DECLARATION

I hereby declare that the project work entitled CCNA (OSI, TCP/IP Models & Basics of
Routing) is an authentic record of my own work carried out at Netmax Technologies,
Chandigarh as requirement of six weeks industrial training for the award of B.Tech.
Degree in Electronics and Communication, under the guidance of Mr Navdeep Mangal
(Director Netmax Technologies, Chd.)

SHAINI SACHDEVA
80406106016
ECE

This is to certify that the above statement made by the candidate is correct to the best of
our knowledge & belief.

(Name & Designation)

TRAINING & PLACEMENT OFFICER, ECE

The INDUSTRIAL TRAINING Viva-Voce Examination of SHAINI SACHDEVA has

been held on ……………….......... and accepted.

(Name & Designation)

EXTERNAL EXAMINER

2
2
 Abstract

The enterprise network is the lifeblood of any Small to Medium Enterprise (SME) with
more than one site or supply chain partner. It enables access to business information and
allows for profitable and effective communication flows between employees in different
enterprise sites. Network enterprise network equipment is mature and ubiquitous, but the
quality of services provided by similar networks varies from city to city and from country
to country.
In particular, the quality variation gap between most of the cities in some developing
nations and their counterparts in advanced nations is very wide. This is due to the lack in
developing nations of an adequate IT infrastructure, which is taken for granted in
developed nations. Planning an enterprise network in a developing nation is almost like
planning it in the middle of a desert. This project briefly discusses the architecture of an
enterprise network. It examines the barriers to planning, designing and implementing an
enterprise network. This project also covers the methods to implement enterprise level
networks.
In this project we will start from working basic router configuration then covering the
Routing technologies required to route data between branches.
After that we have implement WAN and Frame-relay is considered a good choice
because it connects multiple location using single interface of router and reduce the
hardware costs.
For Internet connectivity we are also using frame relay. In this setup NAT is very
essential in which we have translate live IP into local and vice-versa.
In short we can say a lot of technologies are studied and implemented for the successful
completion of the project.

Following list of technologies that are required in this project.

• Administration of router
• Routing
• Types of routing
• Benefits of static and dynamic routing
• Scalability of networks

2
LIST OF USED DEVICES & TECHNOLOGIES CONFIGURED

• Cisco router
• Core layer switch
• Distribution layer switch
• Access layer switches

TECHNOLOGIES TO CREATE NETWORK

• Router
• IP Addressing
• Routing
• Core Switch
• VTP server
• VLAN database
• Trunk Links
• Spanning Tree Configuration
• Configuring IP & Gateway
• VLAN Port Membership
• Distribution Switches
• VTP Client
• Configuring IP & Gateway
• Trunk Link Configuration
• VLAN Port Membership

4
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Thanking and feeling obliged indicates that we believe in someone else’s existence rather
than in the Divine who rules everything. When we feel obliged, then we are not honoring
the principles of the Divine karma. We should appreciate people for what they are and not
thank them for what they do… We should be grateful to people for what they are and not
for their acts. Now, it is really a long journey, going back in the past times and making a
big list of names for appreciation and gratitude.
Industrial Training is an important aspect of engineering. Through this training the
student learns to conduct himself/herself in environment of the industry. This training is
also helpful in acquiring the required technical knowledge. I am pursued my training at
Netmax Technologies, Chandigarh. I learned a lot at this place. I really feel the deepest
gratitude towards my supervisor, Mr Navdeep Mangal (Director, Netmax Technologies).
His immense love has been of great value to me. Without his unrivalled guidance,
constant encouragement, painstaking efforts, keen observance, benevolent attention the
present dissertation work would have remained futile. He really has the ability to make a
laidback person the foremost one.
I am deeply grateful to our training and placement officer Mr Inderjeet Singh Gill and
all my respected teachers of Shaheed Bhagat Singh College of Engg. & Tech,
Ferozepur for their smile, support, calm and soothing attitude, which yielded peace of
mind during my busy work hours.
The biggest appreciation and gratitude is towards my seniors, who were brave enough to
share their views, keep a vision on my work and who made the task of compiling the
dissertation an easy way out for me. I salute these grand masters, filled with knowledge,
patience and above all love. They were tolerant and uncomplaining all the times and
calmed and supported me, when I needed them the most. They never retraced their steps
in the hour of need and were ready with their helping hands for all the times.
I offer appreciation to all these great people of my life, for what they are. May they all
win laurels and their names are glorified and honored. Needless to say, the more I direct
my thoughts positively and feel genuinely thankful, I find that the more I get to
experience good results.

SHAINI SACHDEVA
80406106016

2
 PREFACE

Practical training constitutes an integral part of engineering studies. The training gives an
opportunity to the students to express themselves to the industrial environment which is
quite different from the teaching classroom. The training enables the student to work in
the future. It enables the student to undergo those experiences which help them later when
they join an organization.
Industrial training is a major part of course. It is period in which we are introduced to the
industrial environment or in other words we can say that industrial training is provided for
the familiarization with the industrial environment, with the advancement in computer
technologies and increased automation in the industries for increasing their production. In
organization where Making Things Right in the first instance is the driving motto,
perfection and accuracy are inevitable.
Excellence is an attitude that the whole of the human race is born with. It is the
environment that makes sure that whether the result of this attitude is visible or otherwise.
A well planned, properly executed and evaluated industrial training helps a lot in
inculcating a professional attitude. It provides a linkage between the student and industry
to develop an awareness of industrial approach to problem solving, based on a broad
understanding of process and mode of operation of organization. The objective of training
is to raise the level of performance on one or more of its aspects and this may be achieved
by providing new knowledge and information relevant to a job.
During this period, the students get the real, firsthand experience for working in the actual
environment. Most of the theoretical knowledge that has been gained during the course of
their studies is put to test here. It covers all the remains uncovered in the classroom i.e.
without it our studies remains ineffective and incomplete. Apart from this, the students
get an opportunity to learn the latest technology, which immensely helps them in building
their carrier.
I had the opportunity to have a real experience on many ventures, which increased my
sphere of knowledge to a great extent. I was entrusted with a real life project, working on
which had finally made me step into the ongoing technology and gradually become a part
of it. And all the credit goes to NETMAX TECHNOLOGIES, CHANDIGARH for
providing me the opportunity and facility for the making of this dissertation. I availed this
instance in a very satisfactory manner and think it will be very beneficial for me in
building my future.
COMPANY PROFILE
2
Netmax Technologies is an organization which is established in the field of Network
Support, Network training, Software training and Embedded systems.
In Education we have strategic alliance with Pearson VUE and Parametric. We are
authorized Testing Partner of REDHAT & Cisco. We are also NOVELL EDUCATION
PARTNER with which we provide NOVELL and SUSE LINUX courses. Netmax
Technologies also conduct courses in CADENCE based design tools.
Netmax Technologies also provide Technical Research & Development support and
consultancy to some Electronics companies.
Our clients for R&D support in field of embedded systems.
• Recorders and Medicare ltd Chandigarh.
• TELEBOX India ltd.
• Lotus Machines Pvt. Ltd. Chandigarh.
• Impearl Electronics Pvt. Ltd. Chandigarh.
• KANTA Electrical Ltd. Mohali.

The partial list of our client for network field is as below:

• CEDTI, Mohali
• Premier ISP, Chandigarh
• Innovative Solutions, Chandigarh
• Emmtel ISP, Chandigarh
• NIPER, Mohali
• Navik Technologies, Chandigarh
• Software Technology Parks India, Mohali
• Glide Internet Services
• Rana Group
• IDS
• HFCL Infotel Ltd.
• Targus Technologies Pvt. ltd
• STPI, Mohali
• BBMB
• The Tribune

4
 OUR TEAM

Presently we have a strong technical team of certified professionals for catering to these
solutions and have presence in Chandigarh and Punjab. We have skilled team of
engineers who are experienced in design, programming. We are having more than 15
engineers who are having prestigious certifications like CCNA, CCNP, CCSP, CCSA,
MCSE, RHCE, C, C++, JAVA and PhP MySql Programming.
Support Area (network solutions)
a. LINUX / UNIX networks
b. SUN networks
c. CISCO devices (Routers, Switches, Firewalls, Cache Engine, RAS etc)
d. Bandwidth Manager software and hardware
e. Radio Links
f. Security Solutions

Netmax-Technologies provide the following Courses in IT & Embedded Systems given

below:
Network Training
a. CISCO CCNA, CCNP, CCSP, CCIE
b. RED HAT LINUX
c. SUN SOLARIS
d. WINDOWS 2000, 2003 (MCP, MCSA & MCSE)
e. SUSE LINUX
Software Training
a. C++
b. C
c. JAVA
d. PhP My Sql Programming
e. 1 year Diploma in System administration & Networking.
Design Services (Embedded systems)
✔ a) AVR family
✔ b) MCS 51
✔ c) ELECTRONIC SYSTEM DESIGN

4
Our core strength is our commitment, technical expertise and cost effective solutions. We
ensure high service levels and prompt support availability leading to lower downtime.
Netmax Technologies is a leader in education services and developer of innovative
embedded solutions. To meet the demands of Post PC era Netmax provides complete
solutions as well as design-to-order services to satisfy our customers.

For NetMax Technologies

Navdeep Mangal
Sonika Mangal
+9888070008, +9888435109.

Head Office
NetMax Technologies
SCO 58-59
Sector 34A
Chandigarh
0172-4644644

Branch Office
NetMax Technologies
SCO 198-200
Sector 34A
Chandigarh
0172-2608351

2
Contents Page No.

Declaration………………………………………………………………………….....2

Certificate……………………………………………………………………………...3

Abstract…………………………………………………………………………….…4-5

Acknowledgement………………………………………………….....…………….....6

Preface
………………………………………………………………………………....7

Company Profile…………………………………………………………………..…8-10

List of Figures…………………………………………………………………………14

List of Tables……………………………………………………………………...…..15

Abbreviations…………………………………………………………………………16

1. Networking…………………………………………………………………17-23
1.1 Network………………………………………………………………….17
1.2 LAN……………………………………………………………………...17
1.3 WAN……………………………………………………………………..17
1.4 Devices…………………………………………………………………...17
1.4.1 Hub……………………………………………………………17-18
1.4.2 Switch…………………………………………………………18-
19
1.4.3 Bridge…………………………………………………………19-20
1.4.4 Router…………………………………………………………….20
1.4.5 Lan Card………………………………………………………….21
1.5 UTP (Unshielded Twisted Pair)………………………………………21-23
1.6 Administrator model for networking…………………………………….23

2. OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) Model…………………………………24-29

2.1 OSI Model……………………………………………………………….24
2.1.1 Layer 1: The Physical Layer………………………………………….24-25
2.1.2 Layer 2: The Data Link Layer…………………………………………...25
2.1.3 Layer 3: The Network Layer……………………………………………25
2.1.4 Layer 4: Transport Layer…………………………………………….25-27
2.1.5 Layer 5:.Session Layer………………………………………………27-28

4
 2.1.6 Layer 6: The Presentation Layer……………………………………….28
2.1.7 Layer 7: The Application Layer………………………………………..28
2.1.8 Data Encapsulation……………………………………………………..29

3. TCP/IP Model……………………………………………………………….30-32
3.1 TCP/IP MODEL………………………………………………………...30
3.1.1 LAYER 1:- Application Layer………………………………….30
3.1.2 LAYER 2:- Transport Layer…………………………………31-32
3.1.3 LAYER 3 Internet Layer………………………………………...32

4. IP Routing……………………………………………………………………33-42
4.1 ROUTER………………………………………………………………...33
4.2 Routing………………………………………………………………33-34
4.3 IP Addressing……………………………………………………………34
4.3.1 Class A Addresses……………………………………………34-35
4.3.2. Class B Addresses……………………………………………….35
4.3.3 Class C Addresses……………………………………………35-36
4.3.4. Class D Addresses……………………………………………36-37
4.3.5 Class E Addresses……………………………………………….37
4.4 IP Routing…………………………………………………………….....37
4.5 Routing Process…………………………………………………….....37-
38
4.6 Router Access Modes……………………………………………………38
4.6.1 User mode……………………………………………………......39
4.6.2 Privileged mode………………………………………………….39
4.6.3 Global configuration……………………………………………..39
4.6.4 Line configuration mode…………………………………………39
4.6.5 Interface configuration mode…………………………………….39
4.6.6 Routing configuration mode……………………………………...40
4.7 Configuring Password……………………………………………………40
4.7.1 Console Password………………………………………………..40
4.7.2 Vty Password…………………………………………………….40
4.7.3 Auxiliary Password………………………………………………40
4.7.4 Enable Password…………………………………………………40
4.7.5 Enable Secret Password………………………………………….41

6
 4.7.6 Encryption all passwords………………………………………...41
4.8 Managing Configuration……………………………………………...41-42

5 Types Of Routing……………………….……………………………………43-64
5.1 Static Routing………………………………………………………………..43
5.1.1 Steps to perform static routing……………………………….….43
5.1.2 Advantages of static routing………………………………….…43
5.1.3 Disadvantages of static routing……………………………….…43
5.1.4 Alternate command to specify static route……………………...44
5.1.5 Backup route or loading static route…………………………44-45
5.2 Default Routing………………………………………………………....46
5.3 Dynamic Routing……………………………………………………….47
5.3.1 Types of Dynamic Routing Protocols……………………….47-58
5.3.2 Autonomous system…………………………………………58-59
5.3.3 Open Shortest Path First……………………………………..59-61
5.3.4 OSPF Hierarchical Model…………………………………….…61
5.3.5 LSA Flooding in OSPF………………………………………62-64

6 Access Control List…………………………………………………………...65-69

6.1 ACL……………………………………………………………….…65
6.2 Classification Access Control List…………………………….…65
6.3 Flow chart of Inbound ACL……………………………….….…66
6.4 IP Standard ACL (Numbered)………………………………..66-67
6.5 IP Standard ACL (Named)…………………………………..67-68
6.6 IP Extended ACL (Numbered)………………………………68-69

7 LAN Switching………………………………………………………………70-73
7.1 LAN Switching………………………………………………70-71
7.2 VLAN (Virtual LAN)………………………………………...71-73
Conclusion………………………………………………………………………………..74
Bibliography……………………………………………………………………………...75

8
List of Figures
1.1. PCS’ CONNECTED VIA HUB………………………………………………….18

1.2 PCS’ CONNECTED VIA SWITCH……………………………………………..19

1.3 PCS’ CONNECTED VIA BRIDGE…………………………………………….20
1.4 DIFFERENT N/Ws CONNECTED VIA ROUTER……………………………20
1.5 Internal Network Interface Card…………………………………………………21
1.6 PCMCIA Network Interface Card……………………………………………….21
1.7 UTP………………………………………………………………………………21
1.8 Cross & Straight Cable…………………………………………………………...22
1.9 RJ 45 Connector………………………………………………………………….22
1.10 Networking Model……………………………………………………………….23
2.1 OSI MODEL……………………………………………………………………..24
2.2 Windowing……………………………………………………………………….26
2.3 3 Way hand shaking………………………………………….…………………..27
2.4 Connection Oriented Communication……………………………………………28
3.1 TCP/IP MODEL………………………………………………………………….30
3.2 TCP Header………………………………………………………………………31
4.1 Routing Process………………………………………………………………......38
4.2 Router access modes……………………………………………………………..38
5.1 Static routing……………………………………………………………………..45
5.2 Default routing…………………………………………………………………...46
5.3 Distance vector routing…………………………………………………………..47
5.4 Flash updates……………………………………………………………………..50
5.5 Split horizon……………………………………………………………………...50
5.6 Configuring RIP………………………………………………………………….52
5.7 Autonomous system……………………………………………………………...59
5.8 Router ID…………………………………………………………………………60
5.9 Autonomous system……………………………………………………………...60
5.10 OSPF Hierarchical Model………………………………………………………..61
5.11 LSA Flooding in OSPF…………………………………………………………..62
5.12 OSPF……………………………………………………………………………..63
6.1 Flow chart of Inbound ACL……………………………………………………..66
6.2 Configuring ACL…………………………………………………………….......67

2
List of Tables

1.1 Pin Configuration………………………………………………………………22

2
ABBREVIATIONS
n/w Network

LAN Local Area Network

WAN Wide Area Network

CSMA/CD Carrier Sense Multiple Access/ Collision Detection

CSMA/CA Carrier Sense Multiple Access/ Collision Avoidance

ISDN Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN)

OSI Open Systems Interconnection

TCP/IP Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol

NIC Network Interface Card

MAC Media Access Control

IETF Internet Engineering Task Force

EXEC EXECUTION

VTY (Virtual Telet Ype)

VLAN VIRTUAL Local Area Network

BGP Border Gateway Protocol

EIGRP Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol

IGRP Interior Gateway Routing Protocol

OSPF Open Shortest Path First

RIP Routing Information Protocol

MTU Maximum Transmission Unit

VLSM Variable Length Subnet Mask

IOS Internetwork Operating System

CLI Command-Line Interface

2
Chapter 1

NETWORKING

1.1 Network

In one network more than one computer connected with each other through centralized
device. They can share files and resources with each other. Networks are the method to
share hardware resources and software resources. We can share the resources with the
help of operating system like windows, Linux, UNIX etc. To connect multiple networks
we have to use internetworking devices like router, bridge, layer 3, switches etc.

1.2 LAN

LAN stands for Local Area Network. The scope of the LAN is within one building, one
school or within one lab. In LAN (Hub), media access method is used CSMA/CD in
which each computer sense the carrier before sending the data over the n/w. If carrier is
free then you can transmit otherwise you have to wait or you have to listen. In multiple
accesses each computer has right that they can access each other. If two computers sense
the carrier on same time then the collision occur. Each computer in the network aware
about the collision. Now this stop transmitting and they will use back off algorithm. In
which random number is generated. This number or algorithm is used by each computer.
Who has short number or small number, he has first priority to transmit the data over the
network and other computers will wait for their turn.

1.3 WAN
WAN stands for Wide Area Network, in which two local area networks are connected
through public n/w. it may be through telecommunication infrastructure or dedicated
lines. For e.g.: - ISDN lines, Leased lines etc.
In which we can use WAN devices and WAN technology. You can also connect with
your remote area through existing Internetwork called Internet.

1.4 Devices
1.4.1 Hub
Hub is centralized device, which is used to connect multiple workstations. There are two
types of Hub: -

2
(i) Active Hub
(ii) Passive Hub

Fig. 1.1. PCS’ CONNECTED VIA HUB

It has no special kind of memory. It simply receives the frame (data) and forwards it to all
its nodes except the receiving node. It always performs broadcasting. In case of hub, there
is one collision domain and one broadcast domain. In case of hub, the media access
method is used CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Detection).
• Active Hub
In Active hub, it receives the frame regenerate and then forward to all its nodes.
• Passive Hub
In Passive hub, it simply receives the frame and forward to all its connected
nodes.

We cannot perform LAN segmentation using hub.

1.4.2 Switch
Switch is also used to connect multiple workstations. Switch is more intelligent than hub.
It has special kind of memory called mac address/filter/lookup table. Switch reads mac
addresses. Switch stores mac addresses in its filter address table. Switch when receives
frame, it reads the destination mac address and consult with its filter table. If he has entry
in its filter table then he forwards the frame to that particular mac address, if not found
2
then it performs broadcasting to all its connected nodes.
Every port has its own buffer memory. A port has two queues one is input queue and
second is output queue. When switch receives the frame, the frame is received in input
queue and forward from output queue. So in case of switch there is no chance or place for
collisions. In case of switch, the media access method is used CSMA/CA (Carrier Sense
Multiple Access/ Collision Avoidance). Switches provide more efficiency, more speed
and security.

Fig. 1.2 PCS’ CONNECTED VIA SWITCH

There are two types of switches: -
I. Manageable switches (can be configured with console cable).
II. Non-manageable switches.
We can perform LAN segmentation by using switches.

1.4.3 Bridge
Bridge is a hardware device, which is used to provide LAN segmentation means it is used
for break the collision domain. It has same functionality as performed by switch. We can
use bridge between two different topologies. It has fewer ports. Each port has a own
buffer memory. It works on Data Link Layer of OSI model. It also read mac address and
stores it in its filter table. In case of bridge there is one broadcast domain.

3
 FIG. 1.3PCS’ CONNECTED VIA BRIDGE

1.4.4 Router

Router is hardware device, which is used to communicate two different networks. Router
performs routing and path determination. It does not perform broadcast information.

FIG. 1.4DIFFERENT N/Ws CONNECTED VIA ROUTER

There are two types of routers: -

I. Hardware Routers are developed by Cisco, HP.
II. Software Routers is configured with the help of routing and remote access. This
feature is offered by Microsoft. This feature is by default installed, but you have to
enable or configure it. Hardware routers are dedicated routers. They are more
efficient. But in case of software routers, it has fewer features, slow performance.

2
 They are not very much efficient.
1.4.5 LAN Card

LAN card is media access device. LAN card provide us connectivity in the network.
There is a RJ45 (Registered Jack) connector space on the LAN card. RJ45 is used in UTP
cable. There is another led which is also called heartbeat of LAN card. When any activity
occurs it may be receiving or transmitting any kind of data. This led start blinking and
also tells us the status of LAN card.

FIG. 1.5Internal network interface card Fig. 1.6 PCMCIA Network interface card

1.5 UTP (Unshielded Twisted Pair)

3
 FIG. 1.7UTP

Pin Configuration
Hub/Switch PC/Router/Online Uplink
Printer port(Hub/Switch)
1 Rx+ Tx+ Tx+
2 Rx- Tx Tx
3 Tx+ Rx+ Rx+
4 NC NC NC
5 NC NC NC
6 Tx Rx Rx
7 NC NC NC
8 NC NC NC
TABLE 1.1 Pin Configuration

2
 Fig. 1.8 Cross & Straight Cable
Straight Cable
1 Orange white - Orange white
2 Orange - Orange
3 Green white - Green white
4 Blue - Blue
5 Blue white - Blue white
6 Green - Green
7 Brown white - Brown white
8 Brown – Brown Fig. 1.9 RJ 45 Connector

Cross Cable
1 Orange white - Green white
2 Orange - Green
3 Green white - Orange white
4 Blue - Blue
5 Blue white - Blue white
6 Green - Orange
7 Brown white - Brown white
8 Brown - Brown

1.6 Administrator model for

networking
Server software: - Software which are used to
giving services are server software.

2
Client software: - which gets services.
Server
Client
NIC
Media
P Software
Software
Apache,
Internet
TCP/IP, Explorer,
RIPX/SPX,
IIS,
Outlook Express,
O Exchange
Yahoo
AppleTalk,
messenger
2003,
T FTP
Cute
Netbeui
Server
FTP
Send Mail
O
C
O
L
Stack

Fig. 1.10 Networking Model

4
Chapter 2

OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) Model

2.1 OSI Model

OSI model is the layer approach to design, develop and implement network.
OSI provides following advantages: -
(i) Designing of network will be standard base.
(ii) Development of new technology will be faster.
(iii) Devices from multiple vendors can communicate with each other.
(iv) Implementation and troubleshooting of network will be easy.
Media
Software
Protocol
NIC Stack
Physical
Data
Network
Layer
LinkLayer
Presentation
Application
Transport
Session Layer
Layer
Layer
Layer
Layer

2
 Fig. 2.1 OSI MODEL

2.1.1 Layer 1: The Physical Layer

The bottom layer, or Layer 1, of the OSI reference model is called the physical layer. This
layer is responsible for the transmission of the bit stream. It accepts frames of data from
Layer 2, the data link layer, and transmits their structure and content serially, one bit at a
time. Layer 1 is also responsible for the reception of incoming streams of data, one bit at
a time. These streams are then passed on to the data link layer. The physical layer, quite
literally, operates on only 1s and 0s. It has no mechanism for determining the significance
of the bits it transmits or receives. It is solely concerned with the physical characteristics
of electrical and/or optical signaling techniques. This includes the voltage of the electrical
current used to transport the signal, the media type and impedance characteristics, and
even the physical shape of the connector used to terminate the media. Transmission media
includes any means of actually transporting signals generated by the OSI's Layer 1
mechanisms. Some examples of transmission media are coaxial cabling, fiber-optic
cabling, and twisted-pair wiring.

2.1.2 Layer 2: The Data Link Layer

Layer 2 of the OSI reference model is called the data link layer. As all the layers do, it has
two sets of responsibilities: transmit and receive. It is responsible for providing end-to-
end validity of the data being transmitted. On the transmit side, the data link layer is
responsible for packing instructions---data---into frames. A frame is a structure
indigenous to the data link layer that contains enough information to make sure that the
data can be successfully sent across a LAN to its destination. Implicit in this definition is
that the data link layer contains its own address architecture. This addressing is only
applicable to other networked devices that reside locally on the same data link layer
domain.

2.1.3 Layer 3: The Network Layer

The network layer enables internetworking. The protocols at this layer are responsible for

4
establishing the route to be used between the source and destination computers. This layer
lacks any native transmission error detection/correction mechanisms and, consequently, is
forced to rely on the end-to-end reliable transmission service of either the data link layer
or the transport layer. Although some data link layer technologies support reliable
delivery, many others do not. Therefore, Layer 3 protocols (such as IP) assume that Layer
4 protocols (such as TCP) will provide this functionality rather than assume Layer 2 will
take care of it.

2.1.4 Layer 4: Transport Layer: -

Transport layer is responsible for connection oriented and connection less
communication. Transport layer also performs other functions like
(i) Error checking
(ii) Flow Control

Buffering
Windowing
Multiplexing
(iii) Sequencing
(iv) Positive Acknowledgement Response

(i) Error checking

Transport layer generates cyclic redundancy check (CRC) and forward the CRC value to
destination along with data. The other end will generate CRC according to data and match
the CRC value with received value. If both are same, then data is accepted otherwise
discard.
(ii) Flow Control
Flow control is used to control the flow of data during communication. For this purpose
following methods are used: -
(a) Buffer
Buffer is the temporary storage area. All the data is stored in the buffer memory
and when communication ability is available the data is forward to another.
(b) Windowing
Windowing is the maximum amounts of the data that can be send to destination
without receiving Acknowledgement. It is limit for buffer to send data without
getting Acknowledgement.

5
 Fig. 2.2 Windowing

(c) Multiplexing
Multiplexing means combining small data segment, which has same destination IP
and same destination service.
(iii) Sequencing
Transport layer add sequence number to data, so that out of sequence data can be detected
and rearranged in proper manner.
(iv) Positive acknowledgement and Response
When data is send to destination, the destination will reply with acknowledgement to
indicate the positive reception of data. If acknowledgement is not received within a
specified time then the data is resend from buffer memory.

2.1.5 Layer 5:.Session Layer: -

This layer initiate, maintain and terminate sessions between different applications. Due to
this layer multiple application software can be executed at the same time.

1. Connection Oriented Communication

2
 Fig. 2.3 3 Way hand shaking

Fig. 2.4 Connection Oriented Communication

2. Connection less Communication

SEND
SENDER Receiver

2.1.6 Layer 6: The Presentation Layer

Layer 6, the presentation layer, is responsible for managing the way that data is encoded.
Not every computer system uses the same data encoding scheme, and the presentation
layer is responsible for providing the translation between otherwise incompatible data
encoding schemes, such as American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII)
and Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code (EBCDIC).
The presentation layer can be used to mediate differences in floating-point formats, as
2
well as to provide encryption and decryption services.

2.1.7 Layer 7: The Application Layer

The top, or seventh, layer in the OSI reference model is the application layer. Despite its
name, this layer does not include user applications. Instead, it provides the interface
between those applications and the network's services. This layer can be thought of as the
reason for initiating the communications session. For example, an email client might
generate a request to retrieve new messages from the email server. This client application
automatically generates a request to the appropriate Layer 7 protocol(s) and launches a
communications session to get the needed files.
2.1.8 Data Encapsulation
Data

Application Layer Data*

Presentation Layer Data**
Session Layer Data***
Transport Layer Transport Header | Data = Segment
Network Layer Network Header | Segment = Packet
Data Link Layer Header | Packet | Trailer = Frame
Physical Layer 1 0 = Bits

Data => Segment => Packet => Frames => Bits

3
CHAPTER 3

TCP/IP MODEL

3.1 TCP/IP MODEL

TCP/IP is the most popular protocol stack, which consist of large no of protocol.
According to the OSI model TCP/IP consist of only four layers. TCP/IP model is
modified form of DOD (Department of Defense) model.
Internet
Http
D
N
T
Transport
Application
Ph
Network
LARP
TCP
A Smtp
Internet
UDP Dns
All
RARP FtpICMP
Protocol Tftp Telenet
common IGMPNtpRIP
Lan/Wan Snmp Ssl BGP
Rdp & many more
Technologies
OSPF
Access
(Host
80 to25 Host)
53 20 69 23 123 443 3389 pop3 imap
P

2
 Fig. 3.1 TCP/IP MODEL

3.1.1 LAYER 1:- Application Layer

This layer contains a large no. of protocols. Each protocol is designed to act as server &
client. Some of protocol will need connection oriented. TCP and others may need
connection less UDP for data transfer.

Application layer use port no.’s to identity each application at Transport layer. This layer
performs most of functions, which are specified by the Application, Presentation, and
Session layer of OSI model.
3.1.2 LAYER 2:- Transport Layer

Two protocols are available on Transport layer

1) Transmission Control Protocol
2) User Datagram Protocol

I) Transmission Control Protocol

TCP performs connection-oriented communication. Its responsibilities are:
i) Error Checking
ii) Acknowledgement
iii) Sequencing
iv) Flow Control
v) Windowing

4
 Fig. 3.2 TCP Header
II) User Datagram Protocol
UDP is connection less protocol, which is responsible for error checking and
identifying applications using port numbers.

Bytes 4 Source port 16 bits Destination port 16 bits

4 Length 16 bits Checksum 16 bits

Data

UDP HEADER (8 bytes)

2
 3.1.3 LAYER 3 Internet Layer
The main function of Internet layer is routing and providing a single network interface to
the upper layers protocols. Upper or lower protocols have not any functions relating to
routing. To prevent this, IP provides one single network interface for the upper layer
protocols. After that it is the job of IP and the various Network Access protocols to get
along and work together. The main protocols are used in Internet layer:-

1) Internet Protocol (IP)

2) Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP)
3) Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)
4) Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP)
5) Proxy ARP

4
CHAPTER 4

IP ROUTING

4.1 ROUTER

Unlike most LAN components, routers are intelligent. More importantly, they can operate
at all layers of the OSI reference model rather than just the first two. This enables them to
internetwork multiple LANs by using Layer 3 addressing.

A router must have two or more physical interfaces for interconnecting LANs and/or
WAN transmission facilities. The router learns about the addresses of machines or
networks that are somehow connected via each of its interfaces. The list of these
addresses is kept in tables that correlate Layer 3 addresses with the port numbers that they
are directly or indirectly connected to.

A router uses two types of networking protocols, both of which operate at Layer 3. These
are routable protocols and routing protocols. Routable protocols, also known as routed
protocols, are those that encapsulate user information and data into packets. An example
of a routed protocol is IP. IP is responsible for encapsulating application data for transport
through a network to the appropriate destinations.

Routing protocols are used between routers to determine available routes, communicate
what is known about available routes, and forward routed protocol packets along those
routes. The purpose of a routing protocol is to provide the router with all the information
it needs about the network to route datagram’s.

4.2 Routing
Routers are used to forward packets of data between devices that aren't necessarily
connected to the same local network. Routing is the cumulative processes that discover
paths through the network to specific destinations, compare redundant routes
mathematically, and build tables that contain routing information.

2
The router's task is easy: It has only two interfaces. Any packets received by one of its
interfaces was either delivered to the other interface or discarded as undeliverable. In this
particular case, the router may well have been replaced by a hub, bridge, switch, or any
other Layer 2 device. The router's real value lies in determining routes to destinations on
nonadjacent networks.

4.3 IP Addressing
IPv4 Address Formats
Class A Addresses
Class B Addresses
Class C Addresses
Class D Addresses
Class E Addresses
IP addressing is accompanied by a two-tiered network address, consisting of the
network's address and a host address.

4.3.1 Class A Addresses

The Class A IPv4 address was designed to support extremely large networks. As the need
for very large-scale networks was perceived to be minimal, an architecture was developed
that maximized the possible number of host addresses but severely limited the number of
possible Class A networks that could be defined.

A Class A IP address uses only the first octet to indicate the network address. The
remaining three octets enumerate host addresses. The first bit of a Class A address is
always a 0. This mathematically limits the possible range of the Class A address to 127,
which is the sum of 64 + 32 + 16 + 8 + 4 + 2 + 1. The leftmost bit's decimal value of 128
is absent from this equation. Therefore, there can only ever be 127 possible Class A IP
networks.

The last 24 bits (that is, three dotted-decimal numbers) of a Class A address represent
possible host addresses. The range of possible Class A network addresses is from 1.0.0.0
to 126.0.0.0. Notice that only the first octet bears a network address number. The
remaining three are used to create unique host addresses within each network number. As

2
such, they are set to zeroes when describing the range of network numbers.
Note Technically, 127.0.0.0 is also a Class A network address. However, it is reserved for
loop-back testing and cannot be assigned to a network.

4.3.2. Class B Addresses

The Class B addresses were designed to support the needs of moderate- to large-sized
networks. The range of possible Class B network addresses is from 128.1.0.0 to
191.254.0.0. The mathematical logic underlying this class is fairly simple. A Class B IP
address uses two of the four octets to indicate the network address. The other two octets
enumerate host addresses. The first 2 bits of the first octet of a Class B address are 10.
The remaining 6 bits may be populated with either 1s or 0s.

This mathematically limits the possible range of the Class B address space to 191, which
is the sum of 128 + 32 + 16 + 8 + 4 + 2 + 1. The last 16 bits (two octets) identify potential
host addresses. Each Class B address can support 65,534 unique host addresses. This
number is calculated by multiplying two to the 16th power and subtracting two (values
reserved by IP). Mathematically, there can only be 16,382 Class B networks defined.

4.3.3 Class C Addresses

The Class C address space is, by far, the most commonly used of the original IPv4
address classes. This address space was intended to support a lot of small networks. This
address class can be thought of as the inverse of the Class A address space. Whereas the
Class A space uses just one octet for network numbering, and the remaining three for host
numbering, the Class C space uses three octets for networking addressing and just one
octet for host numbering.

The first 3 bits of the first octet of a Class C address are 110. The first 2 bits sum to a
decimal value of 192 (128 + 64). This forms the lower mathematical boundary of the
Class C address space. The third bit equates to a decimal value of 32. Forcing this bit to a
value of 0 establishes the upper mathematical boundary of the address space. Lacking the
capability to use the third digit limits the maximum value of this octet to 255 - 32, which
equals 223. Therefore, the range of possible Class C network addresses is from 192.0.1.0
to 223.255.254.0.
The last octet is used for host addressing. Each Class C address can support a theoretical
maximum of 256 unique host addresses (0 through 255), but only 254 are usable because
3
0 and 255 are not valid host numbers. There can be 2,097,150 different Class C network
numbers.

Note In the world of IP addressing, 0 and 255 are reserved host address values. IP
addresses that have all their host address bits set equal to 0 identify the local network.
Similarly, IP addresses that have all their host address bits set equal to 255 are used to
broadcast to all end systems within that network number.

4.3.4. Class D Addresses

The Class D address class was created to enable multicasting in an IP network. The Class
D multicasting mechanisms have seen only limited usage. A multicast address is a unique
network address that directs packets with that destination address to predefined groups of
IP addresses. Therefore, a single station can simultaneously transmit a single stream of
datagram’s to multiple recipients. The need to create separate streams of datagram’s, one
for each destination, is eliminated. Routers that support multicasting would duplicate the
datagram and forward as needed to the predetermined end systems. Multicasting has long
been deemed a desirable feature in an IP network because it can substantially reduce
network traffic.

The Class D address space, much like the other address spaces, is mathematically
constrained. The first 4 bits of a Class D address must be 1110. Presetting the first 3 bits
of the first octet to 1s means that the address space begins at 128 + 64 + 32, which equals
224. Preventing the fourth bit from being used means that the Class D address is limited
to a maximum value of 128 + 64 + 32 + 8 + 4 + 2 + 1, or 239.
Therefore, the Class D addresses space ranges from 224.0.0.0 to 239.255.255.254.

This range may seem odd because the upper boundary is specified with all four octets.
Ordinarily, this would mean that the octets for both host and network numbers are being
used to signify a network number. There is a reason for this. The Class D address space
isn't used for internetworking to individual end systems or networks. Class D addresses
are used for delivering multicast datagram’s within a private network to groups of IP-
addressed end systems. Therefore, there isn't a need to allocate octets or bits of the
address to separate network and host addresses. Instead, the entire address space can be
used to identify groups of IP addresses (Classes A, B, or C). Today, numerous other
proposals are being developed that would allow IP multicasting without the complexity of
a Class D address space.
4
 4.3.5 Class E Addresses
A Class E address has been defined, but is reserved by the IETF for its own research.
Therefore, no Class E addresses have been released for use in the Internet. The first 4 bits
of a Class E address are always set to 1s; therefore, the range of valid addresses is from
240.0.0.0 to 255.255.255.255. Given that this class was defined for research purposes,
and its use is limited to inside the IETF, it is not necessary to examine it any further.

4.4 IP Routing
When we want to connect two or more networks using different n/w addresses then we
have to use IP Routing technique. The router will be used to perform routing between the
networks. A router will perform following functions for routing.
• Path determination
• Packet forwarding
•
(1) Path determination
The process of obtaining path in routing table is called path determination.
There are three different methods to which router can learn path.
i) Automatic detection of directly connected n/w.
ii) Static & Default routing
iii) Dynamic routing

(2) Packet forwarding

It is a process that is by default enable in router. The router will perform packet
forwarding only if route is available in the routing table.

4.5 Routing Process

(i) The pc has a packet in which destination address is not same as the local n/w
address.
(ii) The pc will send an ARP request for default gateway. The router will reply to
the ARP address and inform its Mac address to pc.
(iii) The pc will encapsulate data, in which source IP is pc itself, destination IP is
server, source Mac is pc’s LAN interface and destination Mac is router’s LAN
interface.

6
 oleObject1

Fig. 4.1 Routing Process

S. MAC D. MAC
PC1 R1
D. IP 172.16.0.5
S. IP 10.0.0.6

The router will receive the frame, store it into the buffer. When obtain packet from the
frame then forward data according to the destination IP of packet. The router will obtain a
route from routing table according to which next hop IP and interface is selected

(iv) According to the next hop, the packet will encapsulated with new frame and data is
send to the output queue of the interface.

4.6 Router Access Modes

4
When we access router command prompt the router will display different modes.
According to the modes, privileges and rights are assigned to the user.

Fig. 4.2 Router access modes

4.6.1 User mode
In this mode, we can display basic parameter and status of the router we can test
connectivity and perform telnet to other devices. In this mode we are not enable to
manage & configure router.

4.6.2 Privileged mode

In this mode, we can display all information, configuration, perform administration task,
debugging, testing and connectivity with other devices. We are not able to perform here
configuration editing of the router.

The command to enter in this mode is ‘enable’. We have to enter enable password or
enable secret password to enter in this mode. Enable secret has more priority than enable
password. If both passwords are configured then only enable secret will work.

4.6.3 Global configuration

This mode is used for the configuration of global parameters in the router. Global
parameters applied to the entire router. For e.g.: - router hostname or access list of router
the command enters in this mode is ‘configure terminal’.

4.6.4 Line configuration mode

This mode is used to configure lines like console, vty and auxiliary. There are main types
of line that are configured.

(i) Console router(config)#line console 0

(ii) Auxiliary router(config)#line aux 0
(iii) Telnet or vty router(config)#line vty 0 4
2
 4.6.5 Interface configuration mode
This mode is used to configure router interfaces. For e.g:- Ethernet, Serial, BRI etc.
Router(config)#interface <type> <number>
Router(config)#interface serial 1

4
 4.6.6 Routing configuration mode
This mode is used to configure routing protocol like RIP, EIGRP, OSPF etc.
Router(config)#router <protocol> [<option>]
Router(config)#router rip
Router(config)#router eigrp 10

4.7 Configuring Password

There are six types of password available in a router
4.7.1 Console Password
router#configure terminal
router(config)#line console 0
router(config-line)#password <word>
router(config-line)#login
router(config-line)#exit
to erase password do all steps with no command.
4.7.2 Vty Password
router>enable
router#configure terminal
router(config)#line vty 0 4
router(config-line)#password <word>
router(config-line)#login
router(config-line)#exit
4.7.3 Auxiliary Password
router#configure terminal
router(config)#line Aux 0
router(config-line)#password <word>
router(config-line)#login
router(config-line)#exit
4.7.4 Enable Password
router>enable
router#configure terminal
router(config)#enable password <word>
router(config)#exit

2
 4.7.5 Enable Secret Password
Enable Password is the clear text password. It is stored as clear text in
configuration where as enable secret password is the encrypted password
with MD5 (Media Digest 5) algorithm.
Router>enable
Router#configure terminal
Router(config)#enable secret <word>
Router(config)#exit
4.7.6 Encryption all passwords
All passwords other than enable secret password are clear text password.
We can encrypt all passwords using level 7 algorithms. The command to
encrypt all passwords is
Router#configure terminal
Router(config)#service password-encryption

4.8 Managing Configuration

There are two types of configuration present in a router
(1) Startup Configuration
(2) Running Configuration
(1) Startup configuration is stored in the NVRAM. Startup configuration is used to
save settings in a router. Startup configuration is loaded at the time of booting in
to the Primary RAM.
(2) Running Configuration is present in the Primary RAM wherever we run a
command for configuration; this command is written in the running configuration.
To save configuration
Router#copy running-configuration startup-configuration
Or
Router#write
To abort configuration
Router#copy startup-configuration running-configuration
To display running-configuration
Router#show running-configuration
To display startup configuration
Router#show startup-configuration
Configuring HostName
2
 Router#configure terminal
Router#hostname <name>
<name>#exit or end or /\z
Configuring Interfaces
Interfaces configuration is one of the most important part of the router configuration. By
default, all interfaces of Cisco router are in disabled mode. We have to use different
commands as our requirement to enable and configure the interface.
Configuring IP, Mask and Enabling the Interface
Router#configure terminal
Router(config)#interface <type> <no>
Router(config-if)#ip address <ip> <mask>
Router(config-if)#no shutdown
Router(config-if)#exit
Interface Numbers
Interface numbers start from 0 for each type of interface some routers will directly used
interface number while other router will use slot no/port no addressing technique.
To display interface status
Router#show interfaces (to show all interfaces)
Router#show interface <type> <no>

4
CHAPTER 5

TYPES OF ROUTING

5.1 Static Routing

In this routing, we have to use IP route commands through which we can specify routes
for different networks. The administrator will analyze whole internetwork topology and
then specify the route for each n/w that is not directly connected to the router.

5.1.1 Steps to perform static routing

(1) Create a list of all n/w present in internetwork.
(2) Remove the n/w address from list, which is directly connected to n/w.
(3) Specify each route for each routing n/w by using IP route command.

Router(config)#ip route <destination n/w> <mask> <next hop ip>

Next hop IP it is the IP address of neighbor router that is directly connected our
router.

Static Routing Example: -

Router#conf ter
Router(config)#ip route 10.0.0.0 255.0.0.0 192.168.10.2

5.1.2 Advantages of static routing

(1) Fast and efficient.
(2) More control over selected path.
(3) Less overhead for router.
(4) Bandwidth of interfaces is not consumed in routing updates.

5.1.3 Disadvantages of static routing

(1) More overheads on administrator.
(2) Load balancing is not easily possible.
(3) In case of topology change routing table has to be change manually.

2
 5.1.4 Alternate command to specify static route
Static route can also specify in following syntax: -
Router(config)#ip route 172.16.0.0 255.255.0.0 172.25.0.2
Or
Router(config)#ip route 172.16.0.0 255.255.0.0 serial 0

5.1.5 Backup route or loading static route

If more than one path is available from our router to destination then we can specify one
route as primary and other route as backup route.
Administrator Distance is used to specify one route as primary and other route as backup.
Router will select lower AD route to forward the traffic. By default static route has AD
value of 1. With backup path, we will specify higher AD so that this route will be used if
primary route is unavailable.

Protocols AD
Directly Connected 0
Static 1
BGP 20
EIGRP 90
IGRP 100
OSPF 110
RIP 120

Syntax: - To set backup path

Router(config)#ip route <dest. n/w> <mask> <next hop> <AD>

Or
<exit interface>

Example: -
Router#conf ter
Router(config)#ip route 150.10.0.0 255.255.0.0 150.20.0.5
Router(config)#ip route 150.10.0.0 25.255.0.0 160.20.1.1 8 (below 20)
Router(config)#exit
Scenario 1
4
 oleObject2

Fig.5.1 Static routing

To display routing table

Router#sh ip route

To display static routes only

Router#sh ip route static

2
 S 192.168.10.0/28 [1/0] via 172.16.0.5

To display connected n/ws only

Router#sh ip route connected

To check all the interface of a router

Router#sh interface brief
5.2 Default Routing
Default routing means a route for any n/w. these routes are specify with the help of
following syntax: -

Router(config)#ip route 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 <next hop>

Or
<exit interface>
This type of routing is used in following scenario.
Scenario 2: -
Stub network
A n/w which has only one exit interface is called stub network.

4
 oleObject3

Fig. 5.2 Default routing

If there is one next hop then we can use default routing.

Internet connectivity
On Internet, million of n/ws are present. So we have to specify default routing on our
router.
Default route is also called gateway of last resort. This route will be used when no other
routing protocol is available.

If there is one next hop then we can use default routing.

5.3 Dynamic Routing

2
In dynamic routing, we will enable a routing protocol on router. This protocol will send
its routing information to the neighbor router. The neighbors will analyze the information
and write new routes to the routing table.

The routers will pass routing information receive from one router to other router also. If
there are more than one path available then routes are compared and best path is selected.
Some examples of dynamic protocol are: -
RIP, IGRP, EIGRP, OSPF

5.3.1 Types of Dynamic Routing Protocols

According to the working there are two types of Dynamic Routing Protocols.
(1) Distance Vector
(2) Link State

According to the type of area in which protocol is used there are again two types
of protocol: -

(1) Interior Routing Protocol

(2) Exterior Routing Protocol

(a) Distance Vector Routing

The Routing, which is based on two parameters, that is distance and direction is
called Distance Vector Routing.
The example of Distance Vector Routing is RIP & IGRP.

Operation: -
(1) Each Router will send its directly connected information to the neighbor
router. This information is send periodically to the neighbors.

2
 oleObject4

Fig.5.3 Distance vector routing

(2) The neighbor will receive routing updates and process the route according to
following conditions: -
(i) If update of a new n/w is received then this information is stored in
routing table.
(ii) If update of a route is received which is already present in routing table
then route will be refresh that is route times are reset to zero.
(iii) If update is received for a route with lower metric then the route,
which is already present in our routing table. The router will discard old
route and write the new route in the routing table.
(iv) If update is received with higher metric then the route that is already
present in routing table, in this case the new update will be discard.

(3) A timer is associated with each route. The router will forward routing
information on all interfaces and entire routing table is send to the neighbor. There
are three types of timers associated with a route.
(i) Route update timer. It is the time after which the router will send
periodic update to the neighbor.
(ii) Route invalid timer. It is the time after which the route is declared
invalid, if there are no updates for the route. Invalid route are not
forwarded to neighbor routers but it is still used to forward the traffic.
(iii) Route flush timer. It is the time after which route is removed from
the routing table, if there are no updates about the router.

2
Metric of Dynamic Routing
Metric are the measuring unit to calculate the distance of destination n/w. A protocol may
use a one or more than one at a time to calculate the distance. Different types of metric
are: -
(1) Hop Count
(2) Band Width
(3) Load
(4) Reliability
(5) Delay
(6) MTU
Hop Count
It is the no. of Hops (Routers) a packet has to travel for a destination n/w.
Bandwidth
Bandwidth is the speed of link. The path with higher bandwidth is preferred to send the
data.

Load
Load is the amount of traffic present in the interface. Paths with lower load and high
throughput are used to send data.

Reliability
Reliability is up time of interface over a period of time.

Delay
Delay is the time period b/w a packet is sent and received by the destination.

MTU Maximum Transmission Unit

It is the maximum size of packet that can be sent in a frame mostly MTU is set to 1500.

Problems of Distance Vector

There are two main problems of distance vector routing
• Bandwidth Consumption
• Routing Loops

(i) Bandwidth Consumption

2
The problem of excessive bandwidth consumption is solved out with the help of
autonomous system. It exchanges b/w different routers. We can also perform route
summarization to reduce the traffic.

(ii) Routing Loops

It may occur b/w adjacent routers due to wrong routing information. Distance
Vector routing is also called routing by Rumor. Due to this the packet may enter
in the loop condition until their TTL is expired.

4
Method to solve routing loops
There are five different methods to solve or reduce the problem of routing loop.

(i) Maximum Hop Count

This method limits the maximum no. of hops a packet can travel. This method
does not solve loop problem. But it reduces the loop size in the n/w. Due to this
method the end to end size of a n/w is also limited.

(ii) Flash Updates/Triggered Updates

In this method a partial update is send to the all neighbors as soon as there is
topology change. The router, which receives flash updates, will also send the flash
updates to the neighbor routers.

oleObject5

Fig.5.4 Flash updates

(iii) Split Horizon

Split Horizon states routes that update receive from an interface cannot be send
back to same interface.

2
 oleObject6

Fig.5.5 Split horizon

(iv) Poison Reverse
This method is the combination of split Horizon and Flash updates. It implements
the rule that information received from the interface can not be sent back to the
interface and in case of topology change flash updates will be send to the
neighbor.

(v) Hold Down

If a route changes frequently then the route is declared in Hold Down state and no
updates are received until the Hold Down timer expires.

Routing Information Protocol

Features of RIP: -
* Distance Vector
* Open standard
* Broadcast Updates
(255.255.255.255)

2
* Metric
Hop Count
*Timers
Update 30 sec
Invalid 180 sec
Hold 180 sec
Flush 240 sec
* Loop Control
Split Horizon
Triggered Updates
Maximum Hop Count
Hold Down
* Maximum Hop Count 15
* Administrative Distance 120
* Equal Path Cost Load Balancing
* Maximum Load path 6
Default 4
* Does not support VLSM
* Does not support Autonomous system
Configuring RIP

Router#conf ter

Router(config)#router rip

Router(config-router)#network <own net address>

Router(config-router)#network <own net address>

Router(config-router)#exit

2
 172.16.0.6

oleObject7

oleObject8

10.0.0.1
oleObject9

172.16.0.5 175.2.1.1

200.100.100.12
Fig.5.6 Configuring RIP

Router(config-router)#network 10.0.0.0

Router(config-router)#network 172.16.0.0

Router(config-router)#network 200.100.100.0

175.2.0.0 via 172.16.0.6

4
Display RIP Routers
Router#sh ip route rip

R 192.168.75.0/24 [120/5] via 172.30.0.2 00:00:25 serial 1/0

RIP Dest. n/w mask AD Metric Next Hop Timer own Interface

RIP advanced configuration

(a) Passive Interfaces
An interface, which is not able to send routing updates but able to receive routing
update only is called Passive Interface. We can declare an interface as passive
with following commands: -
Router#conf ter
Router(config)#router rip
Router(config-router)#Passive-interface <type> <no>
Router(config-router)#exit

(b) Configuring Timers

Router(config)#router rip
Router(config-router)#timers basic <update> <invalid> <hold down>
<flush>
Router(config-router)#exit

Example: -
Router(conf-router)#timer basic 50 200 210 300
Update 50 sec
Invalid 200 sec
Hold 210 sec
Flush 300 sec

(c) To change Administrative Distance

Router(config)#router rip
Router(config-router)#distance <value>
Router(config-router)#exit 95 or 100

2
 (d) To configure Load Balance
RIP is able to perform equal path cost Load Balancing. If multiple paths
are available with equal Hop Count for the destination then RIP will
balance load equally on all paths.
Load Balancing is enabled by default 4 paths. We can change the no. of
paths. It can use simultaneously by following command: -
Router(config)#router rip
Router(config-router)#maximum-path <1-6>
(e) To display RIP parameters
Router#sh ip protocol

This command display following parameters: -

(i) RIP Timers
(ii) RIP Version
(iii) Route filtering
(iv) Route redistribution
(v) Interfaces on which update send
(vi) And receive
(vii) Advertise n/w
(viii) Passive interface
(ix) Neighbor RIP
(i) Routing information sources
(ii) Administrative Distance

RIP version 2
RIP version 2 supports following new features: -
(1) Support VLSM (send mask in updates)
(2) Multicast updates using address 224.0.0.9
Support authentication

Commands to enable RIP version 2

We have to change RIP version 1 to RIP version 2. Rest all communication will remain
same in RIP version 2.

Router(config)#Router RIP
2
Router(config-router)#version 2
Router(config-router)#exit

To debug RIP routing

Router#debug ip rip
To disable debug routing
Router#no debug ip rip

(b) Link State Routing

This type of routing is based on link state. Its working is explain as under

(1) Each router will send Hello packets to all neighbors using all interfaces.
(2) The router from which Hello reply receive are stored in the neighbor ship
table. Hello packets are send periodically to maintain the neighbor table.
(3) The router will send link state information to the all neighbors. Link state
information from one neighbor is also forwarded to other neighbor.
(4) Each router will maintain its link state database created from link state
advertisement received from different routers.
(5) The router will use best path algorithm to store the path in routing table.

(i) Problems of Link State Routing

The main problems of link state routing are: -
(1) High bandwidth consumption.
(2) More hardware resources required that is processor and memory (RAM)

The routing protocols, which use link state routing, are: -

OSPF

(ii) Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol

Features: -
* Cisco proprietary
* Hybrid protocol
Link State
Distance Vector
* Multicast Updates using
Address 224.0.0.10
2
 * Support AS
* Support VLSM
* Automatic Route Summarization
* Unequal path cost load balancing
* Metric (32 bit composite)
Bandwidth
Delay
Load
Reliability
MTU
* Neighbor Recovery
* Partial updates
* Triggered updates
* Backup Route
* Multi Protocol Routing

(iii) EIGRP Protocols & Modules

(1) Protocol depended module
This module is used to perform multi protocol routing that is the router will
maintain 3 routing table for TCP/IP, IPX/SPX and AppleTalk.

IP Routing

TCP/IP

IPX Routing
IPX/SPX

Appletalk Routing

Appletalk

4
 (iv) Reliable Transport Protocol (Quiet Protocol)
RTP is used to exchange routing updates with neighbor routers. It will also maintain
neighbor relationship with the help of Hello packet. RTP has following features: -
(1) Multicast updates (224.0.0.10)
(2) Neighbor recovery
If neighbor stops responding to the Hello packets then RTP will send unicast Hello packet
for that neighbor.
(3) Partial updates
(4) No updates are sending if there is no topology change.

(v) Configuring EIGRP

Router(config)#router eigrp <as no>
Router(config-router)#network <net addr.>
Router(config-router)#network <net addr.>
Router(config-router)#exit

(vi) Advanced Configuration EIGRP

Configuring following options are same as configuring IGRP
(1) Bandwidth on Interfaces
(2) Neighbor
(3) Load balancing
Max path
Variance

(vii) Configuring EIGRP Metric

If we want our router to use additional metric then we can use following
command: -
Router(config)#Router eigrp <as no>
Router(config-router)#metric weights 0 <k1> <k2> <k3> <k4> <k5>

Type of service (default) 1 0 1 0 0

Router(config-router)#exit

Metric K Default value

Bandwidth K1 1
2
Load K2 0
Delay K3 1
Reliability K4 0
MTU K5 0
All routers exchanging update with each other must have same AS no. and same K value.

Router#sh ip eigrp topology

It shows topology database.

Router#sh ip eigrp neighbor

It shows neighbor table

Debug EIGRP
Router#debug ip eigrp

5.3.2 Autonomous system

Autonomous system is the group of contiguous routers and n/w, which will share their
routing information directly with each other. If all routers are in single domain and they
share their information directly with each other then the size of routing updates will
depend on the no. of n/w present in the Internetwork. Update for each n/w may take 150 –
200 bytes information.
For example: - if there are 1000 n/ws then size of update will be
200*1000 = 200000 bytes
The routing information is send periodically so it may consume a large amount of
bandwidth in our n/w.

4
 oleObject10

Fig. 5.7 Autonomous system

Protocols
Interior Routing Exterior Routing
RIP BGP
IGRP EXEIGRP
EIGRP
OSPF

5.3.3 Open Shortest Path First

Features: -
* Link State
* Open standard
* Multicast updates
224.0.0.5
224.0.0.6
* Support VLSM
* Support Area similar to AS
2
 * Manual Route Summarization
* Hierarchical model
* Metric
Bandwidth
*Equal path cost load balancing
* Support authentication
*Unlimited hop count
OSPF Terminology
(1) Hello packets
(2) LSA (Link State Advertisement)
(3) Neighbor
(4) Neighbor table
(5) Topology table (LSA database)
Router ID
Router ID is the highest IP address of router interfaces. This id is used as the
identity of the router. It maintains link state databases. The first preference for
selecting router ID is given to the Logical interfaces. If logical interface is not
present then highest IP of physical interface is selected as router id.
ROUTER ID

oleObject11

Fig. 5.8 Router ID

4
Area
Area is the group of routers & n/ws, which can share their routing information directly
with each other.
OSPF Area
Characteristics:

- Minimizes routing
table entries.
- Localizes impact of
a topology change
within an area.
- Detailed LSA
flooding stops at the
area boundary.
- Requires a
hierarchical network
design.
Fig. 5.9
Autonomous system
Adjacency
A router is called adjacency when neighbor relationship is established. We can also say
adjacency relationship is formed between the routers.

5.3.4 OSPF Hierarchical Model

4
 oleObject12

Fig. 5.10 OSPF Hierarchical Model

Area Router (Autonomous System Border Router – ASBR)

A router, which has all interfaces member of single area, is called area router.
Backbone Area
Area 0 is called backbone area. All other areas must connect to the backbone area for
communication.

Backbone Router
A router, which has all interfaces members of area 0, is called backbone router.

2
Area Border Router
A router, which connects an area with area 0, is called area border router.
5.3.5 LSA Flooding in OSPF
If there are multiple OSPF routers on multi access n/w then there will be excessive no. of
LSA generated by the router and they can choke bandwidth of the network.

oleObject13

Fig. 5.11 LSA Flooding in OSPF

This problem is solved with the help of electing a router as designated router and backup
designated router.

Designated Router
A router with highest RID (router id) will be designated router for a particular interface.
This router is responsible for receiving LSA from non-DR router and forward LSA to the
all DR router.

4
Backup Designated Router
This router will work as backup for the designated router. In BDR mode, it will receive
all information but do not forward this information to other non-DR router.

Commands to configure OSPF

Router#conf ter
Router(config)#router ospf <process no>
Router(config-router)#network <net address> <wild mask> area <area id>
Router(config-router)#network <net address> <wild mask> area <area id>
Router(config-router)#exit
Wild Mask – Complement of subnet mask
Example 255.255.0.0
0.0.255.255
255.255.255.255
- Subnet mask
Wild mask
255.255.255.255
- 255.255.192.0 subnet mask
0.0.63.255 wild mask

4
 oleObject14

Fig. 5.12 OSPF

R1
Router(config-router)#network 20.0.0.0 0.255.255.255 area 0
Router(config-router)#network 10.0.0.0 0.255.255.255 area 0

R2
Router(config-router)#network 20.0.0.0 0.255.255.255 area 0
Router(config-router)#network 30.0.0.0 0.255.255.255 area 1
Router(config-router)#network 40.0.0.0 0.255.255.255 area 1

R3
Router(config-router)#network 40.0.0.0 0.255.255.255 area 1
Router(config-router)#network 50.0.0.0 0.255.255.255 area 1
Command: -
Router(config)#interface loopback <no>

2
 Router(config-if)#ip address 200.100.100.1 255.255.255.0
Router(config-if)#no sh
Router(config-if)#exit

Command to display OSPF parameter

Router#show ip protocol

4
CHAPTER 6
Access Control List

6.1 ACL

ACL are the basic security feature that is required in any network to control the flow of
traffic. Most of time our network may have servers and clients for which traffic control is
required. We can also use ACL to classify the traffic. ACLs are used in features like QOS
(Quality of Service), Prioritize traffic and interesting traffic for ISDN.

6.2 Classification Access Control List: -

Types of ACL based on Protocol: -
(1) IP Access Control List
(2) IPX Access Control List
(3) AppleTalk Access Control List

Types of ACL based on Feature: -

(1) Standard ACL
(2) Extended ACL

Types of ACL based on Access mode: -

(1) Numbered ACL
(2) Named ACL

Types of ACL based on Order of rules: -

(1) Deny, permit
(2) Permit, deny

Types of ACL based on direction of implementation: -

(1) Inbound ACL
(2) Outbound ACL

2
 6.3 Flow chart of Inbound ACL
Is there The
Yes
No
AIsPacket
Is there
any itpacket
packed
Access
any is
listreceived
is
permit? isapplied
matching rule in
onACL
interface
from top-
in inbound
down order?
direction?
is passed
passed
dropped to to
RE
Routing
Engine

Fig. 6.1 Flow chart of Inbound ACL

6.4 IP Standard ACL (Numbered)

In Standard ACL, we are only able to specify source address for the filtering of packets.
The syntax to create IP standard ACL are: -
Router#conf ter
Router(config)#access-list <no> <permit|deny> <source>
Router(config)#exit
2
<source> Single pc host 192.168.10.5
192.168.10.5
192.168.10.5 0.0.0.0
N/w 200.100.100.0 0.0.0.255
Subnet 200.100.100.32 0.0.0.15
All any

4
Example: - 172.16.0.16 – 18 should not access Internet; rest of all other pc should access
Internet.

Fig. 6.2 Configuring ACL

Router#conf ter
Router(config)#access-list 30 deny 172.16.0.16
Router(config)#access-list 30 deny 172.16.0.17
Router(config)#access-list 30 deny 172.16.0.18
Router(config)#access-list 30 permit any
Router(config)#exit
Applying ACL on interface
Router#conf ter
Router(config)#interface <type> <no>
Router(config-if)#ip access-group <ACL no.> <in|out>
Router(config-if)#exit
Rule for applying ACL
Only one ACL can be applied on each interface, in each direction for each protocol.

6.5 IP Standard ACL (Named)

In Numbered ACL editing feature is not available that is we are not able to delete single
rule from the ACL. In Named ACL editing feature is available.
Router#config ter
Router(config)#ip access-list standard <name>
Router(config-std-nacl)#<deny|permit> <source>
2
 Router(config-std-nacl)#exit
Router#conf ter
Router(config)#ip access-list standard abc
Router(config-std-nacl)#deny 172.16.0.16
Router(config-std-nacl)#deny 172.16.0.17
Router(config-std-nacl)#deny 172.16.0.18
Router(config-std-nacl)#permit any
To modify the ACL
Router#conf ter
Router(config)#ip access-list standard abc
Router(config-std-nacl)#no deny 172.16.0.17
Router(config-std-nacl)#exit
To control Telnet access using ACL
If we want to control telnet with the help of ACL then we can create a standard ACL and
apply this ACL on vty port. The ACL that we will create for vty will be permit – deny
order.

Example: - suppose we want to allow telnet to our router from 192.168.10.5 &
192.168.10.30 pc.
Router#conf ter
Router(config)#access-list 50 permit 192.168.10.5
Router(config)#access-list 50 permit 192.168.10.30
Router(config)#line vty 0 4
Router(config-line)#access-class 50 in
Router(config)#exit

6.6 IP Extended ACL (Numbered)

Extended ACL are advanced ACL. ACL, which can control traffic flow on the basis of
five different parameters that are: -

(i) Source address

(ii) Destination address
(iii) Source port
(iv) Destination port
(v) Protocol (layer 3/layer 4) Router(config-std-nacl)#exit

4
To display ACL
Router#show access-lists or
Router#show access-list <no>
To display ACL applied on interface
Router#show ip interface
Router#show ip interface <type> <no>
Router#show ip interface Ethernet 0

2
Chapter 7

LAN Switching

7.1 LAN Switching

Ethernet switches are used in LAN to create Ethernet n/ws. Switches forward the traffic
on the basis of MAC address. Switches maintain a Mac Addressee table in which mac
addresses and port no’s used to perform switching decision. Working of bridge and
switch is similar to each other.
Classification of switches
Switches are classified according to the following criteria: -

Types of switches based on working

(1) Store & Forward
This switch receives entire frame then perform error checking and start
forwarding data to the destination.
(2) Cut through this switch starts forwarding frame as soon as first six bytes of the
frame are received.
(3) Fragment-free this switch receives 64 bytes of the frame, perform error
checking and then start forwarding data.
(4) Adaptive cut-through it changes its mode according the condition. If it sees
there are errors in many frames then it changes to Store & Forward mode from
Cut through or Fragment-free.

Types of switches based on management

(1) Manageable switches
(2) Non-Manageable switches
(3) Semi-Manageable switches

Types of switches based on OSI layer

(1) Layer 2 switches (only switching)
(2) Layer 3 switches (switching & routing)

Types of switches based on command mode (only in Cisco)

(1) IOS based
(2) CLI based
2
Type of switches based on hierarchical model
(1) Core layer switches
(2) Distribution layer switches
(3) Access layer switches

Qualities of switch
- No. of ports
- Speed of ports
- Type of media
- Switching or wire speed or throughput
Configuring IP and Gateway on switch
We can configure IP address on switch for web access or telnet IP address is required for
the administration of the switch. If we have to access switch from remote n/w then we
will configure default gateway in addition to IP address.
IP address is assigned to the logical interface of switch with following command:-
Switch(config)#interface vlan 1
Switch(config)#IP address <ip> <mask>
Switch(config)#no sh
Switch(config)#exit

7.2 VLAN (Virtual LAN)

VLAN provides Virtual Segmentation of Broadcast Domain in the network. The devices,
which are member of same Vlan, are able to communicate with each other. The devices
of different Vlan may communicate with each other with routing. So that different Vlan
devices will use different n/w addresses. Vlan provides following advantages: -

(1) Logical Segmentation of network

(2) Enhance network security

Creating port based Vlan

In port based Vlan, first we have to create a Vlan on manageable switch then we have to
add ports to the Vlan.
Commands to create Vlan
Switch#config ter
Switch(config)#vlan <no>
[name <word>]
Switch(config)#exit optional
2
 Or
Switch#vlan database
Switch(vlan)#vlan <no>
[name <word>]
Switch(vlan)#exit

Commands to configure ports for a Vlan

By default, all ports are member of single vlan that is Vlan1. We can change vlan
membership according to our requirement.
Switch#conf ter
Switch(config)#interface <type> <no>
Switch(config-if)#switchport access vlan <no>
Switch(config-if)#exit

Commands to configure multiple ports in a vlan

Switch#conf ter
Switch(config)#interface range <type> <slot/port no (space)–(space) port no>
Switch(config-if)#switchport access vlan <no>
Switch(config-if)#exit
Example: - Suppose we want to add interface fast Ethernet 0/10 to 0/18 in vlan5
Switch#config ter
Switch(config)#interface range fastethernet 0/10 – 18
Switch(config-if)#switchport access vlan 5
Switchconfig-if#exit

To Disable web access in switch

Switch#config ter
Switch(config)#no ip http server

To display mac address table

Switch#sh mac-address-table

To Display Vlan and port membership

Switch#sh vlan
VTP server
VTP server is a switch in which we can create, delete or modify Vlans. The server will
send periodic updates for VTP clients.

4
VTP client
On VTP client, we are not able to create, modify or delete Vlans. The client will receive
and forward vtp updates. The client will create same Vlans as defined in vtp update.
Commands
Switch#conf ter
Switch(config)#vtp domain <name>
Switch(config)#vtp password <word>
Switch(config)#vtp mode <server|client|transparent>
Switch(config)#exit
By default in cisco switches the VTP mode is set as VTP server with no domain
and no password.

To display VTP status

Switch#sh vtp status

2
 CONCLUSION
CCNA training has made me learn 21st century skills such as complex problem solving
and critical thinking.
To conclude one can say that CCNA training was really beneficial for me and making
report for such a great training is not being written just for the sake of writing. I am
crisply stating the main take away points from my work.
I feel that CCNA Security Course help to meet the growing demand for network security
skills. It provides the blended curriculum which provides a hands-on and carrier oriented
introduction to come security concepts. The course is highly beneficial, as I feel; it helps
students differentiate themselves in the marketplace. Develop students for network
security carrier opportunities. It enhances specialized security skills.

2
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Course book on CCNA by Todd Lammle.

2 www.cisco.com
3 Daily Diary