
53. Flow velocity at the inlet of the
diffuser is taken as equal to the flow Cm2
velocity at the impeller exit after the
blade. C m3
Cm4 = Cm3 = 7.3376 m/s.
54. Tangential component, rα ==7.4
7.4
αr22 33
Cm 2 C u4 = C u3 = C u2
Cu4 = Cu3 = Cu2 = u2 –
tan β 2
π × 0.192 × 7500 0.9 × 9.226

= – = 75.3 – 18.3874 = 57.0108 m/sec
60 tan 24.31°
Cm 4 7.3376
tan α3 = = = 0.1287 α3 = 7.4°
Cu 4 57.0108
55. Taking unevenness in the velocity distribution at the inlet of the diffuser µ = 1. Diffuser blade
thickness δ4 = 6 mm, No of diffuser blades zd = 5. Blade angle at the inlet of the diffuser α4 will
be
δ4
tan α4 = µ tan α3 + 1 + µ 2 tan 2 α3
t4
6×5
π × 198 1 + 1 × 0.1287
= 1 × 0.1287 + 2
= 0.1773 α4 = 10.05 ≈ 11°

56. Since initial portion of the diffuser must be a logarithmic spiral
tan α 4 0.1773
log ri = θ° + log r4 = ri + log 99 = 0.00134θ° + 1.995
132 132
TABLE D1B-2: Development of diffuser vane
θ i° 0 15 30 45 60 75
0.00134θ°i 0 0.0201 0.0402 0.0603 0.0804 0.1005
log ri 1.995 2.0151 2.0352 2.0553 2.0754 2.0955
r1 mm 99 103.6 108.5 113.6 119 126

57. Width of the diffuser passage at inlet a4
r4  π sin 2α4 
a4 =  e zd − 1 – S4
cos α 4  
99  
π sin 22
=  e 5 –1 – 6 = 20.76 ≈ 21 mm.
cos11  
 
58. Width of the diffuser passage in axial direction b4
b4 = 1.75 × b2 = 1.75 × 7 = 12.25 ≈ 13 mm
For best efficiency condition a4 = b4 . In this design, this is not possible since in order to
achieve, number of diffuser blades must be increased, which will increase hydraulic loss.
59. Taking outlet velocity at diffuser C5 = 12.5 m/s and b4 = b5 = 13 mm, width of the canal at
diffuser outlet a4
Qth 107.92 × 1000
a4 = = = 36.89 ≈ 39 mm
Z1c5b5 3600 × 5 × 12.5 × 0.013
11. Return Passage

60. Return passage is constructed in such a way that the velocity C5 gradually reduces to C0, when
the liquid reaches the impeller eye area of the next stage. Taking the axial width b in the return
passage remains constant throughout i.e., b5 = br = 13 mm and taking a = 45 mm at radius R
= 136 mm. Velocity C will be
0.03
C= = 10.26 m/sec.
5 × 0.013 × 0.045
61. External radius of the diffuser
r5 = 1.62 r4 = 1.62 × 99 ≈ 160 mm.
The diffuser and return passage is in the Fig. D1B-6.
12. Mechanical Loss

Taking Rd = r2, Loss of power due to friction in impeller and balancing disc.
62. Nr = 4 × 0.97 × 10–3 × ν0.2 ρ r24.6 ω2.8 × 0.746
= 4 × 0.97 × 10–3 (0.27 × 10–6)0.2 = 97.5 × 0.0954.6 × 7852.8 × 0.746
=34.7 kW.
Taking pressure before the stuffing box pSB = 0.6 kgf/cm2, length lSB = 9 cm, coefficient of
friction f = 0.01, loss in stuffing box.
2πfr 2SB lSB ωpSB 2 × π × 0.01 × 32 × 9 × 785 × 6 × 0.746

63. NSB = × 0.746 = 2.4 kW.
7500 7500
64. Loss of friction due to shaft rotation in water is taken as 2.4 kW. Total mechanical losses =
34.7 + 2.4 + 2.4 = 39.5 ≈ 40 kW.
Fig. D1B-2. Multistage pump for hot water pumping
γ
192 φ
180 φ
160 φ
140 φ
130 φ
120 φ
11
φ 105
φ110
φ 80
Fig. D1B-3. Impeller meridional section

w
30 w
Cm
ϕ°
100 25 10
9
80 20 8
Cm
7
60 15 6
40 10 4
s 2 = 2 mm
s = 5 mm
20 5 2
1
r
ri = 55 61 68 75 82 89 r2 = 95
Fig. D1B-4. Impeller parameters distribution along the blade

2
t2 = 7
4 ,5
5
R6
R5 R4
10
φ1
2 0
φ1
30
φ1
φ1 1 40
60
,2
80
43
φ1 1 9 2
=
X
φ
t1
X
X
X X
R3 X
R2
°
49 .28°
65 .80 °
R1
7 4 .9 7
31.0 9°
10 .93 °
Fig. D1B-5. Vane development in plan

R1 = 18φ
17.5 φ
8.5 φ
17 φ 9φ
16.5 φ 9.5
10 φ
10.5
15φ 11 φ
11.5
14φ 12 φ
13φ
r
12φ
R R1 R2
0 12 12
42.5 13 11.5
45 14 11
47.5 15 10.5
11.5°
50 16.5 10
52.5 17 9.5
55 17.5 9
57.5 18 8.5
Fig. D1B-6. Impeller passage check up method
34
,3
24
a 4=
45
r = 12 8
r =1,5
1 8
12 11
r= = 15 5
R =1
R= r 11
=
φ 32
13
6 R 109
0 r=
04
75
r=1
°
60
φ 19
° 45° 30°
8 r = 99
15°
Fig. D1B-7. Vaned diffuser and return guide vane passages

Design No. D2
SPIRAL CASING DESIGN
Available Data for the Impeller
D1 = 80 mm b1 = 18.5 mm β1 = 37° H = 13.73 m ηh = 0.85
D2= 238 mm b2 = 8.5 mm β2 = 24° n = 1430 rpm Q = 0.01403 m3/sec
2πn 2 × π × 1430
Pipe size 76 mm (3′′) × 65 mm ( 2½′′ ) ω= = = 149.75 rad/sec
60 60
H 13.73
Hm = = = 16.16 m
ηh 0.85
3.65n Q 3.65 × 1430 0.01403

nS = = = 87
(H ) 3/ 4
(13.73)3 / 4
D3 = 1.04 D2 = 1.04 × 238 = 248 mm
b3 = b2 + 0.05 D2 = 85 + 0.05 × 238 = 8.5 + 11.9 = 20.4 ≈ 21 mm
TABLE D2-1 : Free vortex Cur = Constant circular cross-section

720πg H m 720 × π × 9.81 × 16.16
K= . = = 170674.34
ω Q 149.75 × 0.01403
θ θ
θ ° (deg) (m) 2r3 ρ mm a3 = ρ + r3 mm
K K
0 0 0 0 124
45° 2.637 × 10–4 8.086 × 10–3 8.35 ≈ 8.5 132.35
90° 5.273 × 10–4 0.01144 11.96 ≈12 135.96
135° 7.910 ×10–4 0.01401 14.79 ≈ 15 138.79
180° 10.546 × 10–4 0.01617 17.23 ≈ 17.5 141.23
225° 13.183 × 10–4 0.01810 19.4 ≈ 19.5 143.4
270° 15.82 × 10-4 0.01981 21.4 ≈ 21.5 145.4
315° 18.456 ×10–4 0.02140 23.25 ≈ 23.5 147.25
360° 21.093 × 10–4 0.02285 24.96 ≈ 25 148.96

C ur = constant (free vortex)

circular cross-section
φ 50 dia
47 φ
43 φ
39 φ
35 φ
30 φ
24 φ
17 φ
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
D 3 = φ 248 dia
b 3 = 21
Detail of volute sections 1 to 8
Fig. D2-1. Volute cross-sections
TABLE D2-2 : Constant velocity CV = constant and circular cross-section

From the Fig. (5.5) velocity coefficient φV for volute (constant throughout) for nS = 87 φV = 0.42.
Flow velocity in volute cross-sections, CV = φV 2gH = 0.42 2 × 9.81 × 13.73 = 6.9 mps.
Qθ m3/sec Area A m2 radius ρ mm a3 = ρ + r3 mm
0 0 0 124
1.754×10–3 2.55 × 10–4 9.0 133
3.508× 10–3 5.1 ×10–4 12.75 ≈ 13 136.75
5.262 × 10–3 7.65 × 10–4 15.6 ≈ 16 139.6
7.015 × 10–3 10.2 × 10–4 18.0 142
8.769 × 10–3 12.75 × 10–4 20.15 ≈ 20.5 144.15
10.523 × 10-3 15.3 × 10–4 22.05 ≈ 22.5 146.05
12.277 × 10–3 17.85 × 10–4 23.85 ≈ 24 147.85
14.03 × 10–3 20.4 ×10–4 25.5 149.5

Constant velocity C v = constant

circular cross-section
48 φ
51φ
45 φ
41 φ
36 φ
32 φ
26 φ
18 φ
D 3 = 248 mm φ
b 3 = 21mm
Detail of volute sections 1 to 8
Fig. D2-2. Volute cross-sections
D2-A. Spiral Casing Design under Cur = Constant and Trapezoidal Cross-
Section
Data : Q = 150 m3/hr = 0.0417 m3/sec, H = 18 m, ηh = 0.91
n = 1450 rpm , D2 = 260 mm, b2 = 25 mm
2πn 2 × π × 1450
ω= = = 152 rad/sec.
60 60
H 18 Γ gH m 9.81 × 19.78
Hm = = = 19.78 m, = = = 1.27 m2/sec.
ηh 0.91 2π ω 152
r3 = (1.03 to 1.05) r2 = 1.04 × 130 = 135.2 taken as 135 mm

b3 = b3 + 0.05 D2 = 25 + 0.05 × 260 = 38 mm.
ΓC Bi + B1 + 1
∆Q = × ∆ r m2/sec.
2π 2
TABLE D2-3
b Bi + Bi +1 ∆Q = Q=
Point No: r mm b mm Bi = =x ∆r
r 2 x × ∆r Σ∆Q
1. 135 38 0.281 0
0.276 0.005 0.00175
2. 140 38 0.271 0.00175
0.280 0.005 0.00178
3. 145 42 0.290 0.00353
0.298 0.005 0.00189
4. 150 46 0.307 0.00542
0.315 0.005 0.00200
5. 155 50 0.323 0.00742
0.330 0.005 0.00210
6. 160 54 0.338 0.00952
0.345 0.005 0.00219
7. 165 58 0.352 0.01171
0.358 0.005 0.00227
8. 170 62 0.365 0.01398
0.371 0.005 0.00236
9. 175 66 0.377 0.01634
0.383 0.005 0.00243
10. 180 70 0.389 0.01871
0.395 0.005 0.00251
11. 185 74 0.400 0.02128
0.405 0.005 0.00257
12. 190 78 0.411 0.02385
0.416 0.005 0.00264
13. 195 82 0.421 0.02649
0.425 0.005 0.00270
14. 200 86 0.430 0.02919
0.435 0.005 0.00276
15. 205 90 0.439 0.03195
0.444 0.005 0.00282
16. 210 94 0.448 0.03477
0.452 0.005 0.00287
17. 215 98 0.456 0.03764
0.455 0.005 0.00289
18. 220 100 0.455 0.04053
0.450 0.005 0.00286
19. 225 100 0.444 0.04339
Q 0.05
0.04
Q360° = 0.0417 m 3/sec

0.03
Q270° = 0.03128
Q360° = 0.047
Fig. D2-3. Volute design Cur = constant trapezoidal cross-section

Q 360°
Q 180° = 0.03128
0.02
0.01
170
225 mm
Q90° = 0.001043m /sec
160
150
140
130
r
220
210
200
190
180
3
r360° = 228 mm
r270° = 212 mm
r180° = 192 mm
r90° = 172 mm
∆r = 5 mm
38 mm
++
=
–
r3 = 135 mm
volute tongue
++
Diffuser part of volute: Outer radius at r90° = 173 mm. For easy assembly of pipe with the
delivery flange, the height of delivery flange must be well above the height of casing at r90° (see Fig. D2-
4) i.e., length of the diffuser past of spiral casing (L) should be well above the volute L > r for Q90 +
metal thickness (δ).
Delivery flange thickness = 10 mm

r90 = 172 mm δ = 8 mm
Dd
10
150 mm
δ = 8 mm
r90 r3
Q 360
r4
r4 r360
X
Fig. D2-4
Taking the distance between bottom side of the delivery flange and the outer side of the casing as
150 mm. Diffuser length, L = 172 + 8 + 150 + 10 = 340 mm.
The distance X = (r360° – r4) = 228 – 140 = 88 mm.
Assuming delivery velocity, Cd = 4 mps. (4 to 5 mps).
Q 0.0417
Ad = = = 0.01043 m2
Cd 4.0
4 Ad 4 × 0.01043
pipe dia dd= = = 115 mm.
π π
4Q 4 × 0.0417
But nearest standard pipe size available is 127 mm and Cd = 2 = = 3.2 m/sec and
πd d π × 0.127 2
for pipe size of dd = 102 mm Cd = 5.10 m/sec.
(d d − X ) 127 − 88
Angle of divergence for Ist pipe tan ε° = = = 0.0574 ε° = 3.3°; for the second
2L 2 × 340
102 − 88
pipe is tan ε° = = 0.0206 and ε° = 1.2°. Since, ε° value is less than allowable value (4° to 5°),
2 × 340
anyone of the pipes can be used.
D2-B. Spiral Casing Design with CV = Constant and Trapezoidal Cross-section

Given, Q = 150 m3/sec = 0.0417 m3/sec, H = 18 m, ηh = 0.91
n= 1450 rpm, D2 = 260 mm, b2 = 25 mm.
H 18
Hm – = = 19.78 m
ηh 0.91
3.65 × 1450 0.0417

nS = ≈ 124
(18)3 / 4
From the graph (Figs. 5.7 and 5.8) for nS = 124 the velocity coefficient.
φ V = 0.32 to 0.34, CV = 0.32 to 0.34 2 × 9.81 × 18 = 6.01 to 6.39 m/sec.
CV is taken as 6.2 mps. The angle of divergence for volute α = 45° selected (range is 35° to 45°)
Q360 = Q = 0.0417 m3/sec.
r3 = (1.03 to 1.05), r2 is taken as 1.04 × 130 = 135.2 ≈ 135 mm.
b3 = b2 + (0.05 D2) = 25 + 0.05 × 260 = 38 mm.
Width at the tongue of the volute is b4 = b3 = 38 mm.
Q360
TABLE D2-4: Determination Qθ, the flow at different angles θ, Qθ = × θ0
360
Q360
S. No. Angle θ Qθ =
360
1 0 0
2 45 0.00521
3 90 0.01043
4 135 0.01564
5 180 0.02085
6 225 0.02606
7 270 0.03127
8 315 0.03648
9 360 0.0417
TABLE D2-5: Construction of volute area under CV = constant
CV = φ v 2 gHV = 6.2 mps, b3 = 38 mm = b4 , R4 = R3 + 5 = 140 mm
α  α 
S. No. h mm a0 = 2hθ tan + b3 Aθ = hθ  hθ tan + b3  Qθ = Aθ × CV m3/sec.
2  2 
1 10 46.28 421.42 2.6128 × 10–3

2 20 54.57 925.68 5.7392 × 10–3
3 30 62.85 1512.78 9.3792 × 10–3
4 40 71.14 2182.72 0.01353
5 50 79.42 2935.50 0.01820
6 60 87.70 3771.12 0.02338
7 70 95.99 4689.58 0.02908
8 80 104.27 5690.80 0.03528
9 90 112.56 6775.02 0.04201
Diffuser part of volute casing will be same as that of previously designed for Cu r constant design.
416
Sketch of the spiral casing design C v = constant
Trapezoidal cross-section
h, a a
120 mm
110 b h
α
100 )
only
ck up
c he
for a
a θ(
+
+
h
+
+

–
–
1 1 3 1 5 3 7
Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q
Tongue 8 4 8 2 8 4 8
Q Q Q Q Q Q Q Q
45 90 135 180 225 270 315 360
Q 360
Q 360
Fig. D2-5. Volute design—constant velocity and trapezoidal cross-section

D2-C. Design of Suction Volute

π π
Area at section, 9 – A9 = (D02 – D2h ) = (0.1582 – 0.072) = 0.0158 m2
4 4
Area at section, 8 – A8 = 0.59 A9 = 0.0079 m2
3
Area at section, 6 – A6 = A = 0.0059 m2
8 9
a 2
b 4
0
6 9
b R8
a 8 R9
10
A9 = 0.0158m2 R9 = 0.32 m, A8 = 0.0079m2 R8 = 0.2133m A6 = 0.0059m2

A4 = 0.00395 m2 R4 = 0.16m A2 = 0.00198 m2 Tongue R0 = 0.11 to 0.13m
Fig. D2-6. Suction volute
From Figs. 5.7 and 5.8, kVS = 3.7, mSV = 0.16
D0 0.158
R8 = (kVS – 1) = (3.7 – 1) = 0.2133 m
2 2
R9 = 1.5 R8 = 1.5 × 0.2133 = 0.32 m
R4 = 0.75 R8 = 0.75 × 0.2133 = 0.16 m
Tongue, R0 = (0.5 to 0.6) R8 = (0.5 to 0.6) 0.2133 = 0.11 to 0.13 m
Velocity of liquid in suction volute, CVS = mSV 2 gH = 0.16 2 × 9.81 × 8 = 3 m/sec.

Design No. D3
DESIGN OF AXIAL FLOW PUMP
As per Prof. Voznisenki’s method, Distribution of circulation Γ over the camber line (or mean line)
of the profile, which is in the form of an arc of circle.
Pump Specification
1. Total head, (H) = 3.66 m (12 ft), Flow rate, (Q) : 136.8 lit/sec (1800 gpm) speed 1440 rpm.
Recommended power 7.5 kW (10 hp British). Pipe size 250 mm × 250 mm (10′′ × 10′′)
3.65n Q 3.65 × 1440 × 0.1368

2. Specific Speed, nS = = ≈ 735 i.e., Axial flow pump.
H 3/ 4
(3.66)3 / 4
3. Impeller eye velocity, C0= 0.07 3

Qn 2 = 0.07 3
0.1368 × (1440)2 = 4.6 m/sec.
_ d
4. From figure 10.41, for nS = 735 hub ratio d = h = 0.5
D
5. Outer diameter of impeller, D0
4Q 4 × 0.1368
( )C
D0 = = = 0.226 m or 226 mm.
π 1− d 2
0 π(1 − 0.52 ) 4.6
_
6. Hub diameter, dh = d × D0 = 0.5 × 0.226 = 0.113 m or 113 mm.
H 3.66
7. Unit head, KH = 2 2 = 2 = 0.125
n D  1440 
 × (0.226)
2

 60 
From figure 10.40, for ns = 735 (KH )opt = 0.125
Q 0.1368
8. Unit quantity, KQ = = = 0.493.
nD 3  1440  3
  (0.226)
 60 
Referring to Figs. 10.47 and 10.48, for KH = 0.125 and for KQ = 0.493. ηh = 0.83
9. Selection of streamlines
dn 113
rI = + 0.02 D0 = + 0.02 × 226 = 61 mm
2 2
rI + rIII 85 + 61
rII = = = 73 mm
2 2
rI + rV 109 + 61
rIII = = = 85 mm
2 2
rIII + rV 109 + 85
rIV = = = 97 mm
2 2
D0 226
rV = – 0.02 D0 = + 0.02 × 220 = 109 mm.
2 2
 l
TABLE D3-1: Selection of   for impeller
 t
S. No. Details/Section I V
1 radius mm 61 109
2* C0 (m/sec) 4.6 4.6

πDn
3 u= (m/sec) 9.2 16.42
60
 C0 
4 β1 = Arc tan   deg 26.6° 15.7°
 u 
 gH 
5 Cu2 =   m/sec 4.7 2.64
 ηh u 
 C0 
6 β2 = Arc tan   deg 45.7° 18.5°
 u − Cu 2 
7 ∆β = (β2 – β1 ) 19.1° 2.8°
l 
8***   for 0.8 ∆β*** = from Howell 2.0
t 
(Fig. 10.34)
l
9**   from Papir (Fig. 10.43) 0.76
t peri
*Co is assumed as constant for all 5 sections.

l
** for other sections are selected to have uniform variation between section I and section V
t
 l  l  l
  = 1.43,   = 1.11,   = 0.89.
t II t III t IV
*** ∆β is given as ∆α in graph.
TABLE D3-2: Impeller design

No. of impeller blades Zi = 4, η v = 0.95, K = 1.056
2π r
10 t= = (mm) Z = 4 95.8 171
Z
l 
11 l   × t mm 192 130
t 
Γ 60 gH
12* Γ1 = = η nZ m2/sec 0.451 0.451
Z h
13* Cm = 1.055 C0 m/sec 4.85 4.85
 Γ1 
14   2.355 1.318
 4πri 
 Γ 
15 w∞u = u –  1  m/sec 6.84 15.102
 4πri 
 Cm 
16 β∞ = Arc tan   35.35° 17.82°
 wu∞ 
Cm
17 w∞ = 9.39 15.85
sin β ∞
18 (Γ1/W∞ l) 0.284 0.219
19 (Γ1/W∞ lβ) from Fig. 10.10 1.27 1.98
in radians 0.223 0.111

20 Curvature β
in degrees 13.33° 6.34°
21 ∆β (∆α in graph) Fig. 10.11 1.67° 0.05°
22 β∞ + ∆β 37.01° 17.87°
23 (Γ1/W∞ lβ) from Fig 10.10 1.24 1.98
in radians 0.229 0.111

24 Curvature β
in degrees 13.17° 6.34°
* Γ1 is constant and is same for all sections.

25 l cosβ∞ 153.2 123.7
26 l sinβ∞ 115.2 40.0
 Cm 
27 α2 = Arc tan   44.3° 71.53°
 Cu 2 
28**** δm = (Blade thickness) mm 6.0 4.0
_  δm 
29 δm =   0.03133 0.0308
 l 
_ 1 β
30 f = tan 0.0579 0.0277
2 2
∆f
31 from Fig. 10.39 0.28 0.13
δm
__
32 ∆f 0.00877 0.00400
_ __
33 f1 = f + ∆f 0.06667 0.0317
34 β1 = (Curvature) impeller (deg)

2 Arc tan (2 f1 ) 15.4° 7.22°
35 sin β1 0.2628 0.1283
 l 
36 R=   mm 364 506
 2sin β1 
37 θ 30.5° 14.4°
 4 
38 m = (1 + β)  1 + δm  1.3194 1.170
 π 
39 u2 84.64 269.62
40 (m w2∞ –u2) 8.2 24.35
41 σ=
( mw ∞−
2
u2 ) 0.114 0.339
2 gH
****Profile thickness changes uniformly from hub to periphery.

δmII = 5.5 mm, δmIII = 5.0 mm, δmIV = 4.5 mm.
Fig. D3-1. Impeller and blade Fig. D3-2. Templates for impeller and diffuser
AXIAL FLOW PUMP TEST REPORT

80 η%
0.4 Kh
KQ – η
Pipe size (10′′ × 10′′) 250 × 250 mm
Design data Test result
H 3.66 m 3.65 m
Q 136.8 lps 146.14 lps
N 10 hp (British) 8.3 hp (British) 6.19 kW
η 7.40 kW 88% (Maximum)
3KN
KH 0.124 0.124 at optimum η

0.3
60
KQ 0.494 0.528 at optimum η

hs 735 760
Note : Test results are given for maximum η point
Design speed : 144 rpm
Size 10′′ × 10′′
– Design point
Note : Q
0.2
40
KQ =
2
3
ηD
H
KH = 2 2
nD
KN = 3H 5
KH – KQ nD
3
Q – Quantity m /sec
n – Speed RPS
D – Diameter : 0.226 m
H – Head m
KN – KQ N – Power Metric hp
0.1
20
1
0 0 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 KQ
Fig. D3-3. Performance graph

TABLE D3-3: Diffuser design

Zd  l
Γ diff = Γ imp = 1.804, ≥2   0.162 K Q2 + 0.246 ηh2 K H2 ≥ 2, Zd is taken as 4
Zi t
1. radius ri mm 61 109
2. β3 deg 44.3° 60.2°
3. β4 deg 90° 90°
4. ∆β = β3 – β4 deg 45.6° 29.8°
l
5.* from Howell for 0.8 ∆β* 2.3
t
l
6. from Papir 0.75
t
2πr
7. t= , Z = 4 mm 95.8 171
Z
l
8. l =   × t mm 221 128
t
9.** Cm m/sec 4.85 4.85

10.** Γ = m2/sec 1.803 1.803
Cu 2 Γ
11. = 4πr 2.355 1.318
2 i
 C 
12. α∞ = Arc tan  m  76.4° 82.3°
 Cu 2 / 2 
13. sin α∞ 0.972 0.989
 Cm 
14. C∞ =   4.99 4.91
 sin α ∞ 
15. (Γ1 /(C∞ l) 0.164 0.287
16. (Γ1 /(C∞lβ) from Fig. 10.10 0.77 1.35
in radians 0.2125 0.2125
17. β Curvature
in degress 12.17° 12.17°
* ∆β is given as ∆α in Figure.
** Cm and Γ are same for all other sections.
18.∗∗ δm (Blade thickness) mm 6 6
 δm 
19. δ =  l  0.0272 0.0468
1 β
20. f = tan   0.0535 0.0535
2 2
21. ∆f / δm from Fig. 10.39 2.0 0.2
22. ∆f 0.0544 0.0024
23. fd = f +∆ f 0.1079 0.0558
24. βd = 2 Arc tan ( fd ) deg 24.4° 12.8°
l
25. R= mm 268 289
2sin β d
 l
* For other Sections   is selected to get Uniform Variation from hub to periphery.
t
l  l l
  = 1.631,   = 1.2,  t  = 0.933
t II t III IV
** Blade thickness is same for other sections also.
l
Values of , δm for section II, III, IV are determined to get uniform change from hub to
t
Γ1  l
periphery. The values = f  To ,  and the values ∆β (∆α in graph Fig. 10.19) from the graph
w∞ lβ  t
∆α = f (To , β). The correction process is repeated until two successive values of (β) and ∆β (∆α) are
same.
The camberline of the profile is drawn in the form of an arc of a circle with radius (R). This thin
profile is dressed by a thick profile Table D3-4 for which the profile coordinates are known. The
characteristics curves Cy , Cx , = f (λ) are determined from actual tests conducted in wind tunnels i.e.,
for flow conditions under non-separated and separated flow conditions. One such profile recommended
by Moscow Power Institute, Moscow, for hydraulic machines |104| is taken for all section of impeller
and diffuser blade. The non-dimensional coordinates of the profile is given in Table D3-5.
TABLE D3-4: Coordinates of Impeller Profile
Section I Section V
— — — —
x y x y
0 0 0 0
0.48 0.441 0.325 0.296
0.96 0.588 0.650 0.3915
1.44 0.687 0.975 0.458
1.92 0.795 1.3 0.53
2.4 0.882 1.625 0.588
4.8 1.216 3.25 0.8095
9.6 1.549 6.5 1.031
14.4 1.8 9.75 1.20
19.2 1.987 13.00 1.322
28.8 2.29 19.5 1.525
38.4 2.52 26.0 1.679
48.0 2.712 32.5 1.806
57.6 2.850 39 1.897
67.2 2.945 45.5 1.96
76.8 2.995 52.0 1.997
86.4 3.00 58.5 2.00
96.0 2.945 65 1.96
115.2 2.70 78 1.8
134.4 2.256 91 1.502
153.6 1.6280 104 1.084
163.2 1.275 110.50 0.850
172.8 0.8890 117.00 0.592
182.4 0.4880 123.5 0.325
186.2 0.3180 126.10 0.2115
190.0 0.1468 128.7 0.0977
192 0.0720 130.0 0.048
TABLE D3-5: Non-dimensional coordinates for airfoil (Moscow Power Institute, USSR)
X Y
S.No. X= Y= = 0.45
l Ymax
1 0 0
2 0,0025 0,1468
3 0,005 0,1958
4 0,0075 0,2290
5 0,01 0,2650
6 0,0125 0,2938
7 0,025 0,4050
8 0,05 0,5160
9 0,075 0,6000
10 0,10 0,6620
11 0,15 0,7630
12 0,20 0,8400
13 0,25 0,9040
14 0,30 0,9490
15 0,35 0,9810
16 0,40 0,9980
17 0,45 1,0000 For round edge profiles*
18 0,50 0,9820 0.9820
19 0,60 0,8950 0.8998
20 0,70 0,7420 0.7516
21 0,80 0,5280 0.5424
22 0,85 0,4080 0.4248
23 0,90 0,2770 0.2962
24 0,95 0,1410 0.1626
25 0,97 0,0832 0.1058
26 0.99 0,0254 0.0489
27 1,00 0 0.024
* Extra thickness is added on the convex side of the profile.

Design No. D4
CORRECTION FOR PROFILE THICKNESS BY INCREASING
BLADE CURVATURE (ββ)
Correction for profile thickness can be carried out either by thickness correction factor ( χ ) or by
the correction of curvature (β).
In this design, correction by curvature addition (β) is carried out. Table D4-1 gives the design
calculation for hub section of a diffuser. Same procedure is followed for other sections.
TABLE D4-1
S. No. Detail/Section I
1.** radius (r) mm 140
l
2. + 1.10
t
t
3. 0.91
l
2πr
4. t= .Z = 6 mm 125.8
Z
5. l mm 138.4
2πgH
6.* Γ= m 2/sec 3.9077
KΓ ω
Γ 2
7.* Γ1 = m /s 0.6513
Z
4Q
( )
8.* Cm = m/sec 6.2385
π D 2 – d h2
Cu 3
9. 2.17
2
Cm
10. α∞ = tan–1 70.8°
Cu 2
2
11. C∞ = Cm/sin α∞ 6.6023
12. (Γ1/C∞l) 0.7
13. (Γ1/C∞lβ) From Fig. 10.10 1.22

radians 0.574
14. β
degrees 32.85
15. ∆α from Fig. 10.39 2.35

16. αΙ = α∞ + ∆α 73.15°
17. Γ1/C∞ lβ from Fig. 10.10 1.22
18. δm 6.0
19. δm = (δm/l) 0.043
1 β
20. fm = tan 0.1473
2 2
21. α4 90
22. θ 0
23. (∆f / δm ) From Fig. 10.39 – 0.002
24. (∆f m ) I – 0.0001
25. (fm)I = f m + ∆f m 0.1472
26. β0 deg 32.8°

27. sin β 0.5417
28. R= l/2 sin β mm 127.8
* Value is same for all other sections.

** Radius for other sections are determined in the same manner as done for impeller at design D3.
+ Vane solidity (l/t) is determined is the same manner as done for impeller in design D3.
The same profile given in Table D3-4 can be used for diffuser also.
Design No. D5
CALCULATION OF CORRECTION FOR BLADE THICKNESS USING
χ)
THICKNESS COEFFICIENT (χ
TABLE D5-1
Data available Z = 7, Cm = 4.669 m/sec., Γ 1 = 0.56
S. No. Detail/Section I
1. radius r1 mm 122.8
2. Thickness δm(mm) 15.0
2πr
3. Pitch t = mm 110.3
Z
4. β°∞ 31.1833
2 δm
5. K= 0.1751
3 t sin β∞
1
6. χ= (Fig. 10.11) 1.2124
1− K
7. CmI = χ Cm m/sec 5.6860
CmI
8. β∞Ι = tan –1
C 36.2667
u − u2
2
9. w∞ = CIm /sin β∞ m/sec 9.6128
10. l mm 214
11. (Γ1 / ω∞ l) 0.2723
12. (Γ1 /ω∞ l β ) From Fig. 10.8 1.28
in radians 0.2127
13. βΙ
in degrees 12.2177
14. ∆β (∆α from Fig. 10.9) 1.45

15. β∞1 = (β∞ + ∆β ) 37.7167
16. w∞Ι = CmI /sin β∞Ι 9.2945
17. (Γ1/w∞1 l) 0.2816
18. (Γ1 / ω∞Ι l β ) From Fig. 10.8 1.22
in radians 0.2232
19. βΙΙ in degrees
12.8°
All necessary data are taken from impeller design D6. Calulations for other section are done in the
same manner.
Comparing the corrections made (1) by thickness correction (x) and by (2) by curvature correction,
it is evident that final curvature (β) done by method (2) will be always more than that obtained by
method (1).
Design No. D6
DESIGN OF AXIAL FLOW PUMP
A : Design of camber line by Prof. Voznisenski and Prof. Pekin method for the impeller and
diffuser.
1. General
Specific Speed (ns) for axial flow pumps ranges from 500 and above. For high head and low
discharge axial flow pumps, where ns < 500, (1) Hydraulic loss is higher due to high head operation and
(2) Cavitational characteristics must be considered for a cavitation free operation.
In order to achieve higher cavitational characteristics for low ns pumps, the impeller hub should be
in conical form, which provides larger area at inlet and low flow velocity. Since, the Average inlet flow
velocity (Cm1) reduces, the overall diffuser effect considerably reduces. Moreover, control of total head
will be higher in conical hubs than in cylindrical hubs of impeller. But flow becomes three dimensional.
Three dimensional design methods for axial flow pumps are not yet available. Available two dimensional
design method with correction factors, experimentally determined, are adopted.
In this design, a two dimensional approach is applied. Prototype pump parameters are : Total Head
(H) = 22 m, flow rate (Q) = 100 m3/sec. Allowable suction lift is = –2 m. pumping liquid is water at
10°C.
Since, cavitational characteristics must be higher the cavitational specific speed (Ccr) is taken as
Ccr = 1100. The cavitational coefficient (φ) is taken as φ = 1.15 (Refer equation 9.4)
( H at − HVP ) − ( hS + h fs )
Allowable HSV =
φ
Taking Hat= 10.336 MWC and HVP (for water at 10° C) ≈ 0.336 and hfs = 0 for submerged
condition of the pump,
10.336 − 0.366 + 2
HSV = = 10.43 m
1.15
H SV 10.43
σ= = = 0.475
H 22
Allowable critical speed (ncr)
3/ 4 3/ 4
H   22 
Ccr  SV  1100  
 10   10 
(ncr) = = ≈ 125 rpm.
Q 100
3.65n Q 3.65 × 125 × 100

Specific speed (ns) = = ≈ 450
H 3/ 4 (22)3 / 4
2. Determination of General Parameter

3 3
Impeller eye velocity, C0 = 0.07 Qn 2 = 0.07 100 × 1252 = 8.08 m/sec.
_ _ d 
From Fig. (10.41 ) d = f (ns), hub diameter d =  h  = 0.66 for ns = 450
 Di 
4Q 4 × 100
Impeller diameter, Di = = = 5.31 m.
π (1 − d ) × C0 2
π (1 − 0.66 2 ) × 8.08
H 22
Unit Head, (KH) = 2 2 2 = 0.184
n D  125  2
  .(5.31)
 60 
Q 100
Unit Discharge, KQ = = = 0.328
nD 3 125 × (5.31)3
From Fig. (10.40) (KH)opt = f (ns) , (KH)opt = 0.22
ns ( K H )3 / 4 450 × (0.22)3 / 4
Accordingly the (KQ) value will be KQ = = = 0.44.
219 219
Hence, final values of the model pump will be (taken from the above prototype) KH = 0.22,
_
KQ = 0.44, C = 1100, ns = 450 and σ = 0.475, d = 0.66.
Model pump to be tested in the laboratory must be similar in all respect to the prototype pump. In
the laboratory, model pump diameter (Dim) should be Dim = 0.35 m and the speed of the model pump
(nm) must be nm = 800 rpm to suit the laboratory test rig.
Accordingly model pump will have the following specifications:
2
 800 
H = Hm = KH n2m D3 = 0.22 ×   × (0.35)2 = 4.78 m.
m
 60 
 800 
Q = Qm = KQ nm D3m = 0.44 ×   × (0.35)3 = 0.251 m3/sec.
 60 
3. Calculation of Impeller Dimensions

_
Hub diameter, dh = d × D = 0.66 × 0.35 = 0.231 m.
Calculations are carried out for 5 Sections. The radius of each section is given as
dh 0.231
rI = + 0.02 Di = + 0.02 × 0.35 = 0.12.28 m.
2 2
rI + rIII 0.1228 + 0.1454
rII = = = 0.1341 m.
2 2
rI + rV 0.1228 + 0.168
rIII = = = 0.1454 m.
2 2
rIII + rV 0.1454 + 0.168
rIV = = = 0.1567 m.
2 2
Di 0.350
rV = – 0.02 Di = – 0.02 × 0.35 = 0.168 m.
2 2
The Meridional velocity (Cm) is assumed to be constant at all radii as well as from inlet to outlet of
the impeller
4Q _ 4 × 0.251
Cm = = = 4.669 m/sec.
πDi2 (1 − d 2 ) π × 0.35 (1 − 0.662 )
IV
III
II
I
D = 350 mm
dh = 231 mm
rv = 168 mm
riv = 156.7 mm
riii = 145.4 mm
rii = 134.1 m
ri = 122.8 mm
Fig. D-6.1. Selection of radius of different design sections
Fig. D3-1 illustrates different stream line sections selected for the impeller design of the model
pump.
Model calculations for hub section is given below in Table D-3.1 calculations for other sections
are to be carried out in the similar manner.
πDI n π × 0.1228 × 800
Blade velocity, uI = = = 10.2918 m/sec.
60 60
Γ act
Assuming axial entry at inlet, Cu1 = 0 and coefficient of circulation KΓ = Γ = 0.9
th
gH 9.81 × 4.78
Tangential velocity at outlet,Cu2 = = = 5.08 m/sec.
uKΓ 10.2918 × 0.9
 Cm 4.669 
Blade angle at inlet, β1 = tan–1  =  = 24.5°.
 u 10.2918 
 Cm 4.669 
Blade angle at outlet, β2 = tan–1  =  = 42°
 u − Cu 2 10.2918 − 5.08 
Flow deviation, ∆βmax = β2 – β1 = 42 – 24.5 = 17.5°
l
Vane Solidity   is selected from the graph (Fig. 10.34) as per Prof. A.R. Howell |43| and
 t  hub
l
  is selected from the graph (Fig. 10.43) as per Prof. A.N. Papir |84|, for which Nominal value of
t peri
(∆β) for this design is selected as (∆β)nom = 0.9 (∆β)max. Since the graph given (Fig. 10.34) by Prof.
17.5 × 0.8
Howell is for (∆β)nom = 0.8 (∆β)max, (∆β)nom for this design is (∆β)nom = = 15.57°. From
0.9
l
(Fig. 10.34)   = 2.0 as per Prof. Howell, but taken as 1.94 in order to get smooth variation from
 tI
l l
hub to periphery and   = 1.36 as per Prof. A.N. Papir for KH = 0.22.   for other section (II, III,
 tV t
IV) are obtained, in order to have a smooth variation of mean line curvature (β) from hub to periphery.
Blade thickness (δm) is selected, based on the strength.
δmI = 15 mm and δmV = 6 mm
Thickness for other sections are determined to get smooth variation from hub to periphery. Maximum
thickness (δm)max is located at 0.45 times the profile length (l).
− δm 15
The inlet edge rounding off radius for the profile, ρ* = 0.15, δ m = (0.1), = 0.1 ×
l 214
= 0.0015 m or 1.5 mm. Similarly the outlet edge rounding off radius for the profile, ρ** = (0.00065 to
0.001) D = 0.0009 × 0.35 = 0.00032 m = 0.32 mm.
Number of blades (Zi) for the impeller is taken as Zi = 7.
 l
TABLE D-6.1: Selection of vane solidity  
 t
S. No. Details/Section I
1. radius r mm 122.8
2πrn
2. u= m/s 10.2918
60
gH
3. Cu2 = m/s 5.08
uKΓ
4Q
4. Cm = m/s 4.669 for all sections
π( D − d h2 )
2
Cm
5* β°2 tan–1 24.5°
u
 Cm 
6* β°2 tan–1  42°
 u − Cu 2 
 l
7.   Howell 2.0 V
t I
 l
8.   Papir 1.36
t
 l
9.   Selected 1.94 1.36
t
* in figure 10.11, β1 and β2 are given as α1 and α2.

TABLE D-6.2: Impeller dimensions

2πr
1. t= mm 110.225
Z
 l
2. l =   × t mm 213.98 (214)
t
 Cm 
3* β°∞ = tan–1  Cu 2  32.72°
 u − 
2 
β∞ = α∞ in figure
4. Curvature (β) 11.67°
dm
5. dm = 0.07
l
S
6. Sm = m – 0.1 for all sections
(l / 2)
7. ρ* mm 1.5
8. ρ** mm 0.32
* β∞ is given as α∞ in figure 10.11.

2.0
1.8
l/t
β 1.6
10° 1.4
9° 1.2
δm
β
15 8° 1.0
l
14 7° —
t
13 δm 6°
12 0.08 5°
11 0.07
δm
10 0.06 δm
δm =
2
9 0.05
8 0.04
7 0.03
6 0.02
100 150 175
Fig. D-6.2. Pump parameters

TABLE D-6.3: Design of impeller cascade system of axial flow pump (AFP 450)
As per method suggested by Prof. Voznisenski and Prof. Pekin Design of thin profile (mean line
for the thick profile) in the form of an Arc of circle.
1. radius ri mm 122.8
 l
2. Vane Solidity   1.94
 t
 t
3. Relative Pitch   0.5155
 l
2πr1
4. Pitch t = (mm) Zi =7 110.30
Z
l
5. length l =   × t mm 213.98 (214)
t
2πgH
6* Circulation Γ = m2/sec 3.92
K Γω
Γ 2
7. Γ1 = m /sec 0.56
Z
πDi n
8. ui = m/sec 10.2918
60
4Q
9. Cm = m/sec 4.6690
πD 2i (1 − d 2 )
Cu 2 Γ1
10. = m/sec 2.5415
2 2πr1
Γ1
11. w∞ u = u – m/sec 7.7523
4πri
Cm
12. β°∞ = tan–1 (deg) 31.1833
w∞u
Cm
13. w∞ = m/sec 9.0591
sin β ∞
 Γ1 
14.  w l  0.2889
∞
 Γ1 
15**  w lβ  from Fig. 10.8 1.45
∞
in radians 0.1992
16. β
in degrees 11.117
17. ∆β° (∆α) 1.5333°
18. βΙ = (β∞ + ∆β ) 32.7166°
Γ1
19∗∗ 1.42
( w∞lβ)
in radians 0.2035
20. β
in degrees 11.67°
 4 δm 
m = ( 1 + β) 1 +
 π l 
21. 1.311
22. (m.w∞ )2 140
23. u2 106
m.w∞2 − u 2
24. σ= 0.375
2 gH
Note: * Value is same for all sections.

** Symbol (∆β) is given as (∆α) in the graph 10.11.
438
Comp-1/Newage/Engineering/Pump-13w.pm6.5—2.11.07
Section I : Type AFP 450

TABLE D-6.4
700 1 l  l
α = 32° 43′′ ; β = 11° 40′′ = = 0.20365; R = = 4.91050; = 1,94; C = 196.75 ×   = 381.70.
3437.35 β t t
K –3 –5/2 –2 –1 0 1 2 5/2 3
SK –1 –0.96593 –0.866025 –0.5 0 0.5 0.866025 0.96593 1
1. αK + α + βSK 21° 03′ 21° 27′ 22° 37′ 26° 53′ 32° 43′ 38° 33′ 40° 49′ 43° 59′ 44° 23′
2. sin αK 0.35918 0.36569 0.38456 0.45218 0.54049 0.62320 0.67965 0.69445 0.69946
3. cos αK 0.93327 0.93074 0.92310 0.89193 0.84135 0.78206 0.73353 0.71954 0.71468
4. 20 – 2K 0.18131 0.17480 0.15593 0.08831 0 –0.08271 –0.13916 –0.15396 –0.15897
5. 3K – 30 0.09192 0.08939 0.08175 0.05058 0 –0.05929 –0.10782 –0.12179 –0.12667

8.12.07

6. u = R (4) 0.89032 0.85836 0.76569 0.43365 0 –0.40615 –0.68335 –0.75602 –0.78062
7. Z = R (5) 0.45137 0.43895 0.40143 0.24837 0 –0.29114 –0.52945 –0.59805 –0.62201
8. (6)2 + (7)2 0.99641 0.7474 0.2497 0.2497 0.7473 0.9963

check up β2 3 3β
2 1 β2
9. 1– – –
(8 = 9) 12 4 64 4 192
0.9965 0.7481 0.2498 0.2498 0.7481 0.9965
10. u = C. (6) mm 339.8 327.6 292.3 165.5 0 –155.0 –260.8 –288.6 –298.0
11. Z = C. (7) mm 172.3 167.6 153.2 94.8 0 –111.4 –202.1 –228.3 –237.4
12. u2 + Z2 1452×102 1354×102 1089×102 363.8×102 364.3×102 1089×102 1354×102 1452×102

TABLE D6-5
Values taken from Nomogram
i K –3 –5/2 –2 –1 0 1 2 5/2 3 Σ
aki
–3 0 0.06 0.025 0.149 0.470 0.446 0.452 0.454 0.455 2.457

–2 –0.025 –0.015 0 0.094 0.405 0.449 0.446 0.449 0.450 2.253
–1 –0.149 –0.134 –0.094 0 0.172 0.425 0.440 0.438 0.438 1.536
0 –0.470 –0.457 –0.405 –0.172 0 0.186 0.360 0.394 0.400 –0.164
1 –0.446 –0.446 –0.449 –0.425 –0.186 0 0.135 0.180 0.195 –1.442
2 –0.452 –0.450 –0.446 –0.440 –0.360 –0.135 0 0.034 0.046 –2.203
3 –0.455 –0.454 –0.450 –0.438 –0.400 –0.195 –0.046 –0.013 0 –2.451
bki
–3 0 0.016 0.064 0.241 0.200 0.089 0.076 0.073 0.072 0.831

–2 –0.064 –0.047 0 0.172 0.251 0.092 0.079 0.075 0.075 0.633
–1 –0.241 –0.222 –0.172 0 0.212 0.172 0.095 0.087 0.085 0.016
0 –0.200 –0.215 –0.251 –0.212 0 0.186 0.182 0.159 0.153 –0.198
1 –0.089 –0.089 –0.092 –0.172 –0.186 0 0.132 0.156 0.161 –0.179
2 –0.076 –0.076 –0.079 –0.095 –0.182 –0.132 0 0.036 0.048 –0.556
3 –0.072 –0.072 –0.075 –0.085 –0.153 –0.161 –0.048 –0.011 0 –0.677
439
440
TABLE D-6.6
Values ∆ aki and ∆ bki
−βt β
C1 = = –0.03343; C2 = – . C1 = 0.00114
πl 6
K –3 –5/2 –2 –1 0 1 2 +5/2 3 Σ
1. C1 cos αK –0.03120 –0.03112 –0.03086 –0.02982 –0.02813 –0.02614 –0.02452 –0.02405 –0.02389 –
2. C1 sin αK –0.01201 –0.01223 –0.01286 –0.01512 –0.01807 –0.02083 –0.02272 –0.02322 –0.02338 –
3. C2 cos αK 0.00106 0.00106 0.00105 0.00102 0.00096 0.00089 0.00084 0.00082 0.00082 –
4. C2 sin αK 0.00041 0.00042 0.00044 0.00052 0.00062 0.00071 0.00078 0.00079 0.00080 –
∆ aKi = (1) –[(4) ( sk − si ) ]
–3 –0.031 –0.031 –0.031 –0.030 –0.029 –0.027 –0.026 –0.026 –0.025 –0.256
–2 –0.031 –0.031 –0.031 –0.030 –0.029 –0.027 –0.026 –0.026 –0.025 –0.256
–1 –0.031 –0.031 –0.031 –0.030 –0.028 –0.027 –0.025 –0.025 –0.025 –0.253

0 –0.031 –0.031 –0.030 –0.030 –0.028 –0.027 –0.025 –0.025 –0.024 –0.251
1 –0.031 –0.031 –0.030 –0.029 –0.028 –0.026 –0.025 –0.025 –0.024 –0.249
2 –0.030 –0.030 –0.030 –0.029 –0.028 –0.026 –0.025 –0.025 –0.024 –0.247
3 –0.030 –0.030 –0.030 –0.029 –0.028 –0.026 –0.024 –0.024 –0.024 –0.245
∆ bKi = (2) + [(3) ( sk − si ) ]
–3 –0.012 –0.013 –0.013 –0.015 –0.017 –0.21 –0.021 –0.022 –0.022 –0.156
–2 –0.013 –0.013 –0.013 –0.015 –0.017 –0.21 –0.021 –0.022 –0.022 –0.156
–1 –0.013 –0.013 –0.013 –0.015 –0.017 –0.21 –0.022 –0.022 –0.022 –0.158
0 –0.013 –0.014 –0.014 –0.016 –0.018 –0.021 –0.022 –0.023 –0.023 –0.164
1 –0.014 –0.014 –0.014 –0.016 –0.019 –0.021 –0.023 –0.023 –0.024 –0.167
2 –0.014 –0.015 –0.015 –0.017 –0.019 –0.021 –0.023 –0.023 –0.023 –0.170
3 –0.014 –0.015 –0.015 –0.017 –0.019 –0.021 –0.023 –0.023 –0.023 –0.170
TABLE D-6.7
Calculation of the values ϕ Ki and ψ Ki
K 5 5
–3 − –2 –1 0 1 2 + 3 Σ
i 2 2
ϕ Ki = (2aKi + ∆ aKi )
–3 –0.031 –0.019 + 0.019 0.268 0.911 0.865 0.878 0.882 0.885 4.658
–2 –0.081 –0.061 –0.031 0.158 0.781 0.871 0.866 0.872 0.875 4.250
–1 0.329 –0.299 –0.219 –0.030 0.316 0.823 0.855 0.851 0.851 2.819
0 –0.971 –0.945 –0.840 –0.374 –0.028 0.345 0.695 0.763 0.776 –0.579
1 –0.923 –0.923 –0.928 –0.879 –0.400 –0.026 0.245 0.335 0.366 –3.133
2 –0.934 –0.930 –0.922 –0.909 –0.748 –0.296 –0.025 0.043 0.068 –4.653
3 –0.940 –0.938 –0.930 –0.905 –0.828 –0.416 –0.116 –0.050 –0.024 –5.147
ψ Ki = –(2bKi + ∆ bKi )
–3 0.012 –0.019 –0.115 –0.467 –0.383 –0.157 –0.131 –0.124 –0.122 –1.506
–2 0.140 0.107 0.013 –0.329 –0.485 –0.163 –0.137 –0.128 –0.128 –1.110
–1 0.495 0.457 0.357 0.015 –0.407 –0.323 –0.168 –0.152 –0.148 0.126
0 0.413 0.444 0.516 0.440 0.018 –0.351 –0.342 –0.295 –0.283 0.560
1 0.192 0.192 0.198 0.360 0.391 0.021 –0.241 –0.289 –0.299 0.525
2 0.166 0.167 0.173 0.207 0.383 0.285 0.023 –0.049 –0.073 1.282
3 0.158 0.159 0.165 0.187 0.325 0.343 0.119 0.045 0.023 1.524
441
442
TABLE D-6.8
Calculation of the values Aj ; Bj ; and other connected values
Γ1  Γ1 A1 + A−1 
A0 = –1.098  – +
12 
= 2.6171 ; = 2.8736 ;
l  l
1
S m = –0, 1 ; χ= = 1.2124 ; K1 = 8 χ δ m w∞ = 6.1588 ;
2 δm
1−
3 t sin α
4π ρ* 4π ρ**
K2 = w∞ cos β = 0.2659 ; K3 = w∞ cos β = 0.0567.
3 l 3 l
Sm S m (2 + S m ) S (2 − S m )
B0 = K1 − K2 − m K3 = – 0.66829 + 0.14957 + 0.01733 = – 0.50139
2(1 − S m2 ) 2
2(1 + S m ) 2 2(1 − S m ) 2
− (1 − 3S m2 ) 2(1 + 2 S m ) 2(1 − 2S m )
K1 + K2 +

B1 = K 3 = – 2.94040 + 0.49856 + 0.11025 = –2.33159
2(1 − S m ) 2
(1 + Sm ) 2
(1 − Sm ) 2
– 3S m 3 3
B2 = K1 + K2 + K 3 = 2.00481 – 1.24641 + 0.11813 = 0.87653
2 (1 – Sm2 ) (1 – S m ) 2 (1 – S m ) 2
B * = 2K2 = 0.53180 = 0.53180
B ** = – 2K3= – 0.1134 = – 0.11340
Σ (check up) – 1.60388 – 0.06648 + 0.1323 = – 1.53805
K –3 – 5/2 –2 –1 0 1 2 5/2 3
A0 = 2.8736 A0 Vγ0 –1.9312 –1.7900 –1.4300 –0.5908 0 0.5908 1.4300 1.7900 1.9312
v′ = Σ –1.9312 –1.7900 –1.4300 –0.5908 0 0.5908 1.4300 1.7900 1.9312

Section I : Type AFP 450 TABLE D-6.9
K –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 Σ
l
A = 5.57478 P10 (l/t) A0 0.00097 0.27524 0.62986 0.72645 0.62986 0.27524 0.00097 2.53859
t 0
Pi = ΣP10 (l/t) A0 + ...... Pi = Σ 0.00097 0.27524 0.62986 0.72645 0.62986 0.27524 0.00097 2.53859
qi = Σq10 (l/t) B0 + ..... qi = Σ 0.29633 0.26614 0.19769 –0.12841 –0.31925 –0.23130 –0.07921 +0.00199
K –3 –5/2 –2 –1 0 1 2 5/2 3 Σ
QK = ΣQk0 B0 + ...... QK 0.13300 0.31012 0.42858 0.70506 0.74383 0.49110 0.18458 0.08965 0.02825 3.11417
TABLE D-6.10
∞ + v′′
Calculation of velocity components w∞ ′′
i
K –3 –5/2 –2 –1 0 1 2 + 5/2 3 Σ
Pi Pi ϕ Ki
–3 0.00097 0.0045
–2 0.27524 1.1698
–1 0.62986 1.7756
0 0.72645 –0.4206
1 0.62986 –1.9734
2 0.27524 –1.2807
3 0.00097 –0.0050
Σ1 – 1.7743 – 1.7299 –1,5959 –1.0516 –0.0641 –0.9113 1.4299 1.5540 1.5907 –0.7298
Pi Pi ψ Ki Σ
–3 –0.0015
–2 –0.3055
–1 0.0794
0 0.4068
1 0.3307
2 0.3529
3 0.0015
443
Σ2 0.8171 0.8069 0.7757 0.5220 –0.0251 –0.4114 –0.5375 –0.5409 –0.5426 0.8648
444
TABLE D-6.11
i
K –3 –5/2 –2 –1 0 1 2 5/2 3 Σ
qi q i ϕ Ki
–3 0.29633 1.3803
–2 0.26614 1.1311
–1 0.19769 0.5573
0 –0.12841 0.0744
1 –0.31925 1.0002
2 –0.23130 1.0762
3 –0.07921 0.4077
Σ3 0.6141 0.6245 0.6451 0.7261 0.9102 0.7163 0.5072 0.4508 0.4330 5.6272
qi qi ψ Ki

–3 –0.4463
–2 –0.2954
–1 0.0249
0 –0.0719
1 –0.1676
2 –0.2965
3 –0.1207
Σ4 –0.0266 –0.0563 –0.1426 –0.4571 –0.5645 –0.2085 –0.0024 + 0.0371 + 0.0474
W∞ u = 7.7503 CZ = 4.669
v′′x = Σ4 –Σ1 1.7477 1.6736 1.4533 0.5945 0.5004 –1.1198 –1.4323 –1.5169 –1.5433
v′′y = Σ2 + Σ3 1.4312 1.4314 1.4208 1.2481 0.8851 0.3049 –0.0303 –0.0901 –0.1096
TABLE D-6.12: Determination of angle α K
K –3 –5/2 –2 –1 0 1 2 5/2 3
1. w ∞u + vx′′ 9.4980 9.4239 9.2036 8.3448 7.2429 6.6305 6.3180 6.2334 6.2070
2. Cm + vy′′ 6.1211 6.1213 6.1107 5.9380 5.5750 4.9948 4.6596 4.5998 4.5803
3. v′y –1.9312 –1.7900 –1.4300 –0.5908 0 0.5908 1.4300 1.7900 1.9312
4. (1)2 + (2)2 127.6798 126.2802 122.0469 104.8955 83.6417 68.9116 61.6290 60.0134 59.506
5. (4) – (3)2 123.9503 123.0761 120.0020 104.5464 83.6417 68.5625 59.5841 56.8093 55.7765
6. (5) 11.1333 11.0940 10.9546 10.2248 9.1456 8.2803 7.7191 7.5372 7.4684
7. (1) × (3) –18.3425 –16.8688 –13.1612 –4.9301 0 3.9173 9.0347 11.1576 11.9870
8. (2) × (6) 68.1480 67.9097 66.9403 60.7149 50.9867 41.3584 35.9679 34.6696 34.2075
9. (7) + (8) 49.8055 51.0409 53.7791 55.7848 50.9867 45.2757 45.0026 45.8274 46.1945
10. (9) ÷(4) = sin αK 0.39008 0.40419 0.44064 0.53181 0.60958 0.65701 0.73022 0.76362 0.77630
11. cos αK 0.92078 0.91468 0.89769 0.84686 0.79273 0.75388 0.68320 0.64569 0.63038
12. (1) × cos αK 8.7456 8.6199 8.2620 7.0669 5.7472 4.9986 4.3165 4.0248 3.9128
13. (2) × sin αK 2.3877 2.4742 2.6926 3.1579 3.3984 3.2816 3.4025 3.5125 3.5557
14. Wx + v′′x = (12) + (13) 11.1333 11.0941 10.9546 10.2248 9.1456 8.2802 7.7190 7.5373 7.4685
15. (10) × (14) 4.3429 4.4841 4.8270 5.4377 5.5750 5.4402 5.6366 5.7556 5.7978
16. (3) × (11) –1.7782 –1.6373 –1.2837 –0.5003 0 0.4454 0.9770 1.1558 1.2174
17. (15) –(16) 6.1211 6.1214 6.1107 5.9380 5.575 4.9948 4.6596 4.5998 4.5804
445
446
Section I : Type AFP 450/2
TABLE D-6.13
Calculation of velocity (v′x′ )
K –3 –5/2 –2 1 0 1 2 2.5 3
nK = nK /(l/2) 0.01 0.02 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.01 0.02
j Aj Aj uγ j
0 2.8736 –0.1459 – 0.1956 –0.6227 –1.0925 –1.4255 –1.4368 –1.4255 –1.0925 –0.6227 –0.1459 –0.1956
1
–1
Σ Aa
j Bj Bj uqj

0 –0.50139 0.5026 0.4473 0.3236 0.2102 0.0877 0 –0.0877 –0.02102 –0.3236 –0.4473 –0.5026
1 –2.33159 –1.5980 –1.3436 –0.7114 –0.1043 0.5383 0.7422 0.5383 –0.1043 –0.7114 –1.5980 –1.3436
2 0.87653 –0.6018 –0.5072 –0.2583 –0.0340 0.1012 0 –0.1012 0.0340 0.2583 0.5072 0.6018
* 0.53180 – – 2.4840 0.6318 0.1693 0.0846 0.0564 0.0454 0.0431 0.0423 0.0423
** –0.11340 0.0090 0.0090 0.0092 0.0097 0.0120 0.0181 0.0361 0.1347 0.5297 – –
ΣBb –1.6882 –0.3945 1.8471 0.7134 0.9085 0.8449 0.4419 –0.1004 –0.2039 –1.4958 –1.2021
 ∑ Bb + ∑ Aa –1.8341 –1.5901 1.2244 –0.3791 –0.5170 –0.5919 –0.9836 –1.1929 –0.8266 –1.6417 –1.3977
vx′ 
∑ B b − ∑ Aa –1.5423 –1.1989 2.4698 1.8059 2.3340 2.2817 1.8674 0.9921 0.4188 –1.3499 –1.0065
TABLE D-6.14
Calculation of velocities and thicknesses
K –3 –5/2 –2 –1 0 1 2 2.5 3
nk = nk /(l/2) 0.01 0.02 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.01 0.02
wx + v′′x 11.1333 11.0941 10.9546 10.2248 9.1456 8.2802 7.7190 7.5373 7.4685
v′x –1.8341 –1.5901 1.2244 –0.3791 –0.5170 –0.5919 –0.9836 –1.1929 –0.8266 –1.6417 –1.3977
–1.5423 –1.1989 2.4698 1.8059 2.3340 2.2817 1.8674 0.9921 0.4188 –1.3499 –1.0065
w = wx 9.2992 9.5432 12.3182 10.5755 9.7078 8.5537 7.2966 6.5261 6.7107 5.8268 6.0708
+ v′′x + v′x 9.5910 9.9344 13.5639 12.7605 12.5588 11.4273 10.1476 8.7111 7.9561 6.1186 6.4620
QK 0.13300 0.31012 0.42858 0.70506 0.74383 0.49110 0.18458 0.08965 0.02825
d (y) = 0.0143 0.0139 0.0252 0.0409 0.0726 0.0870 0.0673 0.0283 0.0134 0.0049 0.0047
QK
1 2  w (0 ) + w ( y ) 0.0139 0.0134 0.0229 0.0336 0.0561 0.0651 0.0484 0.0212 0.0113 0.0046 0.0044
447
448
TABLE D-6.15
Calculation of velocity v′x′ (up to 4 digits)
K –5/2 –2 –1 0
nK = nK/ l/2 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09
Aj
2.8736 –0.5590 –0.5517 –1.0048 –0.9799 –0.9571 –1.3494 –1.3346 –1.3201 –1.3057 –1.3754 –1.3653 –1.3551 –1.3449
ΣA a
Bj
–0.50139 0.3118 0.3007 0.2082 0.2068 0.2050 0.0873 0.0872 0.0870 0.0868 0 0 0 0
–2.33159 –0.6776 –0.6353 –0.1288 –0.1326 –0.1346 0.4833 0.4731 0.4632 0.4535 0.6749 0.6642 0.6536 0.6432
0.87653 –0.2529 –0.2400 –0.0522 –0.0563 –0.0596 0.0307 0.0700 0.0734 0.0699 0 0 0 0
0.53180 1.8475 1.3993 0.6016 0.5801 0.5545 0.1676 0.1669 0.1660 0.1651 0.0843 0.0842 0.0841 0.0840
–0.11340 0.0092 0.0092 0.0097 0.0097 0.0097 0.0120 0.0120 0.0120 0.0120 0.0180 0.0180 0.0179 0.0179
ΣΒb 1.2380 0.8339 0.6385 0.6077 0.5750 0.8303 0.8162 0.8016 0.7873 0.7772 0.7664 0.7556 0.7551

ΣΒb + ΣAa 0.6790 0.2822 – –0.3722 –0.3821 – –0.5185 –0.6184 – – 0.5995 –0.5898
ΣΒb – Σba 1.7970 1.3856 1.6433 1.5876 – –2.1797 2.1508 – 2.1526 2.1317 –
1 2 +5/2
0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.02 0.03 0.01 0.02

–1.3643 –1.3494 –1.3346 –1.3201 –1.0318 –1.0048 –0.5767 –0.5590
–0.0874 –0.0873 –0.0872 –0.0870 –0.2093 –0.2082 –0.3203 –0.3118
0.4938 0.4833 0.4731 0.4632 –0.1229 –0.1288 –0.7072 –0.6776
–0.0846 –0.0807 –0.0770 –0.0734 0.0471 0.0522 0.2602 0.2529
0.0564 0.0564 0.0563 0.0563 0.0454 0.0454 0.0431 0.0431
0.0359 0.0357 0.0356 0.0354 0.1318 0.1283 0.4877 0.3940
0.4141 0.4074 0.4008 0.3945 –0.1079 –0.1111 –0.2365 –0.2999
–0.9338 –0.9256 –1.1397 –1.1159 –0.8132 –0.8584
1.7784 1.7568 0.9239 0.8937 0.3402 0.2596
TABLE D-6.16
Calculation of velocities and thickness
−5 5
K –2 –1 0 +1 +2 +
2 2
nK = nKl/2 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.07 0.08 0.08 0.09 0.06 0.07 0.02 0.03 0.01 0.02
0.02 0.03 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.06 0.07 0.040 0.050 0.02 0.03 0.01 0.02
wx + ν′′x 11.0941 10.9546 10.2248 9.1456 8.2802 7.7190 7.5373
ν′x 0.6790 0.2622 –0.3722 –0.3821 –0.5185 –0.6184 –0.5995 –0.5898 –0.9238 –0.9256 –1.1397 –1.1159 –0.8132 –0.8584
1.7970 1.3856 1.6433 1.5876 2.1797 2.1508 2.1526 2.1317 1.7784 1.7568 +0.9239 0.8937 0.3402 0.2596
w = wx
+ ν′′x + ν′x 11.7731 11.3763 10.5824 10.5725 9.7063 9.6064 8.5461 8.5558 7.3464 7.3546 6.5793 6.6031 6.7241 6.6789
12.8911 12.4797 12.5979 12.5422 12.4045 12.3748 11.2982 11.2773 10.0586 10.0370 8.6429 8.6127 7.8775 7.7969
QK 0.31012 0.42858 0.70506 0.74383 0.49110 0.18458 0.08965
d (y) = 0.0258 0.0262 0.0405 0.0405 0.0726 0.0730 0.0870 0.0870 0.0672 0.0666 0.0282 0.0281 0.0134 0.0134
QK
1 w
2 (0) + w ( y ) 0.0235 0.0238 0.0338 0.0339 0.0565 0.0566 0.0655 0.0655 0.0486 0.0487 0.0213 0.0213 0.0113 0.0114
TABLE D-6.17
Values of A1 and A–1
Section Coefficients I III V
A1 9.50 6.00 6.00

A–1 –8.00 –8.80 –6.00
449
450
Section I : Vari. A—AFP 450/2
TABLE D-6.18
Calculation of coefficients Aj, Bj and other related values (up to 4 digits)
Γ1  Γ1 A1 + A−1 
= 2.6171; A0 = –1.098  l + 12  = 2.7368;
l  
A1 = 9.5; A–1 = – 8.00; K1 = 5.600; K2 = 0.266; K3 = 0.035
Sm S (2 + S m ) S (2 − S m )
B0 = K1 − m K2 − m K 3 = –0.60766 + 0.14962 + 0.01069 = –0.4474
2(1 − S m )
2 2
(1 + S m ) 2
(1 − Sm ) 2
− (1 − 3Sm2 ) 2 (1 + 2Sm ) 2(1 − 2Sm )

B1 = K1 + K2 + K3 = –2.67361 + 0.49875 + 0.06806 = –2.1068
2(1 − Sm2 ) 2 (1 + Sm ) 2
(1 + Sm ) 2
− 3S m 3 3
B2 = K1 + K2 + K 3 = 1.82291 –1.24688 + 0.07292 = 0.6490
2(1 − S 2
m)
2
(1 + Sm ) 2
(1 − Sm ) 2

B* = 2K2 = 0.53200 = 0.5320
B** = – 2K3 = –0.07000 = 0.0700
Σ (check up) = –1.45835 – 0.06650 + 0.08167 = –1.4432
All values up to 5 digits
K –3 –5/2 –2 –1 0 1 2 +5/2 3 Σ
A0 = 2.7368 A0 Vγ0 –1.8393 –1.7056 –1.3616 –0.5627 0 0.5627 1.3616 1.7056 1.8393 10.9384
A1 = 9.5 A1 Vγ1 –0.1719 –0.1874 –0.1897 –0.2662 –0.7560 0 0.8808 0.8303 0.7560 0.8959
A–1 = –8.00 A–1 Vγ –1 0.6366 0.6992 0.7417 0 –0.6366 –0.2241 –0.1598 –0.1578 –0.1448 0.7544
νy = Σ –1.3746 –1.1938 –0.8096 –0.8289 –1.8926 0.3386 2.0826 2.3781 2.4505
TABLE D-6.19
K –3 –2 –1 0 +1 +2 +3 Σ
l l
A = 5.3094 Pi0 A 0.0009 0.2621 0.5999 0.6920 0.5999 0.2621 0.0009 2.4178
t 0 t 0
l l
A = 18.4300 Pi1 A –0.0085 0.0196 –0.0317 0.1378 0.5095 0.1482 –0.0049 0.7680
t 1 t 1
l l
A = –15.5200 Pi –1 A 0.0041 –0.1231 –0.4291 –0.1160 0.0267 –0.0165 0.0072 –0.6467
t –1 t –1
Pi Σ –0.0035 0.1586 0.1391 0.7138 1.1361 0.3918 0.0032 2.5391
l
B = –0.8680
t 0
l
B = –4.0872
t 1
l
B = 1.2591
t 2
l *
B = 1.0321
t
l **
B = –0.1358
t
qi Σ 0.29068 0.22825 0.17166 –0.11431 –0.29545 –0.22122 –0.05968 Σ
–3 –5/2 –2 –1 0 1 2 5/2 3 Σ
QK ΣQK0 B0 +... 0.1330 0.3044 0.4057 0.6439 0.6772 0.4472 0.1587 0.0672 0.0175 2.8548
451
452
TABLE D-6.20
Calculation of velocity components (wx + vx′′
′′)
K –3 –5/2 –2 –1 0 1 2 5/2 3 Σ
i qi qi ϕ Ki
–3 –0.0035 –0.016
–2 0.1586 0.674
–1 0.1391 0.392
0 0.7138 –0.413
1 1.1361 –3.559
2 0.3918 –1.823
3 0.0032
Σ1 –2.1692 –2.1417 –2.0536 –1.6047 –0.6055 0.3490 1.0175 1.1955 1.2503 –4.762

P1ψ K
–3 –0.0035 0.0053
–2 0.1586 –0.1762
–1 0.1391 0.0175
0 0.7138 0.3997
1 1.1361 0.5965
2 0.3918 0.5023
3 0.0032 0.0049
1.3500
Σ2 0.6695 0.6816 0.7137 0.7563 0.4760 –0.1842 –0.5532 –0.5990 –0.6107 1.3500
TABLE D-6.21
Calculation of values of ϕ Ki and ψ Ki
i K –3 –5/2 –2 –1 0 1 2 5/2 3 Σ
qi qi ϕ Ki
–3
–2
–1
0
1
2
3
Σ3 0.5624 0.5717 0.5905 0.6664 0.8336 0.6501 0.4603 0.4088 0.3926 5.1364
qiψ Ki
–3 0.29068
–2 0.22825
–1 0.17166
0 –0.11431
1 –0.29545
2 –0.22122
3 –0.05968
Σ4 –0.0297 –0.0566 –0.1348 –0.4218 –0.5136 –0.1878 –0.0001 –0.0359 –0.0454 –1.2631
W∞u = 7.7520 ; Cz = 4.6690
v′′x = Σ4 –Σ1 2.1395 2.0851 1.9188 1.1829 0.0919 –0.5368 –1.0176 –1.1596 –1.2049 3.4993
v′′y = Σ2 + Σ3 1.2319 1.2533 1.3042 1.4227 1.3096 0.4659 –0.0929 –0.1902 –0.2181 6.4864
453
454
TABLE D-6.22
Values within the bracket indicates when α = 45°
α k)
Determination of angle (α
–3 – 5/2 –2 –1 0 1 2 5/2 3 No. of digits
1. W∞u + v′′x 9.8915 9.8371 9.6708 8.9349 7.8439 7.2152 6.7344 6.5924 6.5471 3
2. Cz + v′′y 5.9009 5.9223 5.9732 6.0917 5.9786 5.1349 4.5761 4.4788 4.4509 3
3. ν′y –1.3745 –1.1938 –0.8096 –0.8289 –1.3926 0.3386 2.0826 2.3781 2.4505 4
4. (1)2 + (2)2 132.6624 131.8422 129.2035 116.9413 97.2704 78.4263 66.2928 63.5194 62.6750 3
5. (4) – (3)2 130.7729 130.4171 128.5480 116.2542 95.3311 78.3116 61.9556 57.8640 56.6700 3
6. 5 11.4356 11.4201 11.3379 10.7821 9.7638 8.8494 7.8712 7.6069 7.5280 4
7. (1) × (3) –13.5969 –11.7435 –7.8295 –7.4061 –10.9234 2.4431 14.0251 15.6774 16.0437 3

8. (2) × (6) 67.4803 67.6333 67.7235 65.6813 58.3739 45.4408 36.0194 34.0698 33.5064 3
9. (7) + (8) 53.8834 55.8898 59.8940 58.2752 47.4505 47.8831 50.0445 49.7472 49.5501 3
10. (9) : (4) = sin αK 0.406169 0.423914 0.463563 0.498328 0.487820 0.610549 0.754900 0.783180 0.790587 5
11. cos αK 0.913802 0.905702 0.886064 0.866988 0.872946 0.792009 0.655839 0.621793 0.612363 5
12. (1) cos αK 9.0389 8.9005 8.5689 7.7475 6.8473 5.7143 4.4167 4.0991 4.0092 4
13. (2) sin αK 2.3967 2.5106 3.7690 3.0356 2.9165 3.1351 3.4545 3.5077 3.5188 4
14. wx+ v′′x = (12)+(13) 11.4356 11.4201 11.3379 10.7821 9.7638 8.8494 7.8712 7.6068 7.5280 4
15. (10) × (14) 4.6448 4.8411 5.2558 5.3730 4.7630 5.4030 5.9420 5.9575 5.9515 4
16. (3) × (11) –1.2561 –1.0812 –0.7174 –0.7187 –1.2156 0.2682 1.3659 1.4787 1.5006 4
17. (15) – (16) = (2) 5.9009 5.9223 5.9732 6.0917 5.9786 5.1348 4.5761 4.4788 4.4509 4
Section I : Vari. A—AFP 450/2 TABLE D-6.23
Calculation of velocity (v′′x).(up to 4 digits)
K –3 –5/2 –2 –1 0 1 2 5/2 3
nK = nK /(l/2) 0.01 0.02 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.01 0.02
j Aj Ajuγ j
0 2.7368 –0.1390 –0.1863 –0.5930 –1.0405 –1.3577 –1.3684 –1.3577 –1.0405 –0.5930 –0.1390 –0.1863
1 9.5000 –0.0006 –0.0012 0 0 0 0 –1.1875 –0.5511 –0.1563 –0.0310 –0.0489
–1 –8.0000 0.0261 0.0412 0.1316 0.4641 1.0000 0 0 0 0 0.0004 0.0010
ΣAa –0.1135 –0.1463 –0.4614 –0.5764 –0.3577 –1.3684 –2.5452 –1.5916 – 0.7493 – 0.1696 – 0.2342
j Bj Bj uqj
0 – 0.4474 0.4485 0.3991 0.2888 0.1876 0.0782 0 –0.0782 –0.1876 – 0.2888 – 0.4485 – 0.3991
1 –2.1068 –1.4439 –1.2114 –0.6428 –0.0942 0.4864 0.6706 0.4864 –0.0942 –0.6428 –1.4439 –1.2141
2 0.6490 –0.4456 –0.3756 –0.1913 –0.0251 0.0749 0 –0.0749 0.0251 0.1913 0.4456 0.3756
* 0.5320 0 0 2.4849 0.6320 0.1693 0.0847 0.0564 0.0454 0.0431 0.0423 0.0423
** –0.0700 0.0056 0.0056 0.0057 0.0060 0.0074 0.0111 0.0223 0.0832 0.3270 0 0
ΣBb –1.435 –1.185 1.945 0.7063 0.816 0.766 0.412 0.128 –0.370 –1.404 –1.195
v′x ΣBb+ ΣAa –1.5485 –1.3313 1.4836 0.1299 0.4583 –0.6024 –2.1332 –1.7196 –1.1193 –1.5736 –1.4292
ΣBb– ΣAa –1.3211 –1.0387 2.4064 1.2827 1.1737 2.1344 2.9572 1.4636 0.3793 –1.2344 – 0.9608

Calculation of velocities and thicknesses
K –3 –5/2 –2 –1 0 1 2 5/2 3
nK = nK /(l/2) 0.01 0.02 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.01 0.02
wx + vx′′ 11.4356 11.4201 11.3379 10.7821 9.7638 8.8494 7.8712 7.6069 7.5280
w = wx + vx′′ + v x′ 9.8871 10.1043 12.9037 11.4678 11.2404 9.1614 6.7162 6.1516 6.4876 5.9544 6.0988
10.1145 10.3969 13.8265 12.6206 11.9558 11.8982 11.8066 9.3348 7.9862 6.2936 6.5672
QK 0.1330 0.3044 0.4057 0.6439 0.6772 0.4472 0.1587 0.0672 0.0175
QK 0.0135 0.0132 0.0242 0.0354 0.0577 0.0740 0.0652 0.0256 0.0104 0.0029 0.0029
d(y) = 1
[w(0) + w( y ) ] 0.0131 0.0128 0.0227 0.0323 0.0539 0.0571 0.0383 0.0171 0.0084 0.0027 0.0027
455
2
456
Calculation of velocities (v′x′ )
K –5/2 –2 –1 0 0 +1 +1
nK = nK/(l/2) 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.03 0.04 0.06 0.07
j Aj A j uγ j
0 2.7368 –0.5324 –0.5254 –0.9569 –0.9333 –1.2851 –1.2711 –1.3197 –1.3099 –1.3003 –1.2906 –1.3137 –1.2993 –1.2711 –1.2572
1 9.5000 –0.0025 –0.0036 –0.0043 –0.0056 –0.0142 –0.0170 0.1502 –0.1656 –0.1791 –0.1909 –1.0546 –1.0287 –0.9793 –0.9557
–1 –8.0000 0.1602 0.1735 0.4430 + 0.4372 0.8822 0.8609 0.1320 0.1456 0.1574 0.1678 0.0075 0.0100 0.0150 0.0174
ΣAa –0.3747 –0.3555 –0.5182 –0.5017 –0.4171 –0.4272 –1.3379 –1.3299 –1.3220 –1.3137 –2.3608 –2.3180 –2.2354 –2.1955
j Bj Bj u q j
0 –0.4474 0.2782 0.2683 0.1858 0.1845 0.0779 0.0778 0 0 0 0 0.0781 –0.0780 –0.0778 –0.0776
1 –2.1068 –0.6123 –0.5741 –0.1164 –0.1200 0.4367 0.4275 0.6106 0.6098 0.6002 0.5906 0.4559 0.4462 0.4275 0.4185
2 0.6490 –0.1872 0.1777 –0.0386 –0.0417 0.0598 0.0570 0 0 0 0 –0.0656 –0.0626 –0.0570 –0.0543
* 0.5320 1.8482 1.3998 0.6018 0.5803 0.1677 0.1669 0.0845 0.0844 0.0843 0.0841 0.0564 0.0564 0.0564 0.0563
** –0.0700 0.0057 0.0057 0.0060 0.0060 0.0074 0.0074 0.0111 0.0111 0.0111 0.0111 0.0222 0.0221 0.0220 0.0219
ΣBb 1.3326 0.9220 0.6386 0.6091 0.7495 0.7366 0.7152 0.7053 0.6956 0.6858 0.3908 0.3841 0.3711 0.3648
v′x = ΣBb + ΣAa 0.9579 0.5670 0.1204 0.1074 0.3324 0.3094 – – –0.6264 –0.6279 – – –1.8643 –1.8307

ΣBb –ΣAa 1.7073 1.2770 1.1568 1.1108 1.1666 1.1638 2.0531 2.0352 – – 2.7516 1.7021 –
+ 2 + 5/2
0.01 0.02 0.03 0.01 0.02

–1.0105 –0.9827 –0.9569 –0.5492 –0.5324
–0.5192 –0.5112 –0.5040 –0.1662 –0.1823
0.0013 0.0025 0.0038 0.0013 0.0025
–1.5284 –1.4914 –1.4571 –0.7141 –0.7122
–0.1874 –0.1868 –0.1858 –0.2858 –0.2782
–0.1037 –0.1111 –0.1164 –0.6390 –0.6122
0.0304 0.0349 0.0386 0.1929 0.1872
0.0454 0.0454 0.0454 0.0431 0.0431
0.0827 0.0813 0.0792 0.3010 0.2432
–0.1326 –0.1363 –0.1390 –0.3878 –0.4169
– –1.6277 –1.5961 –1.1019 –1.1291
+1.3958 1.3551 – 0.3263 0.2953
TABLE D-6.26
Calculation velocities and thickness
K –3 –5/2 –2 –1 0 1 2 2,5 +3
nK = nK/(l/2) 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.06 0.07 0.02 0.03 0.01 0.02
0.05 0.06 0.03 0.04 0.01 0.02 0.00 0.01
wx + v′′x 11.4201 11.3379 10.7821 9.7638 8.8494 7.8712 7.6069
v′x 0.9579 0.5670 0.1204 0.1074 0.3324 0.3094 –0.6294 –0.6279 –1.8643 –1.8307 –1.6277 –1.5961 –1.1019 –1.1291
1.7073 1.2770 1.1568 1.1108 1.1666 1.1638 2.0531 2.0532 2.7516 1.7021 +1.3958 1.3551 0.3263 0.2953
w = wx + v′′x + v′x 12.372 11.9871 11.4583 11.4453 11.1145 11.0915 9.1370 9.1359 6.9851 7.0187 6.2435 6.2751 6.5050 6.4780
13.127 12.6970 12.4947 12.4487 11.9487 11.9459 11.8169 11.7990 11.6010 11.5515 9.2670 9.2263 7.9860 7.9330
QK 0.3044 0.4057 0.6439 0.6772 0.4472 0.1587 0.0672
QK
d(y) = 0.0239 0.0245 0.0354 0.0354 0.0576 0.0577 0.0740 0.0740 0.0653 0.0651 0.0256 0.0255 0.0103 0.0102
1
2
W ( 0) + W ( y) 
0.0225 0.0231 0.0323 0.0324 0.0539 0.0539 0.0571 0.0572 0.0382 0.0383 0.0171 0.0172 0.0084 0.0084
w 9.99 12.22 11.45 11.10 9.14 7.00 6.26 6.50 6.03
(Final Value) 10.26 13.01 12.48 11.95 11.81 11.56 9.24 7.94 6.43
457
458
TABLE D-6.27
Calculation of coordinates of skeleton (Relative values)
K –3 –5/2 –2 –1 0 +1 +2 + 5/2 +3 ∑
cos α i MKi cos α i
0.88606
0.86699
0.87295
0.79201
0.65584
0.61236
x′′K –0.87540 –0.84439 –0.75500 –0.43596 0 0.42209 0.68791 0.75166 0.77269 –0.27643

sin α i MKi sin α i
y′′k –0.48238 –0.46823 –0.42374 –0.24384 0 0.26795 0.51840 0.59533 0.62216 0.38565
0.40617
0.46356
0.49833
0.48782
0.61055
0.75490
0.79059
xK′ = x3′′ − xK′′ 1.64809 1.61708 1.52769 1.20865 0.77269 0.35060 0.08478 0.02103 0
yK′ = y3′′ − yK′′ 1.10454 1.09039 1.04590 0.86500 0.62216 0.35421 0.10376 0.02683 0
Calculation of relative coordinates of profile
2δ 2δ
∆S * = = 0.0087; ∆S ** = 00018;
3 K −3 3 K +3
∆S * cos α–3 = 0.0080 ; ∆S ** cos α+3 = 0.0011;
∆S * sin α–3 = 0.0035 ; ∆S ** sin α+3 = 0.0014 ;
K * –3 –5/2 –2 –1 0 1 2 5/2 3 **
1. xK′ 1.6481 1.6171 1.5277 1.2087 0.7727 0.3506 0.0848 0.0210 0
2. yK′ 1.1045 1.0904 1.0459 0.8660 0.6222 0.3542 0.1038 0.0268 0

3. sin αK 0.40617 0.42391 0.46356 0.49833 0.48782 0.61055 0.75490 0.78318 0.79059
4. cos αk 0.91380 0.90570 0.88606 0.86699 0.87295 0.79201 0.65584 0.62179 0.61236
5. d1 0.0134 0.0242 0.0354 0.0577 0.0740 0.0652 0.0256 0.0103 0.0029
6. d2 0.0130 0.0223 0.0324 0.0539 0.0572 0.0383 0.0172 0.0084 0.0027
7. (3) × (5) 0.0054 0.0103 0.0164 0.0288 0.0361 0.0398 0.0193 0.0081 0.0023
8. (4) × (5) 0.0122 0.0219 0.0314 0.0500 0.0646 0.0516 0.0168 0.0064 0.0018
9. (3) × (6) 0.0053 0.0097 0.0150 0.0269 0.0279 0.0234 0.0130 0.0066 0.0021
10. (4) × (6) 0.0119 0.0206 0.0287 0.0467 0.0499 0.0303 0.0113 0.0052 0.0016
11. x1 = (1) + (7) + 0.0011 1.6572 1.6546 1.6285 1.5452 1.2386 0.8099 0.3915 0.1052 0.0302 0.0034
12. y1 = (2) –(8) + 0.0014 1.1094 1.0937 1.0699 1.0159 0.8174 0.5590 0.3040 0.0884 0.0218 –0.0004 0
13. x2 = (1) –(9) + 0.0011 1.6439 1.6085 1.5138 1.1829 0.7459 0.3283 0.0729 0.0155 –0.0010 0
14. y2 = (2) + (10) +0.0014 1.1178 1.1124 1.0760 0.9141 0.6735 0.3859 0.1165 0.0334 0.0030
15. (11) –(13) 0.0107 0.0200 0.0314 0.0557 0.0640 0.0632 0.0323 0.0147 0.0044
16. (14) –(12) 0.0241 0.0425 0.0601 0.0967 0.1145 0.0819 0.0281 0.0116 0.0034
17. (15)2 +(16)2 0.000695 0.002206 0.00460 0.01245 0.01721 0.01070 0.00183 0.000351 0.0000309
18. [(5) + (6)]2 = (17) 0.000697 0.002209 0.00460 0.01245 0.01721 0.01071 0.00183 0.000350 0.0000313
x* = ′
x–3 + ∆S
*
cos α–3 + ∆S ** cos α+3 = 1,6575
y* y−′ 3 ∆S * sin α–3 ∆S ** sin α+3 = 1,1091
459
= + +
460
Section I : Vari. A—AFP 450
TABLE D-6.29
Coordinates of the profile
Section * –3 –5/2 –2 –1 0 1 2 5/2 3 **
rI =122.8 mm X1 9.35 9.63 12.42 21.33 54.13 100.00 144.76 175.40 183.42 186.29 186.65
YI 158.88 157.20 154.66 148.88 127.64 100.00 72.71 49.65 42.52 40.15 40.19
R 5.03 7.25 11.94 14.04 11.07 4.58 2.00
rII = 134.1 mm X1 7.87 8.17 11.05 20.11 53.40 100.00 145.93 177.91 186.35 189.34 189.71
Y1 152.72 151.25 148.93 143.76 124.56 100.00 76.21 55.86 49.61 47.57 47.64
R 4.49 6.39 10.41 12.21 9.30 3.85 1.80
rIII = 145.4 mm X1 6.48 6.78 9.75 18.97 52.75 100.00 146.88 179.88 188.63 191.72 192.07
Y1 147.10 145.87 143.78 139.17 121.85 100.00 79.07 60.91 55.35 53.57 53.67
R 3.86 5.43 8.78 10.24 7.58 3.17 1.59

rIV =156.7 mm X1 5.19 5.46 8.52 17.90 52.18 100.00 147.61 181.30 190.27 193.42 193.74
Y1 142.04 141.06 139.21 135.11 119.50 100.00 81.30 64.79 59.74 58.15 58.26
R 3.15 4.38 7.05 8.12 5.92 2.55 1.38
rV =168.0 mm X1 4.00 4.20 7.35 16.90 51.69 100.00 148.11 182.18 191.27 194.44 194.72
Y1 137.52 136.83 135.23 131.59 117.52 100.00 82.90 67.51 62.79 61.31 61.43
R 2.36 3.24 5.21 5.86 4.31 1.98 1.18
Rounding Section I II III IV V

off Radius leading 1.41 1.24 1.05 0.83 0.59
trailing 0.31 0.30 0.28 0.26 0.25
Section I : Pump—AFP 450
TABLE D-6.30
Theoretical pressure and velocity distribution on the profile
u2
r = 122.8 mm; u = 10.2918 m/sec; u2 = 105.9512; = 1.1309
2 gH
–3 –5/2 –2 –1 0 +1 +2 +5/2 +3
w 9.99 12.22 11.45 11.10 9.14 7.00 6.26 6.50 6.03

10.26 13.01 12.48 11.95 11.81 11.56 9.24 7.94 6.43
w2 99.8840 149.3284 131.1025 123.2100 83.5396 49.0000 89.1876 42.2500 36.3199
105.1794 169.2601 155.7504 142.8085 139.4761 133.6336 85.3776 63.0436 40.9651
u −w
2 2
0.0648 –0.4630 –0.2685 –0.1842 0.2499 0.6079 0.7126 0.6799 0.7432
p=
2 gH 0.0082 –0.6757 –0.5315 –0.3933 –0.3578 –0.2955 0.2196 0.4580 0.6936
w2max − u 2
σ= = 0.5315 2gH = 93.6880
2 gH
SECTION III
u2
r = 145.4 mm; u = 12.1858 m/sec; u2 = 148.4937; = 1.5850
2 gH
K –3 –5/2 –2 –1 0 +1 +2 +5/2 +3
w 11.75 13.77 12.84 12.42 10.35 8.85 8.50 8.93 8.48

12.05 14.73 14.14 13.50 13.37 13.27 11.52 10.46 8.92
w2 136.1002 189.6129 164.8656 154.2564 107.1225 78.3225 72.2500 79.7449 72.0139
142.4729 216.9729 199.9396 182.2500 178.7569 176.0929 132.7104 109.4116 79.5180
461
462
u 2 − w2 0.1323 –0.4289 –0.1747 –0.0615 0.4416 0.7490 0.8138 0.7338 0.8163
p=
2 gH 0.0643 –0.7309 –0.5491 –0.3603 –0.3230 –0.2946 0.1685 0.4172 0.7342
w2max − u 2
σ= = 0.5491
2 gH
SECTION V
u2
r = 168.00 mm; u = 14.0799 m/sec; u2 = 198.2436; = 2.1160
2 gH
–3 –5/2 –2 –1 0 +1 +2 +5/2 +3
w 13.77 15.16 14.20 13.62 12.05 10.73 10.76 11.46 11.14

14.07 16.16 15.70 15.12 14.99 15.05 13.67 12.91 11.55
w2 189.6129 229.8256 201.6400 185.5044 145.2025 115.1329 115.7776 131.3316 124.0996

197.9649 261.1456 246.4900 228.6144 224.7001 226.5025 186.8689 166.6681 133.402
u −w
2 2
0.0921 –0.3371 –0.0363 0.1360 0.5661 0.8871 0.8802 0.7142 0.7914
p=
2 gH 0.0030 –0.6714 –0.5150 –0.3242 –0.2824 –0.3016 0.1214 0.3370 0.6921
w2max − u 2
σ= = 0.5150
2 gH
Section I Section III Section IV
r (s) r (s) r (s)
5 5 5
4 4 4
3 3 3
2 2 2
1 1 1
–2 –1 0 1 2 3 –3–2,5–2 –1 0 1 2 2,5 3 –3–2,5–2 –1 0 1 2 2,5 3
Fig. D-6.3. γ (s) distribution
W
16 16
V
15
14 III 14
13 13
12 I
V
11
1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10
10 10
III
9
I
8
7
6
–3 –2 –1 0 +1 +2 +3
1 –2.5 +2.5 + 1
–2 2
–1.0 –0.5 +0.5 +1.0
Fig. D-6.4. Velocity distribution on the profiles

2 2
u –w
p=
2gH
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
–2 –0.5 +0.5 +2.5
–1.0 +1.0
–2.5 –1 +1 +2 +3
–3
–0.1
–0.2
–0.3
–0.4
–0.5
–0.6
–0.7
–0.8
–0.9
Fig. D-6.5. Pressure distribution along the profiles at I, III, V section
2 4
1 3 6
5
φ350
φ470
1. Conical outlet at diffuser 2. Diffuser hub 3. Diffuser blades. 4. Impeller hub.

5. Impeller blades 6. Impeller inlet cone
Fig. D-6.6. Axial flow pump cross-section assembly (Cylindrical)
Fig. D-6.7. Impeller (cylindrical)

Fig. D-6.8. Diffuser
Fig. D-6.9. Pump assembly (Conical impeller)

(a) (b)
Fig. D-6.10. Impeller (conical hub) (a) front view (b) side view
kH
0.30
0.25
%
60
00
=8 0
C 90
η = 55% 1000 % 68%
65 00 %
11 69 %
70
% 72%
1200 71
0.20
η = 50%
C = 1300
η = 72%
1300
71%
0
120 70%
69%
68%
0.15 1100
65%
0 1000
40
=
ns
°
900 60% ϕ = +15
800
700 55%
0
50
0.10 600 50%
500 °
ϕ = +10
0
60
700 η = 45%
800
ϕ = +5°
900
0.05 1000
1100
1200
30
1 0 0 ϕ = –5° ϕ = –0°
0 °
14 ϕ = –10
1500
0 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.50 0.55 0.60 0.65 K
Q
Fig. D-6.11. Universal characteristics of axial flow machine as pump (ns = 450) (cylinder hub)
0.30
0.25
kH
0
40
0
50
0.20 65
0
110
00
00
1200
14
13
00
70
10
72
74 600
0
90
75
13 120
0
00
40 75
=
ns
0.15 0 74 700
0
72
80
70
11
00
ηs = 8
00
10
0
50
00
65
700 900
600
0.10 60 1000
C=
700
80
90
1100
0
1200
800
55
70 1300
900 0 1400
1500
1000
0.05
1100
1200 5°
1300 1400 5° 0° φ°
1500
HSY – Q 1 2
10°
.
H SY – Q
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5 0.55 0.6 KQ
Fig. D-6.12. Universal characteristics of axial flow machines as pump

(ns = 550) – conical hub
1.1 469
00
=2
ϕ = –5° ϕ = 0° ns
ϕ = –10° ϕ = +5°
1.0
ϕ = +10°
0
n s = 25
0.9
ϕ = +15°
0.8
50
η= 0
55
n s = 30
0.7
60
=
η
65
0.6
45
η=
70 350
76
0.5
73
65
20
75
2
=
71 = 7 =
η4
η
s
n
400
0.4
65
η=
0
25
500
0.3
0 60
30 600
0
35
0.2
400 55
500 600
0.1
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3
Fig. D-6.13. Universal characteristics of axial flow machine as turbine

(ns = 450) (cylindrical hub)
00
=2
ϕ = –10° ns
ϕ = 0°
ϕ = –5° ϕ = 5°
48 ϕ = +10°
0.9 ns = 250
η = 52
0.8
56
0.7 0
n s = 30
η = 60
0
20
0.6
64
=
s
n
350
0.5
68
400
0
25 η = 72
0.4
0 76
30
500
0.3
0
35 η = 80
4 0
0 600
0.2 700
500
800
600
700
0.1 800
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2
kQ
Fig. D-6.14. Universal characteristics of axial flow machine as turbine

ns = 550 (conical hub)
°
–5
ϕ=
0°
° +1
0 ° +5 ϕ=
–1 ϕ = 0° 20
0 ϕ=
ϕ= ns
=
1.0 0
n s = 25
ϕ = +15°
60
0.9
65
45
0.8
50
60
55
=
65 300
η
=
η
0.7
70
72
0.6
350
75
74
0.5 00 76 5
72 70 6
=2 74
ns 400
75
0.4
50 ns = 500
=2
ns 60
0.3
00
=3 50 55
600
ns 70
58 72
0.2 60 η = 72 700
64
0
70
68
800
35
ns
=
00 64 ϕ = +15°
=4 60
0.1 n s 500
=
56 ϕ = +10°
ns 52
00
= 6 00
48 ϕ = +5°
n s = 7 800 ϕ = 0°
ns = ϕ = –5°
ns ϕ = –10°
0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Fig. D-6.15. Universal characteristics of axial flow pump-turbine unit

ns = 450 (cylindrical hub)
Q = 0°; K Q = 0.316; K H = 0.170

Q, lit/sec
180 1% Q
170
160
H, M
1
M, kr
11
10
7 Hs(max)
6
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Fig. D-6.16. Actual cavitation test results of axial flow pump
Design
1200
+ +
1100 +
1000 Experiment
115.5 122.8 168 Radius

145.4 175
Fig. D-6.17. Comparison of design and experimental values of C

Design No. D7
TABLE D-7.1
Profile losses calculation
C 2∞ C 2Z
v = 1.07 10–6 m2/sec; = = 1,1111
2g 2g
I III V
S. No. Section Convex Concave Convex Concave Convex Concave
1. CZ m/sec 4.6690
2. Wu2∞m/sec 5.2118 7.8758 10.3599
CZ m
3. tg β2∞ = 0.695851 0.592828 0.450680
Wu 2∞
4. sin β2∞ 0.667255 0.509959 0.410896

5. l chord length (mm) 213.98 207.65 205.22
6. t pitch (mm) 110.3 130.6 150.9
7. w1∞ = C 2z + u 2 m/sec 11.3010 13.0499 14.8328

8. w2∞ m/sec 6.9973 9.1556 11.3630
9. w 22∞ m/sec 48.9622 83.8250 129.1178
10. w2∞ : w1∞ 0.619175 0.701583 0.766072
w1∞l
11. Re = 2.2600 × 106 2.5325 × 166 2.8448 × 106
ν
—
12. S (Re) from graph 10.53 0.210 0.202 0.189
—
13. Smin 0.0238 0.0220 0.0199
473
wmax
14. U max = 1.1512 1.0813 1.1380 1.0662 1.0881 1.0214
w1∞
15. pmin =1 – U 2 max = 1 – (14)2 –0.3253 –0.1692 – 0.2950 – 0.1368 – 0.1840 –0.0433
16. SH = S + Smin = (12) +(13) 0.2338 0.2240 0.2089
p1 C12∞
17. = 10 – SH – 10.8889
γ 2g
—
18. Pm 0.5042 0.5626 0.4256 0.4958 0.3993 0.4707
19. rx from graph 10.54 1.295 1.4000 1.3300 1.4200 1.3500 1.4300
20. S K = rx × S H 0.3028 0.3273 0.2979 0.3181 0.2820 0.2987
SH
∫U
4.8
21. B= dS 0.3433 0.1278 0.2978 0.1947 0.2592 0.1350
0
—
22. UH 1.0580 0.9870 1.0400 0.9570 1.0250 0.8800
3 ,8
23. UH 1.2390 0.9517 1.1608 0.8463 1.0983 0.6160
—
24. UH Re = (11). (22) 2.3911 × 106 2.2306 × 106 2.6338 × 106 2.4236 × 106 2.915 × 106 2.5034 × 106
0.44 B 0.44.(21)
25. θ = 3.8
= 0.1219 0.0591 0.1129 0.1012 0.1038 0.09710
U H (23)
26. GeH = Reθ = (11). (25) 0.27549 × 106 0.13357 × 106 0.28592 × 106 0.25629 × 106 0.29529 × 106 0.27623 ×106
27. ReH** = G1H = (26) 5.2487 × 102 3.6549 × 102 5.3471 × 102 5.0625 × 102 5.4341 × 102 5.2558 ×102
ReH** (27)
28. δH** = = 2.1951 × 10–4 1.6385 × 10–4 2.0302 × 10–4 2.0888 × 10–4 1.8636 × 10–4 2.0995 ×10–4
ReU H (24)
29. δ**H = δ**H. l = (28). (5) 0.04697 × 10–3 0.03506 × 10–3 0.04216 × 10–3 0.04337 × 10–3 0.03822 × 10–3 0.04309 ×10–3
30. U H5.5 1.3630 0.9305 1.2405 0.7860 1.1456 0.4960
31. GH=1259 ( Re** )1/10 673 698 672 675 671 673
32. CH = (28) (30) (31) 0.2014 0.1064 0.1692 0.1108 0.1433 0.0701
—
33. UK 1.0530 0.945 1.0300 0.9170 1.0170 0.9000
34. U K4.5 1.2620 0.7743 1.1420 0.6775 1.0790 0.6225
SK
∫U
5.5
35. B= dS 0.0939 0.0836 0.0964 0.0710 0.0782 0.0561
SH
36. 0.9 B + CH = 0.9 (35) + (32) 0.2859 0.1816 0.2560 0.1747 0.2137 0.1206
(11)(36)
37. G1K = 0.5120 ×106 0.5301 ×106 0.5677 ×106 0.6530 ×106 0.5634 ×106 0.5511 ×106
(34)
38. G1K : 1259 0.4067 ×103 0.4211 ×103 0.4509 ×103 0.5187 ×103 0.4475 ×103 0.4377 ×103
39. Rek**= (38)10/9 792.9 824.1 889.2 1040 881.6 860.4
—
40. Re UK = (11). (33) 2.3798 ×106 2.1357 ×106 2.6085 ×106 2.3223 ×106 2.8932 ×106 2.5603 ×106
δ **K (39)
41. δ **K = = 0.3332 ×10–3 0.3859 ×10–3 0.3409 ×10–3 0.4478 ×10–3 0.3047 ×10–3 0.3361 ×10–3
ReU K (40)
42. δ**K= δ**K . l = (41). (5) 0.071298×10–3 0.082575×10–3 0.07079×10–3 0.09299×10–3 0.062531×10–3 0.068974×10–3
43. U 3.8 K 1.2170 0.8065 1.1178 0.7192 1.0661 0.6700

**1/ 6
44. GK = 153.2 ReK 466.03 469.10 475.23 487.64 474.31 472.47
45. CK = (43) (41) (44) 0.1890 0.1460 0.1811 0.1571 0.1541 0.1064
46. U KP 0.5509 0.6503 0.7490
2.8
47. U KP 0.1885 0.3000 0.4460
l
∫U
3.8
48. B= dS 0.7313 0.2383 0.7023 0.2476 0.7399 0.3048
SK
49. 1.17 B +CK =1.17 (48) +(45) 1.0446 0.4763 1.0028 0.4468 1.0198 0.4630
(49)(11)
50. G1KP = 12.5241 ×106 5.6865 ×106 8.4658 ×106 3.7718 ×106 6.5048 ×106 2.9532 ×106
(47)
51 G1KP : 153.2 0.8175 ×105 0.3712 ×105 0.5526 ×105 0.2462 ×105 0.4246 ×105 0.1928 ×105
**
52. ReKP = (51)6/7 0.1625 ×105 0.08256 ×105 0.1161 ×105 0.05808 ×105 0.09262 ×105 0.04709 ×105
53. Re U KP = (11). (46) 1.245 ×106 1.647 × 106 2.13 × 106
**
ReKP (52)
54. δKP** = = 0.01306 0.00663 0.00704 0.003522 0.00435 0.00221
U KP Re (53)
55. δ**KP = δKP** l = (54) (5) 0.002793 0.001426 0.001469 0.000732 0.000893 0.000453
56. wKP : w2∞ = (46) : (10) 0.8897 0.9269 0.9777

57. (56)3/2 0.6880 0.7842 0.9305
58. (9) (57) [(55)Convex+ (55)Concave] 0.1424 0.1439 0.1626
59. gt sin β2∞ 0.7220 0.6534 0.6083
60. hf = (58) : (59) 0.197 0.222 0.266
HT − h f
61. η p= % 96.3 95.6 94.7
HT
(average) (ηhp) = 95.6%

TABLE D-7.2: Computer programme in C++ for profile loss calculation for impeller
# include < stdio. h>

# include < math. h>
# include < Conio. h>
# define Z 7.0
# define pi 22/7
char hip ;
void main ()
}
int i ;
float xy [10], xy 2 [10], hf1 [10], B1_inf [10];
float eff [10], eff [10], effy = 0 effy = 1 = 0, efft, efft 1;
float
CxCtu [10], CvCtu [10], CxRetust 2 [10], CvRetust 2 [10], CvBtu [10], CxUtu [10], CvUtu [10];
float
Cxde1 tatust_ tr [10], Cvde1 tatust_2 [10], Cvde1 tatist 2 [10], Cxde1 tatust2 [10] ;
float CvCtr [10], CxCtr [10], CvRetrst 2 [10], CxRetrst 2 [10] ;
float
CxB_1 [10], CxU_1 [10], CxPU_1 [10], CxUR_1 [10], Cxthetal [10], CxRe1 [10], Cxde1tast 2_1
[10], Cxde1 tast 21 [10] ;
float
CvB_1 [10], CvU_1 [10], CvUR_1 [10], CvX1 [10], CxRe1 st 2 [10], Cvde1 tast2_1 [10], Cvde1
tast 21 [10];
float Nu = 1 1.07 e-9 = 9.81 ;
float Cz, HS, P1_r, H,W1_inf [10], t [10] ;
float U [10], r [10], B2_inf [10] ;
float Wt ;
float W2_inf [10], del_t_xx, hw ;
float Wu2_ inf [10], Ret_xx, U_t, Re1 [10], U_t1,B, Ce ;
float W1,max U1_max, P1_max ;
float P1 P1m, P1_min ;
float b, Bb, U_1, d_s, U1-t ;
float U 1_b, Reb_xx, del_b_xx ;
float U11, Cb, Ree_ xx, del_e, del_e ;
float x, n de1_xx, del1_e_xx ;
float s [10], s_min [10], s1 [10] ;
float 1b, ub B_b, Q Xb, ReH_xx ;
float de11_bxx, de11_e_xx ;
float Ct, k, Gt, T ;

float St1, Ut1, B_t, sb1 ;
float X_t, Ge, de11_t xx, Xe ;
float de1_e_xx, de11_cv ;
float de1_ t_xx_cv ;
float Ret_xx_cv, U1_max_cv, P1_max_cv ;
float W1_max_cv, U1_max_cv.P1_max_cv ;
float P1_cv, P1m_cv, P1_t_cv :
float B_b_cv, Reb_xx_cv, del_b_xx_cv ;
float U1_b_cv, Reb_xx_cv, de1_b_xx_ cv ;
float U11_cv, Cb_cv, Ree_xx_cv, Be_cv, U1_e_cv, del_e_cv ;
float de1_xx_cv, U_cv, 1b1,ib1 ;
float Q_cv, Xb_cv, Reh,xx_cv ;
float de11_b_xx_cv, de11_e_xx_cv ;
float Ct_cv, k_cv, Gt_cv ;
float Sr1_cv, Ut1_cv, B_t_cv ;
float X_t_cv, Ge_cv, de11_t_xx_c, Xe_cv ;
int ch ;
fflush (stdin) ;
clrscr () ;
/ * data available * /
printf (” /n this program calculates the profile losses in axial flow /pumps /n/n”) ;
printf (” this is impleted in c language /t/t/n/n”) ;
printf (” /n give input parameters /n”) ;
printf (” /n ******** general detailss ******** ”) ;
printf (” /n give the values for Cz, Hs, n, P1 r, H/n”) ;
scanf (“%f %f %f %f f ”, & Cz, & Hs, & n, & P1_ r, & H) ;
for (i = 1 ; i < = 3 ; i ++ )
{
printf (” enter the value of r %d”, i) ;
scanf (“%f ” & r [i]) ;
U [i] = (( 2.0* pi * r [i]* n) /60.0) ;
W1_inf [i] = sqrt (( Cz* Cz) +(U [i] * U [i] )) ;
B1_ inf [i] = atan (Cz/ U [i] ) ;
printf (” B1_inf [%d] = %f /n ” , i, B1_ inf [i]) ;
printf (” / nU [%d] = %f /n W1_inf [%d] = %f /n “, i U [i], i, w1_ inf [i] ;
printf (” / ngive the value of wu2_inf [i] :”, i) ;
scanf (“%f ”, & Wu2_inf [i]) ;
B2_inf [i] = atan (Cz/Wu2_inf [i]) ;
printf (” /nB2_inf (%d] = %f ”, i, (B2_inf [i] )) ;

printf (” /n sin (B2_ inf [%d] = %f ”, i, sin (B2_inf [i] * (180/pi ))) ;
printf (” / ngive the value for 1%d”, i) ;
scanf (“%f ”, & 1 [i] ) ;
t [i] = (2* pi *r [i] ) /Z ;
printf (” /n value of 1%d/ T%d : %f/ n”, i, i, I1 [i] / t [i] )) ;
printf (” /n value of W1_inf [%d] ** 2/2g is : %f ”, i, (W1_inf [i] * W1_inf [i] / (2*g ))) ;
W2_inf [i] = Cz/ sin (B2_inf [i] * (180 /pi)) ;
printf (” /n the value of W2_ inf [%d] is : %f ”, i, W2_inf [i] ;
printf (” /n the value of W2_ inf [%d] square is : %f ”, i, W2_ inf [i] * W2_ inf [i] ;
printf (” /n sthe value of W2_ inf {%d] / W1_ inf [%d] is : % f ”, i,i, W2_ inf [i] / W1_inf [i] ;
Re1 [i] = (( W1_ inf [i] * 1 [i] )) / Nu ;
printf (” /n The value of Re1 %d = = %e “, Re1 [i] ;
getch () ;
clrscr () ;
}
printf (” /n ******** laminar region ********* ”) ;
printf (” /n Give the values or s1, s2, s3 : /n”) ;
scanf (“%f %f %f ”, & s [1], & s_min [2], & s_ min [3] ) ;
for (i = 1 ; i < = 3 ; i ++ )
}
s1 [i] = s [i] + s_ min [i] ;
printf (” /n The value of s1 [%d] = %f ”, i, s1 [i] ) ;
}
for (i = 1 ; i < = 3 ; i ++)
{
{
printf (” / n CONVEX / N”) ;
printf (” / n Enter the values for CxB_1 and CxU_1/n) ;
scanf (“%f f ”, & CxB_ [i], & CxU_1 [i] ;
CxPU _1 [i] = pow (CxU_1 [i], 3.8) ;
CxUR_1 [i] = CxU_1 [i] * Re1 [i] ;
Cxthetal [i] = 0.44 * CxB_ 1 [i] ;
Cxx1 [i] = Re 1 [i] * Cx thta [i] ;
CxRe1 st2 [i] = sqrt 9Cxx1 [i] ;
Cxdel tast 2_1 [i] = CxRe1 st 2 [i] / CxUR_1 [i] ;
Cxdel tast 21 [i] = Cxde 1 tast 2_1 [i] * 1 [i] ;
Cxtr [i] = 1259 * pow (Cxre1 st 2 [i], –0.2) *
Cxde tast2_1 [i] * pow (CxU-1 [i], 5.5) ;
printf (” Enter the value for CxBtr and CxUtr/n”) ;

scanf (“%f %f ”, & Cx Btr [i], & CxUtr [i] ;
CxRetrst 2 [i] = pow (((( 0.9 * CxBtr [i] + CxCtr [i]) * Re1 [i]) / (1259 * pow (CxUtr [i], 4.5 ))),
1.1111) ;
Cxde1 tast2_tr [i] = CxRetrst2 [i] / Re1 [i] * CxUtr [i] ;
Cxde1 tast 2tr [i] = Cxde1 tast 2_tr [i] * 1 [i] ;
CxCtu [i] = 153.2 * pow (CxRetrst 2 [i], 0.167) * Cxde1 tast2_tr [i] * pow (CxUtr [i] = 3.8) ;
printf (” Enter the value for CxUtku and CxBtu /n”) ;
scanf (“% f% f ”, & CxUtu [i], & CxBtu [i]) ;
CxRetust2 [i] = pow ((((1.17 * CxBtu [i] * CxUtu [i] ) ;
Cxdel tatust2 [i] = Cxde tatust _2 [i] * 1 [i] ;
}
printf (” CONCAVE/n”,) ;
scanf (“%f %f ”, & CvB_1 [i], & CvU_1 [i] ;
CvPU_1 [i] = pow (CvU_1 [i], 3.8) ;
CvUR_1[i] = CvU_1 [i] * Re1 [i] ;
Cvtheta [i] = 0.44 * CvB_1 [i] /CvUR_1 [i] ;
CvRe1 st2 [i] = CvRe1 st 2 [i] / CvUR_1 [i] ;
Cvde1 tast2_1 [i] = Cvdel1 tast 2_1 [i] * 1 [i] ;
CvCtr [i] = 1259 * pow (CvRelst2 [i], –0.1 * Cvde1 tast 2_1 [i] * ow (CVU_1 [i], 5.5) ;
printf (” Enter the values for CvBtr and CvUtr /n”) ;
scanf (“%f %f ”, & CvBtr [i], & CvUtr [i]) ;
CvRetrst 2 [i] = pow (((( 0.9 * CvBtr [i] + CvCtr [i] * Re1 [i] / (1259 * pow (CvUtr [i], 4.5)),
1.1111) ;
Cvde1 tast2_tr [i] = CvRetrst2 [i] * CvUtr [i] ;
Cvde1 tast 2tr [i] = Cvde1 tast 2_tr [i] * 1 [i] ;
CvCtu [i] = 153.2 * pow (CvRetrst 2 [i], 0.167 * Cvdel tast 2_tr [i] * pow (CvUtr [i], 3.8) ;
printf (” Enter the value for CvUtu and CvBtu/ n”) ;
scanf (“%f %f ”, & CvUtu [i], & CvBtu [i]) ;
CvRetust 2 [i] = pow (((( 1.17 * CvBtu [i] + CvCtu [i] * Re1 [i] ) / (153.2 * pow (CvUtu [i],
2.8)), 0.8571) ;
Cvde 1 tatust_2 [i] = Cv Retust 2 [i] / ( CvUtu [i] * Re1 [i] ) ;
Cvde1 tatust 2 [i] = Cvde1 tatust_2 [i] * 1 [i] ;
}
}
for (i = 1 ; i < 3 ; 1 ++)
{
printf (” CONVEX/n”) ;
printf (” CxRe1st2 [%d] = %f /n”, “, i, CxRe1st2 [i] :
printf (” Cxdel tast 2_1 [%d] = %f /n”; i, Cxde1 tast 2_1 [i] ;
printf (” Cxde1 tast 21 [%d] = %f /n”, i, Cxde1 tast 21 [i] ;
printf (” CxCtr [%d] = %f /n”, i, CxCtr [i] ;
printf (” CxRetrst 2 [%d] = %f /n”, i, CxRetrst2 [i]) ;
printf (”Cxde1 tast2_tr [%d] = %f /n”, i, Cxde1tast 2_tr [i] ;
printf (” Cxdel tast2 tr [%d] = %f /n”, i Cxde1tast 2tr [i] ;
printf (” CxCtu [%d] = % f/n”, i, CxCtu [i] ;
printf (” CxRetust 2 [%d] = %f /n”, i, CxRetust 2 [i] ;
printf (” Cxde1tatust_2 [%d] = %f /n”, i, Cxde1 tatust_2 [i] ;
printf (” Cxde1 tatust 2 [%d] = %f /n”, i, Cxde1tatust2 [i] ;
printf (” /n CONCAVE /n”) ; = %f /n”, i, CvRe1st2 [i] ;
printf (”CvRe1st 2 [%d] = %f/n”, i, Cvde1 taust2_1 [i] ;
printf (” Cvde1tast 21 [id] = %f /n”, i, Cvde1tast 21 [i] ;
printf (” CvCtr [%d] = %f /n”, i, CvCtr [i] ;
printf (”CvRetrst 2 [%d] = %f /n”, i, CvRetrst2 [i] ;
printf (” Cvde1tast2_tr [%d) = %f /n”, i, Cvde1tast2_tr [i] ;
printf (” Cvde1tast 2tr [%d] = %f /n”, i, Cvde1tast2tr [i] ;
printf (” CvCtu [%d] = %f /n”, i, CvCtu [i] ;
printf (” CvRetust 2 [%d] = %f / n”, i, CvRetust 2 [i] ;
printf (” Cvde1tatust_2 [%d] = %f /n”, i, Cvde1tatust_2 [i] ;
printf (” Cvde1 tatust2 [%d] = %f /n”, i, Cvde1tatust 2 [i] ;
}
Clrscr () ;
gpt i = 1 ; i < = 3 ; i ++ )
{
xy1 [i] = pow (CxUtu [i] * W1__inf [i] /W2 inf [i], 3.2) * Cxde1 tatust 2 [i] ;
xy2 [i] = pow (CvUtu [i] * W1__inf [i] /W2 inf [i], 3.2) * Cvde1 tatust 2 [i] ;
hf1 [i] = (pow (W2_inf [i], 2) * (xy1 [i] + xy2 [i] )) / (g* t [i] * sin (B2_inf [i] * (180 /pi))) ;
printf (“hf1 [%d] = %f /n”, i, hf1 [i] ;
eff [i] = (H-hf1 [i]) / H ;
eff [i] = H / (H+hf1 [i] ;
printf (“eff [%d] = %f /t/teff1 [%d] = %f /n”, i, eff [i], i eff1 [i] ;
effy = effy + eff [i] ;
effy1 = effy1 + eff1 [i] ;
}
efft = effy / 3.
efft1 = effy 1/3 ;
printf (“efficiency = % f /t/t, Efficiency 1 = %f ”, eff, efft1) ;
printf (“/n/n/n PROGRAM END /n”) ;
Design No. D8
DESIGN OF AXIAL FLOW PUMP—AS PER METHOD SUGGESTED
BY PROF. N.E. JOWKOVSKI
Given, H = 3 m; Q = 0.27 m3/sec; n = 900 rpm.
Based on the experimental results already available, Hydraulic efficiency, ηh is assumed = 0.87.
Impeller efficiency ηi = 0.94, K = (5.03 to 5.25) selected 5.24 afterwards. No. of Impeller blades Zi =
4. Suction specific speed, C = 1150.
(1) Impeller Design

H 3
Hm = = = 3.4483
ηh 0.87
Hi = ηi . Hm = 0.94 × 3.4483 = 3.2414 m.
2πn 2 × π × 900
ω= = = 94.2478 rad/sec.
60 60
3 3
Q 0.27
Impeller outer diameter, Di = K = 5.24 = 0.350 m.
n 900
dh
Hub diameter, d = D = 0.5; dh = 0.5Di = 0.175 m.
1
(2) Suction Conditions

4Q 4 × 0.27
Cm = C0 = = = 4.167 m/sec.
π( D12 − d h2 ) π (0.352 − 0.1752 )
n Q 90° 0.27
C= 3/ 4 = 1150 = 3/ 4 HSV = 3.0128 m.
 H SV   H sv 
 10   10 
   
HSV = Hat – HVP – hS or hS = Hat – HVP – HSV
= 10.336 – 0.336 – 3.0128 = 6.9872 m.
∆PV max C2 4.167

= HSV – m = 3.0128 – = 2.1278 m.
γ 2g 2 × 9.81
Selecting the anticavitating profile developed by Moscow Power Institute for hydraulic Machines,
Moscow K = 1.6 taken from its characteristics
Pav ∆P
= K . V max = 1.6 × 2.1278 = 3.4045 m.
γ γ
 f 
Change of the relative curvature   in the radial direction is made such that, the load on the
l 
outer half of the blade (middle to periphery) is low and the load is high between hub and middle.
The Impeller design and diffuser design are given in the following tabular form for hub suction
only. The procedure for other sections will be same. However, the details for all other section are given
whereever necessary.
TABLE D-8.1: Impeller Design
1. radius rI = 94 mm, rII = 118, rIII = 143, rIV = 168 94

πDn
2. u= m/s n = 900 rpm. 8.8592
60
3*. Cm1 = Cm2 = Cm = C0 m/s 4.167
4Q
= constant at all sections
πD12 (1 − d 2 )
C 
4. β1 = tan–1  m  (deg) 25.1°
 u 
5. w1 = (Cm /sin β1 ) m/sec 9.8232
6. (w21 /2g) m 4.9182
 gH m 
Cu2 = 
 u 
7**. m/sec 3.8183
 Cm 2 
8. α2 = tan–1  C  deg 47.5°
 u2 
Cm 2
9. β2 = tan–1 deg 39.6°
(u2 − Cu 2 )
Cm 2
10. w2 = m/sec. 6.5373
sin β 2
11. (w22/2g) m 2.1782
 Cm 
12. β∞ = tan–1  u − Cu 2  deg 31°
 
2 
13. w∞ = (Cm / sin β∞ ) m/s 8.1024
14. (w2∞/2g) m 3.346
 C 2u 2 
(p2 – p1) = γ  H i − kg/m2
2 g 
15. 2498.3

dRz
16. = (p2 – p1) 2 π ri kg 1475.56
dr
dRu γ
=
17. dr g Cu2 Cm 2 π ri 957.8
 dRu 
δ = tan–1 
 dRz 
18. 33°
19. λ = δ – β∞ deg 2.05

dy cos λ dRz
20. lift force , Y = = 1758.27
dr cosδ dr
 dy   dpav 
length, l =   /  Z
21.
 dr   γ  mm. 129.28 (130).
2πr
22. t= 147.66
Z
 t
23. Relative pitch, T =   1.1421
l
 fm 
24.   × 100 7.0
l
Curvature selected for other
Sections II = 6.4, III = 5.5, IV = 3.0
 δm 
25. Relative Profile Thickness δ m =   × 100 10.0
 l 
For other sections II—7.8, III—5.5, IV—3.0
 dy  w∞2 
26. CY =   γZl  1.01
 dr 2g 
27. α (δ in Fig.) from Fig. 10.36 angle of attack deg 10.3°
28. βeI = β∞ + α. 41.25
 Γ ca 
m1 = 
 Γ1 
29. from Fig. 10.37 0.7675
30. m2 = (α0Ca – α01 ) from Fig. 10.37 – 0.6

31. θ = (β1 + α) 35.4

32. α1 = (θ – β∞) 4.4°
 l2 f
33. R=  +  mm. 237
 m
8 f 2 
CY  w∞2 
pmin =
34. 1.6  w12  0.429
Cm2 w12
35. HS (check) = Hat – HVP – – pmin 7
2g 2g
n ν 900 × 0.27
36. (check) C = 3/ 4
= 1153
 H SV  (0.3)3/ 4
 
10 
TABLE D-8.2: Design of diffuser
z=7
1. radius ri mm. same as for Impeller 94

2. Cm3= 1.065 Cm2 4.4379
(constant for all other sections)
3. Γα = Cu2 r m/s 4.4379
(constant for all sections)
pav 1
4. K1 = 1 + ⋅ 1.036
γ t sinβ 2
Cm 3
5. α3 = tan –1 C (deg) 49.3°
u2
6. angle of divergence (2ε)° 8°

l  1 − sin α3 
= 
7. t  2tan ε  1.73
2πr
8. t= mm Z = 7 84.37
Z
 l
9. l =   × t mm 146
t
 α3 
10. Blade Height, H = lcos  45° −  136.9
2
11. ∆ from Table deg 15.7°
1
12. β = 45 – (α – ∆) 28.2
2 3
1 − sin α3 
13. Checkup ε = tan –1  l  4°
 2 
 t 
14. θ = (α3 + β) 77.5°

l
15. R= 238.2
2sin β
 δm   h 
16.    in figure and Text  0.055
l l
17. δ (h) mm. 12.5
The mean line (or) the camber line is an arc of a circle of Radius ‘R’. The mean line is dressed
with the thick profile for which the entire characteristics are known (from the wind Tunnel Test).
APPENDIX I
y max
EQUATIONS RELATING Cy, , δ ° FOR DIFFERENT PROFILES
l
y max
1. For Profiles 428, 682, 364, 480 CY = 4.8 + 0.092 δ° ... (1)
l
ymax
2. For Profiles 408, 490, 436, 387 CY = 4.4 + 0.092 δ° ... (2)
l
ymax
3. For Profiles 622, 623, 624, 384 CY = 4.0 + 0.092 δ° ... (3)
l
ymax
4. For Profiles (Camber line is arc of a circle) 608, 609, 610 CY = 5.0 + 0.092 δ° ... (4)
l
d max
5. For Profile munk – 6 (260) CY = 1.3 + 0.106 δ° ... (5)
l
d max
6. For NACA Profile 23012 CY = 1.08 1.3 + 0.106 δ° ... (6)
l
where, dmax = Maximum Thickness
7. For Symmetrical Profile No. 443 CY = 0.095 δ° ... (7)
X
t
16–0.09
16–0.06
487
Polar Curves
Aerofoil Sections
Details of Aerofoil Sections
Fig. AP-1.1
APPENDIX
TABLE AP-I.1: Profile coordinates
x 0 1.25 2.5 5.0 7.5 10 15 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 95 100
 y0 0,85 4,05 5,45 7,30 8,60 9,65 11,00 11,85 12,50 12,10 11,10 9,50 7,55 5,35 2,90 1,55 0,10
364 
 yu 0.85 0,00 0,05 0,35 0,55 0,65 1,05 1,30 1,70 1,85 1,80 1,55 1,25 0,90 0,45 0,20 0,10
 y0 4,15 7,25 8,95 11,45 13,40 14,95 17,15 18,55 19,17 19,15 17,55 14,95 11,80 8,05 4,15 2,15 0,00
384 
 yu 4,15 2,25 1,55 1,10 0,80 0,55 0,30 0,15 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
 y0 3,20 6,25 7,65 9,40 10,85 11,95 13,40 14,40 15,05 14,60 13,35 11,35 8,90 6,15 3,25 1,75 0,15
387 
 yu 3,20 1,50 1,05 0,55 0,25 0,10 0,00 0,00 0,20 0,40 0,45 0,50 0.45 0.30 0.15 0.05 0,15
 y0 1,15 2,95 3,80 5,00 6,00 6,70 7,70 8,40 9,05 8,95 8,40 7,45 6,25 4,95 3,45 2,50 0,75
408 
 yu 1,15 0,25 0,00 0.20 0,40 0.65 1,00 1,20 1,30 1,30 1,20 1.05 0,85 0,60 0.30 0.10 0,75
 y0 0,65 2,50 3,75 5,05 6,25 7,05 8,15 8,85 9,30 9,15 8,55 7,55 6,25 4,50 2,40 1,20 0,00
417 
 yu 0,65 0,05 0,25 0,70 1,10 1,50 2,20 2,55 3,65 3,90 3,65 3,20 2,50 1,70 0,80 0,40 0,00
 y0 1,25 2,75 3,50 4,80 6,05 6,50 7,55 8,20 8,55 8,35 7,80 6,80 5,50 4,20 2,15 1,20 0,00
428 
 yu 1,25 0,30 0,20 0,10 0,00 0,00 0,05 0,15 0,30 0,40 0,40 0,35 0,25 0,15 0,05 0,00 0,00
 y0 2,50 4,70 5,70 7,00 8,10 8,90 10,05 10,25 11,00 10,45 9,55 8,20 6,60 4,60 2,45 1,25 0,00
436 
 yu 2,50 1,00 0,20 0,10 0,05 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
 y0
443  0,00 0,60 0.85 1,15 1,45 1,60 1,90 2,15 2,50 2,50 2,35 2,05 1,60 1,15 0.65 0,30 0,00
 yu
 y0 2,55 5,10 6,15 7,65 8,85 9,80 11,25 12,10 12,85 12,60 11,60 10,00 7,85 5,45 2,85 1,45 0,00
480 
 yu 2,55 0,80 0,30 0,05 0,00 0,10 0,45 0,70 1,10 1,45 1,55 1,50 1,25 0,85 0,40 0,20 0,00
489
490
 y0 2,00 3,60 4,60 5,95 7,00 7,70 8,65 9,20 9,60 9,05 8,55 7,45 6,05 4,40 2,50 1,45 0,15
490 
 yu 2,00 0,85 0,50 0,15 0,00 0,00 0,20 0,40 0, 95 0,80 0,80 0,60 0,40 0,15 0,00 0,05 0,15
 y0 0.60 1,65 2,10 2,90 3,60 4,15 5,15 5,85 6,55 6,60 6,10 5,40 4,50 3,45 2,35 1,80 1,05
587 
 yu 0,60 0,10 0,00 0,05 0,15 0,30 0,60 0,70 0,85 0,80 0,45 0,20 0,00 0,05 0,55 0,85 1,05
 y0 3,00 5,50 6,50 7,85 8,90 9,75 10,95 11,50 12,00 11,70 10,85 9,45 7,65 5,50 3,00 1,65 0,00
593 
 yu 3,00 1,80 1,35 0,85 0,55 0,40 0,25 0,15 0,10 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
 y0 2,40 3,25 4,50 5,45 6,15 6,60 7,30 7,70 8,00 7,80 7,10 6,15 5,00 3,55 1,95 1,15 0,20
622 
 yu 2,40 1,45 1,05 0,60 0,35 0,25 0,15 0,05 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
 y0 3,25 5,45 6,45 7,90 9,05 9,90 10,95 11,55 12,00 11,70 10,65 9,15 7,35 5,15 2,80 1,60 0,30
623 
 yu 3,25 1,95 1,50 0,90 0,35 0,20 0,10 0,05 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
 y0 4,00 7,15 8,50 10,40 11,75 12,85 14,35 15,30 16,00 15,40 14,05 12,00 9,50 6,60 3,55 2,00 0,50

623 
 yu 4,00 2,25 1,65 0,95 0,60 0,40 0,15 0,05 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
 y0 2,50 4,55 5,55 8,00 8,05 8,90 10,00 10,65 11,20 10,90 10,05 8,65 6,90 4,85 2,55 1,35 0,00
682 
 yu 2,50 1,05 0.60 0.25 0,10 0,00 0,05 0,20 0,55 0,75 0,80 0,85 0,75 0,6 0,35 0,15 0,00
NACA  y0 0,00 2,67 4,61 4,91 5,80 6,43 7,19 7,50 7,55 7,14 6,41 5,47 4,36 3,08 1,68 0,92 0,00

23012  yu 0,00 –123 –1,71 –2,26 –2,61 –2,92 –3,50 –3,97 –4,46 –4,48 –4,17 –3,67 –3,00 –2,16 –1,23 –0,70 0,00
MUNK 6  y0 0,00 1.98 2,81 4,03 4,94 5,71 6,82 7,55 8,22 8,05 7,26 6,03 4,58 3,06 1,55 0,88 0.00

MUNK  yu
0,00 –1,76 –2,20 –2,73 –3,03 –3,24 –3,47 –3,62 –3,70 –3,90 –3,94 –3,82 –3,48 –2,83 –1,77 –1,08 0,00
APPENDIX 491
TABLE AP-I.2: Profile Co-ordinates (NACA)
Profile No. 16-006 16-009 65-009 65-010 66-006
0 0 0 0 0 0
1,25 0,646 0,969 0,717 1,124 0,693
2,5 0,903 1,354 0,956 1,571 0,918
5,0 1,255 1,822 1,310 2,222 1,257
7,5 1,516 2,274 1,589 2,709 1,524
10,0 1,729 2,593 1,824 3,111 1,752
15 2,067 3,101 2,197 3,746 2,119
20 2,332 3,498 2,482 4,218 2,401
30 2,709 4,063 2,852 4,824 2,782
40 2,927 4,319 2,998 5,057 2,971
50 3,000 4,500 2,900 4,870 2,985
60 2,997 4,376 2,518 4,151 2,815
70 2,635 3,952 1,935 3,038 2,316
80 2,099 3,149 1,233 1,847 1,543
90 1,259 1,888 0,510 0,749 0,665
95 0,707 1,061 0,195 0,354 0,262
100 0,060 0,090 0,000 0,150 0,000
Leading edge 0.176 0.396 0.240 0.666 0.223
Radius
y
θ
D
X
y
0 25 50 75 100
Fig. AP-I.2
TABLE AP-I.3
x 2,5 5,5 10 15 20 25 40 45 40 45 50 55
y 0,29 0,48 0,86 1,26 1,68 2,10 2,53 2,95 3,35 3,74 4,09 4,41
x 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 97,5 98,5 99,0 99,5
y 4,68 4,85 4,97 4,99 4,87 4,59 4,06 3,08 2,26 1,78 1,47 1,05
Y
5
0
–5
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 x
Fig. AP-I.3
TABLE AP-I.4
x 0 0,50 0,75 1,25 2,50 5,00 7,50 10 15

y 0 0,752 0,890 1,124 1,571 2,222 2,709 3,111 3,746
x 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
y 4,218 4,570 4,824 4,982 5,057 5,029 4,870 4,570 4,151
x 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100
y 3,627 3,038 2,451 1,847 1,251 0,749 0,354 0,150
w1 β1 = blade inlet angle

Nomenclature
Blade design β2= blade outlet angle
β1
i θ = blade camber angle
u β1
∆β( θ) = β2 – β1
= β2 – β1 θ βe = setting or stagger angle
xf
= β∞ + δ
l
βe = β∞ + δ Point of
t = pitch (or space)
β2 maximum camber
w 1 = Relative velocity of water of inlet
w 2 = Relative velocity of water at outlet
β2 t i = incidence angle
w2 γ = α1 – αi
δ = angle of attack
Cascade symbols = βe – β∞
l = chord
r = deviation angle
Fig. AP-I.4. Blade nomenclature
0.1
d/2
0 L.E d max T.E.
–0.1
xd
Chord (L) or length of the camber line

0
0.5 1.0
Fig. AP-1.5. Thickness distribution of an aerofoil (base profile)

APPENDIX 493
o
βi
A 0 0
2.08 2.63
Impeller 3.00
D 3.58 3.12
4.01 3.66
R 4.55 4.06
θ = β2 – β1 4.88
Camber-line length, l
4.90 4.89
βe β1 + β2
4.98 5.02
β2 B 4.79
4.76
4.30 4.31
Centre of camber arc 3.70 3.72
2.91 3.00
diffuser 2.02 2.15
1.05 1.20
0.60 0.68
0 0
o Upper Lower
surface surface
x y
%l %l
Fig. AP-I.6. Blade nomenclature and coordinates of a profile
20
10
of chord
percent
λ (degrees)
0
Sta Up’r L‘W’r –10
0 20 40 60 80 100
percent of chord
θ 0 .12 48
1.25 1.98 –.94 .11
44
2.5 2.80 –1.21 .10 40
5.0 4.09 –1.37 .09 36
7.5 5.05 –1.36
.08 cD0 32
10 5.86 –1.26
15 7.08 –1.01 .07 28
Angle of attack for infinite aspect ratio
20 7.88 –.76 .06 24

25 8.34 –.60
Drag Coefficient Do. profile-drag coefficient CDo
30 8.50 –.50 .05 20

40 8.29 –.43 .04 16
50 7.65 –.29
60 6.71 –.15 .03 12
70
5.40 – 05 .02 d0 8
80 3.95 –.00
.01 4
90 2.16 –.02
95 1.16 –.05 0 –0
100 (.09) (–.09) –.1 –4
c∞0/4
L.E. Rad : 0.89 –.2 –8
slope of radius
–.3 –12
through end of AIR Foil: N.A.C.A.4309. RN:3080 00
chord : 4/15 Date 4-13-31 Test :V.D.T.563 –16
–.4 corrected to infinite aspect ratio
–.4.2 0.2 .4 .6 .8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.61 1.8
Lift Coefficient .Cy
Fig. AP-I.7
20
10
per cent
of chord
λ (degrees)
0
–10
Sta Up’r L‘W’r
0 20 40 60 80 100
0 – 0 .10 percent of chard 40
1.25 3.45 –1.53 .09 36
2.5 4.67 –2.13 .08 32
5.0 6.44 –2.75
.07 28
7.7 7.70 –3.00 c∞

.06 24
10 8.88 –3.11
Drag Coefficient D o. Profile-drag coefficient C Do

.05 20
15 10.58 –2.93
20 11.81 –2.67 .04 16
25 12.64 –2.29
30 13.15 –1.91 .03 12
40 13.25 –1.25
50 12.46 –.76 .02 8
60 11.10 –.34
70 9.16 –.04 .01 4
80 6.70 .09 a0
0 0
90 3.72 .04
95 2.01 –.05 –.1 –4
100 (.16) (–.16) c ∞0/4
100 – 0 –.2 –8
L.E. Rad : 248 –.3 –12
slope of radius AIR Foil:N.A.C.A.6415. RN:30600 α
through end of Date 9.3.31. Test :V.D.T. 661 –16
–.4 corrected to infinite aspect ratio
chord : 6/20
–.4.2 0.2 .4 .6 .8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.61 1.8
Fig. AP-I.8
20
10
per cent
of chord
0 λ (degrees)
–10
Sta Up’r L‘W’r
0 20 40 60 80 100
percent of chard
0 – 0 .12 48
1.25 1.10 –.73 .11 44
2.5 1.70 –.95 .10 40
5.0 2.43 –1.15
.09 36
7.7 3.01 –1.22 c∞
.08 32
10 3.48 –1.22
Drag Coefficient D o. Profile-drag coefficient C Do
15 4.18 –1.18 .07 28

20 4.65 –1.09 .06 24
25 4.91 –1.04 C∞
30 5.00 –1.00 .05 20
40 4.88 –.94
.04 16
50 4.49 –.81
60 3.92 –.65 12
.03
70 3.19 –.48 8
.02 a0
80 2.30 –.33
90 1.26 –.19 .01 4
95 .68 –.13 0 –0
100 (.16) (–.16) c ∞0/4
–.1 –4
100 – 0 C m0/4 –8
L.E. Rad : 0.40 –.2
–.3 –12
slope of radius AIR Foil:N.A.C.A.2306. RN:30800 ∞
through end of Date 9-24-31 Test :V.D.T. 680 –16
chord : 2/15 –.4 corrected to infinite aspect ratio
–.4.2 0.2 .4 .6 .8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.61 1.8
Fig. AP-I.9
APPENDIX II
ISI STANDARDS
Mathematical signs and symbols ...... These are mainly taken from international standard (S.I.
units).
Sign of Symbol Meaning Remarks
∆ Corresponds to Using E = mc2

∆ = 9 × 1020 erg
1g —
≈ approximately equal to
j asymtotically equal to ~ is also used
~ proportional to ∝ is also used
a <a> mean value of α
n  n ( n − 1) ( n − p + 1)
 p binomial coefficient 1 × 2 × 3 × ... × p
π product
∆x delta x = finite increment of x
δx delta x = variation of x
dn f
f (n()n()x ) differential coefficient of order n of f (x)
dx n
δf ( x, y,.......)  δf  partial differential coefficient of f (x, y...) fx(x, y...) and fx′
 
δx  δx  y with respect to x when y,... are held constant (x, y, ...) are also used
ln x, loge x Natural log of x
lg x, log x, log10 x Common log of x
lbx, log2 x Binary logarithm of x
495
Mechanics
Quantity Symbol Remarks
Mass m
Kilogram kg
Gram g
Tonne t
Metric carat 1 metric carat = 200 mg
Metric Ref : 1 metric technical unit of mass is the mass that acquires
Technical unit of mass an acctn., of 1 m/s2 under the influence of a force equal to
1 kg force = 9.80666 kg (exactly).
Density ρ, e
Relative density d Ratio of the density of asubstance to the density of a

reference under conditions that should be specified for
both substances. When the reference substance is water,
the name specific gravity is often used in English.
Specific volume v volume / mass
Momentum p mass × velocity
Moment of momentum, b, P0 Pa Vector product of radius and the momentum of a particle

angular momentum
Moment of inertia I, J
Kilogram per kg/m3

cubic metre
Gram per milli litre g/ml 1 g/ml = 999.972 kg/m3
Kilogram metre kg. m/s

per second
Kilogram metre kg. m2

squared
Weight G (P, W) It is noteworthy that the weight arises not only from the
resultant of the gravitational forces existing at the place
where the body is, but also from the local centrifugal forces.
The effect of atmospheric buoyancy is excluded and
consequently the weight defined is the weight in vacuo.
Specific weight γ
Moment of force M
APPENDIX 497
Bending moment M
Torque, Moment T
of couple
Pressure p
Normal stress σ
Shear stress τ
Force F
Newton N 1 N is a force which, when applied to a mass of 1 kg produces

1 m/s2 acceleration.
dyne dyn 1 dyn = 10–5 N (exactly)
Sthene Sn 1 sn =103 N (exactly) = 1 kN

1 sn is a force to a mass of 1t,
acceleration, 1 m/s2
Kilogram force kgf 1 kgf = 9.80665 N (exactly)
Newton per cubic metre N/m3
Newton metre N.m
bar bar 1 bar = 105 N/m2

= 106 dyne/cm2= 1 hp Z (exactly) barye
∆l
linear strain εe ε= l
0
Shear strain γ
(shear angle)
Volume strain θϑ
(bulk strain)
Poisson’s ratio, µ, ν
Poisson’s number
σ
Young’s modulus E E=
ε
τ
Shear modulus G G=
γ
(modulus of rigidity)
−p
Bulk modulus (modulus K K=
θ
of compression)
Normal atmosphere atm 1 atm = 101325 N/m2
torr 1 torr = 1/ 760 atm = 133.322 N /m2
technical atmosphere at 1 at =1 kgf /cm2 = 98066.5 N/m2 = 0.967841 atm
1 dV
compressibility χ,K χ=–
V dp
Second moment I, Ia
of area (axial moment)
Second polar Ip, J

moment of area
I
Section modulus Z, W,
ϑ
Coeff. of friction µ , (f)
dVx
Dynamic viscosity η, µ τxz = η
dZ
µ
Kinematic visosity ν ν=
ρ
Poise P 1 P = 0 1 N. S/m2 = 1 dyn.s/cm2 = 1 g/cm.s
Stokes St 1 St = 1 cm2/sec
Work A, W
Energy E, W
Potential energy E0, U, V, φ
Kinetic energy Ek, K, T
Surface tension σ , (γ)
Joule J
Erg erg
Kilowatthour kWh
electron Volt ev
15 degree C caloric Cal15 1 cal, is the heat required to warm 1 g of air free water 1 cal
= 4.1885 J from 14.5 degree C to 5.5° C at 1 atm
I.T. Caloric calIT 1 calIT = 4.1868 J

APPENDIX 499
thermo chemical caloric 1 calIT (thermochem) = 4.1840 J

cal (thermochem)
Power P
Thermic th 1 th is the heat required to warm through 1 degree a body

having a mass of 1 t and a specific heat equal to that of
water at 15 degree C and at a pressure of 1 normal
atmosphere
1 th = 4.1855 M.J
litre atmosphere l atm 1 l atm is the work done on a piston by a fluid under a
pressure of 1 atm when the volume swept by the piston is 1 l
1 l atm =101.328 J
Watt W 1 W = 1 J/S
erg per second erg/s 1 erg/s = 10–7 W (exactly)
metric horse power 1 metric horse power = 75 kgf. m/s

cheval vapour = 735.499 W
litre l
Heat
thermodynamic, T, θ
temperature, absolute
temperature
customary temperature t, θ, ϑ
linear expansion 1 dl
α, λ α= .
coefficient l dT
cubic expansion 1 dV
α, β, γ γ=
coefficient V dT
1 dp
pressure coefficient β β= .
p dT
heat, quantity of heat Q
heat flow rate φ, (q)
density of heat flow rate q (φ) Heat flow rate divided by area
thermal conductivity λ, (K)
coeff. of heat transfer h, K, u, α

heat capacity c
λ
thermal diffusivity a, (α, x, k) a=
ρCp
ratio of the specific heat γ, κ, k

capacities
entropy S
specific entropy s
internal energy U, (E)
enthalpy IH
free energy F
Gibbs function G
specific internal energy u, (e)
specific enthalpy h, (i)
specific free energy f
specific Gibbs function g
latent heat L
specific latent heat l
minute min
day d
year a
radians per second rad/s
kilometre per hour km/h
length l
breadth b
height h
thickness d, δ
radius r
diameter d
length of path s
APPENDIX 501
angle (plane angle) α, β, γ, φ, θ etc.

solid angle Ωω
area A (S)
volume V (v)
time t
angular veliocity ω
angular acceleration α
velocity u, v, w, C C speed of propagation of light in vacuum
acceleration a
frequency f, γ
rotational frequency ν
angular frequency ω
wavelength λ
wave number σ, (γ)
circular wave number k k = 2πσ
damping coefficient δ
logarithmic decrement Λ
attenuation coefficient α
phase coefficient β
propagation coefficient γ
velocity of sound C
Turbines and Pumps
specific speed nS
absolute velocity at inlet C1 C2 at outlet
vane velocity at inlet u1 u2 at outlet
relative velocity at inlet w1 w2 at outlet
whirl component at inlet Cu1 Cu2 at outlet
flow component at inlet Cm1 Cm2 at outlet
vane angle at inlet β1 β2 at outlet
absolute angle at entry α1 α2 at outlet
APPENDIX III
System (SI) : Basic Units
Quantity Unit Symbol
length (L) metre m

mass (M) kilogram kg
time (t) second s
amount of substance mole mo1
temperature (T) kelvin k
electric current ampere A
luminous intensity candela cd
plane angle radian rad
solid angle steradian sr
System (SI) : Derived Units
Quantity Unit Symbol Alternative Unit In Basic Unit
force (F) newton N kg m/s2

energy (E) joule J Nm kg m2 /s2
power watt W J/s kg m2 /s3
pressure pascal Pa N/m2 kg/ms 2
frequency hertz Hz s –1
electric charge coulomb C As
electrical potential volt V W/A–J/C kg (m2/s3A)
capacitance farad F C/V s4 A2/(kg m2)
electrical resistance ohm V/A kg m2/(s3A2)
magnetic flux weber Wb Vs kg m2/(s2A)
density testla T Wb/m 2 kg/(s2A)
Inductance Henry H Wb/A kg m2/(s2A2)
Multiples and Submultiples of Units
Multiplying Factor Prefix Symbol
1 000 000 000 000 = 1012 tera T

1 000 000 000 = 109 giga G
1 000 000 = 106 mega M
1 000 = 103 kilo k
100 = 102 hecto h
1 0 = 101 deka d
502
APPENDIX 503
0.1 = 10–1 deci d

0.01 = 10–2 centi c
0.001 = 10–3 milli m
0.000 001 = 10–6 micro µ
0.000 000 001 = 10–9 nano n
0.000 000 000 001 = 10–12 pico P
Conversions of Length, Area, Volume and Angular Measurement
To Convert From To Multiply By
length inch metre 0.0254

length foot metre 0.3048
length metre inch 39.3701
length metre foot 3.28084
area sq. inch sq.metre 0.00064516
area sq. foot sq. metre 0.0929030
area sq. metre sq. inch 1550.00
area sq. metre sq. foot 10.7639
volume cubic inch cubic metre 0.000016387 1
volume cubic foot cubic metre 0.028317
volume gallon cubic metre 0.0037854
volume cubic metre litre 1000.
volume cubic metre cubic inch 61023.74
volume cubic metre cubic foot 35.315
volume cubic metre gallon 264.173
plane angle degrees radian 0.0174533
plane angle radian degrees 57.2958
Angular Measure
2π Radians are equivalent to 360 degrees.
One radian is equivalent to 57.3 degrees.
Conversions of Mass, Density and Specific Volume
mass 1b kg 0.453592
mass kg 1b 2.20462
density 1b/ft3 kg/m3 16.0185
density kg/m3 1b/ft3 0.0624280
specific volume ft3/1b m3/kg 0.0624280
specific volume m3/kg ft3/1b 16.0185
Density of Water and Air

Density of water = 1000 kg/m3
Density of air = 1.2 kg/m3
Conversions of Velocity, Acceleration and Force
velocity fps m/s 0.304800

velocity fpm m/s 0.00508000
velocity mph m/s 0.447040
velocity m/s fps 3.28084
velocity m/s fpm 196.850
velocity m/s mph 2.23694
acceleration ft/s 2 m/s 2 0.304800
acceleration m/s 2 ft/s 2 3.28084
force 1b Newton, 4.44822
force Newton 1b 0.224809
Unit of Force, the Newton

1 N = 1 kg m/s2
Mass and Weight

Standard Acceleration due to Gravity is 9.806 65 m/s2.
Conversions of Pressure, Flow Rate and Angular Velocity
pressure psi Pa (N/m2) 6894.76

pressure psf Pa (N/m2) 47.8803
pressure ft. of water (4 C) Pa (N/m2) 2988.98
pressure in. of water (4 C) Pa (N/m2) 249.082
pressure in. of Hg (15.6 C) Pa (N/m2) 3376.85
pressure Pa (N/m2) psi 0.000145038
presseure Pa (N/m2) psf 0.0208854
pressure Pa (N/m2) ft. of water (4 C) 0.000334562
pressure Pa (N/m2) in. of water (4 C) 0.00401474
pressure Pa (N/m2) in. of Hg (15.6 C) 0.00029613
volume flow rate cfm m 3/s 0.000471947
volume flow rate cfs m 3/s 0.02831685
volume flow rate gpm m3/s 0.0000630902
volume flow rate gpm L/s 0.0630902
APPENDIX 505
volume flow rate m3/s cfm 2188.88

volume flow rate m3/s cfs 31.3147
volume flow rate m3/s gpm 15850.3
volume flow rate L/s gpm 15.8503
mass flow rate 1b/s kg/s 0.453592
mass flow rate 1b/min kg/s 0.00755987
mass flow rate 1/b/hr kg/s 0.000125998
mass flow rate kg/s lb/s 2.20462
mass flow rate kg/s 1b/min 132.277
mass flow rate kg/s 1b/hr 7936. 64
rotative speed rpm rad/s 0.104720
rotative speed rad/s rpm 9.54929
Conversions of Temperature
From To
F R add 459.67
R F subtract 459.67
C K add 273.15
K C subtract 273.15
C F multiply by 9/5 and add 32
F C subtract 32 and multiply by 5/9
Conversions of Energy and Power
energy ft–1b J 1.355818

energy Btu. (Int. Stream Table) J 1055.06
energy J ft–1b 0.73756212
energy J Btu 0.0009478133
power Btu/hr W 0.2930667
power hp (550 ft /1b/s) W 745.6999
power tons of refrig. W 3516.8
power boiler hp W 9809.5
power W Btu/hr 3.41219
power W hp (550 ft –1b/s) 0.001341022
power W tons of refrig. 0.0002843494
power W boiler hp 0.0001019
1J=1Nm
1 W = 1 J/s
Conversions of Enthalpy, Specific Heat and Entropy
enthaply Btu/1b J/kg 2326.009

enthalpy J/kg Btu/1b 0.00042990095
specific heat Btu/ (1b F) J/(kg K) 4186.816
specific heat J/(kg K) Btu (1b F) 0.000238845
entropy Btu/ (1b. R) J (kg K) 4186.816
entropy J/ (kg K) Btu/(1b R) 0.000238845
specific heat of liquid (water) = 4190 J / (kg K)

specific heat of air (constant pressure) Cp = 1 000 J / (kg K)
specific heat of air (constant pressure) Cv = 712 J/ (kg K)
Rate of heat transfer for air :
kW=1.2 (volume flow ratio, m3/s) (temperature change, C)
Rate of heat transfer for water :
kW = 4 190 (volume flow rate, m3/s) (temperature change, C)
Conversion of Viscosities
viscosity 1b/ (ft s) pa s 1.48816

viscosity 1b/(ft hr) pa s 0.000413378
viscosity centipoise pa s 0.00100
viscosity pa s 1b / (ft s) 0.671971
viscosity pa s 1b / (ft hr) 2419.09
viscosity pa s centipoise 1000.0
kinematic
viscosity ft 2 /s m2 /s 0.092903
kinematic
viscosity m2 /s ft2/ s 10.7639
APPENDIX 507
Viscosities and Densities of Dry Air and Water
Temp. Air (standard atmospheric pressure) Water
C Viscosity Pa s Density kg/m3 Viscosity Pa s Density kg/m3
10 10.768 × 10–6 1.3414 – –

0 17.238 × 10–6 1.2922 1.789 9 × 10–3 999.84
10 16.708 × 10–6 1.2467 1.310 4 × 10–3 999.70
20 18.178 × 10–6 1.2041 1.007 8 × 10–3 998.21
30 18.648 × 10–6 1.1644 0.802 8 × 10–3 995.64
40 19.118 × 10–6 1.1272 0.655 6 × 10–3 992.22
50 19.588 × 10–6 1.0924 0.552 3 × 10–3 988.04
Absolute Roughness of Some Materials
Materials Roughness, m
Riverted steel 0.0009 – 0.009

Concrete 0.0003 – 0.003
Cast iron 0.00026
Galvanized iron 0.00015
Asphalted cast iron 0.00012
Commercial steel or wrought iron 0.000046
Drawn tubing 0.0000015
Conversions of Heat Transfer Units
Conductivity Btu/(hr ft F) W/(m k) 1.730742

Conductivity Btu in/(hr ft F) W/(m K) 0.1442285
Conductivity W/(m K) Btu in (hr ft F) 0.577787
Conductivity W/(m K) Btu in/(hr ft2 F) 6.93344242
Convection coefficient Btu/(hr ft2 F) W/(m2 K) 5.678286
and U-value W/ (m2/K) Btu/(hr ft2 F) 0.176109481
heat flux Btu/(hr ft2) w/m2 3.154603
heat flux W/m2 Btu/(hr ft2) 0.316997
Thermal Conductivities of Air and Water at Standard Atmospheric Pressure
Temperature Conductivity of Air Conductivity of water

C W/(m K) W/(m K)
0 0.024 4 0.549
10 0.025 1 0.573
20 0.026 0 0.595
30 0.026 7 0.614
40 0.027 5 0.632
50 0.028 2 0.644
Properties of Common Liquids at Atmospheric Pressure and at 20 C
Liquid Specific Bulk modulus Vapour pressure Surface Tension (N/M)

Gravity (s) of Elasticity (p) KPa in contact with air
Ethy1Alcohol 0.97 1.21 5.86 0.0226

Benzene 0.88 1.03 10.00 0.0289
Carbon
Tetrachloride 1.59 1.10 13.10 0.0267
Kerosene 0.81 – – 0.023 to 0.032
Mercury 13.57 26.20 0.00017 0.51
Crude oil 0.85 to 0.93 – – 0.023 to 0.038
Lubricating oil 0.85 to 0.88 – – 0.023 to 0.038
Water 1.00 2.2 2.45 0.074
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138. Warring, R.H. Pumping Manual
139. Young and Nixon, R.A. Power, Flow and Pressure Measurements in Pump Testing.
Proc. I. Mech. E, 1960, Vol. 174, No. 15.
140. Young and Square, H.B. Calculation of profile drag of airflow. ARC RM 1838–1938.
141. Zecina – Mologen, L.M. Semi Empirical Method of calculation of parameters of Plain
Boundary layer in Transition Region. Thermal Energy, 1956,
No.10 (Russian)
142. Zecina – Mologen, L.M. Effect of Profile Pressure gradient in boundary layer
development, Vol. 24, 1959. (Russian)
143. Holstein & Bohlen Eineinfaches Verfahren Zur Berechnung Laminarer, Reilgngs,
Schichten die dem Nacherung – Sansatz Von K. Pohlhausen
Genugen. Lilienthal – Berichts 10 to 510, 1940.
INDEX
Abrasive liquids, 372 Coriolis force, 36

Absolute flow, 38 Correction in profile curvature, 256
Airfoil, 43 Curved plates, 224
Angle of attack, 255 Deepwell turbine, 349
Asbestos packing, 149
Design, 134
Aspect ratio, 263
Determination, 177
Atmospheric pressure, 197
Different forms of energy, 1
Axial flow diffusers, 289
Different types of stuffing box arrangements, 150
Axial flow low depth-circulating pump, 355
Different types of wearing rings, 156
Axial flow pump, 216
Diffuser section of volute, 139
Axial force, 164, 165
Diffuser, vaneless passage, return guide vanes, 143
Axial prewhirl, 213
Direct method, 243
Axial thrust, 165, 167, 168, 170, 291
Disc friction, 147
Axisymmetric flow, 48, 115
Diverging cone part of the diffuser, 142
Back pullout type, 340 Double curvature, 113
Balance the radial thrust, 180 Double entry with opposed impellers, 345
Balancing axial thrust, 169 Double exit, 360
Balancing disc, 169 Double suction, 169, 344
Balancing drum, 170, 172 Dynamically, 182
Balancing hole, 169, 171
Bearing, 170 Effect of blade thickness and normal entry, 72
Bernoulli’s equation, 35, 36 Effect of finite number of blades, 74
Blade inlet edge, 69 End suction single stage, 340
Blade thickness, 233 Energy equation, 34
Erosion due to cavitation, 211
Cascade system, 52 Error triangles, 126
Cavitation coefficient, 200 Eular’s equation of motion, 36
Cavitation inception, 198 Eular’s number, 182
Centrifugal force, 36
Centrifugal type impeller, 343 Feed water pump, 363
Centripetal type, 344 Feedwater booster, 368
Change in bend at inlet, 168 Flow area reduction, 234
Channel, 348 Fluid energy, 1
Chapligin’s profile of finite thickness, 59 Forms of casings, 130
Circular volute, 137, 138 Froude number, 182
Circulating pump, 363, 364
Geometrically, 182
Circulatory motion, 44
Comparison of hydraulic efficiency, 162 High/low concentration paper pulp, 371
Condensate nooster pump, 367 High depth circulating pump, 356
Condensate, 357 High head pump, 362
Connection construction, 339 High temperature, 373
Constant velocity, 135, 138 Horizontal, 356
519
Hub ratio, 261 Radial vanes, 170

Hydraulic efficiency, 106, 191, 274 Rear shroud, 170
Hydraulic losses, 161 Reducing the suction lift, 211
Hydraulic, 147 Reference level for suction head measurement, 196
Impeller eye diameter, 89 Relative flow, 40
Relative rotary motion, 44
Impeller shroud, 61
Impeller, diffuser and return guide vanes, 351 Reynold’s number, 182
In line, 343 Rotodynamic pumps, 2
Increasing the suction tank pressure, 211 Scale effect, 188
Increasing the width at inlet of the impeller, 211 Scheme for spiral casing, 133
Inducers, 213 Secondary flow, 51
Inlet guide blades, 212 Semi-open impellers, 167
Intermediate channel, 346 Shapes of volute cross-sections, 131
Isolated profile, 53 Similarity, 182, 191, 192, 193
Jet pump hydraulic ram, 2 Single entry, 360
Jowkovski’s method, 243 Single stage condensate pump, 358
Single stage double ball bearing, 341
Kinematically, 182 Slurry pump, 370, 371
L eakage flow between two stage of a multistage Spiral casing, 130
pump, 159 Spiral part of diffuser passage, 141
Leakage flow through wearing rings, 154 Struhaul’s number, 182
Lift method, 243 Submersible, 351
Suction casing at inlet, 144
Maximum dynamic depression, 199
Suction lift, 195
Mechanical efficiency, 106, 147, 193
Sump pump dry/wet pit, 347
Mechanical seal, 342
Super cavitating pumps, 285
Momentum boundary layer thickness, 277
Multistage drum (Barrel type), 373 Thoma’s constant, 200
Multistage horizontal opposed impeller, 359 Trapezoidal cross-section, 134
Net positive suction head, 195 Trapezoidal, 135
Two half volutes, 181
Non-dog, 369
Two spiral passage, 181
Opposed impeller, 345 Two stage condensate pump, 359
Performance of different specific speeds, 297 Two stage domestic pump, 343
Two stage horizontal opposed impeller, 360
Petroleum liquid, 372
Two volutes, 181
Places affected by cavitation, 210
Plates in cascade system, 223 Vane under equal velocity construction, 120
Point by point method, 112 Vector diagram for Coriolis component, 36
Positive displacement pumps, 2 Velocity at the impeller eye, 69
Profile losses, 271 Velocity distribution, 61
Profile, 55 Velocity triangle, 67, 220
Pump performance, 293 Vertical single stage, 342
Pumps—Non-corrosive liquids, 339 Vertical, 364
Radial blades, 169 Volumetric, 147
Radial clearance, 288 Volute casing, 130, 177
Radial force, 164, 177 Vorticity, 49

Rotodynamic Pumps

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Rotodynamic Pumps

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NEW AGE

(f.D NEW AGE INTERNATIONAL PUBLISHERS

PUBLISHING FOR ONE WORLD

NEW AGE INTERNATIONAL (P) LIMITED, PUBLISHERS

All rights reserved.

ISBN (13) : 978-81-224-2976-3

PUBLISHING FOR ONE WORLD

2 PUMP PARAMETERS 6–33

3 THEORY OF ROTODYNAMIC PUMPS 34–64

4 THEORY AND CALCULATION OF BLADE SYSTEMS IN

4.6.1 Slip Factor as Defined by Karl Pfliderer 77

5 SPIRAL CASINGS (VOLUTE CASINGS) 130–146

5.8 Calculation of Diffuser Section of Volute Casing 139

6 LOSSES IN PUMPS 147–163

7 AXIAL AND RADIAL THRUSTS 164–181

8 MODEL ANALYSIS 182–194

8.2 Similarity of Hydraulic Efficiency 191

9 CAVITATION IN PUMPS 195–215

10 AXIAL FLOW PUMP 216–292

10.19 Radial Clearance between Impeller and Impeller Casing 288

11 TESTING, PERFORMANCE EVALUATION AND REGULATION

12 PUMP CONSTRUCTION AND APPLICATION 339–374

13 DESIGN OF PUMP COMPONENTS 375–486

Design No. D3 : Design of Axial Flow Pump 418

1.1 PRINCIPLE AND CLASSIFICATION OF PUMPS

1.1.2 Classification of Pumps

Jet Pump Centrifugal, Mixed and

Piston Vane, Lobe

Fig. 1.1. Pump classfication

1.1.2.2 Classification According to Head and Discharge

1 10 100 1000 10000 100000

Fig. 1.2. Pump selection as per head and discharge

1.1.2.3 Classification According to Specific Speed

Centrifugal (radial flow) Diagonal and Propeller and

Fig. 1.3. Classification according to specifc speed

1.1.2.4 Classification According to Direction of Flow in Impeller

b 2′′ Outlet, Delivery

(a) Radial (b) Mixed (c) Axial (d) Relative location

Fig. 1.4. Position of blade system in different types of impellers

2.1 BASIC PARAMETERS OF PUMP

2.1.1 Quantity of Flow or Discharge (Q) of a Pump

2.1.2 Total Head or Head of a Pump (H)

Fig. 2.1. Head measurement in pumps

2.1.3 Total Head of a Pump in a System

Referring to Fig. 2.2, the equation for suction and pd = p2

the flow through the system,

per equation 2.2 is

Fig 2.3. Head of pump and system

Quantity m3/sec, Lt/sec.

Fig. 2.4. Different systems operating on one pump

2.1.4 Power (N)

2.2 PUMP CONSTRUCTION

Fig. 2.7. Heavy duty pump

2.3 LOSSES IN PUMPS AND EFFICIENCY

2.3.4 Total Losses and Overall Efficiency (h)

Taking Ni = γ Qth Hth

2.4 SUCTION CONDITIONS

Fig. 2.8. Suction conditions in a pump

Hence NPSH (Net) (Hsv) = NPSH (available) – NPSH (required)

2.5 SIMILARITY LAWS IN PUMPS

2.5.1 Similarity Laws

Parameter Dimensions Symbol

2.5.2 Specific Speed (ns)

Combining equations 2.33 and 2.34