8.

2 Chemical Earth
8.2.1 The living and non-living components of the Earth contain mixtures

 Construct word and balanced formulae equations of chemical reactions as they are
encountered
Combustion reaction (burning)
element + oxygen → oxide
e.g. 4Na (S) + O2 (g) → Na2O (s)
Reaction with hydrogen
element + hydrogen → hydride
e.g. Ca (s) + H2 (g) → CaH2 (s)
Reaction between an oxide and water
metallic oxide + water → hydroxide
* metallic oxide is also known as “basic oxide”
e.g. Na2O (s) + H2O (l) → 2NaOH (aq)
non-metallic oxide + water → acid
* non-metallic oxide is known as “acidic oxide”
e.g. SO2 (g) + H2O (l) → H2SO3 (aq)
Reaction between active metals and water
active metal + water (liquid or gas) → hydroxide + hydrogen gas
e.g. 2K (s) + 2H2O (l) → 2KOH (aq) +H2 (g)
Reaction between acids and carbonates
acid + carbonate → salt + water + carbon dioxide
e.g. 2HNO3 (aq) + MgCO3 (s) → Mg(NO3)2 (aq) + H2O (l) + CO2 (g)
Decomposition reactions by heating
carbonates ∆→H oxide + carbon dioxide

e.g. CaCO3 (s) ∆→H CaO (s) + CO2 (g)

metallic oxide ∆→H metal + oxygen

e.g. 2HgO (s) ∆→H 2Hg (s) + O2 (g)

hydroxide ∆→H oxide + water

e.g. Mg(OH)2 (s) ∆→H MgO (s) + H2O (l)

Reaction between metallic oxides and acids
metallic oxide + acid → salt + water
e.g. MnO (S) + 2HCl (aq) → MnCl2 (aq) + H2O (l)
Reaction between non-metallic oxides and bases
non-metallic oxide + base → salt + water
e.g. CO2 (g) + 2NaOH (aq) → Na2CO3 (aq) + H2O (l)
Precipitation (2 solutions mixed together form a solid)
e.g. AgNO3 (aq) + HCl (aq) → AgCl (s) +HNO3 (aq)
Ag+(aq) + Cl-(aq) → AgCl (s)
* note: H+ and NO3- are not directly involved in the reaction; hence they are “spectator ions”
 e.g. BaCl2 (aq) + Na2SO4 (aq) → BaSO4 (s) + NaCl (aq)
Ba2+(aq) + SO4 2-(aq) → BaSO4 (s)
 Identify the difference between elements, compounds and mixtures in terms of particle
theory
Element – A pure substance consisting of the same type of atoms and cannot be
decomposed or broken down by physical or chemical means.
Compound – A pure substance consisting of 2 or more different elements chemically
combined together in a fixed ratio.
Mixture – An impure substance comprising of two or more pure substances which are
physically mixed together. Its components can be separated by physical means (e.g.
distillation, filtration).
 Identify that the biosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere contain examples
of mixtures of elements and compounds
Biosphere
The living things on Earth
o Mixtures: wood, blood, sugarcane
o Compounds: carbohydrates (or sugars), proteins, fats and vitamins
o Elements: oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, calcium, phosphorus, chlorine,
sulphur
Lithosphere
The earth’s solid outer mantle and crust
o Mixtures: metal ores, sandstone, granite
o Compounds: quartz/sand (SiO2), calcite (CaCO3)
o Elements: oxygen, silicon, aluminium, iron, calcium, sodium, potassium, magnesium
Hydrosphere
The earth’s water
o Mixtures: sea water
o Compounds: water, carbon dioxide and sodium, calcium and magnesium chlorides
and sulphates
o Elements: oxygen, hydrogen, chlorine, sodium, magnesium
Atmosphere
The mixture of gases surrounding the Earth
o Mixtures: air
o Compounds: water, carbon dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, sulphur dioxide and carbon
monoxide
o Elements: nitrogen, oxygen, argon
 Identify and describe procedures that can be used to separate naturally occurring mixtures
of:
o Solids of different sizes
o Solids and liquids
o Dissolved solids in liquids
o Liquids
o Gases
 Assess separation techniques for their suitability in separating examples of earth
materials, identifying the differences in properties which enable these separations

Separation Method Property used in separation

Sieving Particle size of solids
Evaporation Solubility
Crystallisation Solubility
Distillation Boiling points (big difference) of liquids
Fractional distillation Boiling points (small difference) of liquids
Filtration Particle size of solids and liquids
Decantation (using a separating funnel) Density of immiscible liquids
Sedimentation and decantation Density of solids
Magnetic separation Magnetic properties

 Describe situations in which gravimetric analysis supplies useful data for chemists and
other scientists
Qualitative analysis – identifying components in a mixture
Quantitative analysis – calculating how much of each component is found in the mixture
Gravimetric analysis – quantitative analysis carried out by calculating its mass
Volumetric analysis – quantitative analysis carried out by calculating its volume
Gravimetric analysis can be used to determine the:
o composition of a mixture using physical separation techniques
o percentage composition of a compound using chemical and physical separation
techniques.
It can be used to determine the:
o percentage by weight of ingredients (sugar, fat, fibre) in food. This analysis is
recorded on the packaging.
o purity and composition of alloys used for building construction
o extent of heavy metal pollution in river water and human food
o percentage composition of new compounds produced by chemical and medical
research.
 Apply systematic naming of inorganic compounds as they are introduced in the laboratory
Ionic compounds:
o Write the name of the metal first
o Write the beginning of the non-metal
o Add ‘-ide’ as a suffix to the non-metal
Covalent compounds:
o Use the normal element name for the first element and add the ‘-ide’ suffix for the
second element
o The first element named is the one that occurs further to the left of the periodic
table
o If both the elements occur in the same group, the one lower down the group is
named first (exception: oxygen is always name last, except when with fluorine)
 o The prefixes mono (1), di (2), tri (3), tetra (4), penta (5), hexa (6) are added to the
front of each word to indicate the number of atoms present in each type
 Identify IUPAC names for carbon compounds as they are encountered

Series Suffix General Formula Bonding in C series

ALKANE -ane CnH2n+2 Single Bond C - C
ALKENE -ene CnH2n Double Bond C = C
ALKYNE -yne CnH2n-2 Triple Bond C ≡ C

Prefix Number of carbon

Meth 1
Eth 2
Prop 3
But 4
Pent 5
Hex 6
Hept 7
Oct 8
Non 9
Dec 10

8.2.2 Although most elements are found in combinations on earth, some elements are found
uncombined

 Explain the relationship between the reactivity of an element and the likelihood of its
existing as an uncombined element
o Reactivity is a chemical property that is related to the electronic structure of the
element. As a result of this:
 Unreactive elements can exist as free elements in nature.
 Reactive elements combine with other substances in the environment to
form compounds.
o Examples of highly reactive metals include Group 1 and 2 metals such as potassium
and magnesium. Examples of less reactive metals include gold, copper and titanium.
o Examples of highly reactive non-metals include oxygen and fluorine. Examples of
inert non-metals include helium and radon which belong to Group 8 (noble gases).
o The more reactive an element is, the less chance there is of finding it in the Earth as
an uncombined element.
 Classify elements as metals, non-metals and semi-metals according to their physical
properties

Physical Property Metals Semi-metals Non-metals

Appearance Lustrous Low sheen Dull
Electrical conductivity High Low (semi-conductors) Nil (insulators)
Heat conductivity High High Low (insulators)
Malleability and ductility High Moderate Nil (brittle)
 Density Generally high Moderate Low
Boiling point Generally high Very high Low
Strength High Variable Low
Examples Sodium, Boron, Silicon, Arsenic, Hydrogen, Helium,
Magnesium, Tellurium, Germanium, Oxygen, Carbon,
Iron, Copper, Antimony Nitrogen, Fluorine,
Gold, Silver, Zinc, Neon
Mercury, Lead

 Account for the uses of metals and non-metals in terms of their physical properties
The uses of metals and non-metals will be determined by their physical properties as well as
their chemical properties
Metals – e.g. copper is used for electrical circuits (wiring) for its good conductivity of
electricity and its low reactivity.
Non-metals – e.g. neon is used for neon lightning for its low reactivity.
 Process information from secondary sources and use a Periodic Table to present
information about the classification of elements as:
o Metals, non-metal and semi-metals

o Solids, liquids and gases at 25°C and normal atmospheric pressure

8.2.3 Elements in Earth material are present mostly as compounds because of interactions at
atomic level

 Identify that matter is made up of particles that are continuously moving and interacting
Matter can exist in three states: solid, liquid and gas.

Solid Liquid Gas

Particle Particles are close Particles are close Particles are far apart &
position together & together & moving moving very freely
vibrating in the more freely
same place
Diagram

Shape Definite shape Shape depends on Shape depends on

container container
Volume Definite volume Definite volume Fills all available space
Compressibility Cannot be Cannot be compressed Can be compressed
compressed

 Describe qualitatively the energy levels of electrons in atoms

Electrons surround the nucleus by orbiting in certain stationary energy levels. Each of the
energy levels can accommodate only a certain number of electrons. The 2n 2 rule is used to
determine the maximum number of electrons that are able to reside in each energy level.
 Describe atoms in terms of mass number and atomic number
Atoms are made up of three sub-atomic particles: protons, neutrons and electrons. Protons
are positively charge particles, electrons are negatively charged and neutrons have no
 charge. Protons and neutrons make up the nucleus and the electrons surround the nucleus
in stationary energy levels. The nucleus constitutes 99.95% of the mass of an atom.
The atomic number (Z) of an element is the number of protons in the nucleus.
The mass number (A) of an element is the total number of protons and neutrons in the
nucleus.
Electrons have a very small mass of 0.00055 amu compared with protons and neutrons. The
mass of electrons of atoms are not considered since its relative mass to protons and
neutrons is negligible.
 Describe the formation ions in terms of atoms gaining or losing electrons
Ions are formed due to the imbalance of protons and electrons. In a neutrally charged atom,
the number of protons equals the number of electrons. When an atom loses electrons, it
becomes positively charged as there are more protons than electrons (becomes a cation).
When an atom gains electrons, it becomes negatively charge as there are more electrons
than protons (becomes a anion).
 Apply the Periodic Table to predict the ions formed by atoms of metals and non-metals
o Group 1 metals (Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs) all tend to lose one electron and therefore form
singly charged positive ions: Li+, Na+, K+, Rb+, Cs+.
o Group 2 metals (Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba) tend to lose two electrons and therefore form
doubly charged positive ions: Be2+, Mg2+, Ca2+, Sr2+, Ba2+.
o Group 3 elements except for boron tend to lose three electrons and therefore form
cations: Al3+, Ga3+, In3+.
o Group 6 elements (non-metals, O, S, Se, Te) tend to gain two electrons and thus
form doubly charged negative ions: O2-, S2-, Se2-, Te2-.
o Group 7 elements (non-metals, F, Cl, Br and I) all tend to gain one electron and
therefore they form singly charged negative ions: F -, Cl-, Br-, I-.
o Group 8 elements (non-metals; inert gases) will not form ions.
o The transition metals all lose electrons to form positive ions (for example Cr 3+, Fe2+,
Cu2+, Ag+, Zn2+), but it is not possible from a simple look at the Periodic Table to
predict just how many electrons any particular atom will lose.
 Apply Lewis electron dot structures to:
o The formation of ions
o The electron sharing in some simple molecules
Ions
 Covalent

 Describe the formation of ionic compounds in terms of the attraction of ions of opposite
charge
Ionic bonds involve atoms losing and gaining electrons, thus forming ions (charged atoms).
The attraction of opposite charges (electrostatic force) is what brings ions together to form
an ionic compound.
 Describe molecules as particles which can move independently of each other
The intermolecular force between molecules is a weak force in comparison to the
intermolecular force holding the atoms of the molecule together. This weak force gives the
molecule the ability to move independently.
 Distinguish between molecules containing one atom (the noble gases) and molecules with
more than one atom
Some molecules are elements and some are compounds. Examples of molecules include:
monatomic molecules
o helium atoms, He
o argon atoms, Ar
 diatomic molecules
o oxygen, O2
o nitrogen, N2
o hydrogen iodide, HI
o carbon monoxide, CO
triatomic molecules
o ozone, O3
o water, H2O
o sulfur dioxide, SO2
o carbon dioxide, CO2
tetra-atomic molecules
o white phosphorus, P4
o ammonia, NH3
 Describe the formation of covalent molecules in terms of sharing of electrons
Covalent bonds are attractive forces between atoms that occur because the atoms are
sharing one or more pairs of electrons. The shared pair of electrons orbits the nuclei of both
atoms, thus holding the atoms together and form a covalent compound.
There are three types of covalent bonds:
o single bond - One electron pair is shared. (e.g. water – H 2O)
o double bond - Two electron pairs are shared. (e.g. oxygen gas – O 2)
o triple bond - Three electron pairs are shared. (e.g. butyne – C 8H6)
 Construct formulae for compounds formed from:
o Ions
o Atoms sharing electrons

Ionic bond: Na+ + Cl- →NaCl (s)

Covalent bond: 2H2+ + O2 2- → 2H2O

8.2.4 Energy is required to extract elements from their naturally occurring sources

 Identify the differences between physical and chemical change in terms of rearrangement
of particles
Physical change is the change of state where no new substances are formed. Particles of the
substance remain the same.
Chemical change is when new substances have been made, old bonds have been broken
between the atoms in molecules and new bonds have been formed. They usually require a
large input or output of energy and are not easily reversible.
 Summarise the differences between the boiling the electrolysis of water as an example of
the difference between physical and chemical change

Boiling of water Electrolysis of water

 No new substances are formed
 Change of state from liquid to
gas through process of boiling
 Less energy is required
 Easily reversible via
 New substances formed (O2 and H2) as
old bonds between oxygen and
hydrogen are broken and new bonds
have been established
 Requires much more energy than boiling
 condensation  More difficult to reverse
 Identify light, heat and electricity as the common forms of energy that may be released or
absorbed during decomposition or synthesis of substances and identify examples of these
changes occurring everyday life
o Decomposition reaction is a reaction which involves the breakdown of a complex
substance into its simpler constituent elements and/or elements.
o A decomposition reaction only occurs if energy is added (i.e. heat, light and
electricity). Application of decomposition reaction in the real world:
 Heat energy is used in our industrialised society to decompose minerals to
produce metals in smelters.
 In nature, ultraviolet light energy decomposes ozone molecules into oxygen
gas and oxygen radicals. This process is important in preventing most high-
energy UV rays reaching the Earth’s surface.
 Lightning initiates decomposition reactions in the atmosphere by providing
electrical energy to various gas molecules.
 Airbags in cars contain the chemical sodium azide, which decomposes by
detonation to produce a large volume of nitrogen gas to inflate the airbag
during a crash.
o Examples:
 1. Thermal decomposition of gold oxide
 2. Light decomposition (photolysis) of silver bromide
 3. Electrolytic decomposition of molten lead (II) bromide
o Synthesis reaction is the formation of a compound from its elements or a more
complex compound from simpler compounds.
o Application of decomposition reaction in the real world:
 Rust is an oxide of iron that forms when iron structures are exposed to
oxygen in the air.
 The ammonia industry synthesises ammonia directly by combining nitrogen
and hydrogen gases at high temperatures and pressures over a catalyst.
o Examples:
 1. Synthesis of iron (III) chloride using heat energy
 2. Synthesis of hydrogen chloride using light
 Explain that the amount of energy needed to separate atoms in a compound is an
indication of the strength of the attraction, or bond, between them
The stronger the chemical bonding in a compound, the more energy is required to break the
compound into atoms. Alternatively, the stronger the chemical bonding in a compound the
more energy is released when the compound is formed from its atoms.
For example, it is difficult to separate the ions in an ionic bond since the electrostatic force is
relatively strong whereas it is relatively easy to separate covalent molecular substances since
the bond strength is weaker than those present in ionic substances.

8.2.5 The properties of elements and compounds are determined by their bonding and structure
 Identify differences between physical and chemical properties of elements, compounds
and mixtures

Physical Properties Chemical Properties

Metal (at STP): Metals:
 Malleable  Form positive ions
 Ductile  Form basic oxides
 Found as solids (except for mecury)  Form ionic chlorides
 Good conductors of heat and electricity
 Lustrous
 High density
 High tensile strength
Non-metals (at STP): Non-metals:
ntsmeEle

 Brittle *  Form negative ions

 Dull *  Form acidic oxides
 Found as solids, liquids and gases  Form covalent
 Good insulators of heat and electricity^ chlorides
 Low density
* except for carbon in diamond form which is strong and
lustrous
^
except for carbon in graphite form
Semi-metals (at STP):
 Have properties of both metals and non-metals
 Have intermediate density
Ionic compounds: Compounds:
 Formed between metals and non-metals  Demonstrate
 Solid at room temperature different chemical
 Soluble properties to their
 Non-conductors of electricity in solid state constituent elements
 Conductors of electricity when dissolved in  Can be decomposed
dsounmpCo

solution into its component

Covalent molecular compounds: elements or simpler
 Non-conductors of electricity compounds.
 Have low melting points
 Are soft and brittle
Covalent network compounds:
 Are non-conductors in all states of matter
 Are insoluble
 Have very high melting points
 Are very hard and brittle
Heterogeneous mixtures: Mixtures:
 Are not chemical combined  Demonstrate the
 Demonstrate the physical properties of the chemical properties
constituent pure substances of their constituent
Mixtures

 Don’t look the same throughout the mixture pure substances

Homogeneous mixtures:
 Are not chemical combined
 Demonstrate the physical properties of the
constituent pure substances
 Looks the same throughout the mixture
 Describe the physical properties used to classify compounds as ionic or covalent molecular
or covalent network
 Type of compound Ionic Covalent molecular Covalent network
Particles forming the Cations and Molecules Atoms
lattice anions
Forces holding the Ionic bonds Intermolecular forces Covalent bonds
particles in place
Electrical Only in molten or No electrical No electrical
conductivity aqueous state conductivity in all conductivity in all
states states
Melting point High Low Very high
Hardness Hard, brittle Soft, brittle Very hard, brittle

 Distinguish between metallic, ionic and covalent bonds

Metallic bond – formed between metals; result of the attraction between positive ions and
delocalised electrons.
Ionic bond – formed between metals and non-metals (cations and anions); electrostatic
attraction between oppositely charged ions forms the ionic bond, occurring throughout the
entire lattice.
Covalent bond – formed between non-metals through the sharing of valence electrons in
order to gain a stable electron configuration.
 Describe metals as three-dimensional lattices of ions in a sea of electrons
Metals are formed as the result of positive ions arranged in a three-dimensional lattice with
delocalised electrons moving throughout the lattice. The delocalised electrons are lost from
the valence shell from each metal atom and belong to the lattice as a whole. The attraction
between the positive metal ions and delocalised electrons stabilises the lattice. This
attraction is called the metallic bond.
 Describe ionic compounds in terms of repeating three-dimensional lattices of ions
Ionic compounds are formed by infinite three-dimensional array of cations and anions
attracted to each other due to electrostatic forces.
 Explain why the formula for an ionic compound is an empirical formula
In ionic compounds, there are no discrete molecules, just an infinite three-dimensional array
of cations and anions. The simplest repeating unit of the crystal lattice is taken into account
and the simplest ratio of ions present in that unit determines the empirical formula of an
ionic compound.
 Identify common elements that exist as molecules or as covalent lattices
Examples of molecular substances: H2, F2, Cl2, O2 and N2 (diatomic gases)
Examples of covalent network substances: SiO 2 (silicon dioxide - sand), SiC (silicon carbide),
graphite and diamond

 Explain the relationship between the properties of conductivity and hardness and the
structure of ionic, covalent molecular and covalent network structures
Properties of ionic substances
 Property
Hard and brittle
Non-conductivity of electricity when solid
Conductivity of electricity when molten or in
aqueous solution
High melting and boiling points
Properties of covalent molecular substances
Property
Low melting and boiling points
Non-conductivity of electricity when solid or
liquid
The solids are generally soft
Properties of covalent network substances
Property
Very high melting and boiling points
Non-conductivity of electricity in solid or
liquid state
Hard and brittle
Not reactive with other substances
Insoluble
 Choose resources and process information from secondary sources to construct and
discuss the limitations of models of ionic lattices, covalent molecules and covalent and
metallic lattices.
Explanation
Ions are tightly bound by electrostatic forces
in the crystal lattice.
The force exerted to try and break the lattice
forces like charged ions together accounts
for the hardness and brittleness of ionic
compounds.
Ions occupy fixed positions in the lattice.
Electrons are strongly held by nuclei of
individual ions, thus there are no free
moving electrons.
Mobile ions can transfer electric charge.
Ions tightly bound by strong electrostatic
forces
Explanation
Intermolecular forces between molecules are
weak.
The molecules are uncharged and electrons
are localised in covalent bonds or with the
atoms.
Forces between molecules are weak.
Explanation
Covalent bonds are strong and are found
throughout the entire lattice.
Electrons are localised (except graphite) in
covalent bonds or with the atoms.
Atoms are strongly bound, distortion breaks
covalent bonds
Strong covalent bonds throughout the lattice
accounts for insolubility of these substances.
Model structure Limitation
Ionic  The ionic, covalent and metallic bonds all
have different strengths of attraction.
These models cannot demonstrate the
different strength of these bonds
(covalent molecular are weak, whereas
metallic bonding is strong)
 Unable to see all the different physical
properties (hardness, malleability or
brittleness) of the different compounds.
(Covalent network is hard and brittle
Covalent Molecular whereas, metals are hard and malleable)
 These structures don’t apply to all ionic,
covalent molecular, covalent network and
metallic compounds (i.e. they won’t all be
made up of the same type of atom and
have the same types of bonds)

Covalent Network

Metallic