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POWER PLANT INSTRUMENTATION PRACTICES Chapter no name: XI   Balance 


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                                                                                                       Section no: 1.0 Introduction 

Section I—Balance of plant ---- Introduction & Coverage

1.0 Introduction: Balance of Plant for a power plant can be defined in many ways, for
example some defines this as the controls outside main power plant control, such as
controls pertinent to coal handling plant, ash handling plant etc. In this book all these
auxiliary plants have be clustered together under Off Site Plant group and have been
covered in Chapter II. In this book entire control system has been put in the following
groups

• Boiler Control System( Chapter VIII): Control systems directly related with boiler
controls such as FSSS, Combustion control, Steam temperature controls , HP Bypass
etc.

• TG control system( Chapter IX): This includes control systems directly related to
turbine controls, such as ATRS, LP Bypass system, H2 seal oil controls, Condenser
level control etc.

• Coordinated control System ( Chapter X): Co ordination in control between various

• Balance of plant control System( Chapter XI): Balance control loop mainly related
with various equipment, and regenerative systems. In case of Co generation
/Combine cycle plants, all controls other than GT proper etc are termed as Balance
of Plant controls. From the discussion above it is clear that Balance of plant as such
may mean a number of things so, it is better to discuss the coverage of controls under
this category. The control loops discussed below shall be covered under this category
in this chapter XI.

o BFP Recirculation control

o CEP Recirculation control

o Gland steam control ( min Flow control—Gland steam Header pressure


control covered in Chapter IX)

o Heater VI temperature control

o Deaerator Pressure control( Deaerator level control covered in Chapter IX)

o HP & LP Heater Level controls( both normal and emergency)

o Turbine Auxiliary Steam system( ejector control)

1.1 Control Valve & Actuator ----General

Control Valve is one of the weak link in the whole control loop, and it is very important to
select proper selection of the valves. The most important aspects related to control valves are

• Control valve size

• Trim characteristic

• MOC of various valve components

• Selection of correct actuator with /with out positioner


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                                                                                                       Section no: 1.0 Introduction 

• Proper accessories

An improper selection of control valve type will result wrong gain for the system, also
improper characteristics will also result erroneous gain, degrading the control loop
performance. Properly selected actuator will result very little back lash, dead band etc. and
then back lash =dead band= hysteresis. Often it has been found that when the valve/ FCE
starts /stops with jerks. This is due STICTION which is the resistance offered to start a
motion. On account of stiction, position of the air cylinder overshoots jerkily and may move
with jerks. This happens when the static friction exceeds dynamic friction. When there is
stiction then there will be overshoot and oscillation may take place.
Valve fluctuation not only causes the poor performance but may result degradation of plant
performance and may be responsible for mechanical damage wear and tear of main
mechanical equipment. All these result in loss for the plant and return on investment is poor.
When a product is to be selected then the total system shall be such that it offers safe trouble
free performance. For a control valve, it refers to proper selection of sizing, materials,
characteristics, Rating etc. For further details “ Control valve Technical specification”
published by ISA may be referred to. Basically all control valves sizing have been driven from
ISA S75.01 Standard. IEC 534-2-1 & 543-2-2 are also very close to ISA standard. In the
following clauses brief discussions on control valve sizing has been presented. Details about
the Control valve sizing is available in the aforesaid standard, Sizing catalogs published by
Manufacturers, and in most of the text books. FOR SPECIFYING CONTROL VALVES
ISA FORM S20.50(Control Valve Data Sheet) MAY BE FILLED IN. ALSO DETAIL
INSTRUCTION FOR FILLING UP S20.50 IS AVAILABLE FROM ISA. However before
that it is better to define a few terminology related to control valves and actuators as is given
in the table VI/1.1-1below:
Table VI/1.1-1: Commonly used Control Valve Terminologies
Terminology Definition Remarks
Actuator It is an externally powered device which supplies the motive force
required for control valve movement. It can be Electrical,
Hydraulic or Pneumatic
Bonnet Part of the control valve which hold packing box, stem seal and
can guide the stem movement.
Bonnet Extension Bonnet with greater dimension between the bonnet flange and
packing box. Used in Hot / cold service for better heat transfer
Capacity Rate of flow through a valve under stated conditions ISA
Control Valve This include all the component mounted on the valve body
required for its operation. Valve body assembly, Actuator,
Assembly
Positioner, air set, Limit/Torque switches, position transducer etc
form a part of it.
Dead Band The range through which input can be varied without any
observable change in output signal. i.e the amount of controller
out put without observable change in process variable
Diaphragm Pressure High and low pressure applied to the diaphragm to produce rated
valve plug travel with atmospheric pressure in valve body often
Range
referred to as Bench set
Enthalpy It is the sum of internal energy and product of volume &
associated pressure.
Entropy In thermodynamic process it is the measure of energy that cannot
be transformed in to mechanical work
Flow Characteristic Relation between the fluid flow through the valve and the % of
rate travel ( 0-100%)
Flow Characteristic Flow characteristic when constant DP is maintained across the
control valve
Inherent
Flow Characteristics An inherent flow characteristics of the valve, which causes EQ% See
change in flow in the existing flow for equal change in travel.
EQ Percentage Cl.1.3.1

Flow Characteristics An inherent flow characteristic which can be represented ideally See
by a straight line in a rectangular plot of Flow VS % Travel
Linear Cl.1.3.1

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Flow Characteristics An inherent flow characteristics in which there is maximum flow See
for minimum % travel
Quick Opening Cl.1.3.1
Hysteresis The maximum difference in output, for any single input, while
input is, in increasing and in decreasing. In a calibration cycle.

Installed Valve gain The ratio of change flow through the valve t the change in %
travel of the valve under actual process conditions.
London Pressure It is the amount of pressure required to to position a pneumatic
actuator
Process Gain The ratio of the change in the controlled process variable to the Cont
corresponding changes in the controller output
Valve
Maximum Flow Rate This flow condition shall be consistent with plant or equipment ISA
operational maximum flow condition. The maximum flow
Guide
condition is generally governing case for required maximum Cv
Minimum Flow Rate This flow rate shall be consistent with plant turndown PP 486-
requirement or equipment turndown capability. The minimum 487
flow condition generally subjects control valve to the highest
differential pressure condition. The minimum flow conditions are
generally the governing case for the required trim performance.
Normal Flow Rate This flow condition generally referred to as the design flow or
material balance flow.
Range ability Ratio of maximum to minimum flow within which inherent flow
characteristics does not change the stated limit.
Rated Cv Value of flow capacity at full open position
Seat The area of contact between the closure member and the
associated mating surface that would cause complete shut off of te
valve. It is related with valve leakage. Net contact force
determines the seat load.
Time constant Time parameter ,is defined as the time interval between first
detectable change and output reaches 63% of the final steady state
value due a step change in the input.
Valve Cage A part of a valve trim that surrounds closure member.
Valve Plug The whole closure assembly often referred to Valve Plug
Valve Port The orifice of the control valve which controls the flow through it.
(there may be difference in size between body size and port size)
Valve Trim The internal component of a valve that modulate the flow of the ISA
controlled fluid. In a globe control valve this shall include, seat
ring( sitting surface for closure member), cage, stem along with
Closure Member.
1.2 Control Valve Sizing : FOR SPECIFYING CONTROL VALVES ISA FORM S20.50(Control
Valve Data Sheet) MAY BE FILLED IN. ALSO DETAIL INSTRUCTION FOR FILLING
UP S20.50 IS AVAILABLE FROM ISA.

Discussions on control valve has been started with sizing so that reader can come across various
terms and their implication related to control valves. Sizing & selection of control valve is
incomplete without any discussion on control valve characteristics so same has been presented
just after this.

• To Specify the Desired valve design say Pr. Class , Trim characteristic,, Valve type etc.

• To Specify the Process Fluid : Gas, Oil, Steam, Water etc.

• Service conditions : Used Symbols(Sym) and meanings are as per ISA Guide lines

Sym Meaning Sym Meaning Sym Meaning

Cv Valve Flow Coefficient Gg Gas Specific gravity M Molecular wt

d Nominal valve size P1 Up Stream Abs static Pr. N Numerical const. for unit
conversions

D Pipe ID P2 Up Stream Abs static Pr. q Vol. flow qmax ( choked

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                                                                                                       Section no: 1.0 Introduction 

flow at up stream pr

FF Liquid critical ratio factor Pc Abs Critical Pressure T1 Temperature in K

Fk Ratio of Sp Heat Factors Pv Vap Pr-Abs w Mass flow rate

FL Rated Pr. Recovery ΔP Pressure drop (P1-P2) x Ratio ΔP/ P1


Factor

FLp Combined Pr. Recovery ΔPmax Max allowable xT / xTP Rated pressure drop
factor & Geometry factor Pr.Drop(Liqid) ΔPmax LP factor without
with fittings attached same but valve with attachment./ If there is
fittings attachment then it is XTP

Fp Pipe geometry factor γ1 Sp.wt at inlet condition Y Expansion factor

Gf Liquid Specific gravity k Ratio of Sp heat Z Compressibility factor

In the following table various constants are defined with Pressure base of 101.3kPa/1.013bar
& all pressures in absolute (Abs) pressure. a few factors such FL, xT, Cd ( defined in clause
1.2.1.4) etc are available in manufacturer’s table for representative sizing co efficient ( guide
line available in ISA standard calculation ).

1.2.1 Sizing for Liquid Services( above table may be referred to for symbols)

1. Sizing formula for volume flow : Cv= q / N Fp(ΔP/Gf)1/2 Where N= 0.0865 (when q in
m3/hr, p in KPa) ; N =0.865 when q in m3/hr, p in bar) & N= 1 if all in FPS.

2. Sizing formula mass flow Cv = w / N Fp(ΔP* γ)1/2 Where N= 2.73 (when w in Kg/hr, p
in KPa & γ in Kg/m3 ) ; N= 27.3 (when w in Kg/hr, p in bar & γ in Kg/m3 )& N= 63.3 if all in
FPS.

3. Based on the above Cv Valve size is selected from manufacturer’s table against
particular valve design selected for the service. Then , Fp is determined. to finally get
accurate Cv value. Fp can be calculated as per the formula below:

Fp = [1 + ΣK/N (Cv/d2)2]1/2 where N= 0.00214 when d or D in mm, N=890 when d or D in


inch

ΣK= K1+K2+ KB1-KB2 where K1& K2 are resistance coefficient of up stream & down
stream fittings. KB1& KB2 are inlet outlet Burnoullie’s co efficient for inlet and outlet. If
inlet and outlet pipe size of the control valve is same then KB1/KB2 [ KB= 1-(d/D)4] will be
equal hence may be omitted.

For inlet reducer K1 =0.5[1-(d2/D2)]2 &

For outlet Reducer K2 =[1-(d2/D2)]2

4. Now to check the choke flow condition. Max flow with allowable drop is determined by

qmax = N*FL*Cv*[(P1-FFPv)/Gf]1/2 where N =0.865 when q in m3/hr, p in bar) & N= 1 if all


in FPS & FF = 0.96-0.28(Pv/Pc)1/2 If there are attached fittings then FL shall be replaced
with FLP/FP where

FLP= [{(K1+KB1)/N}{Cv2/d4}+(1/FL)2 ]-1/2 when N= 0.00214 when d or D in mm, N=890 when


d or D in inch

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Note : The liquid pressure recovery factor F L is a function of ratio between Valve pressure
drop and pressure differential between inlet and pressure at vena contracta
FL= [(ΔP)/(P1-Pvc)]1/2 Values of different FL for various valve design are available in
manufacturer ‘s table for the particular design ( also available ISA Standard for Valve
sizing )
Relative Valve capacity : Cd= Cv/d2 is useful factor in establishing the effect of geometry of
different valve design which affects the pressure loss for a given flow. Thus it indicates
pressure recovery in different style and design of valves.

FF = 0.96-0.28(Pv/Pc)1/2 if ΔP max < ΔP then there is choke flow condition.


ΔP max =FL2(P1-FF*Pv)
So Cv to be recalculated with replacing ΔP with ΔP max . to avoid cavitation, as discussed in
the following clauses.

1.2.2. Cavitation(P2 > Pv) : Apparently easy but not completely understood fluid dynamic
phenomenon is related to Bernoulli’s theorem. It is related with pressure recovery factor in a
control valve meant for liquid services.

1. While controlling the flow, a control valve creates a pressure drop in the fluid. As
the pressure drops the velocity head increases due to restriction. In the flow path, at a point
the fluid reaches maximum velocity its pressure is minimum this point is called Vena
Contracta where Pressure is minimum with highest velocity. If this minimum static pressure
goes below Liquid vapor pressure then at the given temperature the liquid bubbles will be
formed. Past the vena contracta the fluid decelerates and pressure recovery takes place as
shown in figure no. VI/1.2.2-1. As the static pressure recovers and goes above the Liquid
Vapor
IF Ppressure
< Pv the Bubbles
liquid will immediately
Vapor pressure,collapse back to liquid. This
then CAVITATION MAYphenomenon
OCCUR. is
known vas
c
CAVITATION. The collapse of bubbles produce high energy implosion. This
implosion high impact force and metal fractures causing erosion.
P1 ΔP P2

Pv

Pvc

P1= Inlet Pressure P2 outlet Pressure Pvc = Pressure at vena


contracta

Fig VI/1.2.2-1 Pressure profile in a control valve

Typically in Globe valve P1 - Pvc is about 125% of ΔP if Pvc > Pv vena contracta will not
occur.

2. Major negative effect of cavitations are :

• Restriction of fluid flow

• Generation of high noise


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• Cause Vibration/ hammering to cause damage Plug /cage and guide.

• Erosion of metal surface as stated above.

3. The Effect of Cavitation is quite destructive and look wise also it is destructive. The time
required for such destruction depends the severity of cavitations as well as on the material
used. Since inlet pressure is proportional to energy available for cavitations, so higher inlet
pressure will cause more damage due to Cavitation. When the calculated, required FL is
more than the rated FL for the valve the Cavitation effect will more. Some of the special
design trim available in the market are meant to fight cavitations. Some of them are Self
Drag® , Flash Flo® etc.

4. All Anti trim design valves are designed and tested with water as medium, but may
not be the same for different liquids used in the industry. Since Water has defined vapor
Pressure and collapse is instantaneously the effect of Cavitation in water is more severe when
compared with Hydrocarbons( may not have defined vapor pressure)However in case of
power plant such problems are mainly in water application.

5. Choked Flow: As stated in clause 1.2.3.2 in this section, that the cavitations restricts
the flow! The vapor bubbles formed at Vena contracta try to restrict flow increasingly until
the flow is completely choked. Normally when ΔP is increased, then flow shall increase.
Whereas in choked flow condition liquid flow will not increase even if ΔP is increased. Till
the point of incipient of Cavitation, (C)1/2 is proportional to flow, then from this point starts
bending and at choked flow condition it is completely horizontal. Since it is almost impossible
to define point of damage so, Critical Pressure Drop factor F L( FLP ) is used to rate the trim
type.

6. Cavitation avoidance: A few suggestive methods to eliminate Cavitation has been discussed
below:

a. Use of hardened materials can avoid mild intermittent Cavitation.

b. Revised process condition:

i. To reduce operating temperature (so that Vapor may not form) to


eliminate Cavitation.

ii. To install the control valve with chance of Cavitation at the lowest point
with low ΔP. Also Control valve shall be placed as close as possible to
the pump

c. Valve Selection: In case of possibility of Cavitation, Valves may be selected


such a design to have less pressure recovery factor.

d. Installation: a number of control valves in series may help in eliminating the


chance of Cavitation.

e. Materials : Some of the materials like Stellite 6B , Stellite 6 have very high
anticavitation resistance, as well as have excellent corrosion resistance
materials, but are rather costly. Whereas Stainless steel 410, Stainless steel type
17-4 PH have good anticavitation resistance with excellent corrosion resistance
at moderate cost. In power plant application are used extensively.

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f. For Chocked flow reduced trim Design is recommended in ISA technical guide
line.

1.2.3 Sizing for Compressible fluid Services( above table may be referred to for symbols)

1. Sizing formula for volume flow with specific gravity of gas is specified(Compressible
fluid) :

Cv = q/C1*(x/Gg*T1*Z)1/2 where C1= N*Fp*P1*Y

N (for Normal condition of TN=0˚C) = 3.94 (with q in m3/hr P in KPa) OR = 394 (with q in
m3/hr P in bar) when temperature in K

N (for STD condition of TS=15.5˚C) = 4.17 (with q in m3/hr P in KPa ) OR = 417 (with q in
m3/hr P in bar) when temperature in K

N (for STD condition of TN=60˚F = 1360 (with q in scfh P in psia) temperature in R

The Expansion factor Y is important for compressible fluid valve sizing calculation. Y factor is affected
by

• Pressure drop ratio x

• Internal geometry of the valve

• Reynold’s Number

• Factor k

• Ratio of port area to body area. ---xT is responsible for this as well as for valve geometry and
pressure drop ratio.

Y = 1-(x/3*Fk*xT) Where Fk =k/1.4 here xT is pressure drop ratio to produce critical flow ( with
Fk=1) Condition of critical pressure drop occurs when x> Fk*xT (or xTP see symbol table). At
that condition: Y= 1-1/3=0.667.

It signifies that at constant P1 , flow will not increase even if ΔP is increased due to critical pressure
condition. This means it should be such that Y > 0.667

2. . Sizing formula for volume flow with Molecular weight of gas is specified(Compressible
fluid)

Cv = q/C2*(x/M*T1*Z)1/2 where C2= N*Fp*P1*Y

N (for Normal condition of TN=0˚C) = 21.2 (with q in m3/hr P in KPa) OR = 2120 (with q
in m3/hr P in bar) when temperature in K

N (for STD condition of TS=15.5˚C) = 22.4 (with q in m3/hr P in KPa ) OR = 2240 (with
qin m3/hr P in bar) when temperature in K

N (for STD condition of TN=60˚F = 7320 (with q in scfh P in psia) temperature in R

Y factor shall be same what has been discussed above in 1.2.2.1

3. Sizing formula for mass flow with Molecular weight of gas is specified(Compressible fluid)

Cv = w/C3*(x*M/T1*Z)1/2 Where C3= N*Fp*P1*Y

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N = 0.948 (with w in Kg/hr P in KPa) OR = 94.8 (with w in Kg/hr P in bar) when


temperature in K

N = 19.3 (with q in lb/hr P in psia) temperature in R

Y factor shall be same what has been discussed above in 1.2.2.1

4. Sizing formula for mass flow with Specified weight γ1 of gas is specified(Compressible fluid)

Cv = w/C4*(x*P1 *γ1)1/2 Where C4= N*Fp*Y

Where N= 2.73 (when w in Kg/hr, p in KPa & γ in Kg/m3 ) ; N= 27.3 (when w in Kg/hr, p
in bar & γ in Kg/m3 )& N= 63.3 if all in FPS.

Y factor shall be same what has been discussed above in 1.2.2.1

5. Determination Of XTP : If control valve is with attached fittings then this factor can be
determined from XTP= XT/FP2[1+(XT*K/N)(Cv2/d4)]-1 K= K1+KB1 where N= 0.00241 when d or
D in mm, N=1000 when d or D in inch . This is determined to accurately calculate Cv

1.2.4. Flashing Liquid:( P2 <Pv ) Whenever the downstream pressure of the control valves becomes
equal or below the vapor pressure of the liquid then the liquid will flash i.e. goes in to vapor!
P2 <Pv. This is somewhat similar to cavitations but not exactly same, as because here down
stream pressure will not recover and the bubbles will not collapse as it happens in
cavitations( discussed later). However this phase change may result in high velocity to cause
erosion of the metal. While sizing the valve for flashing application , it is necessary to size the
valve at choked flow condition. Down stream pipe should be large enough to accommodate
additional volume. It is necessary to calculate Vapor fraction the velocity of this vaporized
mixture( ref : ISA control valve sizing standard). Since due to erosion, the thickness of the body
will be reduced ( < acceptable code) so Body material shall be chosen suitably. Chrome
molybdenum (WC6) steel may be used also body may be angular.. Cage control trim/ multiple
orifices may be used. In flashing services with ΔP < 3.5Kg/cm2, hardened trims may suffice.. In
power plants while sizing steam drain valves & heater drain valves ( especially draining to
condenser) due considerations shall be given on to this approach . Reduced trim design could be
a better option

I   ISA recommendation for “Cavitation, Choked Flow and Flashing:   ISA S75.01 ­ISA 
guide     and Seller’s valve Cavitation index data shall be used for determination of 
severity of Cavitation, choked flow or Flashing condition.  Following techniques for 
Cavitation resistant valves may be followed (REF; p.191 ISA GUIDE)  

• “Reduce the pressure in multiple stage”

• “Direct flow away from valve body, pipe wall”

• “Break the flow in many small streams”

• “Force the flow through multiple turns or tortuous path”

1.2.5 After the Cv calculation one need to find the body size by matching the calculated Cv with the
Characteristic curve of the valve to see that Calculated C v meet the criterion set by ISA or
better. As per ISA Technical Specification trim capacity shall meet the following :

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1. An equal % trim shall open maximum 95% travel to meet the maximum flow

2. For Linear /Quick Opening shall open 90% travel to meet the maximum flow.

3. In General designs are done with little conservative in the sense so that later date little
capacity increase does not necessitate change of the control valve but can accommodate the
flow.

1.2.6 Reduced Trim Applications: Control valves with reduced trim shall be considered for the
following application as per ISA guide line

• Pressure drop > 5170 KPa

• Choked flow

• Flashing flow> 5% Wt of Liquid

• Erosive fluid

• Gas flow with outlet velocity 0.3mach(99M/S)

• Noise >85dBA( measured 1 Meter away)

• Future capacity increase

1.3 Control Valve Characteristics :

1. The relationship between control valve capacity and valve travel is known as Flow
Characteristics of control Valve. Control valve characteristics , range ability , gain, turn down
ratio all are interrelated. As per B.G. Liptak All these “describe the personality of valve.”
These are important in the sense that all these parameters in conjunction with different elements
in a control loop decides the performance of the entire loop. One control loop consists of Sensor,
controller actuator control valve & process as shown below

Process KP Cont.
Σ
Variable
+ -

Loa Controll
Valve er
d Sensor
Kv Actuator

Fig VI/1.3.1 -1 Control loop. Let the component have their own gain say

Ka=Actuator gain, Kc =controller gain Kp = Process gain, Ks = Sensor gain Kv = Valve gain,
so overall gain of the loop is K= Ka*Kc*Kp*Ks* Kv ( if = constant). As long as the overall gain
is constant it is stable. Now out of all these it is clear that if controller gain is independent of
load then as long as Kp* Kv is constant ,the system is stable as the overall gain is constant.
Meaning that changes in process has direct impact on control valve gain ( assuming controller
is not changing with load change). All these preambles were to establish that control valve
gain is again related to the control valve characteristics. So before any discussion on control

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valve characteristics it is necessary to discuss control valve gain. When the control valve gain
varies at a constant rate with load ( flow) then the valve gain is called equal percentage. If the
control valve drops with load / flow then ,it is quick opening type. If there is no variation of
valve gain with flow/ load( i.e the load and gain is related in constant gradient relationship),
then it is linear If the valve gain shows some other nonlinear characteristic with load then they
may be named as square root, parabolic, hyperbolic etc. as shown in Fig no .: Fig No.
VI/1.3-2 Valve characteristics

Fig No. VI/1.3.1-2 Valve characteristics

The valve gain is the slope of the chracteristics of curve i.e ΔQ / Δ Tr . Valve gain is
influeneced by Valve size, Pressure drop, Valve Characteristic, as well by flow. Refering to
fig no. VI/1.3-3 The pump characteristics.

Fig No. VI/1.3.1-3 Pump characteristics( System


resistance)

It is seen that the pump discharge pressure drops with the increase in load or flow. Now as the
ΔP of valve increase with flow so the valve gain drops with load. This suggests that after
installation the valve gain changes. This is Installed valve gain. So when actual flow is plotted
against corresponding valve opening , installed valve characteristics are obtained and this is
quite different from the theoritical one where constant ΔP has been considered in testing.

2. Thumb rule for valve characteristic for various application.; The aim of these discussion is to
find some thmb rule to select the control valve characteristic for various application. At the
time of tuning of controller it is done at nominal load of the loop with the assumption that the
loop gain ( except Adaptive gain controller)will not change with load. In practice it is not the
case, where the loop gain changes with process load, so some thing need to be done to
compensate for the deviation from theoritical value! i.e. the control valve characteristics shall
be chosen to match the process type. There may be a number of school of thoughts in selecting
the valve characteristics. However a table presented below is as recommeneded by standard
supplier.

a. Table :VI/ 1. 3.2- 1 For Level Application


ΔP Load Condition Inherent characteristic

Constant All Load Linear

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ΔP at Max load >20% of Min ΔP decreasing with load Linear


load ΔP increasing

ΔP at Max load <20% of Min ΔP decreasing with load Equal percentage


load ΔP increasing

ΔP at Max load >200% of Min ΔP Increasing with load Quick Opening


load ΔP increasing

ΔP at Max load <200% of Min ΔP Increasing with load Linear


load ΔP increasing

Fig VI/1.3.2- 1 Flow valve location

b. Table :VI/ 1. 3.2- 2 For Flow Application ( Location of control valve &
flow signal to the controller are important parameters)

Flow signal to the Location of Recommended Inherent Characteristic


controller Control.valve in
relation to flow meter. Wide set point Small flow set
(Fig No. VI/1.3.2-1) range point range*

Proportional to flow SERIES Linear Equal percentage

Proportional to flow BYPASS Linear Equal percentage

Proportional to flow SERIES Linear Equal percentage


square
BYPASS Equal percentage Equal percentage

*with large ΔP change with increasing load

c. Table :VI/ 1. 3.2- 2 For Pressure Application ( Process fluid & time
constant is important ) Fast : Short pipe length ( Liquid flow in pipe) Slow :
Large volume ( long distribution line,Tank,Receiver )

Fluid Time constant Valve ΔP Recommended Inherent


Characteristic

LIQUID Fast Irrespective of ΔP Equal percentage

LIQUID Slow ΔPQ max <0.2 ΔPQ min Equal percentage

LIQUID Slow ΔPQ max >0.2 ΔPQ min Linear

GAS Fast Irrespective of ΔP Equal percentage


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GAS Slow ΔPQ max <0.2 ΔPQ min Equal percentage

GAS Slow ΔPQ max >0.2 ΔPQ min Linear

d. For Temperature Application: Equal percentage characteristics so far is


quite good for temeprature application having higher time constant.

e. Quick Opening Valves are used mainly for ON/OFF service, in batch or
semicontinuous process where there may be requirement of large flow.
f. Range ability( R ) & Turn Down Ratio(T): There are two terams quite close
but are different these
Rangeabilty : = ( Max controllable flow)/(Min controllable flow)
Turn Down ratio= (Normal Maximum Flow ) /(Min controllable flow)
generally normal max flow is considered as 0.7 Max controllable flow ( as in
Flow element calculation Average flow is considered 0.7 times max flow ) So
T=0.7 R

3. Small and Large Capacity Valves - Split ranging: In Power plant there are a few
application where it is necessary to use low capacity as well as High capacity control valves in
tandem. Auxiliary steam is an example of the same. During start up period, the flow demand of
auxiliary steam is much more than when the unit stabilises. During start up time the valve has
to face comparatively low DP with higher demand of flow. On the other hand when unit is
running normal naturally the demand for aux.steam is low but DP may be higher. For these
obvious reasons Low and high capacity valves are to be used. How to switch these valves?As
is clear from Fig no. 1.3.3- 1a that during switching from large capacity to small capacity there
is large flactuation in case the switching over is abrupt. For this reasons some times the loop is
taken in to manual and slowly large capcity valve is opened up and the other one is closed.This
can be done by split range as shown in Fig No. 1.3.3-1b when low capacity valve stats opening
when High capacity valve is near closing. Suitable overlap between the two can also be done
for better control. by using floating control method for the large capacity valve which when is
opened slightly the small capacity valve opens to meet the demand. The swiching method
has been shown with electronic circuitry which is easier to achieve , but can be achieved by
pneumatic means also. As Shown in Fig no. VI/ 1.3.3-1C there is another kind of split range
controls some times encountered in power plant. In this type one valve is reverse acting type,
and other direct acting type.
1.4 Seat Leakage Classification :
1. The quantity of fluid passing through a valve assembly when the valve is in fully
closed position with Pressure differential , (static pressure) and temperature as specified.
According to ANSI B16.104 control valves are classified. Even the main function of control
valves are designed for throttling services yet they are expected to offer some type of shut off .
2. The shut off characteristic depends on many factors such as Valve Type, seat
material, guiding, actuator thrust, Type of fluid ( low viscous fluid cause more leakage) ,
pressure drop across the valve, etc. Apart from these factors there are a few more on which the
leakage depends. A brand new control valve will conform to the leakage specification of the
supplier but after use for some time the leakage value may change to a great extent. The
temperature gradient between the trim and body, strain in pipe , valve etc would cause more
leakage. Also when valve operate at a temperature below specified temperature would also cause
leakage.
3. Valve Leakage Classification: Class I Through VI . Out of them Class IV & VI
have special names such as
a. Class IV : Metal to metal – Kind of leakage expected from metal plug and metal seat
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b. Class VI : Soft Seat where either the plug or seat or both are made from soft
composition material such as Teflon
Table VI/1.4.3-1 For Leakage Class ( Leakage as % of Rated full Capacity)
Class Leakage% Test Medium Service ΔP / Typical Construction
Temp.
I NO SHOP TEST Same as Class II,III,IV
II 0.5 Air 45 to 50psid/3.4 bar 1)Balanced single port single
60psig in Temp range graphite piston ring, metal seat
50 to 125˚F low seat load
whichever is 2)Balanced double port, metal
lower seats, High seat load
III 0.1 Same as above 1)Balanced double port, soft
seats, low seat load
2) Balanced single port single
graphite piston ring, lapped metal
seat medium seat load

IV 0.01 Same as above 1)Balanced /Unbalanced single


seat Teflon or Multiple graphite
piston ring lapped metal seat
medium seat load

V < 5X10ml Water at 100psig Service DP 1)Unbalanced single port


/min/inch or operating 50 to 125˚F soft/lapped metal seat, high seat
orice dia Pressure load
per psi DP 2) Balanced single port, Teflon
piston ring, soft seat ,low seat
load
VI See Bleow Air/N2 < 50psig Unbalanced single port low seat
or operating lod
pressure at 50
125 ˚F

Table VI/1.4.3-2 Class VI Leakage Values

Port Diameter Bubble mL per Port Diameter Bubble mL per


per minute per minute
inches mm minute inches mm minute

1 25 1 0.15 4 102 11 1.7

1½ 38 2 0.3 6 152 27 4

2 51 3 0.45 8 203 45 6.75

2½ 64 4 0.6 10 254 63 9

3 76 6 0.9 12 305 81 11.5

1.5 Actuator Sizing : Before going much in to the details , a few fundamental things shall be looked
into. Effort has been made to show How Valve orientation, and actuator orientation influence the
actuator sizing.

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1. Basics of Sizing Actuator ( Fig no. VI/1.5-1) :In a Spring diaphragm actuator any valve
position is achieved by making the total force on stem equal to Zero. In the subsequent clauses
efforts will be made to find various forces. For the subsequent discussions following letters have
been assigned to various variable such as: “A” = the area of the diaphragm, “” = the air pressure
“K” = the spring constant, “X” = the spring displacement, “ΔP” = valve process pressure drop at
Shut of pressure --- general practice is to consider the MAXIMUM UPSTREAM PRESSURE AS
ΔP unless ensured by a back pressure at down stream , “Av”= Effective valve area( Orifice).
During the discussion, forces towards downward is arbitrarily chosen as positive.

a. Referring to VI/1.5-1a it is found that in this case the

Process Flow comes from the bottom of the plug, and goes to outlet from top, i.e the process
flow is assisting. opening of valve. Again air supply is from top, so air will push the plug to
close the valve by compressing the spring in the actuator. Here it is clear that the force of air
acting is in positive directions (Direct acting) and it is opposed by spring compression force,
and force due to Process flow :

Pa *A - ΔP* Av - K*X = 0 or Pa *A = ΔP* Av +K*X ……(a)

So minimum Force required is to over come is the sum of the two opposing forces. Now if
the orientation is changed , to examine what happens?

b. Referring to VI/1.5-1b it is found that in this case the

Process Flow comes from the bottom of the plug, and goes to outlet from top, i.e the process
flow is opposing opening of valve. Again air supply is from bottom, so air will pull the plug
to open the valve by compressing the spring in the actuator. Here it is clear that the force of
air acting is in negative directions( Reverse Acting) and it is opposed by spring compression
force, and force due to Process flow so :

- Pa *A _+ ΔP* Av + K*X = 0 or Pa *A = ΔP* Av +K*X ……(b)

Here also minimum Force required is to over come is the sum of the two opposing forces.
This is so because in this case both process flow as well as actuator orientation has been
changed,

c. Referring to VI/1.5-1c it is found that in this case the

Process Flow comes from the bottom of the plug, and goes to outlet from top, i.e the process
flow is assisting opening of valve. Again air supply is from bottom, so air will pull the plug to
open the valve by compressing the spring in the actuator. Here it is clear that the force of air
acting is in negative directions( Reverse Acting) and it is opposed by spring compression
force, but assisted by force due to Process flow so :

- Pa *A - ΔP* Av + K*X = 0 or Pa *A = ΔP* Av - K*X ……(c)

Here minimum Force required is to over come is the difference forces for process flow and
spring compression hence will be less than cases in (a) & (b).

d. Referring to VI/1.5-1d it is found that in this case the

Process Flow comes from the top of the plug, and goes to outlet from bottom, i.e the process
flow is opposing opening of valve. Again air supply is from top, so air will push the plug to
close the valve by compressing the spring in the actuator. Here it is clear that the force of air

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acting is in negative directions( Reverse Acting) and it is opposed by spring compression


force, and force due to Process flow so :

Pa *A + ΔP* Av - K*X = 0 or Pa *A = K*X - ΔP* Av ……(d)

Here minimum Force required is to over come is the difference of forces for spring
compression and process flow, hence will be less than the same in equations (a) & (b).

Based on this fundamentals, calculation of actuator has been discussed in Chapter VI


Section 4. Clause 4.1

1.6 Materials Of Construction and associated tables for Pressure & Temperature ratings: (Data
presented are mainly as per ASME B16.34 )

1. There are a number of control valves in main power plant as well as in off sites. Also there are
dampers, impeller metering pump etc. various Final Control Elements.(FCE). In the following
discussions major control valves in the main power plants have been considered. Based on this
guide lines it would be possible to select the materials for control valves for other applications.
A typical list of Control valves in main power plants is presented to enable the reader to have an
idea on the subject. The Materials shown are suggestive typical for higher MW plant drum type
boiler. In case of Once through boiler a few will not be applicable..
The materials discussed are as per certain standards. In the following clause basic ( not detailed)
compositions of these materials have been listed. Also the temperature limit against each of these
materials have published, designer to select the material. Based on the same designer is select the
material.
Table VI/1.6.1- 1 Typical List of Control Valves with suggested materials(QUANTITY OF VALVES IN
EACH SERVICE DEPENDS ON SYSTEM DESIGN)

Control Valve Body Material. Trim Material(SS)


Lo / Hi range Feed Control valves( also ASTM A 217GR C5 17-4 PH
bypass valve)
SH or RH or other spray control valve ASTM A 217GR C5 440C
HP or LP heater normal level control valve ASTM A 217GR WC6 17-4 PH
HP or LP heater Hi/Emergency level control ASTM A 217GR C5 17-4 PH
valve
BFP Recirculation Control Valve ASTM A 217GR C5 440C
CEP/GSC min Flow Control Valve ASTM A 217GR C5 17-4 PH
Aux Steam or CRH to Deaerator valve ASTM A 216GR WCB Type 316 Stellite
Normal or emergency Make up to SS Type 316 Type 316
Condenser. valve
Condensate flow to deaerator valve ASTM A 216GR WCB Type 316 Stellite
Deaerator drain to condenser valve ASTM A 217GR C5 17-4 PH
Drain cooler Level control valve ASTM A 217GR WC6 17-4 PH
Steam Pr valve for atomizing ASTM A 216GR WCB Type 316 Stellite
Control valves in PRDS for Aux Steam ASTM A 216GR WCB Type 316 Stellite
CBD tank level control valve ASTM A 217GR C5 Type 316 Stellite
Condenser spill valve ASTM A 217GR WC6 17-4 PH
SCAPH steam Control valves ASTM A 216GR WCB 17-4 PH
SCAPH drain valve ASTM A 217GR C5 17-4 PH
Gland sealing supply valve ASTM A 217GR WC6 17-4 PH
F.O heating & Pressurizing valves ASTM A 216GR WCB Type 316

2. Valve Body & Trim Materials Composition with temperature limit : In the table below a
few materials, which are common in power plant applications, only have been discussed. There

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are many other materials available also for which Standard book on control valves may be
consulted.
Table V/1.6.2-1 Valve Body Material Composition (a few Materials COMMONLY Used for
control valves In power plant) ( in %)& Temperature limit(in ˚C)
Casting Forging Other Major Lo Temp Hi Temp Remarks
Composition (%) Limit (˚C) Limit (˚C)
A216 Gr WCB A105 C=0.2-0.24; Cr=0.2; -29 535 Moderate temp
& corrosion non
Mn=1.0-1.35
critical
;Mo=0.06
Ni=0.2;Si=0.15-0.3
A217 Gr C5 A182 F5 C=0.15(M); -29 590 Moderate
corrosion
Cr=4.0-6.0;
Mn=0.3-0.6
Mo=044-0.65
Ni=0.5(M);Si=0.5(M)
A217 Gr WC6 A182 F11- C=0.1-0.15; -29 535 Minimize
CL2 Cr=1.0-1.5; graphitization
Mn=0.3-0.8 Mo=044-
0.65
A217 Gr WC9 A182 F22- C=0.15(M) -29 565 Elevated temp
CL3 Cr=2.0-2.5; & strength
Mn=0.3-0.6 than F11
Mo= 0.87-1.13
Si=0.5

Table V/1.6.2-2 Valve Trim Material Composition ( in %)& Temperature limit(in ˚C)
TYPE Other Major Lo Temp Hi Temp Limit Remarks
Composition (%) Limit (˚C) (˚C)
316 SS—Casting: C=0.08; -250 815 Hi temp & corrosion
resistance
A351CF8M Cr=18.0-21.0; ( 316˚C as
FORGING: Mn=1.5(M) trim)
A182 F316 Mo=2.0-3.0
Ni=9.0-12.0
Si=1.5 (M)
316L SS—Casting: C=0.035; -250 454
A351CF3M Cr=16.0-18.0;
FORGING: Mn=2.0(M)
A182 F316L Mo=2.0-3.0
Ni=10.0-14.0
Si=1.0 (M)
TYPE 17-4PH ASTM C=0.07(M); -29 343( 427˚C Less impact on loading
A564 Gr 630UNS Cr=15.0-17.5 as cage)
S17400 Mn=1.0 (M)
Ni=3.0-5.0
Si=1.0(M)
TYPE 440C C=0.95-1.2 -45 315( 427˚C
Cr=16.0-18.0 as cage)
Mn=1.0
Mo=0.75
Si=1.0(M)

3. Seat Materials: Some of the common seat materials are as follows with Temperature limits
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Table VI/1.6.3-1 Commonly used Seat Materials with temperature Limits


Materials Lower Limit in ˚C Upper Limit in ˚C
High Density Polyethylene (HDPE) (-) 54 85
Neoprene (-) 40 82
Nitrile Rubber (-) 29 93
Nylon (-)51 93
PTFE (-)268 230

4. Valve / Flange Pressure Temperature Ratings : The Pressure withstand capability of each
of the material of each of the materials discussed above needs to be de rated as per the operating
temperature. Now this is done on the basis of pressure class selected for the valve as well as
operating temperature. For example the working pressure for a valve( 150lb) of ASTM A216-
WCB at 200˚F(93.33˚C) is 260psi(18.2798Kg/cm2). Whereas valve of same rating when used in
temperature at viz 600˚F(315.5˚C) the maximum working pressure would be 140lb(9.8
Kg/cm2) What does it mean ? and where same can be found? This means that for EACH
MATERIAL SPECIFICATION and for EACH PRESSURE RATING CLASS OF THE
VALVE There would be a maximum pressure that the material can withstand at a PARTICULAR
temperature( range). These can be found in ASME B16.34 Tables( in this case Table no 2-1.1). It
is therefore recommended to refer ASME B16.34( or relevant standard of the country for such
ratings) or to contact Flange/valve suppliers.

1.7. Special Considerations : There shall be some special considerations to be given for
1. For High Pressure service: For High Pressure services forged body shall be used and these shall
offer greater strength. Erosion Resistant materials shall be selected for these services. Special
seal , higher stem diameters are some of the considerations.
2. High DP:. On account of High DP high force may develop across the valve and internal parts to
cause instability of the valve. On account of High DP high velocity droplets may develop to
cause erosion. For erosion, aberration, cavity, SS 440C may be used to prevent erosion. Also in
globe valves there may be excessive stem thrust, and if it is Flow to close type then High DP may
damage the seat. When these are flow to open they may open against actuator! In case of High
DP there may be sharp drop in out let temperature which may cause the material brittle, so due
considerations shall be given on to this.
3. High temperature services : For these services where T> 230˚C , Matrial temperature limitations
discussed in 1.6 above must be taken in to considerations. Also temperature limitation due to
pack ing needs to be considered. Packing material limitation Teflon: 230˚C Metallic packing :
480˚C, graphite Packing: 399˚C

1.8 Control Valve Noise: From Pollution noise is the Third greatest menace after air and water
pollution. From Human health condition people are quite concerned about the same. Also Noise
is a kind of loss to the system. Valve Noise is expressed in terms of dB. Valve noise , more
precisely aerodynamic noise is defined in terms of Sound Pressure Level(SPL). Sound Pressure
Level in dB has been defined as follows:.
dB = 20 log10( measuring sound pressure level / 2X10-4 microbar ).
=20 log10(measuring sound pressure level / 2X10-5 N/M2)
1.8.1 Sources of Noise : There three major sources or types of Noise encountered in control valve
these are :
1. Mechanical Vibration: Mechanical vibration is caused by the response of valve internals
components to the turbulent through the valve. Turbulent imp inching , vortex shedding cause
such vibration. These could also be on account of improper design also! This kind of vibration
indicate tonal frequency vibrations. Now problem occurs when these induced vibration frequency
matches with the natural frequency of trim! There would be resonance. This can result easy trim
failure due to fatigue. Generally guided valves have lesser chances to have this, Should it happen
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at all these can be checked by changing the valve design or reducing clearance between the guide
and plug.etc.
2. Aerodynamic Noise: Aerodynamic noise arises as a result of direct conversion of mechanical
energy of flow in to acoustic energy as the turbulent flow passes through the valve orifice. This
noise is much more predominant when compared to the others by mechanical vibration. The point
at which sonic speed is reached at vena contracta is function of valve design and F L ( rated
pressure recovery factor). IEC standard IEC-534-8-3 is followed mostly to predict Aerodynamic
noise. The basic process in such noise prediction consists of the following process
a. Based on the process condition to Calculate the Trim outlet velocity and find the noise source
strength. Sound Power generated in the fluid inside the valve and pipe on account of throttling
pressure
b. To calculate the portion of sound energy generated at the valve is propagated to down stream
piping
c. To Calculates how Pipe wall attenuates the noise as it passes from inside to outside
Transmission loss due to piping to determine &
d. To estimate the weighted sound pressure level at a distance of ONE METER from the pipe.
3. Hydrodynamic Noise: The major Sources of Hydrodynamic noise come from
a. Turbulent flow
b. Cavitation
c. Flashing
d. Mechanical Vibration on account of the above.
The problem associated with Hydrodynamic Noise comes from Erosion as well as corrosion.
IEC -534-8-4 standard may be used to measure the same.
4. Brief Discussions on Noise predictions:
a. Aerodynamic Noise:
i. To calculate the total Stream Power at Vena Contracta Wm: Use Kinetic Energy equation
Stream power due to mass flow “m” is
Wm = ½ * mU2 where U is the velocity at vena Contracta calculated using first law of
thermodynamic
ii. The acoustic efficiency is calculated η =Mvc3.6 where Mvc= Mach number at vena
contracta and peak Frequency fp = 0.2U/dvc where dvc is the orifice diameter at vena
contracta
iii. There are five defined flow regimes for a particular valve depending on inlet PressureP1,
Outlet PressureP2, fluid physical parameter and FL for the valve. These f
Low regimes are
• Sub Sonic
• Sonic with turbulent flow mixing
• No Compression but with flow shear
• Shock cell Turbulent flow interaction
• Constant acoustical Efficiency
iv. Thus in each regime efficiency is defined and calculated as shown above. Thus the
sound power is calculated from the total power with the help of the efficiency in each
regime.
v. Only a portion of the sound power is propagated to the down stream, and this is
designated by rw which is a function of valve style. Typical values are as follows

VALVE TYPE rw
Globe/ Rotary Globe 0.25
Butterfly/ Ball 0.5
Expander 1

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vi. Now Aim is to convert the sound power to SPL which is done by
Average SPL across pipe cross section= (3.2 *109Waρ2c2) /(dp2) where Wa= Sound power,
ρ2 =down stream vena contracta gas density c2= Down stream vena contracta sound speed
dp = down stream pipe ID. Down stream Noise propagation is given by
Lg= 16log10[1/(1-M2)] where M2 is the Mach number at outlet
vii. The net sound level at pipe wall is given by LpAe= 5+Lpi+TL+Lg
where Lpi Pipe internal sound pressure level: TL is transmission loss which is dependent
on flow peak frequency. These transmission loss regimes are determined from TL vs Peak
frequency .
viii. Finally Noise at ONE meter from pipe wall
SPL= LpAe - 10log10[(dp+2tp +2)/( dp+2tp)]
where tp= pipe thickness
b. Hydrodynamic Noise Prediction. The main factor for hydrodynamic noise is associated with
Cavitation. There are again two situation Choked flow and non-choked flow condition.
Again for Flashing fluid there a variety of situation. So noise prediction is rather complex.
For details standard IEC -534-8-4 may be referred to
5. Noise control Means : The noise can be controlled by Source treatment & path treatment
a. Source treatment for Noise control
i. Use of Small properly spaced jet : Size of fuid jet affects the noise
generation. (1) By reducing the size efficiency of conversion of mechanical
energy to sound is minimized., also it shifts the energy to high frequency
and curtail the transmission through pipe line (2) Small size & proper
spacing reduce the shock eddies
ii. Adiabatic Flow with friction: the flow area of valve trim is gradually
increased in down stream section to compensate for expansion and more or
less constant velocity. Thus sharp fall in enthalpy is arrested.
iii. Multi path, multi stage and combination of the two, are the major source
Treatment. LO DB, Cage style are source treatment towards this..
iv. For high DP ΔP/P 1 >0.8 series restriction approach to split the pressure
drop between the control valve and restrictor at down stream is effective.
v. For Hydrodynamic noise is mainly associated with cavitation, hence if the
cavitation is predicted and eliminated then noise is reduced drastically.
b. Path treatment : there are a few methods used in this approach these are :
i. Silencer: this is an effective way but there are a few problems associated
with it like low flow velocity makes this ineffective in High capacity
services. Operating condition may be too severe to use silencer
ii. Pipe Schedule increase; meaning higher wall thickness. It is good but need
to maintain through out the downstream length as noise once generated does
not dissipate quickly (and system may be costly also!).
iii. Pipe Insulation: It is also effective but have the same limitation as discussed
above. Also here the insulation must be properly wrapped without any
gap/Void.
1.9. End Connection for Control Valve: In power plants all the three types of end connection of
Control valves are quite common.
1. Screw Type: Screw types are common in small valves and economical..The threads are female
threads with different standards such NPT, BS etc. Generally these connections are restricted
to low pressure application and up to a size of 50mm NB. Maintenance may not be easy.
2. Flange Connection ( ref Fig no. VI/1.10-1): In Flange connection Valve is connected with pipe
by mating flange set, with gasket in between and the two flanges are bolted. These can be used
for wide range of pressure and Temperature( up to 800˚C). From maintenance point of view

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this connection is a natural choice for easy removal of valve. There are international standards
on these flanges so that there is no difficulty in matching both end dimensions as long as it
follows a standard. DIN, ANSI, BS, JIS etc are the most popular flange standard. In these
standards, corresponding to flange nominal size and pressure class for a particular material,
there will be standard tables specifying all other required details such bolt diameter, pitch,
thickness etc all are specified. Reader needs to consult such standard to get the details. There
are three kinds of flanges for connections these are
a) Flat Face(FF) : In this type there will full face of contact of the two matching flange with
gasket in between them. This is used for low pressure applications.
b) Raised face(RF): In this type there will be a raised face which is in contact with the raised
face of the matching flange having gasket in between them. The inner diameter of the
raised face matches the valve opening with outside diameter somewhere near but less
than bolt diameter. Raised face has concentric groove to accommodate the gasket and
prevent gasket blow out. Pressure range up to 400bar, and temperature up to 815˚C can
be withstood in this type flange. However for each material, and pressure class the
temperature Pressure table shall be consulted.
c) Ring type joint(RTJ) flange is more or less same as RF type here there is one U shaped
groove & metallic Gasket of elliptic/octagonal shape is used to put the ring type gasket in
the groove when the bolts are tightened as shown in Fig no. VI/1.10-1 C. here pressure
sealing up to 1000 bar is possible but rarely used for high temperature.
3 Weld type (Ref Fig no. VI/1.10-2): Weldable valves are leak tight but difficult to remove. Also
care must be taken during welding that due high temperature trim etc are not damaged. There
are two types of welding connection as shown in Fig no. VI/1.10-2
a. Socket weld ends are prepared in each side of the valve by boring a socket type space
where the pipe slips in to the socket and rests there and welded as shown in Fig no.
VI/1.10-2a. For connection in pipe of size up to 50mm NB utilizes this type of
connections.
b. I the butt welding connections are used generally for line > 65mm NB. butt Weld
there will be end preparation at each end of the valve, i.e. beveled. Similarly pipe is also
beveled and welding is done as shown in Fig no. VI/1.10-2b.
1.10 Control Valve Face to Face Dimension: ISA has developed standard ISA S 75.nn ( where nn
stands various values e.g ISA S 75.03, ISA S 75.03,12, ISA S 75.15, ISA S 75.03,16,ISA
S75.22 etc) to specify the face to face dimensions for various kinds on based on their pressure
class, Connection type etc. Viz; Face−to Face Dimensions for Flanged Globe Style control
valve for classes 125,250, 300, & 600 etc. as per(Dimensions in accordance with ISA S75.03).
What does it mean? It means that from end to end dimension of the valve . the basic purpose
such standard is to provide valve face-to-face dimensions for flanged and flangeless control
valves without giving special consideration to the equipment manufacturer to be used. Thus
instrument engineer can help his/her counter part in piping engineer. For each type of valve,
each valve size, and valve pressure class, end connection there will be unique Face to face
dimension. E.g As per ISA S75.03 for Flanged Globe style valve of size 2”NPS Pressure
class 300with RTJ flange connection, “ FACE TO FACE DIMENSIONSION shall be
282mm(11.12 inch)” It is therefore required that Reader while specifying theface to face
dimension must consult ISA standard which is generally followed all over. The manufacturer
hand book may be helpful also.

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