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Introduction
Fig. 1 Extent of flood damage in Ishikari River in 1981; (inset) Flood blocking road traffic somewhere
in Israel.
Various factors can produce floods, namely, heavy precipitation, strong winds,
unusual high tides, tsunamis, and the failure of water-retaining structures such as dams and
retention ponds. Some rivers also experiences periodic flooding such as the Nile River in
Egypt and the Mekong River in China.
Aside from damages on properties and the loss of lives, flooding can also bring about
environmentally unsafe occurences such as erosion of the soil due to intense rainfall on a
small area or on a supersaturated soil. Erosion of oil can become a precursor of sedimentation
in rivers and other bodies of water downstream. Flooding can also interfere with traffic and
cause structural damages on bridges, sewer lines and bank lines.
(a) (b)
Fig. 2 (a) Flood control structure model (b) Bibai Dam, a gateless system of improved dam construction for
efficient management.
Dams have been used for many centuries to serve as water reservoirs for irrigation
and other domestic uses, as well as to be a source of hydroelectric power. It was only recently
that it was used as a flood control device. Meanwhile, constructing a coordinated group of
dams and reservoirs on the headwaters of the streams that lead into the main rivers is an
effective method of controlling floodwaters, since water can be stocked up during periods of
heavy runoff and released gradually during dry seasons or droughts.
There are also dams that are engineered to provide levels of protection at par with
those provided by permanent flood defense methods but have the distinct advantage of being
removable when not required. Such methods greatly contribute in preserving the integrity of
the landscape and architecture of the area and can be used between existing structures such as
roadways, subways, embankment promenades, industrial complexes and shopping precincts.
This type of dam is designed to be completely self-supporting over almost any distance with
specifications for virtually any height of floodwater.
One practical use of a dam as flood water control facility can be seen on the Humber
River in Toronto where a weir was built to prevent a repeat of the flooding caused by
Hurricane Hazel in 1954 which destroyed nearly two fifths of Raymore Drive.
Another way of controlling flood is improving the channel or river by increasing the
discharging capacity of the stream, resulting in the decrease of the duration and height of the
flood. By increasing the cross-sectional area of the channel or by increasing the velocity of
the water flowing in the stream, the flood carrying capacity of the said river can be
significantly increased. In this aspect of flood control, the fact that the hydraulic mean radius
of a channel increases with increasing depth, and thus increase the velocity, makes a deeper
channel more preferable than a wider channel.
From the design of open channels one knows that the channel velocity is affected by
hydraulic mean radius, slope of river bed and the roughness of the bed and sides. The
following are some of the recommended measures by Tushar (2007, 2008) in order to reduce
roughness and therefore increase water velocity:
Another method of flood control is the construction of dikes, levees or floodwalls along
the riverbanks.
Fig. 4 Adjoining seawall protecting a line of residences; (inset) Overtopping waves attacking national highway
No. 36 (Shiraoi Bypass).
Levees are economical, direct and immediate flood control method similar to earth
dams in the sense that these are earthen embankments which are raised parallel to the river
either on either sides or one side of the river. These are constructed beyond the meander belt
of a river and prevent a river from altering its course. One demonstration of the effects of the
failure of levees is exemplified when the levees and flood gates constructed in the New
Orleans Metropolitan Area in the United States, which has 35 percent of its area located
below sea level, suffered from numerous breaks during the destruction left in the wake of
Hurricane Katrina. The disaster left half of the Metropolitan Area, including the city proper
and the eastern section of the Metropolitan area, in flood ranging from a few inches to twenty
feet in coastal communities.
Dikes can also be constructed as another method of flood control. Dikes help prevent
damage due to floodwater and can lower the risk of having floods relative to other methods.
Usually, dikes are used in conjunction with other flood control systems in order to offset the
risk of having the dike collapse due to floodwater.
On of the classic examples of flood prevention through the use of dikes, and also the
largest and most elaborate flood defenses, can be found in the Netherlands. Dubbed as the
Delta Works or Delta Plan, with the Oosterschelde dam as its centerpiece project, it has one
of the world’s largest dams, the Afsluitdijk (which closed in 1932) located in the north of the
country. Constructed in 1958 and completed in 1985, the project consists of a series of giant
dams linking Rhine, Maas and Schelde river deltas. The structures in the said project were
built in response to the North Sea flood of 1953, in the southwestern part of the Netherlands.
A remarkable feet of the Delta Plan is the construction of huge storm-surge barrier 9
km (5.6 mi) long. This structure is lowered only when a sea flood is anticipated; otherwise,
tides move freely through the passage.
Flood barriers with variable height can also provide total flood protection in buildings
while preserving the aesthetic integrity of the building. Flood barriers are used to shelter
house doors, windows, driveways and garages in business premises such as shops and stores,
homes and retail outlets.
Dredging as well as the setting up of pumping stations located at the main exits of the
drainage pipes behind embankments is also one means to control floodwater levels,
especially in agricultural lands. Drainage pipes are used to pump off rainwater that cannot be
drained off by gravitational force within a specific region or area.
Drainage is important for sustainable agriculture. It is imperative that an efficient
drainage system be coupled with the existing irrigation to avoid negative impacts on
agricultural production and soil caused by floods. The following are the functions of a good
drainage system: (1) it protects the resource base for food production; (2) it sustains and
increases yields and rural incomes; (3) it protects irrigation investment; (4) drainage
infrastructure serves rural and urban residents as well as industry; (5) it protects human lives
and assets against flooding and high groundwater levels; and (6) drainage services improve
health conditions.
Case Study: Pampanga Delta Development Project and Flood Control Component
The lower basin of the Pampanga River is one of the areas in the province which
experiences frequent flooding. The Pampanga Delta, a swampy lowland area at the mouth of
the Pampanga River, is visited frequently by typhoons which cause flood, resulting in
considerable damage to the farming and fishing industry of the region, aside from loss in
public and private property. Although flood control projects has already been done in the
river since 1939, the development potential of the lower basin particularly in aquaculture
necessitates serious attention being devoted to flood control systems, especially as the
Pampanga River has limited flow capacity because of the 0-9 m above sea level elevation of
the delta.
The objective of the project was to “enhance flood controls on the lower basins of the
Pampanga River in Central Luzon, an area prone to perennial flooding, by implementing
river improvement works, thereby contributing to improvements in living standard and to
regional economic growth. The project covered an area of 100 km 2 within the Pampanga
Delta and benefited approximately 70,000 people.
The project was an offshoot of the five-year Medium-Term Philippines Development
Plan conducted in 1988 to 1992 by the Department of Public Works and Highways (DPWH).
The Medium-Term Philippines Development Plan stipulated that priority attention should be
given to mitigating natural disasters. Phase 1 of the Pampanga Delta Development Project
(PDDP: flood control component) was given a high priority undertaking involving
implementation of river improvement works corresponding to a 20-year return period flood
probability.
The five-year Medium-Term Philippines Development Plan for 2004 to2010 in the
same way gives priority attention to mitigating the effects of natural calamities and retained
the priority status for improvements of Pampanga River’s infrastructure and water resources
management.
Various problems, however, were encountered during the fulfillment of the project
plan. Among these is the shortening of the dike construction from the original 22.7 lm to only
15.4 km due to high bid prices coupled with budgetary constraints.
The DPWH also devised resettlement plans for local residents near the river and
started providing them with project information through local government officials. Some of
the residents, however, opposed to resettlement thereby reducing the length of dikes further
reduced to 14.2km (right bank) and 13.2km (left bank). Dredging and related construction
works were also reduced along with this decision.
The project was also delayed for 72 months and took approximately 1.9 times of the
planned project period. The delays occurred during the construction phase and were
attributable to budgetary constraints as a suspension of works from October 1993 to April
1995 occurred. Another work suspension from December 1999 and extended for over a year
resulted from difficult negotiations with residents of Calumpit on land acquisition, as well as
a dredger accident caused by fire and leakage.
Prior to the completion of the project, the beneficiary areas had suffered from
flooding with an average depth exceeding 100 cm. Resident survey of 150 people shows that
all respondents living on the left bank stated that their property has been inundated since
project completion, while this held true for 40 percent of respondents living on the right bank.
The following are the benefits that resulted from the construction of flood control facilities in
the Pampanga River:
1.) Changes in awareness of flood damage among local residents
2.) Results from the beneficiary (residents) survey show that 69 percent of residents
living on the left bank and 78 percent of residents living on the right bank have
recognized a decrease in the frequency of flood as compared to pre-project levels.
3.) Results from the beneficiary (residents) survey show that 56 percent of residents
living on the left bank have experienced less serious flooding damage as
compared to pre-project levels. By contrast, 77 percent of residents living on the
right bank, including 55 percent who stated that they had experience no damage or
considerable decrease since the completion of the project, stated that the extent of
damage has decreased as compared to pre-project levels.
4.) According to results from the beneficiary (residents) survey, the majority of
respondents living on the right bank (80 percent) where damage due to the
incursion of river waters has decreased are worried about flooding, but say that
they have fewer concerns since the project was completed, while 75 percent of
respondents living on the left bank stated that their concerns have abated, despite
the continued occurrence of flooding.
5.) Results from the beneficiary (residents) survey show that many respondents living
on the right bank (83 percent) were aware of vulnerability to flooding as a risk
to/constraint on their ability to continue pursuing livelihood activities. Since the
completion of the project, 89 percent of these residents stated that this risk has
been reduced. On the other hand, 91 percent of respondents living on the left bank
stated that they were cognizant of this risk, with 86 percent recognizing a post-
project decrease (however, 51 percent stated that there had been only a marginal
reduction in sflood-related risk).
6.) In results from the beneficiary (residents) survey, the improvement in sanitary
conditions over pre-project levels had been felt by 79 percent of respondents
living on the right bank, with 59 percent considering this improvement impact of
the project. Moreover, 46 percent of the residents who recognized improvement in
sanitation had felt a substantial reduction in the incidence of waterborne diseases.
By contrast, 63 percent of respondents from the left bank stated that there had an
improvement in sanitary conditions, with 17 percent attributing this to the project.
7.) On access to cities and municipalities, which has a substantial effect on livelihood,
81 percent of respondents living on the right bank stated that there has been an
improvement as the result of the development of dike roads (of which 57 percent
cited a major improvement). On the left bank, 71 percent of residents stated that
access had improved (with 21 percent citing a major improvement). Residents on
the left bank urged the early completion of dike for more convenient
transportation in the region, pointing out that the dike road developed by the
project does not connect with any public highways (because of the shorter length
of dike).
References
Streeter and Wylie, Fluid Mechanics, Seventh edition, McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1979
Vennard and Street, Elementary Fluid Mechanics, Sixth edition, John Wiley & Sons, 1982
Chanson, Hubert, The Hydraulics of Open Channel Flow: An Introduction, Second edition,
Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann, 2004
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Earth and Rock-fill Dams - General Design and Construction
Considerations (Engineering manual), 1994
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flood_control
http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761561222_2/Flood_Control.html
http://www.mlit.go.jp/hkb/river_e.html
http://www.articlesbase.com/college-and-university-articles/an-article-on-flood-control-
138104.html
http://www.neda5.net/updated_rdp/chapter22_irrigation.htm