Motors and Generators

Motors and Generators: 1. Motors and magnetic fields

x Perform a first hand investigation to investigate the motor effect

Investigation: Building a simple motor

Aim: To perform a simple first-hand investigation to investigate the motor effect

Equipment:
-Small permanent bar magnet (2 x 5cm)
-2 large paper clips
-dowel/marker (1.9cm diameter)
-connecting wire
-sandpaper
-packing foam (5 x 5cm square, 2cm deep)
-D-ell battery
-24 gauge insulated wire

Method:
1/ Wrap the wire around the dowel 10-20 times, leaving 5cm free wire at each end.
Remove dowel so that you have a spring of wire

5 cm

2/ Squeeze the coil together and wrap one end to secure coil:

3/ Wind the free end as shown below. Ensure the leads are well-centred and straight.

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4/ Sand only the top half of each lead, ensuring the paint is completely removed from the
top half.

5/ Unfold each paperclip and assemble as shown below:

Plastic straw
Paperclip

Magnet
Coil of
copper wire

Foam block

Tape/elastic
band

Battery (D-cell)

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6/ When the battery is connected and the bare wires of the copper coil are in contact with the
paperclips, the coil should rotate freely.

7/ Reverse the polarity of the battery and reconnect. You should observe the coil rotating in
the opposite direction.

What is actually happening?

‘Bare’ wire

S
Wire insulation
N
Paperclip
‘brush’
No current, therefore no magnetic field in the coil. The coil experiences no torque

S
S
N

If coil is given a push, contact is made, current flows and the coil acts as an electromagnet.
The North Pole of the magnet attracts the South Pole of the coil, repelling the north pole and
causing the coil to spin.

I
S
N
S N

Attraction between opposite poles and the inertia keeps it rotating while current flows.

S N
N
S

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On completing ½ a turn, the insulation turns the current off. The inertia of the coil carries it
through another turn past the insulation. When current flows again, the torque is in the same
direction so the coil continues to rotate in the same direction.

x Describe qualitatively and quantitatively the force between long parallel current-
F II
carrying conductors: k 1 2
l d
In 1820, physicist Andre-Marie Ampere investigated the force exerted between two long
parallel wires. He found that when the wires carry current in the same direction, the force is
attractive. If the currents flow in opposite directions, the force exerted repels the wires.

This shows that electrical currents create magnetic fields and forces, which interact with other
magnetic fields and electrical currents.

The direction of the force between two parallel current carrying wires can be explained using
the right hand palm rule.

Currents in same direction,

so the resulting magnetic
fluxes are also in the same
direction. Hence, the wires
attract.

Currents in opposite
directions, so the resulting
magnetic fluxes are in
opposite directions. Hence
the wires repel.

The force between the two wires depends on the product of the current in the wires, the
perpendicular distance between the wires and the length of the wires.

Increasing the current and the length of the wires increases the force. Increasing the
separation of the wires decreases the force.

F I1 I 2
Mathematically, k where
l d

F= Force, in Newtons
L= length of conductors, in metres

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I1 and I2 are the respective currents in the conductors, in amps

k = magnetic force constant = 2.0 x 10-7 TmA-1

F v I1I 2 for constant l and d

F v l for constant I1I 2 and d
1
Fv for constant I1I 2 and l
d

The unit of current, the ampere, is defined in terms of the force between two parallel current
carrying wires. When one ampere of current flows between two infinitely long wires
separated by the distance of 1 metre in a vacuum, they experience a force of 2.0 x 10-7
newtons.

F I1 I 2
x Solve problems using: k
l d
Examples:
1) Calculate the force per unit length between two long, parallel wires currying
15.3A and 12.7A and separated by 1.00cm. State the direction of the force, given
that the currents are in opposite directions.
I1 I 2 15.3 u 12.7 194.31A d 0.01m k 2.0 u x10 -7 TmA 1

F II 194.31A
k 1 2 2.0 u x10 -7 3.8862 u 10 3 Nm 1 # 3.88Nm -1 (3 s.f.)
l d 0.01
Since the currents in the wires are in opposite directions the force/unit length is 3.88Nm -1 repelling the wires

2) Two long, parallel wires are carrying equal currents. The wires are 10.0cm
apart. The force between them is found to be 8.25x10-5Nm-1, attracting each
other. Find the magnitude, and relative direction, of the currents in the wires.
F
I1 I2 8.25 u 10 5 Nm 1 d 0.1m k 2.0 u x10 -7 TmA 1
l

Fd 8.25 u 10 5 u 0.1
I1 I 2 41.25
kl 2.0 u x10 -7
Since I1 12 , the current flowing in each is given by I 41.25 6.42261... # 6.42A (3 s.f.)
Because the force attracts the wires, the currents are flowing parallel to each other.

3) Two wires run parallel for a length of 1.48m. The total force acting between
them over this length is 6.44x10-4N when they are carrying currents of 8.90A
and 14.5A. How far apart are they?

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F 6.44 u 10 4 N l 1.48m I1 I 2 8.90 u 14.5 129.05A k 2.0 u x10 -7 TmA 1

F I1 I 2
k
l d
l 1.48
?d k 2.0 u x10 -7 3.561 u 10 6 # 3.56 u 10 6 m (3 s.f.)
FI1 I 2 6.44 u 10  4 u 129.05

Two power cables, both carrying 30.0A of current in the same direction, are separated
by a distance of 8.00cm. The cables run parallel over a distance of 25.0m. What is the
total force acting between them?

I1 12 30 2 900 A d 0.08m l 25.0m

lI1 I 2 25 u 900
F k 2.0 u x10 -7 5.625 u 10  2 # 5.63 u 10  2 (3 s.f.) attracting the wires
d 0.08

x Identify that the motor effect is due to the force acting on a current carrying
conductor in a magnetic field

The force between two current carrying conductors is relatively weak. However, this effect
can be made much more powerful by increasing number of wires and the strength of the
magnetic fields involved. The effect of the force forms the basis of the electric motor. This is
called the motor effect.

To determine the direction of the force on a wire in a magnetic field, use the right-hand palm
rule:

Conventional Current, I

Magnetic field, B
Force out of page

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Current into
Magnetic field page
due to current

External magnetic
field

Force on wire due to interaction

of magnetic fields

x Discuss the effect, on the magnitude of the force on a current-carrying conductor, of

variations in:
-the strength of the magnetic field in which it is located
-the magnitude of the current in the conductor
-the length of the conductor in the external magnetic field
-The angle between the direction of the external magnetic field and the direction of the
length of the conductor

The force equation for a conductor in an external magnetic field is:

F BIl sin T where,

F force in newtons
B magnetic flux strength, in teslas
I current, in amps
l length of conductor, in metres
T the angle between the wire and the external magnetic field

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From the force equation:

FvB
FvI
Fvl

Hence, an increase or decrease in the magnetic field strength, current or length of the wire in
the field will increase or decrease the force proportionally.

Effect on magnitude of force when the angle, is the only variable

Angle, θ (°) 0 10 20 30 40 45 50 60 70 80 90
Force (N), 0 0.17 0.34 0.50 0.64 0.71 0.77 0.87 0.94 0.98 1.0
to 2 s.f.
From above, we can see that the force is zero when the current is parallel to the external
magnetic field. As the angle increases, approaching 90°, the force increases in proportion to
the sine of the angle. When the current is perpendicular to the field, the force is a maximum
i.e. F = BIl

Solve problems and analyse information about the force on current carrying conductors
in magnetic fields using: F BIl sin T

Examples:

1) A DC power line 250m long is orientated NE-SW in the Earth’s magnetic field
that has strength of 1.5 x 10-5 T in the north-south direction. If the current
carried by the power line is 150A flowing from the NE calculate the magnitude
and direction of the force exerted on the power line due to the interaction of the
current carrying wire and the magnetic field.

B
θ I

N
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 Motors and Generators

B 1.5 u 10 5 T l 250m I 150A T 45q

F BIl sin T (1.5 u 10 5 ) u 150 u 250 u sin 45q 0.39774... # 0.40 N (3 s.f .) directed downwards

x Define torque as the turning force of using: W Fd

The diagram shows how one force can cause an object to rotate (clockwise in this example):

Force d = perpendicular distance between forces

Pivot point or
axi s

Force

The diagram shows how two forces can cause an object to rotate (anticlockwise in this
example):

Force

Torque is defined as the turning effect of a force around an axis, pivot or fulcrum. We say the
force exerts a torque around the axis. Mathematically,

W Fd where,

W the torque, in Newton metres

F the applied force perpendicular to the axis of rotation, in Newtons
d the perpendicular distance from :
the line of action to the force or the two forces (if two forces are involved), in metres

x Describe the forces experienced by a current-carrying loop in a magnetic field and

describe the net result of the forces

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Torque on a current-carrying loop in a magnetic field

Consider a single rectangular coil or loop of wire ABCD placed in a plane parallel to a
magnetic field B. Let AB CD l and BC AD a .

C B

Axis of
b
rotation
B

D A

_
+
Sides BC and AD experience no force because they are aligned parallel to the field. Sides AB
and CD which lie perpendicular to the field each experience a force of: F= BIl. The forces on
sides AB and CD are always opposite so the net force on the loop is always zero. The
resulting torque is in the same direction, causing the loop to rotate.

Using the right hand palm rule, it can be shown that the force on side AB is directed into the
page while the force on side CD is directed out of the page. Hence, the loop rotates in a
clockwise direction when viewed front on.

Since Torque = Force × distance, the torque acting on the sides AB and CD is
W BIla BIA where A is the area of the coil.
When there are n coils: W nBIA

However, as the coil rotates, there are positions where no rotation occurs due to the forces on
the wires. When the coil is inclined at an angle, θ, to the magnetic field, then:
W nBIA cos T

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B
θ

When the plane of the coil is parallel to the magnetic field, the force AB and CD is equal in
magnitude but opposite in direction- force on AB is downwards force and upwards on side
CD. The torque is at maximum and in clockwise direction as the perpendicular distance to the
line of action is at maximum. Sides BC and AD experience no force as they are parallel to the
field.

C B

Torque

D A

_
+

Axis of
Rotation

B A
B

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Sides BC and AD experience force outwards. As the force on BC and AD is always equal in
magnitude but opposite in sign, their net effect on the loop is zero. The force on sides AB and
CD remain in the same direction throughout the rotation and their effect is to create a torque
around the axis.

Torque
B

D
A

_
+

D
Axis of
Rotation

B
θ

As the plane of the loop rotates perpendicular to the field, the torque drops to zero as the
perpendicular distance to the line of force is zero. The force on ends AB and CD is at
maximum as they are now perpendicular to the magnetic field.

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_ B

B
+

Axis of
Rotation
B

As the loop completes a full rotation, the direction of the torque alternates: the torque will
always rotate the loop to be perpendicular to the field. The force on sides AD and BC returns
to zero.

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 Motors and Generators

B C

Torque

A D

_
+

Axis of
Rotation

A D
B

Torque vs. rotation of coil relative to magnetic field in a DC motor:

Torque

-90° 0° 90° 180° 270° 360°

Rotation (°)

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x Solve problems and analyse information using: W nBIA cos T

Examples:

1) A rectangular coil of wire 2cm by 4cm, consisting of 200 turns is laced in a magnetic
field of 0.02T. If a current of 4A is flowing in the coil, calculate:

a) The angle between the plane of the coil and the plane of the field when
maximum torque is experienced

From the equation, W v cos T . Since the maximum value of cos T is 1 and cos 0q 1 , the
maximum torque is attained when the coil is parallel to the field i.e. the angle between coil
and field is zero.

b) The maximum torque experienced by the coil

A 0.02 u 0.04 0.0008m 2 B 0.02T I 4A n 200

W nBIA 200 u 0.02 u 4 u 0.02 0.32Nm -1

2) In the coil above, calculate the torque when the coil is at 45° to the magnetic field

nBIA 0.32Nm -1 T 45 q

W nBIA cos T 0.32 u cos 45q 0.22627... # 0.226 Nm 1 (3s.f .)

x Describe the main features of a DC electric motor and the role of each feature
x Identify that the required magnetic fields in DC motors can be produced either by
current-carrying coils or permanent magnets

Electric motors can be classed as AC or DC motors. These can be further divided into:

-DC Commutator motors

-Induction motors (DC)
-Synchronous AC motors Coil
Armature
contacts
laminations

Axle

Commutator
Rotor coils

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DC commutator motor
Part Description
For the external magnets (Stator) one of the following arrangements is used:
a) a pair of permanent Two permanent magnets on
magnets (field opposite sides of the motor.
magnets) in a simple They are curved to surround
motor the armature.
N S
b) pair of electromagnetic Each static coil is wound
coils in more complex around a soft iron core
motors attached to the motor casing.
Armature A laminated soft iron cylinder
mounted on an axle.
Laminated conductors
(electromagnets) are imbedded
in slots into the metal core to
reduce the air gap between
conductors and stator.
Rotor coils The coils of copper wire that
wrap around the armature.
Simple motors will only have
one but more complex motors
may have several rotor coils.
They are insulated with a clear
lacquer and are connected by
their ends to the commutator
Split-ring commutator A broad ring of metal mounted
on one end of the axle,
separated into a number of
even sections, depending on
the number of rotor coils. Each
opposing set of coils connects
Commutator for a
to one rotor.
motor with 2 rotors
coils
Robert Lee Chin
Role
The magnets supply the magnetic
field that interacts with the current
in the coil to produce torque. The
curved shape of the magnets
produces a radial magnetic field
such that the coil is always parallel
to the field throughout rotation. This
means torque stays at a constant
maximum, providing smooth
motion.
The stator coils produce a magnetic
field similar to permanent magnets
i.e. with North and South poles
facing each other. However, the
coils and the iron core greatly
increase the strength of the
magnetic field
The armature holds the rotor coils.
The iron core concentrates the
magnetic field, increasing the
torque. The laminations reduce
heating effects due to eddy currents.
The coils provide the torque as the
current passing through them
interacts with the external magnetic
field. They transfer torque to the
armature and thereby the axle.
Provides electrical connection
between the rotor coils and the
external circuit. It reverses the
polarity of the current every half
rotation, ensuring that the torque
remains in the same direction.
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Brushes Thin, flexible copper brushes The brushes maintain

or compressed carbon blocks,
connected to the external
circuit. They are mounted on
opposite sides and are held
by springs to maintain
contact with the commutator
Axle A cylindrical bar of hardened
steel passing through the
centre of the armature
electrical contact between the
commutator and external
circuit as it rotates. The
springs reduce sparking.
Provides a centre of rotation
for the other components.
Allows useful work to be
taken from the motor using
pulleys or gears

DC motor Advantages
-large starting torque is able to move loads quickly
-constant torque even if load varies i.e. self-regulating (back AMF decreases when load is
applied)
-able to control motor speed by controlling electromagnet strength
-able to reverse rotation by reversing field current direction

DC Motor
Advantages Disadvantages
large starting torque is able to move loads Sparking at commutator is potentially
quickly dangerous
constant torque even if load varies i.e. self- Noise due to contact of brushes with
regulating (back AMF decreases when load is commutator
applied)

able to control motor speed by controlling Requires a starting resistor to prevent

electromagnet strength ‘burning out’
-able to reverse rotation by reversing field
current direction

DC motors are most commonly used in industrial applications, especially where variable
rotation speeds are needed e.g. power tools

x Identify data sources, gather and process information to qualitatively describe the
application of the motor effect in:
-the galvanometer
-the loudspeaker

The Galvanometer
The galvanometer forms the basis of ammeters and voltmeters. It is designed mainly to detect
current rather than measure it. It consists of a coil of fine wire wrapped around an iron core
which is suspended in a permanent U-shaped magnet. A coiled spring is attached to the coil
which is attached to a pointer. The spring serves to bring the pointer back to the zero position.

When DC current passes through it coil, it experiences magnetic deflecting torque. As the
coil rotates, so does the pointer until the magnetic torque is balanced by the restoring torque
of the spring. The scale is designed to measure current in both directions and the concave

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surface of the magnet poles produces a radial magnetic field which ensures constant torque.
Hence, the angular deflection of the pointer is proportional to the magnitude of the current.
The scale can be calibrated to read either voltage or current.

Construction of a moving coil galvanometer:

Scale

Pointer

Magnetic coil seen

end-on
N S
Iron core

Coiled spring

The loudspeaker
The loudspeaker consists of a coil wrapped around a central pole piece. The central pole
piece forms part of the permanent magnet, which is shaped like an all-round horseshoe
magnet. The central pole is surrounded by a circular North Pole. The central core is attached
to a cone of stiff paper or plastic. When an alternating current is passed through the coil, it
interacts with the permanent magnet, causing the cone to vibrate back and forth according to
the modulated signal. As the cone vibrates, it amplifies the desired sound via sound waves.

Construction of a moving coil loudspeaker:

Vibrating cone

N
Central pole
S piece

N
Coil

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2. The Generator
x Outline Michael Faraday’s discovery of the generation of an electric current by a
moving magnet
In 1831, Faraday demonstrated that relative motion between a magnetic field and a conductor
will induce a current in the conductor. This is known as electromagnetic induction and forms
the basis for electrical power generation in modern society.
One such apparatus consisted of two wires electrically connected to a copper disc via copper
brushes. The copper disc was placed in between the poles of a horseshoe magnet. When the
disc was rotated, the relative motion with the conductor induced an electrical current in the
wire which was detected by a galvanometer which was connected to the wiring.

Faraday’s apparatus for electromagnetic induction:

Copper brushes
Horseshoe magnet

Galvanometer
Copper disc

Handle to turn disc

x Perform an investigation to model the generation of an electric current by moving a

magnet in a coil or a coil near a magnet

Investigation: Generating an electric current

Aim: To perform an investigation to generate an electric current by the relative motion of a

coil near a magnet

Equipment:
-digital multimeter
-1m length of single strand copper wire
- cardboard tube
-alligator clips
-A bar magnet

Method:
1/Make the wire into a tight coil by wrapping around the cardboard tube. Tape the ends of the
coil to the tube. Do not overlap the coils. This coil will act as a solenoid

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2/ Connect wires to multimeter using alligator clips

3/ Set the multimeter to read micro amps (μA).

N S

4/ Observe what happens when the magnet:

-is pushed to the centre of the solenoid
-Is held stationary in the solenoid
-Is removed
-Is held stationary and the solenoid is moved

Results:
Motion of magnet Observation
pushed to centre of solenoid Current detected on multimeter
Stationery in solenoid No current detected
Removed from solenoid Current detected in opposite direction
Kept stationery and coil is moved Current is detected on multimeter

Conclusion: An electrical current is produced when there is relative motion between a

magnet and a coil.

x Plan, choose equipment and resources for, and perform a first-hand investigation to
predict and verify the effect of a generated current when:

-the distance between the coil and the magnet is varied

-the strength of the magnet is varied
-the relative motion between the coil and magnet is varied

Investigation: Factors affecting the strength of an induced current

Aim: To verify the factors affecting the strength of the current induced by the relative motion
between a coil and a magnet

Theory: An electrical current is generated by the relative motion between a coil and a
magnet. The factors affecting the size of the current are:
-Distance between the coil and the magnet
-Strength of the magnet

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-Relative motion of the coil and magnet

Equipment:
-Solenoid from previous experiment
-Alligator clips
-Bar magnet
-multimeter

Method:
1/ Connect the solenoid to the multimeter using alligator clips. Set multimeter to read micro
amps.

2/ Place the magnet on its end with the North Pole facing up. Move the coil over the magnet
rapidly, noting the direction of the current. Move the coil more slowly and note what happens
to the reading.

3/ Move the coil rapidly in the opposite direction Take note of the direction of the current.

4/ Keep the coil still and move the magnet in and out of the coil at different speeds with the
North Pole moving into the coil. Note what happens to the reading.

5/ Tape two bar magnets together so the north poles are together and repeat step 4.

7/ Move the magnet back and forth at a constant speed towards the coil, stopping at a distance
of 1cm from the coil. Then, move the magnet back and forth to a distance of 5cm from the
coil at the same speed.

Results:
Variable/s Observation
Magnet is stationery and North pole faces up. The current changes direction as the coil
Coil moved rapidly and slowly. moves up and down. The faster the current
moves, the larger the current detected.
Coil is stationary and magnet moves A current is detected
Stronger magnet Larger current detected
Magnet moved closer and further away from The closer the coil and magnet, the larger the
coil current detected

-The direction of the current is dependant on the polarity of the magnetic field with respect to
the coil.
-The faster the relative motion of the coil and the magnet, the larger the current generated
-The stronger the magnet, the larger the induced current
-The closer the magnet and the coil move, the larger the current

Conclusion: The size of the induced current produced when there is relative motion between
a coil and a magnet increases when: the distance decreases and increases; the speed of the
motion is increased; a stronger magnet is used.

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x Define magnetic field strength B as magnetic flux density

x Describe the concept of magnetic flux in terms of magnetic flux density and surface
area

The number of magnetic lines emerging from an imaginary surface in a magnetic field is
called the magnetic flux. The density of these lines i.e. the magnetic flux per area (B) is a
measure of the intensity of the magnetic field. The greater the flux density, the more intense
the magnetic field within a given area.

The symbol used in equations to define magnetic flux is B and the unit of measurement is the
tesla. Mathematically,
I
B where,
A

B magnetic flux density, in teslas

I the magnetic flux, in
A the area perpendicular to the magnetic flux

A B

x Describe generated potential difference as the rate of change of magnetic flux

through a circuit

When there is relative motion between a conductor and a magnetic field, a voltage or
electromotive force (EMF) is produced. Faraday’s law states that the induced EMF is
proportional to the rate of change of flux through the circuit.

What causes the induced EMF?

Consider a wire with the current flowing into the page. The wire moves to the right angles to
a magnetic field, B. The wire contains equal numbers of positive and negative nuclei but only
the electrons can move. Using the right hand plan rule (for negative charges), it can be shown
they experience a force into the page. This leaves a deficiency of electrons at one end i.e. a
potential difference or EMF is produced. The charges continue to separate until the electric
force of repulsion between like charges balances the magnetic force.

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B B
Flow of
Wire moves to electrons into
the right page

Opposing Movement of
force on wire wire

x Account for Lenz’s Law in terms of the conservation of energy

Consider the situation below. The North Pole of a bar magnet is moved towards a coil
carrying current. The current induced in the coil due to this relative motion creates a magnetic
field opposing the change that produced this EMF. Using the right hand grip rule, it can be
shown that the direction of the magnetic flux produced by the coil opposes the flux from the
magnet. Thus, the induced current is simply a result of the work done to overcome the
magnetic repulsion.

North Pole is moved towards coil. The induced current opposes the motion:

N S
Movement of magnet

+ _

When the magnet is removed from the coil, the induced current opposes the withdrawal of the
North Pole i.e. energy is required to remove the magnet. Because the direction of the current
alternates, so does the magnetic flux.

North Pole removed from coil. The induced current and hence, the induced magnetic field
changes direction to oppose the motion:

N S
Movement of magnet

_
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Lenz’s law states that the magnetic field of an induced current opposes the change that
caused it. Lenz’s law is simply a consequence of the law of conservation of energy. If the
induced current aided the motion of the magnet, kinetic energy would be produced
indefinitely and energy would be created.

x Relate Lenz’s law to the generation of back emf in motors

A working motor has the two things required to generate an EMF: a moving coil and a
magnetic field. The applied EMF induces another EMF in the coil, whose direction opposes
the motion of the coil (from Lenz’s law). Because this motion opposes the applied EMF it is
called the back EMF.

x Explain that in electric motors, back emf opposes the supply emf

When a motor is working, a back EMF is produced. This limits the current in the coil and
hence limits the speed of the motor.

When a motor begins working, an applied EMF produces a voltage to cause the motor to
rotate. As the applied EMF increases, the current and speed of the motor increases. Hence,
the back EMF also increases such that: net EMF = applied EMF – back EMF. Eventually, the
motor reaches a steady speed when applied EMF equals back EMF.

When a motor is started, the back EMF is small and so the current may burn out the motor.
To prevent this, a starting resistance is placed in the coil. As the motor speeds up, the back
EMF increases and the starting resistance can be removed.

x Explain the production of eddy currents in terms of Lenz’s law

An EMF is induced in a conductor whenever it is placed in a region of changing magnetic

flux. In the case of a solid conductor, the back EMF induces its own currents which travel in
persistent vortices, hence the name ‘eddy currents’. Eddy currents can result from moving a
conductor within a magnetic field or having the conductor within a changing magnetic flux.

Situation #1: Conductor moving within a magnetic field:

Consider a rectangular metal plate ABCD moving to the right due to an applied force,
perpendicular to a magnetic field directed into the page:

A B

D C

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From Lenz’s law, the induced current inside the magnetic field must produce a magnetic field
which opposes the applied force. Applying the right-hand palm rule, the induced current
flowing in the side BC within the magnetic field must flow up the page from C to B. The
current flowing in the part of the plate not yet in the field travels in the opposite direction
such that a circular eddy current flowing anticlockwise is induced. Using the right hand-grip
rule, we can confirm that the magnetic field produced by the eddy current opposes the initial
magnetic field, and hence the force produced by the eddy current opposes the applied force.

The current flows down the page from B to C for the part of the plate not yet in the field. The
result is a circular eddy current flowing anticlockwise.

When the plate is entirely within the magnetic field, no eddy currents are induced. When the
plate leaves the field, the eddy current flow clockwise to resist this change.

Situation #2: Conductor in the presence of changing magnetic flux

Consider a conducting plate placed perpendicular, in a uniform magnetic field.

If the field strength is increased, then the induced current in the plate will be such that it
produces a magnetic field directed out of the page. Applying the right-hand grip rule, this can
only occur when the current travels in a circular anticlockwise motion.

x Gather, analyse and present information to explain how induction is used in cook
tops in electric ranges

Induction stovetops use coils of copper wire (electromagnets) placed under a glass-ceramic
cook top to generate heat for cooking. AC current is passed through the coil which produces
oscillating magnetic fields. When a ferromagnetic-based metal pan is placed on the heating
plate, the oscillating magnetic fields induce eddy currents in the pan. The eddy currents
produce joule heating (I2R) due to the resistivity of the metal. The heated metal cooks the
contents of the pot.

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Advantages Disadvantages
83-90% efficiency (compared to 40% for Only functions with ferromagnetic pans
gas)
Does not heat surrounding air Expensive to install
Heating is almost instant
Ceramic-glass cook top is easy to clean
No risk of burning hand on stove top

x Gather secondary information to identify how eddy currents have been utilised in
electromagnetic braking

Consider a solid aluminium or copper disk spinning on its axle. Arranging magnets
perpendicular to the spinning disk creates eddy currents in the disc. The magnetic fields
produced by the eddy currents oppose the motion of the disc, quickly bringing it to rest. Eddy
current breaking has been utilised by industry and transportation.

Motion of disc

Eddy current

S
N

Eddy currents are used for electromagnetic braking in some Japanese ‘bullet’ trains. During
breaking, electromagnets induce eddy currents in the metal railings or the moving metal
wheels of the train. The eddy currents induced in the rails or wheels oppose the forward
motion of the train. Because the strength of the eddy currents is proportional to the speed of
the train, the braking effect decreases as the speed of the train decreases, resulting in a
smooth stop.

Eddy current electromagnetic braking is also used in some amusement park rides. There are
two arrangements commonly used. The first involves placing copper plates to the passenger
seat which passes through strong, fixed magnets near the bottom of the ride. As the copper
plate passes through the magnetic fields, eddy currents are induced. Because the size of the
eddy currents is proportional to the speed of the ride, the braking force is gradually reduced
and the rise stops smoothly. The other approach is to place the magnets in the passengers’
seats. As the passenger seat falls during the last half of the descent, they pass between copper
sheets. Eddy currents are induced, bringing the ride to a smooth stop.

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3. Generators for large-scale power production

x Plan, choose equipment or resources for, and perform a first-hand investigation to
demonstrate the production of an alternating current

Aim: to demonstrate the production of an alternating current

Equipment:
-Solenoid (insulated wire coil of many turns)
-bar magnet
-ammeter (micro amps)
-alligator clips
-dynamo set to AC setting

Method:
1/ Connect the solenoid to the zero-centred ammeter, using alligator clips.
2/ move the bar magnet in and out of the coil. Observe the direction of the current as the
solenoid and the magnet are in relative motion
3/ Connect the dynamo to the ammeter, using alligator clips
4/ Rotate the handle of an AC dynamo and observe the ammeter needle as the coil rotates
within the magnetic field.

Results:
As the north pole of the bar magnet was moved inside the coil, the ammeter gave a positive
reading. When the magnet was removed, the direction of the ammeter needle gave a negative
current reading. When this motion was repeated continuously, the needle moved back and
forth i.e. an alternating current was produced.

The AC dynamo had a coil of wire that was continuously rotated within opposite poles of two
bar magnets. As the coil was rotated, the needle of the ammeter moved back and forth. The
faster the coil was rotated, the faster the current alternated and the grater the size of the Ac
current.

Conclusion:
An AC current can be generated when a coil and a magnet are in relative motion and when a
coil of wire is continuously rotated within a pair of magnets.

x Describe the main components of a generator

Generators convert mechanical energy into electrical energy. In theory, a motor can function
as a generator and vice versa.

Generator component Description

Rotor coils A single loop, or more commonly a loop of many copper
wires wound around the armature which rotates within a
magnetic field. The coils connect to the external circuit
via slip rings (AC) or split ring commutator (DC)

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Armature A cylinder of laminated iron mounted onto a hardened

steel axle. Torque applied to the axle makes the armature
rotate
Stator (permanent Two fixed permanent magnets or electromagnets which
magnet/electromagnet) supply the magnetic field.
Slip rings (AC) or split ring Metal rings attached to the axle which transfer generated
commutator (DC) current to brushes
Brushes Carbon blocks which maintain electrical conduction
from the coils to external circuit

Real Generators
Real generators are slightly more complex than just described. Real generators commonly use
an auxiliary DC generator called the exciter to provide DC current for the electromagnets.
The armature of real generators also carries hundreds of copper coils. In most AC generators,
the armature is the stator and the field structure is the rotor. This arrangement means the slip
rings carry current from the exciter to the field structure, which reduces sparking because the
current o the exciter is smaller. Most generators have three or more sets of electromagnets.
This produces multiple voltages each rotation, increasing efficiency.

x Compare the structure and function of a generator to the electric motor

The motor and generator have the same structure. The main difference is that a motor
converts electrical into mechanical energy while a generator converts mechanical energy into
electrical energy.

Structure of motor compared to generator

Component Motor function Generator function
Rotor Where current induces a Where a current is induced
magnetic field by cutting magnetic field
Stator (permanent O p p o s e s t h e c o i l -i n d uce d Induces the electrical current
magnet/electromagnet) magnetic field to produce in the moving coil
motion
Slip rings (AC) or split ring Ensures torque is in one Ensures the induced current
commutator (DC) direction only is in one direction only
Brushes Connects the external circuit Connects the rotor coils to
to the rotor coils the external circuit

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x Describe the differences between AC and DC generators

The main difference is the way the rotor coils are connected to the external circuit.

AC generators are connected via a pair of slip rings which maintain constant electrical
connection. As the induced EMF changes polarity with every half rotation, the voltage in the
external circuit varies like a sine wave and current alternates direction:

Voltage vs. Time graph for AC generator is sinusoidal:

Voltage
Time

DC generators are connected via a split-ring commutator. The commutator reverses the
polarity of the voltage every half rotation, so the voltage and current are always in one
direction.

Voltage vs. Time graph for DC generator:

Voltage
Time

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x Gather secondary information to discuss advantages/disadvantages of AC and DC

generators and relate these to their use

The advantages and disadvantages of AC and DC generators relate to:

-The use of a commutator in DC and slip rings in AC
-Where the current is induced
-The voltage output

Commutators (DC) and Split rings (AC)

The split ring commutator used in DC is prone to wearing due to friction and is more difficult
to construct than the slip rings used in AC generators. The commutator is not always
connected to the circuit, so it is less efficient in producing electricity than slip rings, which
are permanently connected. As a result, slip rings require less maintenance and are more
reliable than commutators.

Induced Currents
In DC generators, current is induced in the moving rotor coils and drawn to the external
circuit via the commutator and brushes. The larger the current, the larger the rotor coils and
supporting armature needs to be. Larger currents may also induce sparking when the
commutator is not in contact with the brushes. In AC generators, current is induced in the
stator windings and the rotor produces the magnetic field. The current is much easier to draw
from the stationary stator compared with the moving rotor for DC. Thus, AC generators are
more practical for use in power stations to supply electricity to the grid.

Voltage Output
The voltage output for DC generators can be made ‘smoother’ by using several coils at angles
to each other- the more coils, the smoother the voltage output. This is advantageous for
equipment that requires a steady voltage. AC generators produce a sinusoidal voltage output
and require rectifiers to convert to DC voltage. The voltage from AC generators is easily
stepped up and down. This means high voltage can be used for electricity transmission, then
stepped down for domestic use. However, due to the oscillating nature of AC, it is more
likely to cause fatalities due to heart fibrillations in domestic use.

x Analyse secondary information on the competition between Westinghouse and

Edison to supply electricity to cities

In the early days of electricity, famous inventor, Thomas Edison pioneered the electricity
supply in the US. He favoured DC electricity which already worked well with incandescent
bulbs, motor and storage batteries which could provide useful back-up energy during
blackouts. Edison had also invented a DC electricity meter which allowed consumers to be
billed in proportion to their power consumption. In addition, no AC system was available at
the time.

His main competitor, George Westinghouse developed an alternative AC electricity system

after buying the patents from AC pioneer, Nikola Tesla. This rivalry was due to several
reasons. Firstly, Edison was an experimenter but lacked the mathematical mind required to
understand AC electricity, which Tesla possessed. Tesla has previously worked for Edison,
but was undervalued.

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Edison’s DC system was disadvantageous because the voltage drop due to the resistance of
the system made electricity transmission prohibitive over long distances. DC generating
plants had to be within 1-2km of the load. Higher voltages could not be used because there
were no devices which could transform a high transmission voltage to a lower voltage for
domestic use.

Westinghouse’s AC system utilised a transformer between high voltage electricity

transmission and domestic use. This meant that AC long-distance electricity transmission was
much more efficient than DC, so fewer, larger power stations could supply a given area. The
AC system was also more reliable for factories, elevators and other consumer machines.

In retaliation, Edison began a smear campaign including spreading disinformation on fatal

AC accidents, lobbying against AC and publicly electrocuting animals using an AC
generator. When the New York government made electrocution the form of execution,
Edison, in fact, lobbied for AC to demonstrate just how dangerous it was and secretly funded
the invention of the electric chair! Westinghouse opposed this, saying it was “cruel and
unusual”. Despite Edison’s unreasonable logic, AC eventually became the dominant form of
electricity transmission worldwide.

x Discuss the energy losses that occur as energy is fed through transmission lines from
the generator to the consumer

There are several reasons for energy loss during electricity transmission:
- Resistance of wiring
-eddy currents
-magnetic hysteresis
-Friction in rotor bearings

Resistive energy losses

Heat is generated in the wire due to the resistance of the metal. Although this is small, the
long distances involved in transmission causes major energy losses. The power lost in
transmission is given by P = V I or P = I 2 R . Since the power lost, is proportional to the square
of the current, electricity is transmitted using high voltage and low current. This is why AC
voltage is predominately used, because it can be easily stepped up or down. However, DC is
becoming used more due to advances in solid state technology which have made stepping
voltages up and down easier.

Conductors such as aluminium and copper are used for the wiring, because they have low
resistance. The resistance is inversely proportional to the cross section of the conductor, so
the thicker the wire, the lower the energy loss. However, heavier conductors such as copper
require heavier structural supports.

The high voltages used for electricity transmission require high poles and large insulator,
which are expensive to build, maintain and can have adverse effects on the environment.

Inductive energy losses

Energy is also lost in the form of eddy currents induced in the iron core of transformers. This
applies to both step-up transformers at the power station and step-down transformers at the
substation and power poles.

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Eddy current energy losses can be minimised through the use of laminated iron cores in
transformers. Using granular ferrites for transformer cores also reduces incidence of eddy
currents whilst allowing magnetic flux to change freely. However, excess heat is still
produced and as overheating can cause damage to transformers, cooling techniques are used.
This includes cooling fins, radiator pipes filled with cooling oil and electric fans.

x Gather and analyse information to identify how transmission lines are:

-insulated from supporting structures
-protected from lightning strikes

Insulation from supporting structures

Transmission lines can carry voltages as high as 500kV. To reduce the likelihood of
discharge between the conductor and the support towers (pylons), transmission lines are
separated from their support structures by chain or stack insulators. The insulator stacks
consist of ceramic or glass discs joined by metal links or rubber discs with a fibreglass core.
The metal discs in ceramic insulators are separated by the non-conductive discs and
fibreglass is also a non-conductor. The disc shape of the insulators also helps to prevent the
build up of moisture or dust which could provide a conductive path across the insulator
surface. Insulating chains can be as long as 2m- generally, the higher the voltage, the longer
the chain.

Ceramic/glass or
rubber discs

Metal links or
fibreglass core

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Protection from lightning strikes

The metal pylons themselves can act as a conductor to take the charge to the ground. The
pylons are well-earthed with a large surface area of metal buried beneath the ground. The
pylons are also well-spaced to ensure that if one tower is truck, adjacent towers will not be
damaged.

The uppermost wires do not transmit electricity and are called shield wires. They are
connected directly to the pylons without any insulators. If struck, they conduct charge
harmlessly to the ground.

x Assess the effects of the development of AC and DC generators on society and the
environment

Effects on Society
The development of AC generators has led to the widespread availability of low-cost energy.
AC generators are simpler and cheaper to construct than DC generators. Because AC
electricity can be easily transformed, power can be transmitted at high voltages, resulting in
lower energy losses over long distances. This has resulted in the development of reliable AC
electricity networks for domestic and industrial used throughout the world, which has had
both positive and negative environmental effects. DC generators are still widely used for
applications where power does not need to be distributed large distances and for battery
systems.

It has led to many lifestyle improvements in the form of “labour saving” devices such as
washers, refrigerators and air conditioning. Other tasks can now be achieved that were
impossible in the past such as modern communication systems and computer networks for
finance, business and entertainment. The DC generator has many useful applications
including vehicle starting, wind and solar power, electronics and other battery systems.

The dependence on electricity has it downfalls. It has led to a reduction in unskilled labour,
leading to higher rates of unemployment. Essential serves such as hospitals are forced to have
back up a back-up generators and disruptions or blackouts can cause major disruption, loss of
productivity and can even precipitate an economic crisis.

Effects on the environment

AC power plants can be located far away from urban areas, shifting pollution away from
people and improving urban environmental health.

Power transmission lines which criss-cross the country require power poles and pylons to be
constructed, often cutting through environmentally sensitive areas. Air pollution from the
burning of fossil fuels in thermal power stations contributes to acid rain and carbon dioxide
emissions. Nuclear power stations produce radioactive waste which can remain dangerous to
the environment for millennia.

Hydro-electricity results in the damming of major rivers and flooding of valleys to provide
energy for power stations.

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The effects of AC generators on society are almost all positive. People now enjoy a much
higher standard of living, increased convenience and leisure and many technologies have
been made possible by AC electricity. However, the dependence on electricity can have
detrimental effects when power is disrupted or when people do not have access to electricity.
Many of the environmental effects are negative including long-term environmental
degradation. Society favours the social benefits of electricity over the environmental, impacts
and we have not yet learned how to use AC electricity in a sustainable way.

4. Transformers and their uses

Describe the purpose and principles of transformers in electrical circuits

A transformer can be defined as a device which in which an input AC current is transformed

into an output AC current of a different voltage. It works based on the principle of
electromagnetic induction. The transformer serves to “step-up” electricity to high voltages for
efficient electricity transmission, then “step-down” the voltage for convenient and safe
domestic use.

Australia’s domestic voltage is 240V single phase AC (50Hz). Industry and commercial
supply is 415V 3-phase AC. Most appliances, such as light and motors are designed to run on
these voltages. Some devices such as MP3 players require much lower voltages while some
CRT televisions require 1500V. Transformers are placed in the circuit between the AC
supply and the device to step-up or step-down the voltage. Many transformers can supply a
range of secondary voltages.

Transformers consist of two coils of wire in close proximity, wrapped around a solid iron
core. The coil providing the input AC voltage is called the primary coil and the coil receiving
the output voltage is called the secondary coil. The primary and secondary coils have a
different number of turns. Oscillating AC voltages in the primary coil induces oscillating
magnetic fields in the iron core. The magnetic fields in the core connect with those in the
secondary coil, hence inducing a different voltage. The coils are said to be inductively
coupled.

Soft iron core

+ +

Primary AC Secondary AC
supply voltage output voltage

_ _
B
Primary Secondary
coil coil

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x Perform an investigation to model the structure of a transformer to demonstrate

how secondary voltage is produced

Investigation: Modelling the structure of a simple transformer

Aim: To perform an investigation to model the structure of a transformer to demonstrate how

secondary voltage is produced

Equipment:
-insulated wire
-low input AC power supply (of known voltage)
-multimeter set to measure voltage
-iron ring

Method:
1/ Construct the transformer by winding two coils as shown. Ensure one coil has
significantly more windings than the other.
Iron ring

Insulated copper
windings

2/ Connect one coil to the power supply as the primary coil and low input AC voltage.
Check with a multimeter whether a voltage is induced in the second coil with the power
supply switched on and with it switched off.

3/ Compare the output voltage from the secondary coil with the input voltage to the
primary coil for several settings of the power supply voltage.

4/ Reverse the connections to the two coils, so that the secondary coil becomes the
primary coil, and repeat the above investigation. Determine which arrangement models
a step-up transformer, with secondary voltage higher than primary voltage, and which a
step-down transformer.

Results:
Primary (input) coil Secondary (output) Coil Transformer type
No. of turns np= 100 ns=5.0 Step-down
Voltage (V) Vp=12 Vs=0.6
No. of turns np= 5.0 ns=100 Step-up
Voltage (V) Vp=0.6 Vs= 12

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x Compare step-up and step-down transformers

Step-up Transformer Step-down transformer

Consists of two inductively coupled wires wound around a laminated iron core
More turns in secondary than primary More turns in primary than secondary
Higher voltage in secondary i.e. higher Lower voltage in secondary i.e. lower output
output voltage voltage
Lower current in secondary i.e. lower current Higher current in secondary i.e. higher
output current output
Used to increase voltage in power stations for Used at substations and towns to reduce
efficient long-distance transmission voltage for domestic and industrial use
Use in high-voltage appliance such as TV Solid state appliances such as radios,
screens computers, MP3s, mobile phones…

x Identify the relationship between the number of turns in the primary and secondary
coils and the ratio of primary to secondary voltage

In an ideal transformer, no energy losses occur:

voltage in primary number of turns in primary
voltage in secondary number of turns in secondary

Vp np
Mathematically,
Vs ns

In a step up transformer, Vp < Vs and np < ns

Primary Secondary
coil-fewer coil- many
turns turns

In a step-down transformer, Vp < Vs and np < ns

Primary Secondary
coil-many coil- fewer
turns turns

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x Explain why voltage transformations are related to the conservation of energy

The law of conservation of energy states that energy can neither be created nor destroyed
merely transformed into other forms. It follows that for an ideal transformer, power in =
power out. That is,

power in primary power in secondary

Since power voltage u current
? Vp I p Vs I s
Vp Is np
Vs Ip ns

Vp np
x Solve problems and analyse information about transformers using:
Vs n s
1) A small step-down transformer rectifier unit has an output of 8.00 V from 240
V mains input. Its secondary coil contains 60 turns of wire.
a) How many turns are in the primary coil?
Vs 8.0 V Vp 240 V n s 60 turns
np Vp
ns Vs
n s u Vp 60 u 240
?np 180 turns
Vs 8
The primary coil has180 turns

b) What is the purpose of the unit being a rectifier?

The mains supply is 240V AC. The unit converts the AC current into DC current and the
transformer steps down the voltage so that it is suitable to use for small electronic devices
such as laptops, mobile phones and MP3’s.

x Gather, analyse and use available evidence to discuss how difficulties of heating
caused by eddy currents in transformers may be overcome

Transformers use the principle of induction to transform voltages and as such, eddy currents
are induced, circulating in the plane perpendicular to the magnetic field produced by the iron
core. They produce heat due to the resistivity of the iron which represents an energy loss and
can damage the transformer components.

To reduce eddy currents, the iron core is made of laminated iron separated by thin sheets of
insulating lacquer. This reduces the circulation of eddy currents to the thickness of one
lamina rather the entire core, thus reducing the heating effect.

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The core still becomes hot so other strategies include:

-Heat-sink fins are added to the transformer casing to provide a large surface area to
dissipate heat
-The transformer casing may be coloured black to help radiate heat more efficiently
-Non-conducting oil around the transformer to transport heat to the outside of the
transformer. Cooling pipes and radiator slats may also be used
-Transformers mounted above ground with circulating fans.
-Placement in well-ventilated area.

x Gather and analyse secondary information to discuss the need for transformers in
the transfer of electrical energy from a power station to its point of use

Electricity used for domestic and industrial use is typically 240V or 415V AC. If there were
no transformers, electricity would have to be transmitted at these low voltages. For a given
power output, the current required would be very large and hence, there would be significant
energy losses and possible damage to conductors. Large cities would require separate power
stations for different voltages. This would be costly, unreliable and inefficient.

At power stations, the steam/water-powered turbines drive alternators, producing three phase
voltages of 25kV. Step-up transformers increase the voltage to 500kV for distribution via
transmission lines. The currents at these voltages are relatively small, so energy losses are
minimised. Transformers are used to progressively step-down voltages as they reach
consumers. Regional sub-stations reduce voltages to 110kV for regional distribution. Local
substations step these voltages down to 66kV, then 1kV. Pole or underground transformers
step this down for domestic use (240V) or industry (415V).

Power Regional Pole/underground

Transmission Local Neighbourhood
station Substation transformer
lines substation distribution
3-phase 110 kV
500 kV AC 66 kV AC 1 kV 240 V/415V
25kV AC AC

x Explain the role of transformers in electricity sub-stations

Electricity from power stations is transmitted through the national grid at voltages of up to
500kV. The high voltages are necessary to reduce energy losses due to resistance in the
wiring as electricity is carried over long distances. The role of transformers in substations is
to progressively lower the voltages to safe, useful levels as they reach consumers for
domestic or industrial use. The voltage output is chosen to match the power demands and the
distances the electricity is transmitted.

x Discuss why some electrical appliances in the home that are connected to the mains
domestic power supply use a transformer

The mains electricity supply to homes in Australia is 240V AC. Most appliances, such as
lights and fans are designed to operate on these voltages. Some appliances contain
components which require different voltages. For example, a microwave turntable and

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transductor may be connected directly to the mains, while the display panel uses lower
voltages supplied by a step-down transformer.

Many electronic devices in the home such as mobile phones, laptops and modems are
designed to run on batteries. These are designed to operate on low DC voltages. A step-down
transformer-rectifier may be built into the connection plug to lower the voltage and convert
the AC current to DC.

Other appliances such as CRT televisions require voltages as high as 1500V in order to
accelerate the electrons towards the screen. A step-up transformer provides the required
voltages.

x Discuss the impact of the development of the transformer on society

The development of the transformer has resulted in efficient, long-distance electricity

transmission. Remote areas have access to grid-supplied electricity. This has raised living
standards in many areas by providing electricity for lighting, refrigeration, air conditioning,
electronics and rural industries.

Large cities have been allowed to spread, because transformers have made electricity readily
available. This has led to...

Power stations and industry can be built away from cities, closer to the fuel source such as
coal, hydroelectricity or natural gas. This has relocated pollution away from residential and
urban areas. However, this means many people now have to travel further to their workplace.

Electricity has become an affordable, essential commodity thanks to the transformer

5. AC Motors

x Describe the main features of an AC electric motor

There are two main types of electric AC motors: universal motors and induction motors.

Universal AC motors
Universal motors are similar in design to the DC motor, except they do not have a
commutator, because the current alternates at 50Hz. Instead, they have a pair of permanent
slip rings connected to the brushes.

Universal AC motor disadvantages

-Not self-starting
-Torque varies with load
-Can only operate at 50Hz (3000rpm), although gear boxes allow speed to be varied

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Induction Motors
The induction motor is the most commonly used electric motor. Its invention followed
Tesla’s discovery that magnetic fields can be rotated if two coils placed perpendicular to each
other are supplied with AC current 90◦ out-of-phase.

Phase shift for two-phase induction motor:

Phase a

Current
Phase(◦)

Phase b
90◦ 180 ◦ 270◦ 360◦
0◦

All induction motors work on Faraday’s principle of induction: a magnetic field produced in
the stator by the AC currents field winding current (a solenoid) induces AC ‘eddy currents’ in
the field windings of the rotor. The eddy currents in the rotor induce their own magnetic
fields which causes the rotor to rotate. DC current will NOT work with induction motors.

There are several types of induction motors:

-Squirrel cage induction motor
-single phase “ “
-split phase “ “

The induction motor consists of a rotor housed inside a stator.

The rotor windings consist of solid aluminium or copper bars joined at the ends by a ring of
metal. This shape allows eddy currents to circulate in loops through adjacent bars. The rotor
windings are imbedded in a laminated iron armature. The rotor is mounted onto an axle.
There are no slip rings or commutators and it is not connected to a power supply

‘Squirrel cage’ rotor windings:

Aluminium or copper
Eddy currents
bars
circulate in cage End
rings

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The rotor turns because of the rotation of the magnetic fields in the stator. The stator consists
of a series of electromagnets i.e. wire coils wound around a laminated soft iron core. For each
current phase, a pair of electromagnets is used, with opposite poles facing each other. This is
connected to a power supply so that the applied magnetic field and hence, the induced eddy
currents in the rotor are maximised.

Schematic of three-phase squirrel cage motor:

Stator poles

Squirrel
cage rotor

Opposite stator poles are connected to a circuit receiving one phase of the three-phase
current. The AC current constantly changes the polarity of the electromagnets but ensures
that opposite poles face each other. The effect of using three pairs of electromagnets out of
phase is to create an apparent rotating magnetic field in the stator. The induced eddy currents
in the rotor interact with the changing applied magnetic fields. The rotor literally ‘chases’ the
magnetic fields in the stator, producing torque.

Induction motor rotor:

Laminated Stator pole

(electromagnet)

End
disc

Axle

‘Squirrel cage’ imbedded in

laminated iron armature
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Advantages of AC induction motor over DC motors

-Simpler to construct
-Have no mechanical contacts and thus require less maintenance
-Lighter than DC motors of equivalent power output
-Able to be controlled efficiently using switching devices and microprocessors
-Electricity supply is AC

x Perform an investigation to demonstrate the principle of an AC induction motor

Investigation: Modelling an induction AC motor

Aim: To construct a working model to demonstrate how induction is used in an AC electric
motor.

Equipment:
-A sharpened lead pencil
-A hand drill
-A bar magnet
-Sticky tape
-Blutak
-Empty aluminium can
-A pair of scissors
-20cm of light cotton thread

Method:
1/ Cut the bottom of the soft drink can, taking care not to cut yourself on any sharp edges
so that you end up with a round disc
2/ Attach the cotton thread to the centre of the disc using Blutak so that it is balanced and
can hang horizontally

Cotton thread

Aluminium can
base
N S Bar magnet

Pencil in drill chuck

3/ Attach a bar magnet perpendicular to a pencil so it forms a ‘T’ shape. Mount the pencil
in the chick of a hand drill so the magnet is close to the hanging aluminium disc.

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4/ Rotate the hand drill to make the magnet spin in one direction. Spin in the other
direction. Observe.

5/ Replace the magnet or the aluminium disc with a non-magnetic material. Repeat steps2-
4 and observe.

Results:
The rotating magnet caused the disc to rotate in the same direction. A rotating magnetic field
placed close to a conductor disc induces eddy currents in the disc. The eddy currents induce
magnetic fields which, by Lenz’s law, oppose the change which caused it. i.e. the applied
magnetic field and the induced magnetic field have opposite polarities. This magnetic
attraction causes the disc to rotate as the disc is literally ‘dragged’ along.

Conclusion: A magnetic field that is rotating relative to a conductor induces eddy currents in
the conductor which cause the conductor to rotate.

x Gather, process and analyse information to identify some of the energy transfers
and transformations involving the conversion of electrical energy into more useful
forms in the home and industry.

Home Industry
Electrical energy → radiant heat: Electrical energy → kinetic energy:
-kettles -industrial ,machinery
-stovetops -conveyors
-ovens -elevators
-toaster
Electrical energy → light energy: Electrical energy → x-rays:
-incandescent bulbs -x-ray machines
-fluorescent tubes
-television screens
-computer monitors
-mobile phones
Electrical energy → sound energy: Electrical energy → light energy:
-hi-fi speakers -laser beams (communication)
-headphones
-MP3 players and IPods
Electrical energy → microwaves: Electrical energy → chemical energy:
-microwave ovens -car batteries
-electroplating
Electrical energy → kinetic energy: Electrical energy → radio waves:
-food processors -television transmission
-fans -radio
-electric drill
Electrical energy → infrared energy:
-radiant heater
-television remote
Electrical → chemical energy:
-battery recharger

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Robert Lee Chin