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HERODOTUS
IBRARY OF '^^ «^ ^
UNIVERSAL HISTORY
•irtrk-tr
CONTAINING A RECORD OF THE
HUMAN RACE FROM THE EARLIEST
HISTORICAL PERIOD TO THE PRES-
ENT TIME ^ ^ H ^ H ^
EMBRACING A GENERAL SURVEY
OF THE PROGRESS OF MANKIND IN
NATIONAL AND SOCIAL LIFE, CIVIL
GOVERNMENT, RELIGION, LITERA-
TURE, SCIENCE AND ART H ^ ^
COMPLETE IN EIGHT (VOLUMES
Com'piled, Arrangfd
W
and Wrillen by
IQDAPI
lOIVrALL ^/VIITH
OIVll 111 C~^
V^ \ P
A P?\ L
L /A 1
Author of " ILLUSTRATED UNIVERSAL HISTORY,'
and " COMPLEl E HISTORICAL COMPENDIUM.'
REVIEWED, VERIFIED AND ENDORSED BY THE PROFESSORS OF

HISTORY IN FIVE AMERICAN UNM'ERSITIES, WITH AN INTRO-
DUCTION ON THE EDUCATIONAL VALUE OF HISTORICAL STUDY
BY
MOSES COIT TYLER, A.M., L.H.D.

Professor of Amkkican History ix Cornell ITnivhrsitv.
•NOT TO KNOW WHAT HAPPENED BEFORE WE WERE BORN IS

TO REMAIN ALWAYS A CHILD; FOR WHAT WERE THE LIFE
OF MAN DID WE NOT COMBINE PRESENT EVENTS WITH THE
RECOLLECTIONS OF PAST AGES I"— CICEKO.
Volujue I. — Ancient Orie7ital Nations

Illustratei* With Maps, Portraits anp Views
NEW YORK
R. S. PEALE J. A. HILL
1897
Entered according to Act of Congress in the \'ear 1889,
By ISRAEL SMITH CLARE,

in the office of the Librarian of Congress at Washington.
Entered according to Act of Congress in the year 1893,

in the office of tlie Librarian of Congress at Washington.


SfacR
Annex
5015660
THE EDUCATIONAL VALUE

OI'" THE
STUDY OV HLSTORY.
BY MOSES COIT TYLER,
Professor of American Historj- in Cornell University.
JN" order to do justice to the claims of historical study, it can never be

necessary for us to any other branch of learning.
depreciate those of
Properh- considered, there is no such thing as rivalrj^ between difTerent
spheres of knowledge only emulation, a noble and helpful emulation.
;
All real knowledge is good, being in one way or another a source of

power and happiness. The various realms of things known or knowable are but
co-equal and fraternal states in that vast confederation which we may call the republic
of science. No single member of this confederation is strong, none is sufficient,
standing alone. Each is necessary to all, all are necessary to each.
While, therefore, no one study may whole of what is valuable,
assert for itself the
every study doubtless has its own and this value, as in the case of a
special value ;
study like history, it may sometimes be worth our while to place clearly before our
minds, modestly, tolerantly, and for the rightful purpose of forming a just idea of the
particular good we ought to expect and to work for, in our pursuit of it.
I.
Probably that use of the study of history which will first occur to most persons,
is the one suggested by the common conception of history as an enonnous body of
facts about the past, —

the effort to know and retain a considerable ninnber of the.se
facts being regarded as a fine gymnastic exercise for the faculty of memory. It is,
indeed, quite astonishing how great a multitude of historical details dates, names, —
and other preci.se items about persons, cities, nations, armies, political parties, institu-
tions, and so forth —
-almost any person is capable of carrying in his memory, if only
he patiently sto.es and trains it in that way. Moreover, no one will dt-ny that there
is much convenience and delight in the possession of a memory like that, a memory —
enriched with precise and various historical facts, all labeled, and pigeon-holed, and
ready for .service at a moment's call. Certainly, a brilliant accomplishment this for
conversation a weapon of victory for public speech
; in hours of loneliness and suffer-
;
ing, a great solace, — which may be seen in the ca.ses of certain famous men
all of
in our country who had such a memory, as John Quincy Adams, Theodore Parker,
Charles Sumner, (^.arfield.
On the other hand, this particular u.se of historical study is somewhat discredited
among persons of mature .sense, whenever it is associated with either of two practical
mistakes, to which, indeed, young students of history are liable. One of these mis-
takes arises from a lack of discrimination as to the relative value of different historical
(iii)
Mmmm
iv PREFACE.
facts ; the other from the notion that the work of memorizing historical facts is the
principal part of historical study. can hardly be wise to make the memorj- serve
It
the purpose of an old fashioned garret in a country house, a receptacle for all —
sorts of odds and ends of property, precious and worthless. Surely, .such indiscrim-
inate memorizing must be a waste of energy, and the perversion of a noble faculty.
What is the use of making an effort to remember what is useless? Besides, however
valuable it may be to store the memory with well selected dates and names and other
historical items, this at best belongs among the lower and more mechanic u.ses of
history.
With these qualifications upon the primary claim put forward on behalf of his-
torical study, we may now pass on to consider some claims which point to mental
and even spiritual discipline of a far higher and more complex kind.
II.
One of these higher benefits may be described as that of training the critical
faculty, through the effort to test the evidence for and against particular historical
facts, or what are alleged to be such. Perhaps the very hardest thing to get at in
this world is the truth, the very truth, especially the very truth concerning the past
transactions of the human race. From this point of view, it is plain that the study
of history is something more than the pas,sive reading of certain finished and fasci-
nating books, like Livy, for in.stance, or Gibbon, or Thiers, or Macaulay, or Pres-
cott, or Parkman it is indeed, the resolute and attentive application of the whole
;
—
mind to an innnen.se and complicated subject, a process which cannot be carried on
very long without our running up again.st questions of disputed fact. To deal with
these questions in a manner to satisfy a truth-loving mind, it will be necessary for
us to look keenly into problems of conflicting testimony, of personal character, of
the validity of documents, of the meaning of words, of the right method of con-
struction. I am not now speaking of the labors of professional historians, the intri-
cacy and arduon.sne.ss of which are admitted to be great, just in proportion to the
quality of their results. Even pupils at school, however, and college students, and
the members of historical clubs, and .solitary readers of hi.story, if they would
pursue this study in the wisest and most fruitful way, must all l)e, to .some extent,
historical critics mu.st be alert, inqui.sitive, cautious, never credulous, always intol-
;
erant of .slovenly ways and as far as pos.sible, they must try the text they are
;
reading by earlier te.Kts, and especially by those nearest to the times that happen to
be under consideration.
Who is likely to of such a method of study?
overstate the educational value
On the moral side, how must be
great It is
it produced and is nourished by a
!
conviction of the incomparable worth and sacredness of mere truth in it.self, as against
all baser stuff in the form of half-truth, guess work, fables, or lies, and this convic-
tion is sure to grow and to strengthen under such honest toil in its service. On the
purely mental side, how great nrust be the effect of such study, — since it calls forth
and taxes powers so important as those of analysis and comparison, nicety of verbal
sense, literary insight, logical acuteness and precision, .soundness of judgment, and
saving common sen.se.
III.
In the next place, it should not be overlooked that the mental and moral dis-
cipline involved in the .study of history, is of a kind even broader and more complex
than that retjuired for the ascertaiiunent and verification of particular historical facts.
I'REFA CE. V
Tluit alone, aswe have just seen, is a great task, callinu;- for fine and strong powers
of mind it is a task that can perhaps never be perfectly done by any finite being
;
;
and yet, even that, when it is done as well as we can do it, is not the end of his-
torical study, but rather the beginning of it. For, after you liave verified and
defined your facts, comes the still more subtle process of discovering their causal
relations, — the great play of influence among human events, the interdependence of
events, the action and reaction and counteraction of events. Of course, to do this
sort of work hastily, recklessly, with that tone of easy infallibility which some his-
torical students have when passing judgment upon groups of facts in relation to the
past, is probably not very hard, —
at least for persons who can do all; but to one
it
who realizes the worthlessness, the misleading character, of all mere assumption in
statements professing to be historical, and how hard it must be even approximately
to discover the actual relations of events, it will be obvious that, aside from the in-
trinsic value of such generalizations, is the disciplinary value of the mental and
spiritual process of arriving at them. Certainly, to generalize wisely from sound his-
torical data, is a great exercise of the philo.sophic powers ; it is a test and a devel-
opment of broad-mindedness, lucidity, and vigor in reasoning.
IV.
Another benefit from historical study will occur to us, when we reflect that such
study compels one to investigate and to reason within the realm, not of the exact and
of the ab.solute, but of the approximate and the probable.
No doubt there is a peculiar educational value in the study of those sciences in
which the data are precise or absolute in which the conclusions are so, likewise.
;
Hi.story, however, deals with data of a different kind, with mixed deeds, and mixed —
motives, and traits of character, and experiences of human beings looking back into ;
the past, it draws some general conclusions from these data and applies them to the pres-
ent and the future it aims to formulate some general principles relating to the collective
;
human life of this world, to government, to the working of the social organism. But
whatever history requires of its student or does for him, it keeps him mostly within
the sphere of the approximate and the probable. You cannot weigh a human motive
or impulse as precisely as you can a chemical substance. In much of >our work as
an hi.storian, you have to balance one probabilitj' against another to estimate the .
operation of spiritual forces, to with the inscrutable mysteries of personal

deal
character. In so many parts of your work, you are obliged to reason with caution^
.slowly, circumspectly, not dogmatically and to realize the limitations upon the
;
definitene-ss and certainty of many of your conclusions.

Well, is there any special value in such training as this? It seems to me that,
in a rather peculiar sense, this gives the ver>' training required for real life ; since in real
life we are in the sphere not of the absolute, but of the relative, and we luue to deal
with the very problems which

has to deal with,
the human character,
historian —
human feelings and motives, probabilities, and other data more or less indefinite. I
would say no word to imply any disparagement of the educational value of mathematics,
for example. It has its value, unrivaled in its kind but he who .should apply the ;
methods which come up between man and

of mathematical reasoning to the questions
man in real life, would often make most absurd mistakes and go far astray. Histor-
ical study, on the other hand, is a study of human nature on a broad field, and for
all ages it is exactly the sort of training which helps us to know persons and affairs
;
in real life, the great types of human character, the limited worth of testimony, the
play of pa.ssion in interfering with reasonable and prudent conduct, the probable
vi PREFACE.
consequences of any particular set of outward conditions. Histors- is the great teacher
of human nature by means of objectlessons drawn from the whole recorded life
of human nature.
V.
This brings us naturally to the fifth benefit to be got from historical study, —
the cultivation of fair-mindedness as a habit, and the suppression of intellectual
partisanship with respect to all subjects whatsoever.
No
one can pursue this study in the right waj-, or with any real success, who
does not learn to acquire the mental attitude, not of an attorney standing for one
side of the question, but of a judge standing for what is true on both sides. The
historical spirit is the judicial spirit. However vast may be his learning, however
splendid his style, whoever writes history in a partisan fashion, spoils to that extent
the genuineness and value of his work, as any one may observe by the brilliant
examples of Macaulay and Froude.
We must not, we cannot, tolerate in history, what we are obliged to tolerate in
contemporary comment. Such comment is almost inevitabh- colored by contemporary
passion, is biased this way and that through contemporary prejudice, through the
stormy likes and dislikes that are irrepressible among men actually engaged in the
conflicts of their own time, and having great personal interests at stake. But when
it comes to history, we demand something different. History is the comment made
afterward, when the fight is over and ended and the combatants are cold in their
graves and the duty of liLstory is to hear all .sides and all persons, to weigh all
;
pleas, to sift all testimonies, to be fair to all. If, with regard to living controvensies,
this attitude of fairness between opposite persons and opinions is almost impossible to
attain, it is by no means easy of attaiimient even with regard to dead controversies ;
it is, for every topic in history, one of the la.st and choicest results of .spiritual
discipline.
I do not know any other study more likely than the study of history, to help
us to acquire intellectual poise, justice in thought and word, freedom from the warp
of undue sympathy or antipathy, the judicial habit. And this, after all, is a quality
of great influence and esteem in this world, overridden, as it is, with partisanship of
all sorts, and yet conscious that there is a mental attitude nobler and wiser.
VI.
For the .sixth benefit to be got from historical study, I would call attention to
its incomparable u.se in enlarging one's mental horizon.

He who does not know history must have a very limited mental horizon —a hor-
izon as wide only as the time during which he has lived. The whole vast realm of
the past is to him as if he knows only what has been done and
it never had been :
enjoyed and suffered by .since he

the human
arrived here. Even in the
family
case of the oldest man, what is that by comparison with all the years, decades,
centuries, epochs, which have rolled over this planet before the sound of his footstep
was heard upon it, and which have been crowded with stupendous tran.sactions that
he is totally ignorant of except by .some .sort of hearsay, by broken fragments of
knowledge picked up from casual tradition ?
The man who knows only the time immediately around him, is in a mental con-
dition somewhat like that of the man who knows only the place immediately around
him —
the man who has never traveled, who knows nothing of other neighborhoods
and other peoples. Such a man must have a very false notion of himself and others;
PREFACE. vii
his niiiul can hardly fail to be full of local prejudice and conceit he lacks the nec-
:
essan,- standards by which to estimate his own size and quality and that of the men
and things around him. Such a man is necessarily provincial, parochial ; his intellect
is the intellect of a villager. So, the man who knows but little of human
time, ex-
cept what has elapsed since his own birth, is provincial-minded with respect to vast
tracts of human experience ; his mental horizon is necessarily limited to the petty cir-
cle of own life in the world. To such a man history comes
time which surrounds his
with its power to enlarge his own horizon bj- annexing to it the horizons of all the
generations before him. History is for time, what travel is for space it is an intel- ;
lectual journey acro.ss oceans and continents of duration, and of ages both remote
from our own and vitalized and enriched by stupendous events. There is an old aph-
orism to the effect "ignorance of what has been done in the world before he
tliat,
came into it, leaves a man

alwaj^s a child." This, perhaps, is but a far-away echo of
the saying of the Chinese moralist, Lao-Tse "Man is an infant born at midnight,
:
who, when he sees the sun rise, thinks that yesterday has never existed." To him who
has not studiously opened those books which tell of .the world's yesterday, it is as
though the world had never had a yesterday —
as though the world had begun only
when he began.
There have been many attempts to define the es.sential difference between
man and the other animals known to us here. What is to be thought of this defi-
nition ? —
Man is the history-knowdng animal the only animal that can know the
pa.st. Therefore, our conscious and cultivated relation to the past, through historical
stud}^ develops in us as human beings that very attribute which distinguishes us
from those animals that are called the brutes.
VII.
Perhaps the most impressive consideration touching the benefit to be derived

from historical studj-, is the one which still remains to be mentioned; historj' enables
each generation of men to profit, if they will, by the experience of their predeces-
sors, — especially to avoid their costliest and most painful mi.stakes. Without historv%
nearly all the practical wi.sdom of mankind, gained through iiniumerable blunders and
mishaps, would be lost, and the same blunders and the same mishaps would have to
be repeated and to be suffered over and over again on the part of successive genera-
tions ignorant of what had happened before.
Let us suppo.se that the human family should now agree that history is an un-
desirable branch of knowledge that it should no longer be cultivated or taught
; that ;
all the books of history which have been written, from Herodotus down to Ranke and
Stubbs and George Bancroft, should be burned up, and that no more should be
written that even the documentary sources of historj^ should be destroyed.
; What
would be the effect of this gigantic piece of Vandalism ? Of cour,se, before many
j'ears, the men who now know something of the past would be dead, and would have
left no succes.sors to their knowledge and, gradually, nearly all remembrance of for-
;
mer times and of the men and the deeds and the sufferings of former times, of their
mi.stakes and triumphs and failures, would be blotted out. Nearly all the le.s.sons
taught by the experience of the human family would be forgotten. Consequentlj', to
a large extent, progress would cease; each generation, knowing but little of what
men had learned before themselves, would have to begin nearly all experiments over
again and each generation would be liable to keep on repeating the errors of its
;
predecessors, treading over again the same round of blundering attempts and
viii PREFACE.
disastrous failures. Life itself, or what is would still be a laborious
called civilization,
march, would be a march
but it in a treadmill, wherein the feet
seem to move, and
steps seem to be taken, but no advance is made.
Whenever one is inclined to rate very low the utility of historical study, it may
be well for him to recall the fact that all human progress depends on each generation
starting with the advantage of the wisdom gained and accumulated by all previous
experience, and that history is the temple in which the records of this experience are
stored. Burn down the temple, and you thereby destroy some of the things that are
essential to further progress.
People who do not know history, are apt to be presumptuous and rash in their
political methods. They go on advocating errors that were exploded ages ago ; try-
ing political or indu.strial or financial experiments that have been tried and found
futile and disastrous times without number taking false steps which their ancestors
;
had taken before them and had found to be steps toward folly and misery mak- ;
ing civilization itself to seem no longer a stream of onward progress, but a mere
whirlpool, its currents spinning with men and institutions round and round in a
fierce motion, until at la.st they all go down together into some central gulf of
darkness.
One of the greatest and most inspiring teachers of history known among us dur-
ing the past forty years has for his book-plate this motto: " Disci pulus est prioris
posterior dies." "To-day is the pupil of yesterday." How much would To-day
know, if it were not the pupil of Yesterday? through what we call
But it is chiefly
history, that Yesterday is able to comminiicate to its pupil the wi.sdom which it has
hoarded. Moreover, it is because To-day leams wisdom from Yesterday, that it is
able to teach wisdom to To-morrow and it is, also, by the same means. There are
;
some people who have so intense an interest in the immediate and tangible facts of
life, that they are accustomed to sneer at the past, —
calling it the dead past. After
all, however, the pa.st is not dead, except to persons who are ignorant of it, or who
are themselves dead in their own thinking concerning it. Through the power of
history, the past does not die it is gifted with a perpetual life, and
; it reaches for-
ward with a strong and helpful hand into the times that now are and are to be.
I remember that once a student of mine, in a thesis which he was reading to
me, used a pretty figure about history. "History," said he, "is only a stern light
on the ship in which we are making life's voyage." I asked him to consider
whether he was quite right in describing history as " only a stern light." Of course,
even a stern light is something, but it is not all that our life-ship needs. How
about a bow light, also, —
a light that may throw some gleam acro.ss the waters into
which we are advancing? So, even though it might hurt the neatness of the image,
we should probably improve its accuracy, by saying, that history is not only a stem
light, but a bow light as well it flashes its rays far back over those rough waters
:
through which our ship has been ploughing, and it throws at least some illumination
forward upon the deeps of time toward which we are about to sail.
vin.
Upon the whole, then, it may fairly be said, that by withdrawing now and then
from the present, ahd by making tours of studious obsen-ation into the pa.st, we
greatly enlarge our knowledge and our capacity for knowledge we teach ourselves ;
toleration, and even sympathy, for types of per.son and .society, for opinions and for
courses of action, quite unlike our own we become more truly catholic and cosmo-
;
PREFACE. ix
politan ; we become more modest, too, by realizing that inifj^hty persons and mighty
peoples have lived in this world and it ages before we came into it
left we learn to ;
understand t)etter our own place in the general movement of time and events, and
how to adjust ourselves to both for the greater service, for the more perfect happi-
ness, of ourselves and others.
If, indeed, this he a just account of the matter, perhaps we .shall not deem it an
extravagance to say, as was lately .said by a sober-minded English critic, that "his-
tory is the central .study among human studies, capable of illuminating and enrich-
ing all the rest."
IX.
I should be .sorry to come to the end of this discu.ssiou without a word as to
the importance of arranging for the study of history upon a wi.se plan, that is,
upon a generous and a comprehensive plan. Perhaps no other study are pettiness
in
and provincialism more incongruous than in this stud}'.Not even patrioti.sni is a
sufficient justification for limiting our historical readings to our own countrj-. We
Americans have a right to be glad and proud o\'er the strong enthusiasm for the
nation which now fills even.- part of il. One manifestation of this robust patriotic
ardor is to be .seen in the extraordinary interest now felt among us in American his-
tory. Never before has American history been so much written, or so well written;
never before has it been so eagerly studied. This is well. Histor^^ like charity,
should begin at home; but neither charity- nor history should end there. Our pres-
ent danger magnifying the importance of the history of our own country,
is of so
as to forget the importance of attending to that of other countries al.so. The present
popularity of American hi.storj- is really a thing of recent growth. I can well re-
member when it was difficult to convince Americans that American history was
not only important but fascinating, —
even by comparison with the history- of mod-
ern Europe, or of ancient and mediaeval times. Apparenth', this truth has l)een
at last so well learned b}' us, that another truth is now liable to be forgotten,
namely, the intellectual harm of a too exclusive stud}- of American history.
Even American history cannot be properly learned, if learned altogether apart from
other history. "Without clear notions of general history," said Edward Freeman,
"the history of particular countries can never be rightly understood." To no other
country, perhaps, is this remark more applicable than it is to our own. Why our
ancestors came to America, and how, and what ideas they brought with them, and
what sorts of people they were, and what they did here, and how they fared in the
land, and how they were interfered with and helped or hindered by the peoples of
western Europe from among whom they had come, and how at last they threw off
such interference, and how they have got on since then with themselves and with
the rest of the world, and how they stand to-day as regards all these matters, are, —
indeed, the great topics of what we call American history, but they are likewise
topics of European history as well. We commonh- think of American history as be-
ginning with the year 1492. These four centuries of American historj- cannot be
truly known by any one who does not also know something really considerable of
the histories of Spain. France, Holland, and England, during the same time. For us
to stud}' American history as a detached and an i.solated experience, is to study it
unwisely, —
.so unwisely, in fact, as to insure our failure in grasping its real mean-
ing.
If, however, we caiuiot understand American histor>' without knowing modem
European histor>-. neither can we know modern European history without a fair
X PREFACE.
knowledge of the histoty of Europe during the Middle Ages and in the ancient
times. But how shall we know the history of mediaeval and of ancient Europe, un-
less we become acquainted with the remoter races from whom these earliest
Europeans were derived, and the countries from which they came, and the ideas they
broi:ght with them thence, and their subsequent relations therewith ?
Thus, we reach the broad principle that, as there is a certain unity in the life
of the human family, so there is a certain unity in its history also; that uo nation
has evêr lived without an original kinship with other nations, without more or less
contact with other nations, without having its destinies interfered with and in-
fluenced b\- other nations. Consequently, no part of history can be truly known
without knowing something of all parts. The ideal of the historical student .should
be to know the life of his own country as a constituent part of the general life of
mankind. Thus, the stud}' of American history mu.st be preceded or at least accom-
panied by the study of Universal History.
Uio^-^ (jtrU- c^^^

—— —
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
INTRODUCTION.
History, Its Departments, Aids and Divisions. pean Civilization. — Forms of Government. — Varie-
Its Sources. — —
Races of Mankind. Origin of Civili- ties of Religion. — Ethnological Table of the Cau-
zation.— Historical Nations. —
Oriental and Euro- casion Race 25-34.
Part I.— Ancient History—Vol. I.
CHAPTER I.— ANCIENT EGYPT.

SECTION I. of Neko. — Commerce. — Circumna\ngation of Af-
—Neko Defeated by Nebuchadnezzar of Baby-
rica.
The Country and People, 41-42 lon at Carchemish. — Reign of Uahabra. — Egypt
Egj'ptian Ci\nlization and History the Oldest. Tributary to Babylon. — Amasis Throws off the
Fertility of the Nile Valley and Cause. —
Origin and Babylonian Supremacy. — Defeat of Psammenitus
—
Charadter of the Ancient Egyptians. Geographi- at Pelnsium and Persian Conquest of Egypt.
cal Divisions of Ancient Egypt. —
Chief Cities. Table of Kings.
SECTION II. SECTION IV.

Sources of Egyptian History 43-44 Egyptian Civilization 63-89
—
Ancient Eg>-ptian Myths. Historical Writings —
Origin of the Egj^ptians. Their Physical Char-
of Herodotus,' Diodorus, Eratosthenes, Apollodo- adleristics. —
Egj'ptian Tribes. —
Intelledlual and
rus, and Manetho. —Modern Discovery of the Ro- Moral Qualities of the Egyptians. Government. —
setta Stone and Deciphering of Hieroglyphic In- —
The King. His Sacred Charadter. His Rights and —
scriptions. —Difference Among Modem Egyptolo- Duties Stridlly Prescribed by the Sacred Books.
Castes.— Priests.— Their Mode of Life.—Their As-
gists as to the Antiquity of Egypt.
—
cendency over the People. Priestly Professions.
SECTION III. — —
Physicians. Military Caste. Common People.
Egyptian Castes Not Absolutely Fixed. Intermar- —
Political History, 44-62 riages and Transitions. —
Ev-ils of the Caste System.
—
Periods of Egj'ptian History. Founding of the — Its Tendency to National Decay. —
Egj'ptian Land
First Dynasty at Memphis by Menes. —
Contempo- System.— Agricultural Laborers.— Egyptian Laws.—
rary Dynasties. —
Fourth Dynasty at Mei:iphis and —
Egyptian Army.— War Chariots. Archery.— Weajj-
—
the Great Pyramids. High Civilization under the —
ons of Warfare. Treatment of Prisoners. Muti- —
—
Fourth Dynasty. Contemporary Dynasties. Five — lation of the Enemy's Slain. Climate of the —
Kingdoms in Egypt. —
Great Power of Thebes. —
Nile Valley. Vegetables. —
.\nimals. —
M'nerals.—
Conquest of Lower Egypt by the Shepherd Kings. Causes of' Egypt's Produdliveness. Cause of its —
— Greatness of Thebes under the Twelfth Dynasty. Dense —
Agriculture.
Popuia'tion. —
Song to Oxen.
— —
The Labyrinth and Lake Moeris. Conquest of — Care Animals.— Field Sports.— Beasts of Bur-
of
—
Upper Egypt by the Shepherd Kings. End of the
— den. —
Egvpt an ObjeA of Interest in All Ages.
Old Empire. ^The Middle Empire under the Shep- Density of its Ancient Population. Memphis and —
— —
herd Kings. Their Barbarous Rule. Absence of —
Thebes.— Architedlure. Pyramids and Obelisks.
Records —Expulsion of the Shepherd Kings. Egvpt the Ancient World's School.— Progress in
All Egypt United under the New Empire Over a Sci'ence.— Skill in the Finer Mechanical Arts.—
—
Thousand Years. Prosperity, Power and High Egyptian Language. —
Art of Writing. Three —
Civilization of Eg^'pt under the Eighteenth, Nine- —
Kinds of Writing. Hieroglyphics and Papyrus.—
—
teenth and Twentieth Dynasties. Amasis, Anien- Discovery of the Rosetta Stone and the Key to the
set, Thothmes IV. — —
Great Sphinx. Amunoph III. —
Hieroglyphics. Dr. Young and Champollion.
— —
and the two Colossi. Vocal Memnon. Horus. EgA-ptian Custom of Recording Everything in
—
Rameses I. Seti and the Great Hall of Karnak. PiAures and Writing.— Sources of our Knowledge
Rameses the Great. — Rameseum at Thebes. of the Ancient Egyptians.— Revelation of Domestic
Height of Egyptian Art. — Menepta and the Exo- Scenes from the Egyptian Tombs. Progress in —
dus. — Rameses and the Temple-Palace at
III. —
the Arts thus Demonstrated. High State of Civ-
Thebes. — His Successors. — Decline of Egypt. ilization thus Shown. —
Curious Scenes. Egyp- —
The Priest-Kings. — Temporary Revival under the tian Dress. —
Trades and Occupations. Stone Cut- —
Twenty-second Dynasty Founded by Sheshonk I. ting. — —
Commerce. Sculpture and Painting. Re- —
Disturbed Condition of Egypt under the next two ligious Character of Egyptian Art.— The Great
Dynasties.— Conquest of Egypt by Sabaco the —
Temple-Palace at Medinel-.Vbu. Eg}-ptian Tombs.
—
Ethiopian. His Defeat by Sargon of Assyria at —Custom of Embalming the Dead.— Paintings and
—
Raphia. Assyrian Conquest of the Delta. Tirha- — Sculpture in the Tombs.— Chambers in the Tombs.
—
kah. As.syrian Conquest of Egypt. Psammeti-— — Scenes Represented in the Tombs. Process of —
chus Recovers the Independence of Egypt. Mi- — —
Embalming. Mummies of -Animals. Methods of —
gration of the Warrior Caste to Ethiopia. Reign— Embalming.
(xi)
—— —
XII TABLE OF CONTENTS.

SECTION V. balming the Dead. — Funeral Ceremonies. —Trial
of the Dead.— Burial
of the Wicked.— Of the
Egyptian Mythology and Religion, . 89-100 Good. — Sacred Lakes. — Influence of these Cere-
Religious charadler of the Ancient Egyptians. monies on the People. — The Soul's Trial before
—
Character of their Religion. Two Kinds of Relig- the Tribunal of the Gods.— Hall of the Two
ion. — —
Three Orders of Gods. The Eight Gods Truths
—
of the First Order. Amun. Kueph. Phthah. — — SECTION VI.
— — —
Kheni. Phrah. Reason for Two Systems.
—
Second Order of Gods. Third Order. Change in — The Ancient Ethiopians . 100-103
— —
the Third Order. Typhon. Myth of Osiris and The Ancient Ethiopians and their Country.
Isis. — —
Plutarch's Explanations. Allegorical Mean- Their Antiquity. — Savage and Civilized Ethiopians.
ing. —Phthah the Chief God in Lower Egypt. — Fertility of Ethiopia.— Monuments. — Meroe and
Amun in Upper Egypt.— Comparison of Amun Its Caravan Trade. — Red Sea Ports. — Animals.
Its
—
with Phthah. Phrah the Life-Giving God. God's — —Kingdom of Meroe. — History. — Ethiopian
Its
—
of Upper Egypt. Comparison of Egypt's Gods Kings of — Egj'ptian Migration to Ethiopia.
E.gj'p^.
—
with those of Greece. Local Deities. Animal — —Destrudtion of the Persian Army of Invasion by
— —
Worship. Sacred Animals.' Sacred Bull, Apis, of Famine. — Ethiopiau Religion. — The Priesthood
— —
Memphis. Place of Burial. Animals Sacred in and Their Influence. — TempIes.^Power of the
One Place not so in Another Place. Mummies of — Priests Over the Kings. — Ethiopian Queens. — Can-
—
Sacred Animals. Reasons for Animal Worship. dace and her War with the Romans. —Judaism and
—
Religious Festivals. Religious Daily Life of the Christianity Successfully Established in Ethiopia.
People. —Priests. —
Orders of the Priesthood. — Christiauity Still the Religion of Abyssinia.
Gloomy Chara<5ler of the Egj'ptian Religion. —
Pyramids of Meroe. Kingdom of Axume and Its
—
Egyptian Temples. Temple of Amun. Do(flrine — Capital, Axum. — —
Ruins of Axum. Inscription on
—
of the Soul's Immortality. Transmigration of the —
a Stone Slab. King Aeizemus. Nubian Pyra- —
Soul. — Comparison with the Hindoo DoiSlriue. — —
mids. Temples near Merawe. Great Rock Tem-
Reasons for Ornamenting the Egyptian Tombs and ple of Ipsambul. —
Ruins of Barkal. Rock-hewn —
—
Embalming the Dead. Ritual for the Dead. Be- — —
Temples. Jleroe as an Ancient Commercial Em-
lief in Future Rewards aud Punishments. — Em- —
porium. Causes of its Extindlion.
CHAPTER II.— CHALDEAN EMPIRE.

SECTION I. —
Marriage-Alliances with Assyria. Assyrian Con«
Geography ok Chaldêa 105-107
—
quest of Chaktea. Table of Kings.
Cradle of Asiatic History and Civilization.

Ancient Date in Chaldaean History.— Testimony of
SECTION IV.
—
the Hebrew Scriptures. Land of Shinar. The — CHALD.SAN Civilization 11 3- 120
Tigris and Euphrates Rivers. —
Geographical and Nimrod, Urukh, and Ch :;dorlaomer. — Rawlinson
Political Divisions in the Tigris-Euphrates Valley. —
on Cbaldceau Civilization. Chaldffian Architec-
— —
Mesopotamia. Chaldsea, or Babylonia. Susi- — ture. — —
Brick and Bitumen. Temples. Dwellings. —
ana. —Assyria. —
The Three Great Empires in the — — —
Tombs. Brick Vaults. Dish-cover Coffins.
—
Tigris-Euphrates Valley. Antiquity of Chaldsea. —
Double-jar Coffins. Sepulchral Mounds.— Drain-
Its Fertility and Produdlions. —
Testimony of He- —
age of the Mounds. Cuneiform Writing. Clay —
—
rodotus and Other Writers. Brick and Bitumen. Tablets. — —
Legends on Bricks. Pottery. Figures —
—
Climate of Chaldsa, or Babylonia. Animals. —
on Clay Tablets. Arms, Implements aud Orna-
—Testimony of the Book of Genesis. — Ur of
Cities. —
ments. Implements of Stone and Bronze. Cloths —
the Chaldees and Its Ruins. — Other Cities. —
and Textile Fabrics. Gem Engraving. Si.£;net- —
cylinders and Their Seals and Legends. Com-
— —
SECTION II. merce.— Caravan Trade. " Ships of Ur." Articles —
Sources of Chaldean History,
—
of Foo4. Astronomy and Arithmetic. Weights —
107-108 . . .
—
aud Measures. Chaldâ's Legacy to Posterity.
—
Berosus. The Old Testament. —
Herodotus, Cte-
sias and Diodorus Siculus. —
Modern Investigation. SECTIONV.
— Explorations of Layard and Others at Nineveh, Chaldean Cosmogony and Religion 120-132
Babylon and Other Ancient Cities. — Cuneiform
.
Inscriptions. —The Canon of Ptolemy. — Assyrian

Chaldsean Account of the Creation as Given by
Canon. — Modern Writers. Bero.sus. —Likeness Between Chaldaean and Jewish
—
Legends. Assyrian Account of the Creation as
SECTION III. Deciphered from the Tablet Inscriptions. Myth- —
Political History 10S-113
ical Antediluvian Dynasty of Berosus. Chaktean—
Account of the Deluge as Related by Berosus.
Origin of Chaldrea.^Dynasties According to Be- —
Assyrian Account from the Tablets. Traditions of
rosus. — Mosaic Account of Nimrod.^His Charac- a Great Flood in Countries Subjedl to Overflows.
ter and Deification. —
Universal Tradition of Nim- Link Between Chaldaean and Jewish Legends.
rod. —Migrations from Chaldtea. Urukh and His— Account of the Tower of Babel by Berosus. Raw- —
— —
Great Temples. Ilgi. His Signet-cylinder in the linson's View of Chaldaean Mythology. Polythe- —
British Museum. —
Conquest of Chaldsea by a istic Religion of Chaklrea. —
Grouping of the Chal-
—
Susianian or Elamite Dynasty. Kudur-Nakhunta. — —
daean Deities. Chief Deity. First Triad and Their
— Kadur-Lagamer and His Conquest of Canaan. —
Wives. Second Triad and Their Wives. Five —
—
His Successors. Third and Fourth Dynasties. — —
Planetary Deities. Inferior Deities. Relationship
New Style of ArchiteAure.— Conquest of Chal- — —
of the Deities. II or Ra. Ana and Anata.--Bel-
daa by an Arabian Dynasty. Kharamurabi aud— — —
Nimrod. Beltis or Mulita. Hea or Hoaand Dav-
—
His Great Canal. His Successors. Wars and — kina. — Sin or Hurki, and the Great Lady. San or —
—— ——
TABLE OF CONTENTS. XIll
Sansi, ami Cula or Aminit. — Vul or Iva, and Sliala Nebo. — Astronomical Cliara<fler of the Chaldean
or Tahu^Nin or Niiiip. — Merodacli. — Nergal. Worship. — Origin of Astrological Signs and Super-
Ishtar or Nana. — Symbolical Myth of stitions. Islitar.
CHAPTER III.—THE ASSYRIAN EMPIRE.

SECTION I. vasion of Arabia. —
His Contjuest of Egypt. Col- —
onization of Palestine. —
Esar-haddon 's Palace at
Geography of .\ssyria 137-138 Calah. —Asshur-bani-pal.— His Wars. His Con- —
—
Location of Assyria. Produdtions of Assyria. quest of Egvpt, Tyre, Cilicia and Susiana. His —
— —
Mineral Produtls. Climate. Wild and Donie.stic —
Relations wi'th Lydia. His Love of Hunting.
—
Animals. Extent of Assyrian Ruins. Scriptural — —
His Literary Tastes. His Edifices.— His Great
—
Account of Early Assyrian Cities. The Four Great —
Palace at Nineveh. His Sculptures. Asshur-bani- —
Cities. —
Ruins of Nineveh, Calah, Asshur and Dur- pal Known to the Greeks.— His Cruelties. De- —
Sargina. — —
Other Ruins. Arbil or Arbela. Other — cline of Assyria. —
Scythian Inroad. Asshur-emid- —
Assyrian Cities. ilin, the Last Assyrian King. —
Effects of the Scyth-
SECTION ian Invasion on Assyria. —

Cyaxares, King of Media,
II. —
Attacks Nineveh. Treachery of Nabopolassar.
Sources of Assyrian History 139-140 Capture and Destrudlion of Nineveh and Fall of
—
Herodotus and Ctesias. The Canon of Ptolemy —
the Assyrian Empire. Table of Kings.
and the Assyrian Canon. —Their Harmony and SECTION IV.
Authenticity. — Inscriptions on Assyrian Tablets,
Bricks, Sculptures. — Chronologies of Berosus and Assyrian Civilization, 196-219
Herodotus. — Disagreement between Herodotus Rawlinson on the Chara(?l:er of the Assyrian
and Ctesias. — Their RespeAive Ancient and Mod- —
Empire. The Assyrians a Semitic Race. Their —
em Supporters. —The Fidelity and Accuracy of He- i —
Kinship with the Jews. Resemblances Between
rodotus. — The Temper and Disposition of Ctesias the Two Races in Physiognomy, Chara<5ler, Cus-
Toward Herodotus. — Herodotus Sustained by the toms, etc. — Valor of the Assyrians. — Ferocity
Other Historical Sources. — Origin and Duration Tempered by Clemency. — Their Treachery. Their —
of the Assyrian Empire According to Herodotus. Pride. — Greek Accounts of their Voluptuousness
According to Berosus. —
and Sensuality Exaggerated. Their Mental Power.
SECTION —Their Superiority Over the Egyptians.— Their
III. Mental and Physical Vigor. Assyrian Writing.—
Political History, 140-195 —
Stone Slabs and Clay Cylinders. Inscribed Bulls
—
Periods of Assyrian History. Chaldsean Origin — —
and Lions. Obelisks. Durability of the Tablets.
—
of the Assyrians. First Evidence of Assyrian In- — — —
Assvrian Bas-reliefs. Their Varieties. Mimetic
—
dependence. Shalmaneser I. Tiglathi-Nin I.— — —
Art.— Painting. Taste for Display. Modern Ex-
—
His Successors. Mutaggil-Nebo and Asshur-ris- —
cavations in Assyria. Description of an Assyrian
—
Tiglath-Pileser I. —
His Wars. His Restor- — Palace. — Architedlure. — The Present Condition of
the Ruins of Nineveh. — Walls. — Palaces and
ilim.
ations and Temples. —
His Invocation. Religious — Its
Mounds. — Ancient Accounts of
—
Tone of His Inscription. General Condition of Temples on its
Nineveh. — Assyrian Warfare. — War Chariots.
Assyria. —
Tiglath-Pileser's War with Babylon.
Cavalry. — Infantry. — Weapons. — Sieges. — Batter-
—
Rock Tablet of Tiglath-Pileser I. Asshur-bil-kala
—
and Shainas Vul I. Obscure Interval. Asshur-— ing Ra'ms and Movable Towers.— Catapult or Ba-
—Treatment of Captives. —Spoils of War.
dayan II., Vul-lush II. and Tiglathi-Nin II. As- — lista.
Despotism. — The Sovereign. — Musical Instruments
shur-izir-pal. — His Wars. — His Edifices. — His Great
Palace. — His Sculptures. — His Stela; and Obelisks — Dress. — Food. — Entertainments. — Commerce.
— Shalmaneser — His Wars. — Tribute Taken
II.
PraAical CharaAer of their Arts and Civilization.
—Their ArchiteAure Practical. —Their Palaces
from Jehu, King of Israel. — His Palace. — The
Su-
Black Obelisk. — Rebellion of Asshur-danin-pal. perior to Their Temples.— Manufadlures and the
Extent of Assyrian Dominion. — Shamas Vul Useful Arts. — Metallurgy. — Mechanical Knowl-
edge. — Rawlinson on Their Progress. — Their Mili-
II.
Vul-lush — His Sculptures. — His Wife, Semir- tary and Material Greatness.
III.
amis. — Pul. — Nabonassar at Babylon. — The Proph-
et Jonah at Nineveh. — End of the Old Assynan SECTION V.
Empire and Beginning of the New or Lower As-
syrian Empire under Tiglath-Pileser — His Wars. Ass\TiiAN Religion,
II.
220-230
— Shalmaneser IV.— His Wars. — Siege of Tyre and Identity of the Assyrian and ChaUtean Relig-
Samaria. — Sargon's Revolt and Usurpation. — His ions. — Few Differences. — .\sshurthe Supreme God
Wars. — Capture of Samaria. — His War with Sa- of Assyria. — Asshur's Deification. — Asshur's Em-
baco, King of Egypt. — .Assyrian Viftory at Raphia. blems.— The Sacred Tree.— The Next Deities.—
^Capture of .\shdod. — Sargon's Other Conquests. Ann.- His Temples.— Bel.— His lunblein.— His
— His War with Susiana. —Sargon's Town and Pal- Temples. — Ilea or Iloa. — His Emblem. — His Tem-
ace. —Sennacherib. — His Wars. — His Viiflory over ples. — Beltis. — Her Temples. — Sin, the Moon-god.
the Egyptians and Ethiopians at Altaku. — His — His Emblem. — Temples. — Shamas. — His Ilis
War with Hezekiah, King of Judah. — Siege of Je- Emblem. — His Temples.— Vul or Iva.— His Em-
rusalem. — Submission of Hezekiah. — Sennache- blem.— His Temples.— Gula.— Her Emblem.— Her
rib's Second Syrian F;xpedition. — Destru(5lion of Temples. — Nin or Ninip. — His Emblem. — His
His Army at Pelusium. — Its — Sennache- Temples. — Merodacli. — His Emblem. — Nergel.
Effe(5ls.
rib'sWar with Susiana. — Babylonian Revolt under His Emblem.— His Temples.— Ishtar.— Her Tem-
Susub. — Susub's Defeat. — Renewed Defection of ples— Nebo.— His Statues. — His Temple. — Inferior
Babylon. — Sennacherib's Palace at Nineveh. — His Deities. — The Female Divinities. — Charaeter of the
Employment of Forced Labor. — .\.ssassiuation of Goddesses. — Minor Male Deities. — Genii. — Good
Sennacherib. — Esar-haddon. — His Wars. — His In- Genii. — Evil Genii. — Their F'igures. — .Assyrian
—— ——
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
Idols. — Moile of Worship. — Sacrifices of Animals. — —
ances of the King, Priests. Festivals. Fasts. —
—Altars. — Thauk-Offerings. — Religious Perform- —
Religious Character. Religious Ostentation.
CHAPTER IV.— THE MEDIAN EMPIRE.

SECTION I. SECTION III.
Geography of Mkdi.\, 231-234 Median Civilization 245-248
— Geographical Description.
Situation of Media. The Medes and Persians a Kindred Aryan Race.
— —
Climate. — Animals. — Media Magna — Testimony of the Persian Sculptures. — The Me-
Minerals.
and Media Atropatene. — The Two Ecbatanas. dian Women. — Rawlinson the Modern Persians. 011
The Southern Ecbatana. — Royal Palace. — The
Its — Bravery of the Medes. — Simple Life of the Early
Northern Ecbatana. — Other Median Cities. Medes. — Later Lu.Kury and Degeneracy. — Military
Costume and .\rms. — Dress of the Medes in Peace.
SECTION II. — Later Luxury in Dress and Banquets. — Court
Political History 234-244 Ceremonial. — Royal Amusement. — Hunting. — The
Royal Harem or Seraglio. — Corruption and De-
Origin of the Medes. — Greek Legends Respeft-
generacy of the Medes. — Median Arehitecflure and
ing the Medes. — Early Assyrian Accounts of Me-
dia. — Median Kings According to Ctesias. — Ac-
Sculpture.
cording to Herodotus. — Founding of the Median SECTION IV.
Empire by Cyaxares. — His Unsuccessful Attack on
Assyria. — Scythian Invasion of Media. — Expulsion ZOROA.STRIANISM AND MAGISM, 248-263
of the Scytlis. — Legend of Zarina. — Duration of Zeroaster and Zend-Avesta. — Testimony of Greek
the Scythian Supremacy According to Herodotus. Writers. — Plutarch's Account. — Translation of the
— According to Eusebius. — Capture of Nineveh and Zend-Avesta into French by Anquetil du Perron.
Overthrow of the Assyrian Empire. — Division of Modern Orientalists on the Zend-.-^ vesta. — Uncer-
the Assyrian Empire between Media and Babj-lonia. tainty Concerning Zoroaster's Country and Time.
— Conquests of Cyaxares. — War between Media His Wonderful Influence. — His Personality Im-
and Lydia. — Peace Caused by a Solar Eclipse on pressed on his Religion. — His Belief Concerning
the Eve of a Battle. — Alliance and Friendship be- the Dualism of Good and Evil. — Change in the
tween Media, Lydia and Babylonia. — Alyattes, the Climate of Northern Asia. — Charaifter of the Zend-
Successor of Cyaxares. — HisCharacfter. — His Court. Avesta. — Books. — Ahura- Mazda and Angra-
Its
— The Magi. — Peaceful Reign of Astyages. — Con- Mainyus. — The Great War between Them. — Zoro-
tradictory Accounts of Ast}-ages. — His Domestic astrianism Free from Idolatry. — Teachings of the
Relations. — Early Connedlion of Media and Persia. Zend-Avesta. — Worship. — Sacrifice. — Purity. —
—Cyrus the Great at the Median Court.— His Es- Truth. — Later Corruption of Zoroastrianism by
cape into Persia. — Revolt of the Persians under Contact with Magism. — Worship of the Ele-
its
Cyrus. — Defeats of the Medes and Death of Asty- ments. — The — F'usion of Zoroastrianism and
lMa.gi.
ages. — End of the Median Empire and Beginning Magism. — Disposition of the Dead. — Rawlinson
of the Medo-Persiau Empire. — Extent of the Me- on this Mixed Religion. — Extracts from the Zend-
dian Empire. Avesta.
CHAPTER v.— THE BABYLONIAN EMPIRE.

SECTION I. ) Carchemish by Nabopolassar's Son, Nebuchad-
—
Nebuchadnezzar's Great Reign. Nebu- —
nezzar.
Extent of the Babylonian Empire, . 264-266
chadnezzar Attacks Jehoiakim, King of Judah.
—
Babylonia or Chaldaea. The Countries Included Nebuchadnezzar's Campaign against Apries, King
in —
the Babylonian Empire. Agricultural Pro- of E.gypt, and Zedekiah, King of Judah. Siege —
—
dudls of Babylonia. Of Susiana, Northern Meso- —
and Capture of Jerusalem. Siege and Capture
potamia, and Northern Syria. —
Of Southern Syria —
of Tyre. Conquest of Pha.-nicia and Palestine.
—
and Palestine. Mineral ProduAs of the Empire. — Nebuchadnezzar's Invasions of Egypt. Results —
— Building Stone. —
Wild Animals. Climate.
Countries Bordering on the Empire. Great Cities. —
— of His Vi(5lories.— His Great Works'— The Walls
of Babylon.— The "Hanging Gardens. "—Other
SECTION Works. —Nebuchadnezzar's Private Life. His —
II.
Personal Character. —
His Wealth. His Occa-—
Political Hlstory, 266-278 sional Piety.— His Cruelties.— His Devotion to His
Beginning of the Babylonian Flmpire. Baby- — Median W'ife.— His Lycanthropy.— His Recovery.
lonia under Assyrian Rule. —
The Assyrian Dy- — Brilliancv of the End of his Reign.— Evil-Mero-
— — —
nasty in Babylonia. —
Early Wars between Baby- dach. Neriglissar. Laborosoarchod. Nabona-
—
lonia and Assyria. — —
Nabonassar. His Successors. dius the Last Babylonian King. Lydian F;nibassy.
—
— —
Merodach-Baladan. Revolt of Nabopolassar and — Nabonadius Strengthens Babylon. Plis Ally,
his Alliance with Cyaxares of Media. Overthrow — CrcESUS, King of Lydia, Defeated by Cyrus the
of Assyria and Founding of the Babylonian Em- —
Great of Persia. >Jabonadius Attacked and De-
pire by Nabopola.ssar. —
His Peaceful Reign and feated by Cvrus. —
Belshazzar's Feast. —
Capture of
His Alliance with Media. — Neko, King of Egypt, Babylon by Cyrus, and End of the Babylonian Em-
Invades the Babylonian Empire. His Defeat at — pire. — Table of Kings.
—— • ——
T.inLIi Of CONTENTS. XV
SECTION III. —
Astronomical Instruments. Astrology. Influence —
of Stars on Individuals and Nations. Changes of —
Babylonian Civilization 279-298 — —
Weather. Mathematics. Manners and Customs.
Professor Rawliuson on the Baln'loiiian Empire. —
•
—
The King's Tiara. Priests' Attire. Weapons of —
— The Later Babyloiiiaus a Mixcil Race. —Semitiz- Warfare. — —
Babylonian Armies. Cavalry.— Charac-
ing of the Old Chald;tan ropulation. —
Thysical ter of the Babylonian .Armies.— The Priests.—
Characteristics of the Later Babyloiiiaus. —
Their —
"Wise Men." The ChakUtans as Priests and Phil-
—
Hair and Beards. Babylonian Women. Physical — —
osophers. The Priests a Learned Body. Their —
Similarity of the .-Xssyrians and Babylonians. —
In- Learning. —Their Social Standing. Babylonian —
telle<flsal Ability of the Babylonians. —Enterpri.se. Manufactures and Commerce. Their Imports. —
— —
Luxurious Habits. Warlike Braverj- and Skill. Agriculture. —
Cultivation of the Date-Palm. Food. —
— — —
Violence and Cruelty. Pride. Religious Feel- — —
Babylonian Jlusic. Babylonian Women. Im- —
ing.— —
Honesty and Calmness. Extent oi the Ruins plements.
— —
of Babylon. Walls of Babylon. dates. Houses. —
— —
Quays, River Walls, and Bridge. Palaces of SECTION IV.
— —
Babylon. Temple of Bel. Great Palace. Hang- —
— —
ing Gardens. Smaller Palace. Walls of Babylon. Babylonian Religion, 299-302
•-Its Ruins at Present. —
Babil, Kasr and Amran Identity of the Early Chaldsan and the Later
—
Mounds. Lines of Rampart and Low Jlounds. — —
Babylonian Religion. Difference in the Ranks of
—
El Homeira Mound. Extent of Ruins. Recent — Deities. — Nebuchadnezzar's Preference for Mero-
—
Explorations. Identification of Sites. — Birs-i-Nim- dach. — Bel Restored to his Former Place by Na-
—
rud. —
Ingenuity of the Babylouiaus. Babylonian —
bonadius. Confounding of Beltis and Ishtar. Bel, —
—
Architedlure. Temples. —
Palaces,— Hanging Gar- Nebo and Merodach the Chief Deities of the Later
— — —
dens. Domestic ArchiteClure. Bricks. Cement. Babylonians. — —
Nergal. Local Character of the
— — —
Mimetic Art. Mechanical Arts. Stone Cutting. — —
Gods. Babylonian Images. Material of the Idols.
— —
Pottery.
—
Textile Fabrics. —
Carpets and Muslins.
—
— —
Magnificence of the Worship. F'estivals. Re- —
— Astronomy. Observations. Constellations. ligious Prostitution. —
Cleanliness and Vncleanli-
—
Uranography . —
Zodiacal Constellations. Eclipses. ness.— —
Symbolism in Religion. Mystic Numbers.
— — —
Catalogue of Fi.xed Stars. Sun Dials. Other — Pidlorial Symbols. — Sacred Names of Temples.
CHAPTER VI.— KINGDOMS OF ASIA MINOR.

SECTION I. Lydians and their Wealth. — Their Origin. — The
Geogr.\phy of Asi.v Minor Three Dynasties of Lydia. — Lydian Traditions.
Beginning of the Real History of Lydia. — Gyges.
305-307
Situation. — Boundaries. — Extent. — Climate.
— Invasion of the Cimmerians. — Defeat and Death
Productions.— Rivers. — Mountains. — Lakes. — Min- of Gyges. — Ardys. — Sadj'attes. — Alyattes. — Expul-
erals. — Islands along the Coast. — Asia Minor in
sion of the Cimmerians. — Founding of the Great
History. — Geographical and Political Dinsions.
Lydian Empire. — War with Media. — Peace in Con-
SECTION II. sequence of a Solar Eclipse on the Eve of a Battle.
Phrygia .\nd Cilici.\,
— Alliance and Friendship of Lydia, Media and
307-30S Babylonia. — War with the Greek Colonists. — Croe-
Early Races of Asia Minor. — Phrygians. — sus. — His Wars and Conquests. — Greatness of
Cilicia.
Lydia. — Wealth of Crcesus. — Story of Crcesus and
SECTION III. Solon. — War With Cyrus the Great of Persia. — De-
Kingdom of Lydia 308-314 feat and Captivity of Croesus. — End of the Lydian
Rank and Situation of Lydia. — Its Cities. —The Kingdom. — Table of Kings.
CHAPTER VII.— PHCENICIA AND SYRIA.

SECTION I. —
Supremacy. Thirteen Years' Siege of Tyre by
Phoenicia and its People —
Nebuchadnezzar. Defeat of the Egyptians. Phoe- —
315-316
—
nicia under Medo-Persian Rule. —
Siege and Cap-
Situation and Extent of Phoenicia. The PhcE- ture of Tyre by Alexander the Great. Phoenicia —
nicians a Semitic People.— The Phoenician Cities.
^-Sidon. — Tyre. under the Macedonian Dominion. Subsequent —
History.
SECTION II. SECTION III.
History of Tyre 316-320 Phoenician Commerce and Colonies, . 321-323
Short Duration of Phoenician Independence. The Phoenicians the Leading Manufacturing,
—
— .Abdastartus. — Eth-baal. ——aiatgen.
Supremacy of Tyre. King Abibaal. Hiram. Commercial, Colonizing and Maritime People of
Baaleazar.
Pygmalion and Dido. — Flight of Dido, Who
—
.\nti<iuity. Rapid Growth of Phoenician Com-
Founded Carthage. — .Assyrian Conquest of Phoe-
merce. — —
Carryin.g-Trade. Extent of Phoenician
nicia. — Hiram
Colonies. — Phrenician Land Trade. Precious —
— Elulseus. — Five Years' Siege
II.
Metals from Spain. — Tin
from Cornwall. Phce- —
of Tyre by the .Assyrians, Who Finally Retire. — niciati Voyage .\round Southern .Vfrica.— Commer-
Recovery of Phtenician Independence. — Second cial Enterprise of the Phoenicians.
Assyrian Conquest of Pha_>nicia. — Capture of Tyre
by Sennacherib. — Revolt of Sidon. — Recon-
Its
SECTION IV.
quest by Esar-haddou of .\ssyria. — Revolt of the
Phoenician Cities Subdued by .\sshur-bani-pal. Phcenician Arts and Civilization, . . 323-325
Egyptian Supremacy over Phoenicia. — Babylonian Phoeuiciau Manufactures. — Tynan Purple. — Veg-
—— —
—
XVI TABLE OF CONTENTS.

etable Dyes. — Glass-blowing. — Pottery. — Bronze- SECTION VI.
work. — Jewelry. — Ivory-carvings. — Agriculture.
Letters. — Phceniciau Alphabet. — Phcenician Lan-
Geography of Syria, 328-330
guage. — Literature. — Architetlure. — Statuary. Situation of Syria. — Mountains. — Produdlions.
Paintings. — Dress. — Testimony of the Egyptian Climate. — Animals. — I;amascus — Antioch. — Hie- .
Paintings. — Of Isaiah. rapolis. — Emessa. — Tadmor, or Palmyra. — Baalbec,

or Heliopolis. — Earliest Inhabitants. — Petty States
of Ancient Syria. — Syria under Foreign Dominion.
SECTION V. — Syria the Theatre of Important
•
Events.
Phoenician Religion 326-327
Limited Sources of Information Concerning the
SECTION VII.
Ph(]enician Religion. —
The Works of Philo Byblus. History of Damascus, 331-333
— Origin and Charaifter of the Phcenician Religion. Five Great States of Ancient Syria. Syria of —
— —
A Narrow Polytheism. Gods. Baal. Astarte.— — —
Damascus. Remote Antiquity of Damascus. Ori- —
— —
Sun and Star Worship. Cruel and Licentious gin of the Kingdom of Damascus. Reigns of —
Rites. — —
No Idolatry. Praise, Prayer and Sacrifice. Hadad, Rezon, Tab-rimmon, Ben-hadad I., Beu-
— Festivals. —
General Tendency of the Worship hadad II., Hazael, Ben-hadad III. and Rezin. As- —
to Lower and Debase Mau. —
Rawliuson's View. syrian Conquest of Damascus. —
Table of Kings.
CHAPTER VIII.— THE HEBREW NATION.

SECTION I. Jordan.— Canaanitish Nations. Description of —
The Hebrew Patriarchs 337-345
—
Canaan, or Palestine. Capture of Jericho, Ai and
Semitic Origin of the Hebrews. Abraham's — —
Shechem. Joshua Conquers Canaan by the Two
Decisive Battles of Beth-horon and the Waters of
Migration from Ur of the Chaldees to the Promised Merom. — Division of the Promised Laud among
—
Land of Canaan. Abraham in Egypt. Invasion — —
the Twelve Tribes of Israel. ^Joshua's Death.
of Canaan by Chedorlaomer, King of Chalda;a.
— Evils which Followed. —
Period of Anarchy. The —
Abraham's Victory near Damascus. Hagar Driven
— —
Judges. Charadler of the Office of Judge. Ex- —
into the Wilderness. Birth of Ishmael. Lot's — ploits of Ehud. —Barak's Victory over Sisera.
—
Flight from Sodom. Destruction of Sodom and Gideon's Triumph over the Midianites. EH, High- —
— —
Gomorrah. Birth of Isaac. Abraham's Residence Priest. —Wickedness of his Sons. Samson the —
at Beer-sheba. —
Attempted Sacrifice of Isaac. —
Strong. The Prophet and High-Priest, Samuel.
—
Death and Burial of Sarah. Isaac's Marriage with Defeat of the Israelites by the Philistines. Capture —
—
Rebekah. Birth of Esau and Jacob. Abraham's — —
of the Ark of the Covenant. Eli's Death. Samuel, —
—
Second Marriage. His Death and Burial. Char- — —
Judge. The Israelites Demand a King. Samuel's —
a<5ler of Esau and Jacob. —
Esau Sells his Birth- —
Warning. Saul Anointed King of Israel.
—
right for a Mess of Pottage. ^Jacob Defrauds Esau
of the Blessing which his Father Intended for him.
— SECTION IV.
to Mesopotamia. — —
Esau's attempts on Jacob's Life. Jacob's Flight
His Sojourn with his Uncle La- The United Kingdom of Israel,
366-373 . . .
ban. — —
His Wives aiul Children. His Return to —
Charatler of Saul. Discontent of the Tribes.
—
Canaan. E.sau's Welcome to his Brother. Jacob's — —
Rescue of Gilead. Saul Acknowledged by the
—
Trouble with His Children. ^Joseph vSold as a Bond —
Hebrew Nation. Saul's Usurpation of the High-
Slave into Egypt. —
He Becomes Prime Minister to Priest's Power. —His Quarrel with Samuel.— Wars
the Reiguing Pharaoh. —
Famine in Egypt. Jacob — with the Philistines and Other Nations. Exter- —
—
and His Family Settle in Egypt. Jacob's Death. —
mination of the Amalekites. Samuel Kills Agag.
SECTION —
He Curses Saul. Saul's Madness. Daxad Anoint- —
II. —
ed King. Saul's Fondness for David. David Kills —
The Exomis and Wanderings, .... 346-355 Goliath. —Saul Seeks the Life of David.- David's —
Growth of the Hebrew Nation in E.gA'pt. Their — Flight. —His Adventures. —
Saul Massacres the
Condition in the Land of Goshen. Expulsion of — Priests. —Battle of Mount Gilboa and Death of
the Shepherd Kings.— Severe Oppression of the Saul and Jonathan .
—
David Becomes King of Judah.
—
Hebrews by Rameses the Great. Birth of Moses. —The Other Eleven Tribes Adhere to Ishbosheth,
— His Education as an Egyptian Prince. — He Kills Saul's Surviving Son. —
Civil War. —
David King of
an E.gyptian.— His Flight to the Land of Midian. All Israel. —
David Takes Jerusalem from thejebu-
—His Sojourn at Mount Sinai. — The Burning Bush. sites and Makes it the Capital of his Kingdom.
— Moses Undertakes the Deliverance of His Coun- David's Conquests. —
Extent of His Empire.- His
—
trymen. He Seeks Pharaoh Menepta's Court. Civil Administration. —
His Psalms. His Sins. —
His Demand Rejedled.— The Ten Plagues.— Insti- Rebellion and Death of Absalom. Tragic Deaths —
tution of the Passover. —
The Exodus. The Pas- — of Two Other Sons of David. David's Death. —
sage of the Red Sea.— The March to Sinai.— The —
Solomon's Brilliant Reign. Splendor of His Court.
—
Laws of Moses. Founding of the Hebrew State. — —
Commerce of the Hebrews. Solomon's Temple.
—
The March Resumed. Return of the Spies. Re- — — His Wisdom and Early Virtues. His Proverbs. —
bellion of the Israelites. —
Their Defeat by the Ca- — Visit of the Queen of Sheba.— Sjlomon's Ha-
naanites.— The Wanderings in the Wilderness.— —
rem, or Seraglio. His Luxury and Sensuality.
—
DeatL ^f Aaron. The Advance to the Promised Its Corrupting Influence. —
Decline of Solomon's
Land.— Conquest of the Conntrv East of the Jor- — —
Power. His Sins. His Death. Accession of Re- —
dan.— Defeat of the Moaliites.— Death of Moses. hoboam and Revolt of the Ten Tribes.
SECTION
III. SECTION V.
Conquest ok Canaan—The Judges, .355-366
. The Kingdom of Israel 373-375
Joshua, the Successor of Moses. — Passage of the Characfler of the Kingdom of Israel. — Idolatrous
— —
TABU-: OF CONTENTS. XVII
Reign of Jeroboam. — Coinplele Separation of the Sennacherib, King of Assyria. —

Destni<5lion of
Two Hebrew KinL;ilonis.— Baasha's Reij;n. —-War —
Sennacherib's Army. Manasseh's Wicked Reign.
— —
with Damascus. Oniri's Reij^n. The City of Sa- — His Captivity in Assyria and His Release by
—
maria I'oiuuled by Omri. Ahab and Jezebel. Esiir-haddon, the Assyrian King. —
Anmion's
—
Jehu's Reign. Israel Subject to Syria. Reign of — Reign. —Juilah Tributary to Habylon. —
Josiah's
— —
Jeroboam II. Shallum's Reign. His Invasion of —
Reign and Death. Judah Subjecfl to Egypt.
Assyria. —
He is Conquered and Made Tributary to Judah Comes under the Dominion of Babylon.
Assyria. —
Assyrian Conciuest of the Trans-Jordanic —
Revolts of Judah. Zeilekiah the Last King of
—
Country. Israel Invaded by Shalmaiieser IV. of —
Judah. Capture of Jerusiilem by N"ebuchadnezz.;ir
Assyria. —
Capture of Samaria and Assyrian Cap- of Babylon. — The Babylonian Captivity I'jids the
tivity Ends the Kingdom of Israel. — The Depopu- —
Kingdom of Judah. Table of Kings.
lated Countr}- Colonized by Other Subjects of Sar-
gon, King of Assyria. SECTION VII
Babvi.oni.vn Captivity and Rkturn,
SECTION VI.
—
3S1-384
The Jews in Babjlon. Capture of Babylon and
TiiK Kingdom ok Judah, 375-,V'*i Overthrow- of the Babylonian Empire by Cyrus
—
Advantages of Judah over Israel. Reign of Re- the Great of Persia. —His I'riendship for the Jews.
—
hoboam. Capture of Jerusalem by Shishak, King — His EdicT; Permitting Them to Return to Pales-
of Egypt. — —
Reign of Abijah. Asa"sGood Reign. tine.— The Return of the Jews imder Zerubbabel,
His Viclory over the E.gvplians. — The Levites —
Ezra and Nehemiah. The Temple of Jerusalem
Join Judah. — Alliance with Damascus. —Wars with Rebuilt.— Darius Hystaspes, King of Persia, Per-
Jehoshaphat's Reign. — Alliance with —
——Athaliah. — Reign of Joash. — Reign of Ama-
Israel. Is- mits the Jews to Rebuild Jerusalem. Ezra, High-
rael. Priest.— —
Judiea under Persian Rule, Loyalty of
ziah. — Conquest of Edom. — Uzziah's Sin. — Reign the Jews to Jehovah. —End of the Old Testament
of Ahaz. — Judah Becomes Tributary^ to Assv'ria. —
History. Jewish Civilization. —
Manners and Cus-
Hezekiah's Good Reign. — Invasion of Jucfah by toms.
MAPS IN VOLUME I.
World according to Strabo 21 Earliest Historic Regions . 104

World according to Pomponius Mela . . - 22 Ancient Eg>'pt 133
World according to Dionysins Periegetes- 23 First Great Empires., I34.i35
World according to Ptolemy 22,23 Ancient Asia Minor.. 303
World according to Kratost'henes 24 Primitive Settlements . ,
334
World according to Herodotus ,
35 Canaan, Egypt and Route of the Israelites 335
Ancient Historical World... 36,37 Ancient Palestine 336
World according to Hecaticn- 38 Solomon's Kingdom and Phoenicia. 385
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— —
INTRODUCTION,
ISTORY is a record of events from the Hegira, or Mohammed's flight
which have occurred among from Mecca, which event occurred in the
mankind; embracing an ac- year 622 of the Christian era. The Ancient
count of the rise and fall of Greeks dated from the first Olympiad, 776
nations, and other great muta- 3'ears before the Christian era; the Ancient
tions which have affected the political and Romans from the founding of Rome, 753
social condition of the human race. In a years before the Christian era; and the An-
more limited sense, Historj- is a record of cient Babylonians from the Era of Nabon-
the progress of mankind in civilization; and, assar, 747 years before the Christian era.
therefore, deals especiallj^ with those na- No dates can be established with certainty
tions which have performed great achieve- for events in Ancient History of any period
ments and exerted a commanding influence more than five centuries before Christ.
upon the fortunes of the human race. The Concerning the human race outside of na-
Historyi of Civilization is that department of tions, there is much important and interest-
History which treats of the progress of dif- ing knowledge furnished by different sci-
ferent nations in the arts, sciences, litera- ences. Among these sciences, as aids to
ture and social culture. The
Philosophy of History proper, are Ethnology, or the science
History treats of the events of the past in of the various races or types of mankind;
conneiflion with their causes and conse- Archeology, or the science of the ancient
quences, and deduces from them certain works of man; Philology, or the science of
principles, which nvxy ser\ê as a guide to language; and Anthropology, or the science
statesmen in condudting the affairs of na- which deals with man in natural history\
tions. Thus, Historj' has been called Historj' is generallj' divided into three
"philosophy teaching bj^ example;" and, great epochs Ancient History, Mediceval
as a celebrated writer has observed; "Social History, and Modern History. Ancient His-
advancement is as completely under the torj^ begins with the first appearance of his-
control of natural law as is bodily growth. and ends with the

toric records, fall of the
The life of an individual is a miniature of Western Roman Empire, A. D. Me-
476.
the life of a nation." Sacred History is that Middle
difeval Histor>\ or the Historj' of the
which is contained in the sacred scriptures; Ages, extends from the fall of Rome, A. D,
as distinguished from Profane History, as 476, to the Discover>' of America, A. D.
recorded in other books. Eeelesiastical His- 1492. Modem History embraces the period
tory is the History of the Christian Church; from the Discovert' of America to the pres-
while Civil or Political History deals with ent time. Sometimes, however, the world's
the rise, progress and fall of nations. history is divided into only two great pe-
Chronology is that department of Histor>' riods Ancient and Modern; Ancient His-
which treats of the precise time or date of tor>' embracing the whole period before the
each event with respecft to some fixed time fall of Rome, A. D. 476, and Modem His-
called an era or epoch. Chronology and tory comprising the entire period since that
Geography have been called the two eyes event. This double division is perhaps the
of Historj'. The one tells when, the other more logical of the two, as ancient civiliza-
where, events have occurred. Christian tion passed away with the extineftion of the
nations compute time from the birth of Western Roman Empire, while modern na-
Chri.st; while Mohammedan nations reckon tions and modern institutions took their rise
1—2.-U. H. C 25)
26 INTROD UCTION.
from that point. The triple division, how- dynasties of Egyptian kings afford us val-
ever, is the more convenient, and for that uable information; and the works of Herod-
reason we shall follow it in this work. otus, the " Father of History," have given
The three sources of History are written us a graphic account of the ancient nations
monuments and frag-
records, architecftural -^their annals, manners and customs, as
mentary remains. Several races of men well as a geographical description of the
have disappeared from the globe, leaving no countries which they inhabited.
records inscribed upon stone or parchment. The imposing temples and palaces of
The existence and charadter of these people Egypt, Assyria, and India have only afforded
can only be inferred from fragments of their historic materials since the diligent research
weapons, ornaments and household uten- of European scholars and antiquarians has
sils, found in their tombs or among the succeeded in deciphering the inscriptions
ruins of their habitations. Among these which they Within the present gen-
bore.
races were the Lake-dwellers of Switzerland; eration the discoveries of these European
the prehistoric inhabitants of the Age of orientalists have added wonderfullj' to our
Stone and the Age of Bronze of the British knowledge of primeval ages, and explained
Isles; the builders of the shell-mounds of in a remarkable manner the brief allusions
Denmark and India; and the Mound-build- of the Hebrew Scriptures. Thus within the
ers of the Mississippi Valley. last century the discovery of the Rosetta
The discovery of monuments of great an- Stone, the deciphering of the Egyptian
tiquity has aided vastly in ascertaining the hieroglyphics, and the labors of those learned
date of ancient events. The Parian Marble, French Egyptologists Champollion and Ma-
brought to England from Smyrna by the riette, have given us a flood of new light
Earl of Arundel, contains a chronological upon ancient Egyptian times; while the ex-
arrangement of important events in Grecian humations and discoveries of those celebrated
history from the earliest period to 355 B. C. English archsEologists and antiquarians,
The Assyrian Canon, discovered by Sir L,ayard and Rawlinson. in the Tigris-Eu-
Henrj' Rawlinson, the great English anti- phrates valleys, have almost recast the his-
quarian, consists of a number of clay tab- tory of Assy ria^ Chaldsea, and Babylonia; and
lets, construcfled during the reign of Sarda- the patient explorations and exhumations
napdlus, and containing a complete plan of of that German savant, Dr. Schliemann,
Assyrian chronology, verified by the record upon the site of ancient Troy, between the
of a solar eclipse which must have occurred years 1869 and 1873, have been rewarded
June 15, 763 B. C. The Fasti Capitolini, with the discovery of many interesting
discovered at Rome, partly in 1547 and architecftural remains and furnished new
partly in 1817 and 1818, contains in frag- illustrations of the "tale of Troy divine."
mentary records a list of Roman magistrates The oldest remaining books are the He-
and triumphs from the beginning of the brew Scriptures, which, in the Mosaic cos-
Roman Repi.blic to the close of the reign mogony, describe the origin of the universe
of Augustus. The Rosetta Stone, discovered and the creation of the first pair, Adam and
by a French militar>' engineer during Bona- Eve, and their fall from a state of innocence
parte's expedition to Egypt in 1798, con- and purity; the murder of their son Abel by
tains inscriptions in the Greek and Egyptian his brother Cain; the genealogy of the pa-
languages, the deciphering of which has led triarchs of the antediluvian period; the de-
to tlie discoverj' of a key to the meaning of struc5lion, by a great Deluge, of the whole
thehieroglj'phic inscriptions on the Egyptian human race, except Noah and his wife and
monuments. The fragmentary writings of his three sons and their wives, and their
Sanchoniathon give us some light on Phoeni- salvation in the Ark, which rested on Moinit
cian history; those of Berosus on Babylonia Ararat, in Armenia; the vain attempt of
and Assyria; Manetho's lists of the thirty Noah's descendants to avert a similar pun-
w
N
o
w
p
>
td
o
D
Men Di'KtNG TRK Stone Age. Men during the KRONZt Age.
VKEHISTORIC MAN.
Medeak Nohle. Assyrian Hi(;h Pkikst Assyrian King.
THE EARLIEST HISTORICAL T1ME&

INTRODUCTION. 27
ishmcnt by building the great Tower of Knight, Merivale, Milman, Hallam and
Babel, and the consequent Confusion of others. France, in the last century, pro-
Tongues and the Dispersion of the human duced Rollin and Voltaire; and in the pres-
race, which led to the peopling of everj' ent centurj' have flourished Thiers, Guiiot,
quarter of the globe by the descendants of Sismondi, Mignet, Michelet and the broth-
Noah's sons, Shem, Ham, and Japheth. ers Thierry. In the last century- Germany
The writings of Berosus, the Babylonian gave the world a great ecclesiastical histo-
historian, also describe the Creation, the rian in the person of Mosheim; and in the
Deluge and the Confusion of Tongues. present century a number of German histo-
Every civilized nation and savage tribe has rians have given the world the benefit of
some vague idea of a great flood that once their scholarly researches, among whom we
covered the earth, but they all differ in their may mention Niebiihr, Neander, Rottcck,
details. Heeren, Schlosser, Mommsen, Curtius and
We have already alluded to the writings Leopold von Ranke. Among American
his-
of Sanchoniathon, the Phoenician historian; torians the most renowned have been Hil-
Berosus, the Babylonian Manetho, the
; dreth, Prescott, Bancroft, Motley, Lossiug
Egyptian; Herodotus, the "Father of His- and Parkman.
tory," and the great Hebrew lawgiver, All traditions and written accounts point
Moses, the earliest sacred historian. He- to Asia as the cradle of the human race.
rodotus was the first of Grecian historians. According to the prevalent belief of modem
Other Greek writers of historj^ were Thucyd- scholars, mankind spent its infancy in the
ides, the great philosophic historian; Xen- region between the Indus and the Euphrates,
ophon, the writer of charming historical the Arabian Sea and the Jaxartes. The ex-
romances; Cte.sias; Diodorus Siculus; Polyb- adt location of the Garden of Eden, or Par-
ius; and Plutarch, the charming biogra- adise, is not known. The Oriental nations
pher of antiquity. Ancient Rome produced reckon four Paradises in Asia one near —
lyivy, Tacitus, Sallust, and Cornelius Nepos, Damascus, in Syria; another in Chaldsea; a
who have given us the facfls of Roman his- third in Persia; and a fourth in the island
tory. For the history of the ancient He- of Ceylon, where there is a lofty mountain
brews we are indebted to the books of the called Adam's Peak.
Old Testament and the works of Josephus, Mankind has been classed by different
the celebrated Jewish historian, who wrote ethnologists into a variety of races or types
a complete history of his countrymen in of humanity; the most generally accepted
Greek. Among early Christian church his- classification for the last century being Blu-
torians were the Roman Eusebius and the menbach's division into five races — the Cau-
Anglo Saxon, the "Venerable Bede." The casian, or white race; the Mongolian, or
Frenchmen Comines and Froissart were yellow race; the Ethiopian, or black race;
celebrated chroniclers of the Middle Ages. the American, or red race; and the Malay,
The Italian Macchiavelli achieved fame by or brown race. The only race which has
his historical writings. Among modern figured in history is the Caucasian. The
historians have been many who have ac- history of the civilized world is the hi.story
quired celebrity by their works. Such were of the Caucasian race. The great historical
the great trio of British historians who flour- nations have belonged to this race. The
ished a century ago — Hume,
Gibbon and only nations outside of the Caucasian race
Robertson, whose works have ever since which have attained to any degree of civili-
been regarded as standards. In the pres- zation or played the least part in history
ent centurj' England has produced many have been several Mongolian nations, as the
famous writers of history; such as Macaulay, Chinese, the Japanese, the ancient Parthi-
Carlyle. Grote, Thirlwall, Froude, Lingard, ans,and the modem Tartars, Turks, and
Arnold, Alison. Freeman, Rawliuson, Green, Magyars or Hungarians, and two American
28 INTRODUCTION.
Indian nations, the ancient Peruvians, and the Hamitic branch as the children of Ham.
tlieAztecs or ancient Mexicans. The Ethi- The name Arj'an means tiller of the soil;
opian and Malay races have never had any wherein this race has differed from the Tu-
history nor z.ny civilization. ranian, or nomadic races of Central Asia.
The origin of nations has been involved The ancestors of the Indo-European nations,
in obscurity, which has only quite recently the primitive Aryans in prehistoric ages,
been removed by the diligent study and the occupied that region of Central Asia in
patient research of modern European schol- which was located the ancient city of Bac-
ars. Investigation into the affinities of the tra, the modern Balk, in Turkestan. Here
various languages has given us some new this primeval race lived and attained to a
knowledge upon this interesting and im- considerable degree of civilization; pradlic-
portant subject. Comparing the languages ing agriculture and cattle-raising, and some
of most of the modern European nations of the mechanical arts, such as weaving and
with those spoken by the ancient Romans, sewing, metallurgy, pottery- manufa<5lure,
Greeks, Medes and Persians, and Hindoos, etc. They were also somewhat skilled in
we observe that all these languages had a architedlure, navigation, mathematics and
common origin, entirely different from those astronomy. They considered marriage a
spoken by the ancient Chaldees, Assyrians, sacred contradl; and, unlike other Asiatic
Phcenicians, Hebrews, Arabs and Egyp- peoples, they shunned polygamy. Children
tians; these latter being related to each were regarded as the light of the family cir-
other, but not to those of the nations pre- cle, as shown by the meaning of the names
viously named. The former of these lan- —boy, bcstoiver of happiness; girl, she that
guages are called Aryan, the latter Semitic comes rejoicing; brother, supporter; sister,
and Hamitic; while the Central Asian Tartar friendly. With regard to the Arj'an or In-
nomads have a language called Turanian. do-European race, it is found that the names
Modern philologists have divided the Cau- of many common objedls are very much
casian race into three great branches the — alike in all the languages and dialecfls
Aryan, Indo-European, or Japhetic; the spoken by these people. Thus the word
Semitic, or Shemitic; and the Hamitic. The house in Greek is domes; in Latin donnis;
Arj-an, or Indo-European, branch embraces in Sanskrit, or ancient Hindoo, dama; in
the Brahmanic Hindoos, the ancient Medes Zend, or ancient Persian, demana; and from
and Persians, and all the European nations, the same root is derived our word domestic.
except the Laps and Fins of Northern Eu- The words for ploughing, grinding corn,
rope, the Magyars or Hungarians, the Otto- building houses, etc., are also foimd almost
man Turks, and the Basques of Northern similar. This demonstrates that these na-
Spain, all five of whom belong to the Tu- tions must have had a common origin, and
ranian or nomadic branch of the Mongolian that they engaged in farming, making
race. The descendants of Europeans and bread and building hou.ses. They also
European colonists in America and other counted up to one hundred, and domesti-
quarters of the globe of course also belong cated the most important animals the cow, —
to the Aryan race. The Semitic branch the horse, the sheep, the dog, etc.; and
comprises the Hebrews or Israelites, the were acquainted with the most useful met-
Arabs, and the ancient Syrians, Assyrians, als, and armed with iron hatchets. The
Babylonians, Phcenicians and Carthagin- primitive Aryans were monotheists in relig-
ians. The Hamitic branch included the anion and worshiped a personal God. The
cient Chaldees, Egyptians and Ethiopians. Aryan or agricultural races had the patri-
The Aryan branch is called Japhetic, be- archal form of government, like the Tura-
cause has been supposed to be descended
it nian or nomadic races of Central Asia; but
from Japheth; while the Semitic branch the father, or head of the family, was sub-
is regarded as the posterity of Shem, and jecfl to a council of seven ciders, whose
INTRODUCTION. 29
chief was king, and from whose decision the Caucasian race has always played the
there was an appeal to heaven in the ordeal leading part in civilization; and has been
of fire and water. The Aryans followed the most acflive, enterprising and intelledl-
their leaders and kings, and fixed the dis- The Aryans have
ual in the world's history.
tiuiflion between right and wrong by laws always been peculiarly the race of progress;
and customs. All these fadls can be proven and have surpassed all others in the devel-
by the evidence of language, on the author- opment of civil liberty, the perfedlion of
ity of Max Miiller and other eminent phi- law, social advancement, and their progress
lologists. in art, science, literature, invention, and
The rapid increase of the Aryan popula- mode of living. The Aryans alone have
tion in its primeval home led to a division originated, developed and perfedted con-
of this primitive people into three branches stitutional, representativeand republican
—one crossing the Hindoo-Koosh and over- government. The present and the future
spreading the plateau of Iran and laying belong wholly to this highest type of human
the foundations of the great Median and development.
Medo-Persian Empires; another moving The Semitic branch has been noted for
southeastward across the Indus and becom- religious development, having given rise to
ing the ancestors of the Brahmauic Hindoos; three great monotheistic religions —
Judaism,
and a third migrating Europe in suc-
into Christianity, and Islam or Mohammedan-
cessive hordes, as represented by the Pelas- ism. The Hamitic branch were famous
gic, Celtic, Teutonic and Slavonic nations, builders, and their architecflural strucftures in
whose descendants now occupy the greater Chaldsea and Egypt were noted for their
part of Europe. These Aryan immigrants massive grandeur. The Semitic and Hamit-
into Europe seized the lands of the original ic nations, after attaining a certain degree
Turanian inhabitants, whose descendants of remained stationary; and
civilization,
are represented by the modern Basques of their civilization has utterly perished.
Northern Spain and the Laps and Fins of After the dispersion of mankind into
Northern Russia and Scandinavia. various quarters, men chose different occu-
The Aryan immigrants into Europe occupations and modes of living, according to
pied different portions of the continent. the diversities of their places of residence.
The Pelasgians settled in the Grecian and The inhabitants of steppes and deserts, in-
Italian peninsulas of Southern Europa, and terspersed only here and there with fertile
founded the Greek and Roman nations. pasture grounds, became shepherds and
The Celts spread over Western Europe, em- roved with their tents and herds from place
bracing the Spanish peninsula, Gaul and to place, thus becoming nomads or wander-
the British Isles; and became the ancestors ers; and was the breeding
their occupation
of the ancient Spaniards and Gauls, and of cattle and sheep. Those who occupied
the Welsh, Irish and Highland Scotch. favorable districts on the sea-coast soon dis-
The Teutons occupied Central Europe and covered, as population increased and their
the Scandinavian peninsula; and became resources developed, the advantages of their
the progenitors of the Goths and Vandals, situation. They accordingly pracfliced navi-
and the modern Germans, Danes, Swedes, gation and commerce, and sought for wealth
Norwegians, Dutch or Hollanders, and the and comfort, in furtherance of which ob-
Anglo-Saxons or English. The Slavonians jedls they ereefled elegant dwelling houses
overspread the vast steppes of Eastern Eu- and founded cities; whilst the inhabitants
rope; and their descendants are represented of less hospitable shores subsisted by means
by the ancient Sarmatians and the modern of fisheries. The dwellers upon plains
Russians, Poles, Bohemians, Servians, Bul- adopted agriculture and the peaceful arts;
and Croatians.
garians, Bosnians whilst the rude mountaineer gave himself
The Aryan or Indo-European branch of up to the cha.se, and, moved by a violent im-
;
30 IN TROD UCTION.
pulse for freedom, found his delight in wars The oldest civilizations were those found
and battles. By taming wild cattle, man in the Tigris-Euphrates and Nile valleys,
very early procured for himself domesticated in the Hindoo peninsula, and in the remote
animals. empire of China. The exa(ft origin of the
Commerce was a mighty fadtor in the de- ancient nations and civilizations is lost in
velopment and civilization of the human the dimness of their remote antiquity.
race, and the intercourse among nations. These regions were richly endowed by na-
Those who occupied fruitful plains, or the ture with the resources necessary for sus-
banks of navigable rivers, carried on an in- taining a dense population; and the oldest
land trade. The inhabitants of the sea-shores historic empires accordingly took their rise
conducfted a coasting trade. At first men in the rich alluvial lands watered by the
exchanged, or bartered, one article for Tigris and the Euphrates in South-western
another. At a later period thej' adopted Asia and by the Nile in North-eastern
the plan of fixing a certain specified value Africa.
upon the precious metals, and employed Historical Asia is South-western Asia
coined money as an artificial and more con- where the great Hamitic and Semitic em-
venient medium of exchange. The dwell- pires of Chaldcea, Assyria and Babylonia
ers in towns occupied themselves with me- successively flouri.shed, in the Tigris-Eu-
chanical employments and inventions; and phrates valleys; where the Hebrews and the
cultivated the arts and sciences for the com- Pha-nicians played their respecftive parts in
fort, happiness and refinement of life and the world's historic drama; and where the
for mental culture and development. Aryan race finally came upon the scene in
In the course of time nations became di- the appearance of the great Median and
vided into civilized and uncivilized, as their Medo-Persian Empires and the Graeco-Mace-
intelledlual development was furthered by donian Empire of Alexander the Great and
talents and commerce, or retarded and his successors, followed by the Parthian,
cramped by dullness and by isolation from Eastern Roman and New Persian Empires;
the rest of mankind. Uncivilized nations after which the Semitic race again prevailed
are either wild hordes under an absolute and in the sudden rise of Mohammed's religion
despotic chief who wields unlimited power and the great empire founded by his suc-
over his followers, or wandering nomadic cessors; followed by the conquests of the
tribes, guided by a leader, who, as father of Seljuk Turks from Tartary, the two centu-
the family, exercises the funiflions of law- ries of warfare between Christendom and
giver, governor, judge and high-priest. Islam for the possession of the Holy Land
Neither the wild hordes under their des- as represented in the Crusades, the terrible
potic chiefs, occupying the unknown regions scourges of the conquering Mongol and
of Africa (Negroes), the steppes and lofty Tartar hordes of Zingis Khan and Tamer-
mountain ranges of Asia, the primeval lane; and, lastly, the rise of the now-de-
forests of America ( Indians ), and the caying Mohammedan empires of the Otto-
numerous islands of Oceanica (Malays), man Turks and the modern Persians.
nor the nomadic races with their patriarchal All that part of Asia north of the Altai
government, find any place in history. This mountains, now known as Siberia, is a com-
subjecft only deals with those nations who paratively barren region and was unknown
have attained to .some degree of civilization in antiquity. Central Asia, now called Tar-
and have from similarity of customs and for tan,' and Turkestan, was anciently known as
mutual advantage engaged in peaceful inter- Scythia, and was then as now occupied b}-^
course with each other, and who have made nomadic hordes who have roamed over
considerable progress in the science of civil those extensive pastoral lands for countless
government and the development of politi- ages with their flocks and herds, having
cal institutions. no fixed abodes or cities and no other polit-
INTRODUCTION. 3»
ical arrangements than the patriarchal form political freedom, and the latter by their
of government. Accordingly, the Turan- laws and political institutions, influencing
ian races inhabiting that region have played all future European nations. The other
no part in history, except that the Tartar nations of ancient Europe were barbarians,
and Mongol races inhabiting those vast many of whom were conquered and civilized
steppes have at times overrun and con- by the Romans. The overthrow of the Ro-
quered the civilized countries of South- man dominion in the fifth century after
western and Southern Asia. Christ changed the current of
entirely
Thus, with the single exception of Egypt, European by a redistribution of its
history^
all the ancient Oriental nations had their population through the migrations and con-
seat in Asia. The populous empires of quests of its vast hordes of Northern bar-
India, —
China and Japan though they con- barians, who fourteen centuries ago laid the
tributed their jewels, spices, perfumes and foundations of the great nations of modern
silks to the luxury of the people of South- Europe. America and Oceanica were wholly
—
western Asia were almost unknown to the unknown to the ancient inhabitants of the
ancient Greeks and Romans; and though Old World, and have only occupied the field
their art and literature are vast, these had of historj' since their discovery and settle-
no influence upon the general course of the ment by Europeans within the last four cen-
world's progress. China and Japan are two turies.
ancient empires which have continued to History deals only with civilized man,
exist with but little change to the present and history proper only begins with the
time. The nations of Farther India are origin of civilized nations and with the
almost unknown to histon,'; while Hindoo- commencement of historical records. Ac-
stan, the seat of a dense Aryan population cordingly, the cradle of civilization — if not
from the earliest antiquity, and one of the the cradle of the human race —was the fer-
oldest civilizations, as attested by vast tile alluvial Tigris-Euphrates and Nile val-
architectural remains and a copious religious leys, where, with the dawn of civilization,
was unknown to history until
literature, flourished the old Chaldaean and Egyptian
Alexander's invasion, and became .succes- empires —the most remote of historical
sively the prey of Arabian, Afghan, Tartar, states of antiquity. Historj- begins with
Mongol, Portuguese and British conquest. Egypt, the oldest of historical nations.
The only historical part of Africa is Civilization and human progress have in
Northern Africa, or that part of the conti- the main followed the course of the sun. In
nent bordering on the Mediterranean sea the East arose those great nations and cities
and watered by the Nile; and the only great from which other lands have derived a part
nations of ancient Africa were Egypt, Ethi- of their civil institutions, their religion and
opia and Carthage. All the rest of the vast their culture. In the East, the land of the
continent was a dark region wholly un- camel, the "ship of the desert," originated
known to the ancient civilized nations of that caravan trade which contributed so
South-western Asia and Europe; and only vastly to human progress. To protedt them-
within the last four centuries have its West- selves against the rude Bedouins, the Ori-
em, Southern and Eastern coasts been dis- ental merchants traveled in large companies,
covered, explored, taken possession of and often armed, conveying their wares upon
colonized by Europeans; while the interior the backs of camels from place to place.
has been but partialh' visited by European These connnercial journeys gave rise to many
explorers, within the last hundred years. commercial cities and centers of trade, oc-
Southern Europe was the seat of the casioned the erection of store-houses and
greatest tvvo nations of antiquity — the caravansaries, and led to intercourse between
—
Greeks and the Romans the former by distant nations and to an interchange of pro-
their literature and philosophy and their du(5lions, religious institutions and .social
— —
INTRODUCTION.
policy. Temples and oracles of celebrity and its imposing grandeur; but it did not
often served for markets and warehouses. display the symmetry, harmony and utility
In the East all the great religions took their characfteristic of the architedlure of a free
rise and gained their full development, as people. Slavery paralyzed every outward
the Orientals have always been the most manifestation of Oriental life.
contemplative on all that concerns man's Besides being the cradle of the human
relations to the Deity. In the East the race, Asia is the birth-place of the great re-
patriarchal and despotic governments alone ligions and the home of absolute despotism.
prevailed. Where the system of castes pre- The two great pantheistic religions — Brah-
vailed, the priests and soldiers constituted manism and Buddhism; also the great mon-
the privileged classes, from both of which otheistic religions — Zoroastrianism, Juda-
ultimately arose the unlimited kingly power; ism, and Mohammedanism
Christianity
and the officers of state were regarded as arose in Asia; while Asiatic governments
slaves and menials, without personal rights to-day are what they have been from time
or property. The king, who was regarded —
immemorial absolute monarchies, or des-
with almost as much reverence as the Deity, potisms; no republic or constitutional mon-
disposed of the lives and possessions of his archy ever having flourished on Asiatic soil.
subjeifls at will. He
gave and took away Europe, on the contrary, inhabited by the
at his pleasure, and no one dared to appear progressive Aryan race, has carried political
before him without prostrating his body on institutions to the highest state of develop-
the ground. He lived like a god, in the ment; civil, political, and religious liberty
midst of pleasure and enjoyment, surrounded having had a steady growth. Asiatic civili-
by hosts of slaves, who obeyed his wishes, zation has been stationary, while European
executed his orders, and submitted them- civilization has been progressive. The
selves to his pleasures; and he was surround- Asiatics are passive, submissive, given to
ed by all the wealth and possessions, by all contemplative ea.se and disinclined to adlive
the pomp and splendor, of the world. In these exertion. The Europeans are a(5live, ener-
Oriental governments laws and human getic, vigilant and aggressive. Europe has
rights were nowhere; despotism and .slavery also colonized other portions of the globe;
prevlailed; and consequently there was no the greater part of the present populations
incentive to vital energy and no capability of North and South America being the de-
of permanent civilization. For this reason scendants of Europeans who settled in the
all Oriental states have become the easy New World, and drove away, or assimilated
prey of foreign conquerors, and their early with, the aborigines; while Europeans have
civilization has perished or remained sta- also settled in portions of Africa, Asia and
tionary. Oceanica. The Asiatics, on the other hand,
By original disposition, the Orientals are do not colonize.
more inclined to contemplative ease and en- In the Prehi.storic Ages — that the ages
is,
joyment than to adlive exertion; and for before recorded history — the patriarchal ioxva.
this reason they have never attained to free- of government prevailed; each father, or
dom and spontaneous acfkivity, but have head of a family, governing the whole family.
quietly submitted to their native rulers, or Since the formation of nations there have
groaned under the yoke of foreign oppress- been various forms of governments Autoc-
ors. After reaching a certain degree of racy, despotism, or absolute monarchy, where
civilization, they submitted themselves to the supreme power is vested in the monarch
an unenterprising pursuit of pleasure, and himself, without anj' restraint or limitation;
thus by degrees became .slothful and effemi- Limited, or constitutional monarchy, where
nate. Their pracflice of polygamy further the power of the monarch is limited by law
promoted their effeminacy. Oriental archi- or by constitutions giving the nobility, or
tedlure was noted for its gigantic designs aristocracy, and the masses some share in
— —
INTRODUCTION. 33
the government; Aristocracy, or government herds, who were universally despi.sed. Any
by nobles or aristocrats; Theocracy, or gov- one who violated the rules of ca.ste became
ernment by the Church in the name of the an outcast. The system of castes prevailed
Deity; Hierarchy or government by priests;
, for the longest time in its purest state in
Pure democracy, or government by the peo- India and Egypt.
ple diredlly; a.wA Representative democracy, or Man is naturally a religious being. A
republicanism, or government by the people world-wide religious sentiment seems to pre-
through their chosen representatives. There vail, but there have been many varieties or
have been several kinds of republics aris- manifestations of this .sentiment. Thus we
tocratic, where the few have governed, and have one God;
Monotheism, or the belief in
democratic, where the masses through their Polytheism, or the belief in many gods; Pan-
chosen representatives are the rulers. The theism, or the system which regards the
best examples of pure democracy were the whole universe, with all its laws and the
governments of ancient Athens and ancient different manifestations of nature, as the
Rome, where the people themselves assem- Supreme Being. Many polytheistic and
bled in a body for purposes of legislation. pantheistic nations have made idols, or im-
This form of democratic government can ages, as figures or representations of their
only exist where a state consists of but a deities; and for this rea.son have been called
single city with its surrounding territory, as idolators, pagans or heathen. The four
in the cases of the two ancient republics great monotheistic religions of the world
just cited; and is utterly impossible among have been the ancient Persian religion of
a population distributed over a vast extent Zoroaster; Judaism, or the religion of the
of country. Jews; Christianity; and Islam, or Moham-
Monarchs are called by different titles, as medanism. The leading polytheistic relig-
Emperor, King, Prince, Duke, Sultan, or ions were those of the ancient Egyptians,
Czar. The savage and barbarous tribes of Chaldceans, Assyrians, Babylonians, Phoe-
Asia, Africa, America and Oceanica are gov- nicians, Greeks, Romans and Scandina-
erned by their chiefs; and their govern- vians. The chief pantheistic religions have
ments are simple, as were those of all the been the two great religions of Hindoo or-
original nations. Even the civilized Asiatic igin Brahmanism and Buddhism.
nations have always been despotisms. It It is believed that originally monotheism
was only on the soil of Europe, occupied by was universal; but that sometime during
the progressive Aryan race, that civil lib- the prehistoric ages, after the dispersion of
erty was bom, and where the masses first mankind into various quarters, most nations
obtained any share of political power. A fell into polytheism and idolatry. Even
great hindrance to civil freedom among among polytheistic religions there is one
ancient Asiatic and African nations was the Supreme Being, who is superior to and
system of castes, by which men were sepa- above all the other deities; and for this
rated according to their occupations and reason all religions have been to some ex
conditions, which were transmitted without tent regarded as monotheistic. There are
the slightest change from generation to gen- also some polytheistic features about all
eration. The priests, who alone possessed a monotheistic religions, as the belief in the
knowledge of religious customs and institu- existence of angels, who, as dwelling in the
tions, and who bequeathed their knowledge celestial world, are beings superior to mor-
to their descendants, comprised the first tals. Among ancient nations the only truly
caste. The soldiers constituted the second monotheistic religions were those of the
caste,and shared with the priests the gov- Hebrews and the Medo-Persians — the one
ernment of the people. The third caste Aryan people.
a Semitic and the other an
were the tillers of the soil, the fourth caste From time immemorial the custom has
the artisans, and the fifth caste the shep- prevailed among pagan and polytheistic
34 INTRODUCTION.
nations of making idols or images of wood, To further delude the masses, the priests
stone, metal or clay, to represent their dei- invented legends, fables and myths about
ties; and these have been fashioned into a their gods, clothed them in poetic fancy,
great variety of forms. Temples and altars and thus originated mythology, or the
have been erecfted for the worship of these science of their gods. In the.se legends,
deities; and sacrifices have been offered to fablesand myths, the deeds of the different
them, partly to appease their wrath, and gods and their dealings with men were de-
partly to obtain their favor. These sacrifices scribed in enigmatical allusions, allegories
have varied in charadler with the civiliza- and figurative expressions. The nations
tion cf the people who have offered them. with the greatest amount of creative imagi-
The ancient Greeks and Romans, in their nation and religious impulse possessed the
joyous festivals to their gods, socially con- richer mythology. These stories of the
sumed the fruits of the earth and animals gods incited the people to superstition; and
from the firstling of a flock to the solemn the solemn worship in the temples and
sacrifice of a hecatomb (a hundred oxen). sacred groves, with their mysterious cere-
Savage tribes have slaughtered human be- monies and symbolical usages, maintained
ings upon their altars, to appease by blood a feeling of veneration and religious awe.
the wrath of their offended deities. The To inspire in the people a feeling of the di-
Phoenicians and Syrians placed their own vine presence, sacred places and temples
children in the arms of a red-hot idol, Mo- were provided with oracles, from which the
loch. At first the image or idol was only a superstitious multitude might get light into
visible symbol of a spiritual conception or the mysteries of the future, in obscure and
of an invisible power; but this higher signi- ambiguous language. In this way and by
fication often gave way in the progress of such means the priesthood swayed the
time to the worship of the inanimate image masses in most countries; and thus secured
itself; the priests only being sensible of any power, honor and wealth for themselves.
deeper meaning, which they kept from the The people were enslaved by ignorance,
people for purposes of their own. credulity, superstition and fear.
BRANCHES OF THE CAUCASIAN, THE ONLY HISTORICAL RACE

L Aryan, or Indo-European Branch. 5. Celtic N.\tions.
1. Ancient Britons, Gauls and Spaniards.
1. Hindoos.
2. Irish, Welsh, and Scotch Highlanders.
2. Medes and Persians. 3. Bretons (West of France).
3. Hellenes, or Greeks. Sl.wonic N.ations.
7.
4. Latin, or Romanic Nations. 1. Russians.
1. Ancient Romans. 2. Poles.
2. Italians. 3. Bohemians.
3. French. 4. Servians.
4. Spaniards and Spanish Americans. 5. Bulgarians.
5. Portuguese and Brazilians. 6. Bosnians.
6. Flemings, or Belgians. 7. Croatians.
7. Roumanians.
II. Semitic Branch.
5. Germanic or Teutonic Nations. 1. Hebrews, or Israelites.
1. Germans. 2. Arabs.
2. Danes. "j
3. Syrians.
3. Swedes. > Scandinavians. 4. Assyrians and Later Baiivloniaiis.
4. Norwegians. J 5. Phcenicians and Carthaginians.
5. Dutch, or Hollanders.
6. English and Anglo-American (A-jglo-Saxon). III. Hamitic Branch.
7. Scotch Lowlanders. 1. Chaldees, or Early Babyi-ontans.
8. Norman-French. 2. Egyptians and Ethiopians.
'ii ir X I y j^
^ E D I J,
^ ^ W=-^.'^'2fi?#fe%
c.
30
Ci,
'""an.
20 30
PART FIRST.
ANCIENT HISTORY.
Medean Noble— Persian Noble— Persias. Assyrian Warrior with Wicker Shield— War-
rior WITH RoDND Shield— Archer.
ASSYRIAN— Assyrian Noble— Assyrian CotTRTIE« Persian Warrior — Persian Noblk— Persiak
Warrior.
MEDIA, ASSYRIA. PERSIA.

CHAPTER I.
ANCIEiNT EGYPT.
SECTION I.— THE COUNTRY AND PEOPLE.
:;>)lLTHOUGH Asia was the cra- occasioned by the heav)- rainfalls in the up-
dle of the human race, the cra- lands of Abyssinia ; so that this mighty
dle of civilization was in the stream, the only river of ICgypt, in whole
its
Nile valley, which, from the course through the country from south to
island of Elephantine, in the north, by its mud deposits renews yearl}^ the
Nile, northward to the Mediterranean .sea, .soil of this narrow valley, which really con-
a distance of five hundred and twenty-six stituted ancient Egypt, and who.se average
miles, was the seat of ancient Egj'pt, "the width, from the modem city of Cairo .south
mother of the arts and .sciences. In Egypt
'
' to the First Cataracl, does not exceed fifteen
we first find a civil government and political miles. The Nile discharges its waters into
institutions established; and although Eg>^pt the Mediterranean through three distindt
may not be the oldest nation, Egyptian his- channels, which branch off from each other
tor>' is the oldest histor}-. The monuments, about ninety miles from the sea, and which
records and literature of Egypt are far more enclose the region called the Delta, from its
ancient than those of Chaldaea and India, resemblance in form to the Greek letter of
the next two oldest nations. The ruins and that name. The Delta has always been a
monuments of ancient civilization found in region of unsurpassed fertility. The spon-
the Nile valley render that countrj- one of taneous growth of the date-palm furnished
-themost interesting on the globe. While the people with a cheap and abundant article
the progress of other nations from ignorance of food ; and the immense yield, with com-
and rudeness to art and civilization may be parativel}- slight labor, of large crops of ce-
easil}- traced, Eg}"pt appears in the earliest reals, because of the natural fertility of the
twilight of history a great, powerful and soil, rendered this region, from primitive
highly civilized nation; and her gigantic times, capable of sustaining a dense popula-
architectural works are the most wonderful, tion, and made it the primeval seat of organ-
as well as the most ancient in the world, ized human society.
showing a .skill in the quarn-ing, tran.sport- Ancient Egypt was divided into three
ing, car\'ing and joining of stone which geographical seclion.s —the Thebais, or Up-
modem architedls may admire but are un- per Egypt, in the south ; the Heptanomis,
able to surpass. or Middle Egypt, in the centre ; and the
From the earliest antiquity- Egypt has Delta, or Lower Egi'pt, in tlie'north. The
been called "the Gift of the Nile." From chief city of the Thebais was the
hundred-
'
'
time immemorial this renowned land, in the gated Thebes," whose ruins, extending for
midst of surrounding deserts, has been one seven miles on both banks of the Nile, a.s-
of the most fertile regions of the globe, and tonish the modern traveler, as he gazes upon
was in consequence the great granary of an- the remains of magnificent temples, .splendid,
tiquity. This unsurpassed fertility is attrib- palaces, colossal statues, obelisks, .sphinxes,
\itable to the annual overflow of the Nile, tombs hewn in the solid rock, stibterranean
41
1— 3.-U. H.
42 ANCIENT HISTORY.— EGYPT.
catacombs, and the gigantic statue of Mem- later days of antiquity, the metropolis of
non. Karnak and Luxor are the portions Egypt, and from its location it became the
of Thebes which present the most stately gi2at commercial center of the civilized
ruins, the most imposing being the great world, while being also the seat of learning
temple at the former place. The most an- and civilization.
cient city of Upper Eg>'pt was This, after- To the .south of ancient Egypt, in the re-
ward called Abj'dos. Other cities of this gion now embracing Nubia and Aby,ssinia,
se(5lion were Lj'copolis, Latopolis, Antasop- was the ancient Ethiopia, whose people had
oli.s and Ombos. The southernmost points also attained a high state of civilization, as
of Egy'pt were Syene and the island of Ele- is fully proven b}- the existence of ruins
phantine, in the Nile. The leading city of along that portion of the Nile valley similar
the Heptanomis was Memphis, on the west to those of Egypt. On the west of Egypt
side of the Nile, founded \iy Menes, the first was the great Libyan Desert, now called the
Egj'ptian king, and whose wonderful ancient Sahara.
splendor is now attested hy its ruins. In The population of ancient Egypt is known
the vicinitj' of Memphis was the famous Lab- tohave been at least five millions, and may
j-rinth, and here also are the great Pj-ramids have been seven millions. They belonged
of Ghizeli —
the most imposing monuments to the Hamitic branch of the Caucasian race,
ever eredted by human hands. Other famous and originally came from Asia, being, ac-
cities of Middle Eg3'pt were Heracleopolis, cording to the Hebrew account, the descend-
Hermopolis and Letopolis. The Delta was, ants of Misraim, the grandson of Ham.
in ancient times, thicklj' studded with cities, They were a brown
mild in their gen-
race,
chief of which were Avaris, or Tanis, Sais, eral charadter, polished in their manners,
Bubastis, Mendes, Rameses, Heliopolis, Mag- and were by nature obedient and religious.
dolon, Pelusium, Canopus and Hermopolis. They were cleanly in their habits and food,
The famous Greek city of Alexandria, on and in con.sequence were a healthy, hardy
the western side of the Delta, was, in the people.
SECTION II.— SOURCES OF EGYPTIAN HISTORY,

HE historj-of Eg^'pt dates back were gods, spirits, demigods, and manes, or
to the most remote antiquity. human souls ; which amounts to saying
The early Egyptians believed that the earliest history of Egypt, like that
that there had been a time of most other countries, is unknown or in-
when their ancestors were sav- volved in the obscurity and uncertainty of
ages and cannibals, dwelling in caves in legend and fable.
those ridges of sandstone which border the The history of this great ancient people
valley of the Nile on the eastand that ; has been derived from several sources — the
their greatest benefadtors were Osiris and Greek his-
historical writings of the ancient
Isis, who rai.sed them into a devout and civ- torians, Herodotus and Diodorus, and the
ilized people, eating bread, drinking wine native Egyptian priest Manetho, and in
and beer, and planting the olive. For this modern times from the deciphering of the
reason the worship of Osiris and Isis became inscriptions on the Egyptian monuments and
general throughout Egypt, while the differ- from the discoven- of the records on rolls of
ent cities and nomes had their own respect- pap^TUS found in the tombs.
ive local deities. According to Manetho, The ancient sources of Egyptian chronol-
a native Egyptian historian of the later og\- are obscure and conflicfting. The Greek
days of antiquit)-, the first rulers of Egypt historians represented the Egyptians as the
;
S()('A'C7-:S OF EGYPTJAX Jf/SICN): 43
first race of nieu. When Herodotus visited In the third centurj* before Christ, an
Eg\'pt, about the middle of the fifth centurj- Egyptian priest, named Manetho, compiled
before Christ, the native priests read to him, a history of his country in three volumes,
from pap>TUS, the names of three
rolls of giving the reigns of all the kings from the
hundred and forty-one kings, from Menes, founding of the monarchy by Menes to the
the founder of the monarchy, to Seti. In first Persian conquest of Egypt, 525 B. C,
the great temple of Thebes the priests showed through twenty-six dynasties, and through
Herodotus the wooden images of three hun- four more dynasties until the final Persian
dred and forty-fivepriests, who, from father conquest in 346 B. C, making thirty dynas-
to son, had held the sacerdotal office during ties in all. This work was afterward lost,
the reigns of these kings. From these data but fragments of it were transcribed by Jo-
Herodotus estimated the antiquity of Egj'pt sephus, Julius Africanus, Eusebius, Syncel-
to have been nearly twelve thousand years, lus, and other and thus handed
historians,
coiniting three hundred and forty genera- down According to
to future generations.
tions from Menes to Seti, with three gener- Manetho' s calculation, the founding of the
ations to each century, and reckoning a kingdom by Menes occurred in the year 5706
centur>- and a half from the beginning of B. C. in the Egyptian reckoning, and in the
Seti's reign to the Persian conquest of Egypt, year 5702 B. C. of the Julian calendar.
B. C. 525, which latter event had occurred Manetho' s record of the first seventeen dy-
about seventy-five years before the visit of nasties, embracing the periods of the Old
the "Father of Histon,-" to this celebrated Empire and the Middle Empire, is ver>' ob-
land. According to this computation, based scure, on account of fa(5ts and dates found
upon the recorded traditions of the Egyptian recorded in the monumental inscriptions of
priests, the founding of the Egyptian mon- that long period of over twelve centuries
archy by Menes occurred more than twelve and it is hard to decide whether the thirty
thousand five hinidred j-ears before Christ. dynasties w-ere consecutive, or whether sev-
In the first century before Christ, Diodo- eral of them were contemporaneous. This
rus Siculus, another Greek historian, also fadlhas made it difficult to fix the exacft or
visited this renowned land, and to him the approximate date of the establishment of
priests read from their sacred books the the Old Empire by Menes.
names of four hundred and sevent}' kings, A list of the names of kings was also pre-
beginning with Menes, with accounts of ser\-ed in the Turin Papyrus, recorded more
their appearance, stature and actions. From than a thousand years before the Christian
the information he thus received, giving era. Other sources of ancient EgA'ptian his-
three generations to a century, Diodorus tory are the allusions made to that country
computed the founding of the kingdom by in the Hebrew Scriptures.
Menes at nearlj^ seventeen thousand years In the past century our knowledge of this
before his time. But careful research re- famous land has been immen.sely extended
vealed to him many errors in the tradition- by the discovery of the art of deciphering
ary records, and his correcfled accounts assign the inscriptions which this ancient people
the founding of the Old Empire by Menes lavishly car\-ed on their buildings and mon-
at 4800 B. C. uments, particularly their obelisks, painted
About three centuries before Christ, the on the frescoed insides of their tombs, and
learned Greek antiquarian, Eratosthenes, adlually cut on nearly all objedls of art or
librarian of Alexandria, copied the names use. These writings and carvings were in
Theban kings from the holj'
of thirt>--eight the character of what are known as hiero-
books of Thebes, which list W'as finished b\' glyphics, a Greek word signifying sacred
Apollodorus by adding the names of fifty- carvings or priestly writing The knowl-
three more, thus giving a full list of ninetx- edge of the reading of these inscriptions per-
one kings. ished with the decay of ancient Egypt, and
'

for many centuries the tenn '
' hieroglyphics
'
nance of the Egyptian priests decreeing
was synonymous with everything mysteri- honors to Ptolemy Epiphanes, one of the
ous. famous Greek dynasty who governed Egj'pt
The unraveHng of this mystery was during the first three centuries before Christ,
brought about by an interesting incident. and that accounts for the existence of the
During Bonaparte's invasion of Egypt in three texts on the tablet. The great task
1798, a French engineer, while engaged in of deciphering these inscriptions was chiefly
digging the foundation of a fort near the the work of the noted French savant, Cham-
Rosetta mouth of the Nile, discovered a stone pollion.
tablet about three feet long, on which was On account of the obscurity and uncer-
car\'ed an inscription in three different char- tainty of early Eg}'ptian chronology, modem
adlers. This tablet has become celebrated historians and Egj'ptologists have differed
as the Rosetta Stone. The lower of the three widely as to the antiquity of this most an-
textswas Greek, and ea.sily tran.slated; the cient The French Egyptolo-
monarch}-.
upper text was in the hieroglyphic style, gists,headed by M. Mariette, place the
while the middle text was in a character founding of the First Dynasty by Menes at
since styled demotic, meaning the writing of 5004 B. C. The German Orientalists and
the common people (from rt'cwoi-, the people). Egj'ptologists differ, Bockh fixing the date
Copies of this inscription were circulated at 5702 B. C, Dr. Brugsch at 4455 B. C,
among the learned men of Europe, and after Lauth at 4157 B. C, Professor Lepsius at
long and patient efforts the alphabet of the 3892 B. C, Baron Bunsen at 3059 B. C, and
hieroglyphics was discovered so that these
; Dr. Duncker at 3233 B. C. The English
carved in.scriptions on old Eg\'ptian works Egyptologists, at the head of whom stands
of art and archite(5lure can now be easih' and Sir Gardner Wilkinson, regard the year
correcflly read,thus giving an abundance of 2700 B. C. as about the approximate date;
new light on the historj' of this wonderful and, as it is necessarj' to have some fixed
land of antiquity. The Ro.setta Stone was chronological basis, we will follow the En-
car\-ed about ig6 B. C, and was an ordi- glish view in the present work.
SECTION III.— POLITICAL HISTORY.

|HE history of ancient Egypt has Empire was the most brilliant period of
been divided into three di.s- Egyptian history, and ma}^ be subdivided
periods.
tin(5live The Old into two sharply-distinguished epochs the —
Empire extended from the es- grand age, from 1600 B.C. to 1200 B. C;
tablishment of the First Dy- and the age of decay, from 1200 B. C. to
nasty at Memphis by Menes, in the very 525 B. C.
earliest times, to the conquest of all Egypt Egypt was originally divided into a num-
by the Hyksos, or Shepherd Kings, about ber of no7nes or petty states, independent of
1900 B. C. The Middle Empire the epoch — each other, and each having for its nucleus
of the rule of the Hyksos over the whole a temple and an established priesthood.
—
country embraced the period from 1900 B. One historian mentions fifty-three nomes.
C, to the expulsion of the Shepherd Kings another thirty-six. The gradual absorptiop
in 1600 B. C. The New Empire lasted over of the weaker nomes by the more powerful
a thousand years, from 1600 B. C. to the finally resulted in the establishment of this
Persian conquest of Egypt in 525 B. C. ,

first consolidated monarchy of Africa.
since which time this famous land has not The mortal king of Misraim, the
first
been governed b>' a nati\-e prince. The New "double laud," was MenES, who, according
POLITICAL HISTORY. 45
to Manetho, founded the First l-lgyptian — who was skilled in medicine and wrote
Djnasty at This (afterwards Abydos), in works on anatomy, of which portions still
Upper Egypt. This was the beginning of exist, and who built the citadel and palace
the Oi,D Empire, which lasted from the ear- of Memphis. Kenkenes, the third king,
liest times to the conquest of all Ivgypt by was succeeded by Uenephes, who built the
the Hyksos, about 1900 B. C. Menes, the Pyramid of Kokome, believed to be the
first Egyptian king, conquered and improved oldest of all those wonderful stru(5lures, and
Lower Egypt, and on a marshj' tradl which who bore the name of the Sacred Calf of
he had drained and protecfled by dykes Heliopolis. Altogether the First Dynasty
against the annual overflow of the Nile, he comprised eight kings.
founded the great city of Memphis, which, The Third Dynasty reigned at Memphis
for many centuries, remained the capital of and embraced nine kings. The first of these
the flourishing kingdom which he had es- was Necherophes, who is said to have con-
tablished. At Memphis Menes built the quered Libya, the superstitious Libj-ans
temple of Phthah, and there were won the having been frightened into submission by
THIC GREAT PYRAMID.
first recorded triumphs of this ver\- oldest an eclip.se of the moon as thej- were prepar-
of ancient civilized nations. On the north ing for battle. Tosorthrus, the second
and west sides of his capital, Menes caused king of this dynasty, encouraged writing,
artificial lakes to be construcfted for the de- medicine and architedlure, and introduced
fense of the city, and on the south side a or improved the art of building with hewn
large dyke protected it against the annual stone, previous structures having been made
overflow of the Nile. The pul)lic treasures of rough stone or brick. He was known to
were established in the cit\-, the laws were the Greeks as the "Peaceful Sesostris," the
revised and the civil administration im- later two mouarchs bearing that name being
proved. After a reign of sixty-two years, great warriors and conquerors.
Menes is said to have perished in a struggle His son and succes.sor, Sasvchis, or
with a hippopotamus, and was deified by Mares-sesorcheres, renowned law-
was a
bis admiring countr\-men. giver, who is said to have organized the
Menes was succeeded b\- his .son Atet.v worship of the gods, and to have invented
—called Athothis, or Thoth, by the Greeks the sciences of geometry and astronomy.
He is likewise said to have made the remark- of stone. Gradually the heap of roj-al tombs
able law that a debtor might give his father's assumed the form of the Pj-ramids, the struc-
mummy as security for a debt. If the debt ture becoming, by degrees, more regular in-
was not discharged, neither the debtor nor ternally and externally, so that the finished
his father could ever rest in the familj' sep- pile has been the wonder of succeeding ages.
ulcher, and this was regarded as the most Along the elevation west of Memphis about
disgraceful fate that could befall a mortal. seventy of these stupendous strudlures were
The monumental and more certain historj* eredled. Of these, three were specially cel-
of Egypt commences with the Second, ebrated becau.se of their size and grandeur.
Fourth and Fifth Dynasties, which reigned These are the Pyramids of Ghizeli, near
contemporaneously the Second at This, in
; which city they^ are located. They were
Upper Egypt the Fourth at Memphis, in
; built in the twenty-fifth centurj- before
Middle Egypt and the Fifth in the Isle of
; Christ. These three are more conspicuous
Elephantine, in Upper Egypt. Of these the than the remaining se^-en of the same group
Fourth Dynasty, established at Memphis in that vicinity. The oldest and largest of
about 2450 B. C, was the most powerful and the three great Pyramids of Ghizeh is that
exerci.sed a certain degree of supremacy over —
of Khufu the Cheops of Herodotus who —
the other two. This Memphite dynasty was the successor of Seneferu or Boris, the
consisted of eight kings, and its greatness is first king of the Fourth Dynasty, and the
fully attested by the gigantic strudlures of builder of the northern Pyramid of Abousir.
stone which it left in Middle Egypt between The Pyramid of Cheops was originally
the Eib}'an Mountains and the Nile so that ; four hundred and eighty feet high, but as
it was the Fourth Dj-nasty that immortalized the apex has been broken off it is now but
itself as that of the Pyramid-builders, and four hundred and fifty feet high. The base
this period is one of the most brilliant in the covers about thirteen acres, and each side of
history of ancient Eg^'pt. the base is seven lunidred and sixteen feet
The great increase in the population had long, and the inclination is five lunidred and
placed at the king's disposal a large amount seventj^-four feet. The vast strudture is loca-
of unemployed labor, and the natural proted exacflly on the thirtieth parallel of north
ductiveness of the soil had given all ranks latitude, and its four sides face the cardinal
far more leisure than was enjoyed by any points of the compass. On the north side,
other people of antiquity. The long dura- exactly- in the middle, a rectangular opening
Uon of the yearl)' overflow of the Nile cau.sed is cut, being the entrance of a descending
a perceptible suspension in the various in- passage three feet wide and four feet high.
dustrial channels,and allowed the sovereigns The passage leads downward to a chamber
larger opportunities to employ the labor of cut in the solid rock of the foundation, over
the people in works which might carry their a hundred feet inider the ground-level of.
fame to countless future ages. Such were the base. The chamber is precisely under
the circumstances that led to the building the apex of the pyramid, at a distance of six
of the great Pyramids — the most gigantic hundred feet. At points in the main pas-
strucflures ever erecfted bj- human hands, sage to this chamber di\-erging passages lead
and which the kings designed for their tombs. to two other chambers, which also lie di-
These Pyramids are in the vicinity of the rectly under the apex of the Pyramid and
site of the ancient Memphis, about ten miles above the first chamber. In these chambers
west of the Nile, on a barren elevation, in were placed the stone coffins containing the
the sides of which were chambers hewn out nuimmies of these ancient monarchs. Upon
of the solid rock, in which the bodies of the the walls were sculptures recounting the
ordinary dead were interred. The kinglj- departed king's deeds. The door of the
sarcophagus was assigned a more pretentious passage was sealed with a stone, and the
sepulcher under more imposing monuments name of the dead sovereign was added to
BUILDING OF THE TYRAMIDS.
O
>
5^
t-H
roi.irrcAi. history. 47
the list of deities in the temple. Herodotus by the.se great works, and closing the tem-
says that the building of the "Great Pyra- ples of the and putting an end to
latter
mid" occupied thirt}- years, that one hun- their worship; but Menkaura, who was the
dred thousand men were forced to work upon son of Khufu, and who, as well as his father,
it at a time, and that a new army of laborers reigned sixty-three years, differed from him
was employed everj' three months. in being a good and humane sovereign.
The second of the three great Pyramids Menkaura reopetied the temples which his
was built by Khufu's celebrated succes.sor, had
father closed, restored the religious rites
Shafra. and was originally four hundred of sacrifice and praise, and put an end to op-
and fifty-seven feet high, and resembles the pressive labors. He was, in consequence,
Pyramid of Cheops in general proportion highly reverenced bj- the people, and his
and internal stnidlure. The third Pyramid name was celebrated in many hynnis and
of Ghizeh was eredled by Menkaura, tlte ballads. After the reigns of four more kings,
successor of Shafra, and is only two hun- known to us only by names and dates, the
dred feet high and thirty-three feet at the Fourth Dynastj-, whose eight reigns aggre-
base, and the inclination is two hundred and gated about two hundred and twenty years,
sixty-two feet. Some of the outside por- ended about 2220 B. C.
tions of Pyramid consist of polished
this The Second Dynasty, ruling Middle Egj'pt
slabs of granite. It has a double chamber from This, or Abydos, and the Fifth, ruling
within, one behind the other. In the farther Upper Egr^'pt from the Isle of Elephantine,
chamber was recently found the sarcophagus were probably related by blood to the pow-
containing the mummy of Menkaura him- erful sovereigns ruling Lower Egypt from
self,by General Howard \'3'.se; and the hie- Memphis, as the tombs of all three of these
roglyphic in.scription on the case containing, royal races are found in the \-icinity of Mem-
with the monarch's name, the myth of the phis. The Arabian copper mines of the
god Osiris, has been deciphered and transla- Peninsula of Sinai were worked b)- Egyptian
ted into English. It is only in recent times colonies established there by the P3Tamid-
that other royal mummies have been found. kings, and at this period Egyptian arts and
The Pyramids are built of successive lay- archite<5lure had attained their highest de-
ers of stone from two to six feet thick, in gree of perfedtion. Painting, sculpture and
proportion to the size of the structure. The writing, as well as modes of living and gen-
layers decrease in size from the ground up- eral civilization, were about the same as
wards, so that the monument appears on fifteen centuries later. The reed pen and
each side in the form of a .series of stone the inkstand are among the hieroglyphics
steps receding to the top. Diodorus saj-s emploj-ed, and the scribe appears, pen in
he was informed by the Egyptian priests hand, in the paintings on the tombs, making
that the gigantic masses of stone which notes on linen or pap},-rus. In the tombs of
were used in building the Pyramids were Beni-Hassan, belonging to this period, five
brought from Arabia, and were put into different kinds of plows are shown, and ag-
place by building under them vast mounds ricultural life is fully illustrated. Thus we
of earth, from which the blocks of stone ha\-e figures of sheep and goats treading seed
could be moved into their respective places. into the ground ; of wheat bound into
This statement .seems to be substantiated sheaves, threshed, measured, and carried in
by the fact that no stone of the kind used sacks to the granary; of bundles of flax on
in the constru(5lion of these vast monuments the backs of asses ; of figs gathered ; of
can be found within many miles from the grapes thrown into the press; of wine car-
place where the Pyramids were erected. ried into the cellar; of the overseer and
Khufu and his successor, Shafra, oppress- laborers in field and garden ; and of the bas-
ed the people and despised the gods, crush- tinado applied to the backs of laggards.
ing the former bj- the severe toils required W'e also have scenes of flocks and herds, of
48 ANCIENT HIS TOR Y. —EG V T. )
bullocks, calves, asses, sheep, goats; and The Fourth Dynasty at Memphis was
also domestic fowl, such as geese and ducks. succeeded by the Sixth Dynasty about 2220
The making of butter and cheese is likewise B. C. The Second Dynasty continued to^
shown. Other works of sculpture show us reign at This or Abydos, and the Fifth in
the spinners and weavers at their looms, the the Isle of Elephantine, while the Ninth
potter working the clay or burning his ware arose at Heracleopolis and the Eleventh at
in the furnace, the smith making javelins Thebes ; Egypt was now divided
so that
and lances, the painter at work with his into five Theban
separate kingdoms, the
colors, the mason with his trowel, the shoe- gradually becoming the most powerful, as
maker at his bench, the gla.ss-blower ph'ing the Memphite was losing its preeminence.
his art. The various grades of domestic life Thus weakened by division and exhausted
are illustrated, and we see servants at work. by the great architedtural works which had
OBELISK OF USURTASEN I. .^T HELIOPOLIS.
the kitchen implements used, also domestic withdrawn the people from the pratlice of
apes, dogs, cats, etc. In militarj' life we anns, the countrj' easih- fell a prey to the
have exhibited soldiers pradlicing in arms, barbarous nomad hordes from the neighbor-
fighting battles, battering walls and storm- ing regions of Sj'ria and Arabia. These
ing towns. Various sports and amusements entered Lower Egypt from the north-eastby
are likewise depidled, and we have here ex- way of the Isthmus of Suez about 2080 B. C,
hibited wrestlers, jugglers, musicians, male and soon became masters of the countr>' from
and female dancers, fishing parties with Memphis to the sea. They were called the
hooks and .spears and nets. Dwarfs and de- Hyksos, or Shepherd Kings. They carried
fomiities can also be seen, and ever>- con- on their conquests in the most cruel man-
dition of human life is found represented ner, burning the cities, razing the temples
upon imperishable tablets of stone. to the ground, slaying the inhabitants and
' —
POLITIC. If. ins TOR )

'.
49
reducing the women and children lo slavery. Nile, which he so improved by means of a
The Hyksos founded the Fifteenth Dy- canal and dykes as to retain, for purposes of
nasty at Memphis and the Sixteenth at Ava- from the
irrigation, a large part of the waters
ris, in the Delta, near the site of the later annual inundation, and thus increased the
city of Pelusiuni. Native dynasties con- fertility of the surrounding country.
tinued to reign in Middle and Upper Egypt, Architecflure and the arts flourished in
the Ninth at Heracleopolis, the Fifth in the Upper Egypt, and numerous canals were
Isle of Elephantine, while the Twelfth had constructed to increase the fruitfulness of
succeeded the Eleventh at Thebes, and the the soil by irrigation, while Lower Egypt
Fourteenth arose at Xois, in the Delta, in continued to groan under the oppressive rule
the ver\- heart of the conquests of the Shep- of the Hyksos, or Shepherd Kings. The
herd Kings, and maintained its indepen- Thirteenth Dynasty, which succeeded the
dence during the whole period of the Twelfth at Thebes, was compelled to give
dominion of the Hyksos. way before the Shepherd Kings and to seek
Under the vigorous rule of the Twelfth refuge in Ethiopia, thus leaving Upper
Dj-nasty, Thebes rapidly grew into a power- Egypt also to the mercy of the barbarous
ful and prosperous kingdom and extended Hyk.sos, who now ruled all Egypt, except
its supremacy over the kingdoms of Ele- Xois, in the Delta (B. C. 1900). The bar-
phantine find Heracleopolis, conquered the barous conquerors burned cities, destroyed
peninsula of Sinai and carried its arms tri- temples, and massacred or enslaved the in-
umphantly and Ethiopia. Us-
into Arabia habitants. During the Middle Empire—
URT.\SEN I. reigned over all Upper Egypt, —
from 1900 B. C. to 1600 B. C. this barbarous
and under Usurtasen II. and Usurtasen race held the native Egyptians insubjecftion;
III. Thebes attained its highest prosperity. the Thirteenth Dynasty at Thebes, the Sev-
Usurtasen III. enriched the country by enth and Eighth at Memphis, and the Tenth
numerous canals and monuments of his
; at Heracleopolis, holding their crowns as
power at Senneh, near the southern border of tributaries of the Shepherd Kings of the
the kingdom, still excite the wonder of the Seventeenth Dynasty.
traveler. His successor, Ammenemes III. This was the darkest period of Egyptian
the Maris or Loemaris of Manetho, and the history. The Hyksos destroyed the monu-
—
Moeris of Herodotus built the Eab^-rinth ments of their predecessors and left none of
in the Faioom, the most superb and gigantic their own, so that there is a gap of three
edifice in Egypt, which contained three centuries between the Old and the New Em-
thousand rooms, one half of which number pire, during which the Holy City of Thebes
were underground, and were the receptacle was in the hands of the barbarians; the an-
of the mummies of kings and of the sacred nals ceased, and the names of kings, either
crocodiles, and are known as the Catacombs. native Egjptian or Hyksos, are for the most
The walls of the fifteen hundred apart- part unknown to us. Late writers sup-
ments above ground were of solid stone and pose the Hyksos to have been the same as
entirely^ covered with sculpture. Herodo- the Hittites of Syria. After their ex-
tus, who visited this magnificent strucflure, pulsion from Egy'pt some of them found
declared that it surpassed all other human refuge in Crete, and reappeared in Palestine
works. He says: "The roof throughout about the same time that the Israelites en-
was of stone like the wall, and the walls tered that country' from the west. It is
were car\-ed all over with figures. Every believed by some that Joseph and the family
court was surrounded with a colonnade, of Jacob settled in Lower Egypt during the
which was built of white stones exquisitely- reign of one of the Shepherd Kings others, ;
'
fitted together. however, place that event a little later.
The same king constru<5led the Lake After their long Innuiliation under the
Mceris, a natural resen'oir near a bend of the oppressive rule of the Shepherd Kings, the
— ;
50 ANCIEiYT HISTORY.—EC, TT. ]
Egyptian people rallied for a great national tial spirit wrought up !)>' the struggle against
uprising under the Theban king Amosis, the H3'ksos displa3ed itself in warlike en-
Ames, or Aahmes and the H\-ksos were
; which
terprises against neighboring nations,
driven from Egypt, after a desperate contest, were again obliged acknowledge the su-
to
B. C. 1600. Then began the New Empire premacy of Egypt, whose arms were carried
— the most brilliant period of Egyptian his- in triumph into Ethiopia, Arabia and Syria,
tor\- —
which lasted a little more than a and even beyond the Euphrates.
thousand j-ears (B. C. 160x^-525). Amosis Amosis, the first king of the Eighteenth
united all Egypt into one kingdom, with Dynasty, reigned twenty-six years. The
Thebes for its capital, and founded the next king, Amcnoph I., married the widow
Eighteenth Dynasty. He married Nefru- of Amosis, and reigned twenty-one years.
ari, the daughter of the King of Ethiopia Thothmes I., the third king of the Eight-
'
the good and glorious woman
'
'
\\ho held
'
— eenth Dynasty, won great victories over the
the highest honor ever accorded a queen. Ethiopians and conquered the Canaanites of
.AN KGVPTI.\X KING DKSTROVING HIS ENlvMIKS.
For the next eight centuries Egypt re- Palestine, and even carried his arms east-
mained a single united kingdom; and during ward against the Assyrians in Mesopota-
the Ei,ghteenth, Nineteenth and Twentieth mia. He reigned twenty -one years.
Dynasties Egyptian .sculpture and architedl- Royal women were held in higher esteem
ure reached their highest degree of perfec- in Egypt than in any other ancient mon-
tion. During this period the hundred-gated arch}-. Thothmes I. was succeeded by his
Thebes attained the height of its .splendor. daughter, Ajienset, Mesphra, or Hatasu,
Its great temple-palaces were then built who acted as regent for her younger brother,
and numerous obelisks, "fingers of the Thothmes II., who died a minor. Amen-
sun," pointed heavenward. The horse and set held the regency for her next brother,
the war-chariot were now introduced into Thothmes III. Her reign of twent3'-two
Egypt, and the military caste for a time held years was brilliant and successful. She
a higher rank than the priestly. The mar- completed the temple of Aniun, and her
'
poi.iTic.ii nrsroRY 51
fame is commemorated by the two gigantic reign the Ivgyptians took Nineveh. He is
obelisks at Karnak. said to have brought to Egypt the bodies of

After the death of Ameiiset, her brother, seven kings whom he had slain in battle,
Thothmes III., Envious
reigned alone. and whose heads were placed as trophies
of his sister's fame, he caused her name and upon the walls of Thebes. After a short
image to be effaced from all the sculptures reign he was succeeded bj' his son, Thoth-
in which they had appeared together. MKS I\'., who is believed by .some writers to
Thothmes III. reigned alone forty-.seven have cau.sed the can-ing of the great Sphinx
years (B. C. 15 10-1463). He carriedon near the Pyramids. Amunoph III., the
wars in Ethiopia, Arabia, Syria and Meso- son and successor of Thothmes I\'., who as-
potamia, and defeated the Syrians in a cended the Egj'ptian throne B. C. 1448,
great battle at Megiddo, in Canaan, twice reigned thirty-six years, and was one of the
took Kadish, the chief citj- of the Kheta greatest monarchs of the Eighteenth D\-
tribes, and led his armies as far as Nineveh, nasty. He condu(5led succe.ssful wars against
from which city, according to inscriptions on the Libyans and Ethiopians, and adorned
his monuments, he took tribute. Thothmes his kingdom with many magnificent archi-
III. is no more distinguished for his militar}- tecftural works, and improved its agriculture
exploits than for the magnificent temples by the construction of tanks or resen-oirs
and palaces which he erecfted at Karnak, to regulate New temples were
irrigation.
Thebes, Memphis, Heliopolis, Coptos, and built at Thebes, where also two great Co-
in ever}' other city of Egypt and Ethiopia. lossi, one of which is known as the Vocal
Mcmnon, also belong to this reign but the ;
Amenopheum, of which they were orna-

ments, is now in ruins. The two Colossi
were huge granite statues of Amunoph III.,
with his mother and queen in relief on the
die, in front of the sancftuarj- of Osiris, and
ma)' still be .seen among the surrounding
ruins. The \''ocal Memnon, according to a
Greek tradition founded on the story of trav-
elers who visited the spot, was said to utter
a musical sound at sunrise like the twanging
of harp-strings. The pedestal is fifty-nine
feet high from base to crown. The palaces
of Luxor and Karnak, now among the most
conspicuous of the ruins of those famous
places, were connecfled by an avenue of a
^S!f^
CLEOPATRA'S NEEDLE.
thousand sphinxes, while at Thebes a col-
onnade in the same style was lined with
colo.ssal sitting statues of the cat-headed
.-Vs it stood in Alexandria (uow iu New York). goddess Pa.sht, or Bubastis. In the monu-
The records of his twelve successive cam- mental inscriptions of his times, Amunoph
paigns are inscribed in sculpture upon the III. is styled "Pacificator of Egy^Jt and
'
walls of his palaces at Thebes. The two Tanner of the Libyan Shepherds.
obelisks near Alexandria, which .some Ro- The reign of Amunoph III. was marked
man wit called Cleopatra's Needles, one of by great internal troubles, iu consequence
which is now in London and the other iu of his unsuccessful efforts to change the
New York, bear the name of this king. national religion. His .son, HoRUS, was his
Thothmes III. was succeeded by his son, legitimate successor, but his claims were
Amuxoph II., in the beginning of whose disputed by many pretenders, most of whom
52 ANCIENT HIS TOR V.—EG Yl'T.
were princes or princesses of the blood ro}-al, tlie whom the Greek writers named
Great,
and for thirty years the kingdom was in an and who, during his father's life-
Sesostris,
unsettled and distracted condition. Horus time, subdued both L,ibya and Arabia.
ultimately triumphed over and outlived all Upon ascending the throne he entered upon
his rivals, and died after reigning seven a career of conquest with the ultimate de-
j'ears in peace. He conducfted successful sign of universal dominion. Herodotus,
wars in Africa and enlarged the palaces at Diodorus, and Manetho relate, with .some
Karnak and Luxor. With the next king, variation in their narrative, his sulyugation
Resitot, or Rathotis, the Eighteenth Dy- of the neighboring nations. After dividing
nasty came to an end, B. C. 1400. his kingdom into thirty-six nomes and as-
The Nineteenth Dynasty was founded B. signing his brother Armais to the regency
C. 1400 by Raimkses I., who was descended in his absence, Rameses set out with an armv
THi: TWIN Ccil.USSl Ul' .V.MUNUl'U lU. Xlv.VK XUEBliS.
from the two kings of the Eighteenth

first of six hundred thousand foot-soldiers, twen-
Dynasty. He reigned less than two years, ty-four thousand and twenty-seven
horse,
and was succeeded by his son Seti, or thousand war-chariots, to conquer the world.
Sethos I., who inherited all the national He first reduced Ethiopia under subjec-
hatred toward the Syrian invaders of his tion and imposed upon that country a heavy
country, reconquered Syria, which had re- tribute of ebony, ivory and gold. He
volted forty years before, and extended his founded the Egyptian navy by building a
conquests as far as the borders of Cilicia fleet of four hundred war vessels on the Red
and the Euphrates. Seti built the great Sea, and reduced under his dominion the
Hall of Columns at Karnak, in which the islands and .shores as far as India. After
whole Cathedral of Notre Dame, in Paris, carrying his vidlorious anns eastward be-
could stand without touching walls or ceil- yond the Ganges, he rapidly subdued Asi-
ing and his tomb is the most magnificent
;
atic and European Scythia, and was only
of all the royal .sepulchers of ancient Egypt. checked in his conquering career in Thrace
The most renowned king of Egypt was l)y the severity of the climate and the scar-
Rameses II., (1388-1322 B. C.j, surnamed city of food. Wherever he conquered he

w
cq
D
W
•72
W
H
:
}'oi.rric.\i. HisroRY 53
erected momiments with the inscription nak. in the temple ere<5led by Rameses in
"Sesostris, king of kings and lord of lords, Kthiopia, in the ruins of Tanis, and on the
lias conquered this territory by the power of Rocks of Beyreut, it has been .shown that
his arms." After nine years of conquest, the principal scenes in his triumphant career
this triumphant warrior-king returned to his were enacted in the neighboring countries
kingdom with a vast booty and captives of Ethiopia, Arabia and Syria.
from the subjugated nations. The noted works of Rameses the Great
were the building of a great
wall from Pelusium to Heli-
opolis, to protecl Egypt on
the east against the inroads
of the Syrians and Arabs; the
cutting of a -sj-stem of canals
from Memphis to the sea ; the
completion of the famous Hall
of Columns Kaniak, begun
at
by his and the magnifi-
father;
cent temple of Amunoph HI.
at Luxor. Before this temple
were placed two sitting co-
lossi of Rameses and two red
granite obelisks, both of which
still remain with their hiero-
glyphic inscriptions as perfedl

as when they were cut, one
still standing on the original
spot, and the other greeting
the eye of the beholder in the
Place de la Concorde, in Paris.
In ever}- part of Eg>pt may
be found monuments com-
memorating the achievements
and greatness of this celebra-
ted monarch. At Ipsambul,
in Nubia, in a valley with
walls of j-ellow sandstone, two
temples are cut in the solid
rock, one dedicated to Ra by
Rameses the Great, and the
other to Hathor by his queen.
Before the temple of Rameses
are four stupendous colossi of
himself, over seventj- feet high,
and .seated on thrones. The
1I.\1.I. OK COLUMNS I.N THE GRE.^T TEMPLE .\T K.\RNAK.
shoulders of these colossal
Modern investigation has shown the mili- statues are twenty-five feet wide, and they
tary exploits of Ranieses the Great, as nar- measure fifteen feet from elbow to finger-tip.
rated by Herodotus and Diodorus, to ha\'e The image of Rameses stands conspicuous
been highly exaggerated. Bj' deciphering among those of the long line of deified sov-
the inscriptions in the Raniescum at Kar- ereigns of Ancient Egypt, on the walls of the
54 ANCIENT HIS TORY.— EG YPT.
êat temple of Abydos, while before the altar another image represents Rameses as a
mortal offering sacrifice to himself and his ancestors.
Under the Nineteenth Dynast}-, the magnificence and greatness of Thebes, then the
capital, surpassed the former splendor of Memphis. In Thebes the wonderi'ul works of
Thothmes IV., Amunoph III., Seti, Rameses II., and Rameses III., rose in majestic gran-
deur, on both .sides of the Nile, around a circle of fifteen miles.

Menepta, who succeeded Rameses the Great in 1322 B. C,
and reigned twenty' years, is now generally regarded as the
Pharaoh of the Exodus of the Israelites. In 1550 B. C, the
familjr of Jacob, the grandson of Abraham, the founder of the
Hebrew race, had settled in that part of Lower Egypt on the
east side of the Delta, known as the Land of Goslien, while
Jacob's favorite son, Joseph, was prime minister to the Egyptian
king, a post to which he is said to have been elevated on ac-
count of his services in saving the land from famine. Here
the posterity of Jacob or Israel multiplied during a period of
two and a half centuries. For a while the new race of stran-
gers were highly esteemed by the Egyptian kings and nation,
jut during the reigns of Seti I. and Rameses the Great, the
Egyptian authorities grew jealous of the rapidly increasing
Hebrew race and began to exercise a systematic oppression
toward them. The strangers were set to work at build-
ing and digging. Their labor enlarged the treasure
cities of Pithom and Rameses. They aided in the con^
stni<5tion of the great canal from the Nile,
Bubastis, to the Red Sea. They toiled in
brickyards and were beaten by the
ptian task-masters until they rose in
rebellion. The revolt was heightened
the withdrawal of religious privileges,
great leader, who had been
Mo.ses,
pelled to .save his by flight to the
life
d of Midian because he had slain an

yptian whom he had seen ill-treating a
brew, had now returned to his people and
sought to obtain King Menepta's per-
mi,s.sion to lead them in a
three daj's' march into the
desert to sacrifice to Jehovah.
It was only after Moses had
performed signs and wonders
in the king's hou.se that
Menepta allowed the Israel
ites to depart.
They followed the bank of
the gathering their
canal,
NE.\R THEBES- -THE viicAL MKMNON. people aloug the route of the
Hebrew towns, but upon reaching the Gulf of Suez were hemmed in by the hosts of the
Eg>'ptian king.
By the receding of the waters at that shallow point of the sea, by means of a "strong
por. rriCAL ins n )A' )
'.
55
east wind," as told in Exodus, the fleeing priest Osarsipli, of Heliopolis, for their leader.
numbering two millions, were en-
Israelites, He gave Ihcni laws, one of which gave them
abled to crass the bare, sandy bottom and permission to kill and eat the gods, the sa-
reach the opposite shore in safety. But the cred animals of the I^gyptians. He then
hosts of Menepta, while crossing the shallow directed them to fortifj- Avaris, and also sent
bottom in pursuit of the fugitives, were sud- an emba.ssy to Jerusalem to infonn the ban-
denly drowned by the returning waters. ished Hyksos of the course of events in
The account of the Exodus of the Israel- Egypt, to invite them to return, and to
ites, as related by Manetho and quoted by promise them the kej-s of Avaris. The
Josephus, differs from the Mosaic account in Shepherd Kings gladly availed themselves
detail. Manetho states that Menepta de- of the offer and returned with an army of
sired to see the gods, and was infonned by two hundred thousand men to reco\-er the
a priest of the same name that his wish could kingdom of their ancestors. When informed
only be gratified when he cleansed the land of this invasion of the Hyksos, King Me-
of lepers. The Pharaoh Menepta, therefore. nepta, influenced by superstition and fear,
cast eight)' thousand of the lepers into the fled in terror into Ethiopia, there to remain
stone-quarries east of the Nile. When the until the thirteen j-ears of leper rule should
son of Papius heard that .some priests and have pa.ssed. Thus Egypt was sacrificed to
men had thus perished, he feared
of learning the unclean, who rioted in the sacred places
the displeasure of the gods for having plot- until King Menepta returned with an army
ted to ruin or enslave holy men. But a of Egyptians and Ethiopians and expelled
vision informed him that others would come the lepers and their allies, the Hyksos, from
to aid the lepers and govern Egypt thirteen the kingdom. The name of the priest-leader
years. After writing this on a roll of papy- of the lepers had, in the meantime, beer
rus, he committed suicide. changed to Moyses, or Moses. The Egyu-
Menepta, becoming alarmed, liberated the tian historians always spoke of the Hebrews
lepers from the quarries. He assigned them as lepers.
Avaris, which had remained in ruins since After the reigns of Seti II. andSiPHTHAH,
the expul.sion of the Shepherd Kings. After the Twentieth Dynasty ascended the throne
rebuilding the city, the lepers chose the of Egypt in 1269 B. C, in the person of Set-
56 ANCIENT HIS TOR )
'.
— EG ) 'PT.
NEKHT. The next king was Rameses III., of former ages. Sculpture and painting de-
who, during a reign of thirt^'-two years and rived no new life from the study of nature,
in ten victorious campaigns, restored to but confined themselves to slavish copies of
Egypt the glory which she had possessed un- old models or dull and meaningless imita-
der the elder kings of the preceding dynasty, tions. The priestly caste aimed to hold all
subduing the Hittites and Amorites of Ca- things at a certain and un-
level, fixed
naan and the Ethiopians, Libyans and Ne- changeable. Thus, when progress ceased,
groes of Africa. Naval battles were fought decay at once commenced. The later mon- ,
during this reign, as attested by hiero- archs of the Twentieth Dynasty were but
glyphic inscriptions. Rameses III. built instruments in the hands of the priestly
the palace of Medinet- Abu at Thebes, of cla.ss.
which every pylon, every gate, and ever>' During this period of general military and
chamber gives some account of his brif- intellettual decline the priestly order aug-
liant exploits. Rameses III. had four sons, mented its power and influence to such an
each named Rameses, who reigned in suc- extent that it seized the throne, and the
cession. Rameses VIIL, who succeeded Twenty-first Dynasty reigning at Tanis, in
them, conducfted some successful wars. He the Delta, was a race of priest-kings. They-
was followed by seven other kings bearing wore the sacerdotal robes and called them-
the same name, but their reigns were short selves High Priests of Amun. Pisham I.,
and uneventful. Eg\'pt, which had reached one of this gave his daughter
priestly- race,
the pinnacle of its greatness under the Nine- in marriage to Solomon. The seven kings
teenth Dynasty, rapidly declined during the of this dynasty generally- had short and
Twentieth. The hieroglyphic inscriptions uneventful reigns (B. C. 1091-990).
no longer recount the grand military- ex- —
Sheshonk I. the Shishak of the Old
ploits of kings, and art and architedlure Testament and the founder of the Twenty-'
decayed. Egypt's conquests in Asia and —
second Dynasty married the daughter of
Ethiopia were gradualh' lost. From its long Pisham II., the last king of the previous
contacft with Asiatic nations, Egypt had dynasty, and also called himself High Priest
lost its national feeling, and foreign influ- of Amun. He made Bubastis, in the Delta,
ence was marked in the civil administration and restored the military- strength
his capital,
of the kingdom. The Pharaohs at this time of the kingdom. It was to Sheshonk that
became allied by marriage with foreign Jeroboam fled after his unsuccessful rebellion
—
courts, and foreign colonies Assyrian, Ba- against King Solomon; and Sheshonk es-
bylonian and Phcenician settled in the— poused the cause of Jeroboam in his revolt
countr)-; and the constant intercommuni- against Solomon's son and successor, Reho-
cation between the Egyptians and the Sem- boam, and invading Judah, took Jerusalem,
itic nations of Asia is shown by the presence plundered the treasures of the Temple
of Semitic names and the admission of Sem- and the palace, and compelled Rehoboam to
itic words to the Egj'ptian language, as well pay tribute. One of the inscriptions at Kar-
as by' the admission of foreign gods into the nak gives a list of one hundred and thirty-
Egyptian sanc5luaries, hitherto inaccessible towns and distri(5ls reduced by Sheshonk in
to any deity outside of the Egyptian pan- Syria. He made the office of High Priest
theon. The ovenvhelming predominance of Amun hereditary in his family.
of the priesthood, whose influence pervaded Sheshonk died C, and was suc-
in 972 B.
all ranks, from the highest to the lowest, was ceeded by his son Osorkon I., who reigned
a barrier to thought and progress of every- fifteenyears and was succeeded by his son
kind. The people were slavishly held to the Pehor. Osorkon II., the fourth king of this
old forms of religion, architecfture lan- dynasty, is believed by some writers to have
guished, no new buildings were erected, nor been the Zerah of Scripture, who invaded
additions made to the magnificent structures Syria and was defeated by Asa, King of
Egvptiax Courtier — F^c.yptian King — Fan Jewish Warriors— Jewish Kings.
B£ARKR.
Jewish HniH-PKiESx— Levites. Alexander The Great.
EGYPT, JEWISH KINGDOM, GREECE.

1—4.-U. H.
Jiidah, in the battle of Mareshah ( 2 Chron. mis.sion of Osorkon, king of Bubastis, and
xiv. 9-14). The reinaiiiiii}:; kings of the Tafnekht, the rebel leader, both of whom
T\vent5--second Dynasty, whieh ended with were generously pardoned by Piankhi, after
Takelot II. in 847 B. C, were insignificant taking a new oath of allegiance to the Ethi-
personages: and the process of decay and opian sovereign, who allowed all the native
disintegration rajiidly went on and was ag- rebel kings to retain their respective thrones.
gravated by tlieeni]iloynient of Li1)yan mer- But in a few years, Egypt revolted under
cenaries in preference to native soldiers. the leadership of Bkk-kn-kani-", called Boc-
Semi-independent principalities sprang up in choris by the Greeks, a native of Sais, who
different parts of the kingdom, successfully was the only king of the Twenty-fourth Dy-
defying ever\- effort of the Pharaohs to pre- nasty. Bocchoris, however, was soon con-
ser\-e the unity of the nation. The utter de- quered by Sabaco, or Shabak, the Ethio-
cay of the national spirit paralyzed both pian king reigning at Napata, and was
sovereign and people. burned alive in punishment for his rebellion.
The Twenty-third Dynasty, ^B. C. 847- S.\B.\co, the Ethiopian, thus founded the
758), which ruled at Tanis, comprised four Twentj'-fifth Dynasty, and is known in the
kings, none of them famous, and who.se Hebrew Scriptures as So, or Sevah. He
reigns were characflerized by revolutions and entered into an alliance with Ho.shea, King
civil wars. The Northern Ethiopian kingof Israel,and the Syrian princes against Sar-
dom, which had Napata for its capital, was gon. King of
Assyria, but was defeated bj'
founded by Piankhi, a descendant of the the As.syrian monarch in the jjreat battle of
priest-kings of the Twenty-first Egyptian Raphia, near the eastern borders of Egj'pt,
Dyna.st}-. Piankhi became virtual master B. C. 718. Sabaco fled to Ethiopia, retain-
of Egypt, which, according to his stele ing possession of Upper Egypt ; while the
found at Gebel-Berkal, was at this time di- sway was established over
of the Assyrians
vided into seven kingdoms, each ruled by a the Delta and Middle Egypt, over which
native Egyptian prince, who reigned under they placed tributary native princes, their
the suzeraintj- of Piankhi. Tafnekht, who policy being to weaken Egypt by dividing
ruled in the Western Delta and held Sais and it as much as possible.Sabaco's .son and
Memphis, endeavored to cast off the yoke of succes.sor, Shab.\tok, for a short time ruled
Piankhi, and headed a revolt which was allEgypt, but was deprived of the Ethiopian
joined by the other native Egyptian princes. crown by Tirhak.\h, or Tehrak; while
Piankhi's army took Thebes, defeated the the petty native Egyptian princes fonued
rebel fleet, besieged and took Hermopolis, an alliance with Hezekiah. king of Judah,
defeated the rebel fleet a second time at against Sennacherib, King of Assyria, but
Sutensenen and gained another great victory^ the allies were defeated in the South of Pales-
on land. Xanirut, the Hermopolitan king, tine and submitted to the sway of the vidlori-
besieged the Ethiopian garrison in Hermop- ous Assyrians. Instigated by Tirhakah, the
olis and recovered the cit)-. Thereupon Pi- Egyptian princes and the King of Judah
ankhi, in person, led an arm 3- against Her- again rose in arms against the Assj-rian
mopolis, and laid siege to the city, which he king. Again Sennacherib took the field
finally compelled Xamrut to surrender. Pi- against the allies and advanced to Pelusium,
ankhi also forced Pefaabast, king of Hera- in the eastern part of Lower Egypt, but his
cleopolis Magna, to surrender, and then at- army of one hundred and eighty-five thou-
tacked Memphis, which was defended \>y a sand men was destroyed by a strange panic
strong garrison devoted to Tafnekht. After which seized them in the night, and which
a desperate resistance and frightful slaugh- the Jews and Egyptians considered a miracu-
ter Memphis was taken, and its fall hastened lous interposition, B. C. 698. Sennacherib
the restoration of Piankhi's authority over fled in dismay to Nineveh and abandoned his
all Egypt. The revolt ended with the sub- conquests. The Assyrian defeat enabled
58 A XCIEX T HIS TOR )
'.
— FA; YPT.
Tirhakah to invade Egj'pt, kill Shahatok recei\x-d with acclamations in I'pper Egypt.
and reduce the whole land under lithiopian In Lower ICgypt he was opposed, but after
dominion. Tirhakah was at once involved a great victory at Memphis, he occupied that
in a struggle with Ivsarhaddon, King of cit}' and enlarged and beautified the temple
Assj-ria, Sennacherib's son and successor, of Phthah. The chapel to Phthah-Sokari-

who, in 672 B. C, in\-aded Kgypt, captured Osiris, recently uncovered b}- M. Mariette,
Memphis and Thei)es, drove Tirhakah back is full of Mi-anunon-Xut's .sculptures and in-
into Ethiopia, and established the Assyrian being inlaid with gold,
•scriptions, its stones
sway once more overall Egypt, whose twenty its paneling made of acacia-wood .scented
native princes were reduced to a state of vas- with frankincense, its doors of polished cop-
salage under the Assyrian monarch. A few per and their frames of iron. The princes
years afterward, however, Tirhakah re- of the Delta submitted and were generously
turned and expelled the Assyrian garrisons pardoned, governing their towns as Ethi-
from Egypt, which again acknowledged the opian and no longer as Assyrian vassals. Mi-
Ethiopian dominion; but his triumph was ammon-Nut returned to Ethiopia, and the
of short duration, as he was again deprived Ethiopian joke was soon shaken off by the
of his Egyptian conquest b\- Esarhaddon's Egyptians. The pett}- native Egyptian
.successor, A.sshur-bani-pal, who won the states for many years remained tributary
native Egyptian princes over to the Assyri- to Assyria, as the employment of foreign
an interest. Being allowed more local free- mercenaries, which had so long prevailed in
dom by the Assyrian king, they preferred Eg\'pt, had deadened the national spirit and
his rule to that of the more oppressive patriotism of the I\gyptian people, and thus
Ethiopian monarch. Tirhakah's stepson made it easy for the A.ssj-rians to hold the
and succe.s.sor, Rut-amimon
llrdamane — the countrj' in subjedlion.
of the Assyrian inscriptions endeavored to — PsAMMETiCHUS, oue of the native vice-
maintain the Ethiopian power in Egj'pt ; roys under the Assyrian monarch, encour-
and descending the Nile, he re-occupied aged by the growing weakness of the As-
Thebes and Memphis, drove the Assyrians syrian Empire, which was obliged to recall
out of Egypt and made him.self master of its garrisons from Egypt to defend itself
the country; but was soon driven back into against the destructive inroads of Scj'thian
Ethiopia by Asshur-bani-pal. Rut-ammon's hordes from Central Asia, seized the oppor-
successor, Mi-ammon-Nut, tells us that in tunity to throw off his allegiance to Assj'ria,
the fir.st year of his reign (about B. C. 660), and crushing the opposition of the native
he dreamed that a serpent appeared on his viceroy's,founded the Twenty-sixth Dy-
riglit hand and another on his left, and nasty, thus placing E^gypt once more under
when he woke they had disappeared. The the swa}^ of its native kings, after a century
interpreters informed him that this signified of foreign domtnion, Ethiopian and Assyr-
that he would rule all Egypt. Thereupon ian, B. C. 632. Psammetichus conciliated
Mi-ammon-Nut led a hundred thousand the Ethiopian party by mariying the daugh-
men into Egypt, being hailed as a deli^'erer terand heiress of the King of Thebes, whom
in Upper Egypt, against the Assyrians, who he had deposed, and thus secured the adhe-
had allowed the temples to go to decay, sion of Upper Egypt, where the Ethiopians
overturned the statues of the gods, confis- were stillHe was a wise and lib-
popular.
cated the temple revenues, and restrained and under his rule the arts
eral sovereign,
the priests from exercising their offices. Mi- and sciences began to revive. He con-
ammon-Nut proclaimed himself the cham- structed many great works throughout the
pion of religion, visited the temples, led the kingdom. The new culture was not purely
images in procession, offered rich sacrifices native Egyptian. Foreign wars, coloniza-
and paid every respect to the priestlj' col- tion andconnnercial intercourse had brought
leges. For this reason he was everj-wdiere immense numbers of foreign settlers — Ethi-
—
rai.iriCAi. iiisroRV. 59
opians, Phccniciaiis. Jews and Checks — into with but varied fortune. The great empire
the Egyptian cities. The new
was art of Assyria had already fallen before the con-
widely different from the classic art of Old (pieringarms of Media and Babylon. Neko
Epvpt. The Kgypt of the Pharaohs was prepared to di.spute the dominion of the
beyond resurrection, the old ei\'ili/alion had workl with the Habylonian monarch. After
perished, and the native li)ut;ue had heen invading Palestine and defeating and killing
corrupted. Josiah, King of Judah, at Megiddo, Neko
P.sannnetichus was also a j;rcat warrior. con(iuered all the country eastward to the
He reduced part of Ethiopia and subdued Ivuphrates; but Nabopolas.sar, King of Babj--
the Philistines, but his continuance of the lon, .sent his .son Nebuchadnezzar, with a
u.se of foreign troops and liis ein])lo\-nient large army, to drive the ICgyptians out of
of Greek mercenaries offended the warrior Asia. In the great and deci.sive battle of
class of Egypt, of whom two hundred and Carchemish, Neko was totally defeated by
forty thou.sand emigrated to I'Uhiopia, reject- Nebuchadnezzar, and Ivgypt's power in the
ing every entreaty of Psammetichus to re- East was ended forever, all of Neko's Asi-
turn to their native land, and thus striking atic contpiests falling into the hands of
a fatal blow at the reviving prosperity of Babylon, B. C. 605.
Egypt. Psanunetichus attempted the ccni- Neko died in 594 B. C, and was .suc-
<]uest of Palestine and Syria, but was ceeded by his .son,Ps.\mmis, whose .short
thwarted in his designs by the stubborn re- reign of six years was only distinguished
sistance of the Philistine city of A.shdod, foran e.Kpedition into PUhiopia. His son and
which endured a siege of twenty-nine years —
successor, ITaii.\bra the Pharaoh Hophra
before it was taken. He encouraged com- and the Apries of Herodotus
of Scripture
merce and friendl>' intercourse with other who reigned nineteen years, renewed the
nations. warlike .schemes of his grandfather, besieged
Psammetichus died in 6io 15. C, and was vSidon and fought a naval battle with Tyre,
succeeded by his son Nkko, under whom but failed in his attempt to conquer Phoe-
the navy and connnerce of Egypt were nicia. He formed an alliance with Zede-
largely augmented. The great increase in the kiah, King of Judah, who endeavored to
number of foreign colonists in EgA'pt gave free him.selffrom the Babylonian yoke; Init
rise to a new class of interpreters, through the great Babylonian king, Nebuchadnez-
whose medium foreign intercourse was im- zar, quickly invaded Palestine, besieged and
mensely facilitated. Neko endeavored to took Jerusalem, pillaged the city and the
reopen the great canal from the Nile to the Temple, and thus broke the power of the
Ked Sea, which had been constru(fted during alliesand jnit an end to the struggle by
the reign of Rameses the Great, but aban- driving the Egj'ptian monarch back into
doned becau.se the oracle had instructed him his own kingdom. Uahabra was afterward
that he was laboring for the l)arbarian. defeated in an expedition against the Greek
Under Neko's au.spices, an P^gj-ptian fleet, colony of Cyrene, west of Egi'pt, in con.se-
manned by Pha'uician .seamen, .sailed down quence of which his native .soldiers revolted
the Red Sea, and after an absence of three and dethroned him; and the revolutionary
years, during wliicli tlie\- twice landed, leader, Amasis, with the aid of Nebuchad-
sowed grain and gathered a har\x'st, they nezzar, who had twice invaded I'^gvpt, ( B.
returned to ligypt l)y way of the Pillars of C. 5cSi and 570), was placed upon the Ivg3"p-
Hercules ( Straits of Gibraltar ) and tlie tian throne as king, tributary to the Bab\--
Mediterranean ; thus making the circiun- lonian monarch.
navigation of Africa two thou.sand years Amasis reigned forty-one years, at first as
before famous voyage of Va.sco da
the atributarx to Babylon, but he afterward cast
Gania around the same continent. yoke and increased his influence by
oflFthis
Neko's military enterprises were ble.s.sed marrying Nitocris, the sister of hispredeces-
6o ANCIENT HIS TOR Y.—EG^ 'PT
sor. He adorned vSai.s, mag-
his capital, with hearted Cambyses, who suspeifted him of
nificent building.s ; and numerous monu- a design to recover his power. With the
ments of his reign,found in all parts of the tragic end of Psammenitus perished the
country, attest his liberal patronage of the ancient kingdom of Egypt, which had ex-
arts; while his friendlj- foreign policy toward isted for over two thousand years, from the
Cyrene and the other Greek states, and his time of the founding of the Old Empire by
encouragement to Greek merchants to settle Menes and the celebrated land of the Pha-
;
in Egj'pt, added immen.sely to the wealth of raohs became a mere province of the vast
the country. He conquered the island of Medo-Persian Empire (B. C. 525).
Cyprus and reduced it to tribute. The tj-ranny and cruelty of Cambyses
Alarmed by the growing power of Persia produced in the hearts of the Egj'ptians the
under its renowned monarch, Cyrus the most implacable hatred of Persia; and dur-
Great, who had conquered Media and Baby- ing a period of two centuries they con-
lon, Amasis allied himself with Croesus, stantlj' plotted against the Twenty-seventh,
King of Lydia, and Polycrates of Samos; or Persian Dynasty, and under three native
but before his policy was produ<5live of any dynasties— the Twentj'-eighth, Twenty-ninth
results, he died, B. C. 525, and was succeeded —
and Thirtieth regained their independence,
on the throne of Egypt by Psammenitus. w^hich they as often lost. The accounts of
Cambyses, King of Persia, the son and suc- these revolts and short spasms of independ-
cessor of Cyrus the Great, was already on ence will be narrated in the history of the
the march toward Egypt. The Egyptian Medo-Persian Empire. Since its conquest
anuy advanced to Pelusium to meet the in- by the Persians, the land of the Pharaohs
vader, but was there defeated in a pitched has been successively under the sway of the
battle and driven back to Memphis, the cap- Persians, the Macedonians, the Romans, the
ital, which was besieged and taken by the Saracens, the Mamelukes, and the Ottoman
Persian king. Psammenitus was taken pris- Turks the last of whom have held the
;
oner after a reign of only six months, and country tributarj- for the last three and a
soon afterward put to death by the hard- half centuries.
MANETHO'S THIRTY EGYPTIAN DYNASTIES.

OLD EMPIRE.
Contemporary Dynasties from about B. C. 2700 to about B. C. 2450.

'
POI.ITICAI. ins TOR )

6i
SECOND OR BRANCH DY- FOURTH OR CHIEF DY- FIFTH OR BRANCH DY-

NASTY (THINITK). NASTY (MEMl'HITE). NASTY (ELErHANTINE).
YEARS. YEARS. YEARS.
BOETHIIS, or BOCHUS, ... 38 Seneferu, or SoRUS, ... 29 USERCHERF.S, orOSIRKEF, . 28
KcEECHUS, or Kekeou, . . 39 Khufu, I ,, Sephrp;s 13
BiNOTHRIS 47 Shafra, \ Nephercheres, or Nofr-
Ti,AS 17 Menkaura, or Mencheres 63 IR-KE-RE 20
Sethenes 41 Ratoises, 25 SiSIRES, or CSIR-N-RE, . . 7
Chores 17 BiCHERlS, 22 Cheres, 20
Nephercheres, 25 Sebercheres 7 Rathures 44
Sesochris 48 Thamphthis, 9 Mencheres 9
Cheneres 30 Tancheres, 44
302
Onnus, or U-NDS, a
218
SECOND DYNAS- SIXTH DYNASTY FIFTH DYNASTY NINTH DYNASTY ELEVENTH DY-
TY (THINITE). (MEMPHITE). (ELEPHANTINE). (heracleopoute). NASTY (THEBAN).
YE.ARS.
Continuing under Othoes, ... 30 Continuing. Achthoes, Sixteen Kings.
the last three Phios the Antefs,
53
kings. Methosuphis, 7 and the
Phiops, or Pe- Mentu-hoteps.
pi 100 Ammenemes or
Menthesuphis, I Amun-m-he.
Nitocris, or
NEIT-AKRET, 12
U3
Contemporary Dynasties from about B. C. 2080 to B. C. 1900.
en _;
'-'(/J
is WW
ffiW
zw
YEARS.
Continuinj^ Continuing. Sesonchosis, . . .
Seventy-six Salatis, . 19 Thirty Kings
till about Usurtasen I., . . 46 Kings in Bnon, .
44 .
in
B. C. 1850. Ammenemes II., or 484 years. Apachnas, 36 518 years.
Amun-m-he II., 38 . .\pophis, 61
Usurtasen II., 48 . . J.\nnas,
McERis, or Amun- Asses, .
49
m-he III., ... 8
Ameres 8 259
Ammenemes III., or
Amun-m-he IV., 8
Skemiophris, . . 4
160
THIRTEENTH DY-
NASTY (THEBAN).
MIDDLE EMPIRE.— (Hyksos, or Shepherd Kings.)
SEVENTH and EIGHTH TENTH DYNASTY SEVENTEENTH DYNASTY

DYNASTIES (MEMPHITE). (HERACLEOPOLITE). (HYKSOS).
NEW EMPIRE.
EIGHTEENTH DYNASTY— THEBAN. Sheshonk I., or Shishak I., (B. C. 993-972).
( B. C. 1600-1400.) OSORKON I., (B. C. 972-957;.
Amosis, Aahmes, or Ames, (B. C. 1600-1575). Takelot I., (B. C. 957-956).
Amen-hoTEp I., Amenophis I., or Amuxoph OSORKON II., (B. C. 956-934).
I., (b. c. 1575-1562-
Sheshonk II.
Thothmes, I.
Takelot II.
Thothmes H., and Hatus.\ or Amenset, (B. SHESHC^'K III.
C. 1562-1547).
PiMAI.
Thothmes III., (B. C. 1547-1493). Sheshonk IV.
Amen-hotep II., Amenophis II., or .•Vmu- TWENTY-THIRD DYNASTY— TANITE.
NOPH II., (B. C. 1493-1485). (B. C. 847-75S).
Thothmes IV., (B. C. 1485-1477).
Amen-hotep III., Amenophis III., or Amu- Petubastes, or Petsupasht, (B. C. 847-807)
noph III., (B. C. 1477-1441). OSORKON IV., (B. C. 807-799).
Amen-hotep IV., Amenophis IV., or Amu- Psammus, or PSEMUT, (B. C. 799-7S9).

NOPH IV. Zet, or Seti HI., (B. C. 789-758)-
Saanekht. , TWENTY-FOURTH DYNASTY— SAITE.
Al. (B. C. 758-730)-
Tutankhamen. Bekenhauf, or Bocchoris.
Horemheb-Merienammon, or HORUS.
KESITOT, or Rathotis. TWENTY-FIFTH DYNASTY— ETHIOPIAN.
(B. C. 724-650).
NINETEENTH DY'NASTY— THEBAN.
(B. C. 1400-1280). Sabaco, or Shabak, (B. C. 724-712).
Shabatok, (B. C. 712-698).
RamESES I.
Tirhakah, or Tehrak, (B. C. 698-667).
Seti I.
Rut-ammon. (B. C. 667-660).
Rameses Meriamon, or the Great (Sesos-
Mi-ammon-Nut, (B. C. 660-650).
TRIS).
Menepta, or Menephthah. TWENTY-SIXTH DYNASTY—SAITE.
Seti II. (B. C. 650-525).
Siphthah. PSAMMETICHUS, or PsamaTik I., (B. C. 665-
610).
TWENTIETH DYNASTY— THEBAN. Neko, (B. C. 610-594).
(B. C. 12S0-1100).
PsAMMis, or Psamatik II., (B. C. 594-588).
Setnekht. Uahabra, Apries, or Pharaoh Hophra, (B.
Rameses III., (B. C. 1269-1237). C. 588-569).
Rameses IV. Amasis, Aahmes, or Ames, (B. C. 569-525).
Rameses V. Psammenitus, or Psamatik III., (B. C. 525).
Rameses VI., and JlERi-TuM.
Rameses VII. TWENTY-SEVENTH DYNASTY— PERSIAN.
Rameses VIII. (B. C. 525-332)-
Rameses IX.
Rameses X. twenty'-eighth dynasty— native.
(B. C. 460-455).
Rameses XI.
Rameses XII. Amyrtûs.
Rameses XIII. twenty-ninth dynasty— jiendesian.
TWENTY-FIRST DYNASTY— TANITE. (B. C. 405-384).
(B. C. 1100-993). Neferites, or Nefaorot, (B. C. 405-399)-
Pehor, Herhor, or Smendes. Achoris, or Hakar, (B. C. 399-386;.
Piankh, or Pisham I. Psammuthis, (B. C. 386-385).
PiNETEM I. Nepherites II., (B. C. 384).
Men-khepr-ra. THIRTIETH DY'NASTY— SEBENNYTIC.

Pa-seb-en-sha. (B. C. 384-346).
PiNETEM II., or Pisham II.
Hor-Pasebensii.\. Nectanebo I., or Nekht-nebef, (B. C. 3S4-
366).
TWENTY-SECOND DYNAvSTY- -BUBASTITE. Teos, or Tachos, (B. C. 366-364).
(B. C. 993-847). Nectanebo II., (B. C. 364-346).
'
cf\'ii.i/..\'nox. 63
SECTION IV.— EGYPTIAN CI\'ITJZ ATION.

|ODERN ethnologists, in gen- At the first glance one can easily see that it
eral, regard the ancient Egyp- rcpre.'ênts Ivgyptian art in its degeneracy,
tians as of Asiatic origin, since and that art ill understood and ill executed.
they differed so much from The utmost height to which ICthiopian civili-
other African races, such as the zation ever reached was a mere rude imita-
Berbers and the Negroes, in language, the tion, alike in .science and in art, of Egxptian
shape of their skulls, and their physiog-
'
models.
nomy. The skulls of the ancient Egyptians, The color of the ancient Egyptians was
and of their legitimate descendants, the brown, like that of the modern Copts. For
modem Copts, are eminently Caucasian; this we ha\e the authority of the numu-
while the Egyptian language has analogies ments. The women were lighter than the
connecting it with the Aryan and Semitic men, being depicted on the monuments as
tongues. The conclusion that the Egj'p- yellow. The hair was usually black and
tians, at least the upper and middle classes straight, though .sometimes it grew in short,
of them, were Asiatic inmiigrants into the crisp curls. Men generally .shaved both
Nile valley, is therefore a safe one. They hair and beard, and went about with their
are believed to have been kindred with heads perfectly bare, or else wore wigs or a
other races of South-western Asia, such as clo.se-fitting cap. Women always wore their
the Canaanites, the primitive Chaldaeans, and own hair, and plaited it in long tresses, .some-
the Southern Arabs. We nuist accordingly times extending down to the waist. The
conclude that Syria or Arabia was
the cradle of the Egyptian nation.
Some have maintained that the
immigration was from the south of
the Nile vallej-, and that the J-lgyp-
tians were of Ethiopian origin; but

recent research has shown conclus-
ively that the movement of the
Egyptians was from north to south.
Says Mr. Birch, the latest English
Egypt
historian of The study of;
'
'
the monuments furnishes incontro-

vertible evidence tha*^ the historical
series of Egyptian temples, tombs
and cities, construdted on either
bank of the Nile, follow one upon
another in chronological order, in
such .sort that the monuments of the greatest I)RE.SSES OF KGV1'TI.\N WO.MKN.
antiquity, the Pyramids for instance, are
situated furthest to the north ; while the hair of the wigs, and that found sometimes
nearer one approaches the Ethiopian cata- on the heads of mummies, is coarse.
racts, themore do the monuments lose the The features of the Egyptians resembled
stamp of antiquity, and the more plainly do those of their Syrian neighbors. The fore-
they show the decline of art, of beauty, and head was straight, but low; the no.se gener-
of good taste. Moreover, in Ethiopia itself ally long, though .sometimes slightly aqui-
the existing remains present us with a st\le line. The lips were over full, but the upper
of art that is absolutely devoid of originality. lip was short, and the mouth was seldom too
64 ANCIENT HIS TOR Y — EG\ 'PT.
wide. The chin was good, being well a defecl in the Egyptian charafler; and
rounded, and neither receding nor extending drunkenness was a connnon vice among
too far. The eye was a long, narrow slit, both sexes, all the appeals and exhortations
like that of the Chinese,but placed horizon- of the priests in favor of temperance being
tally, instead of obliquely. The eyebrow, unavailing to stem the tide of general de-
likewise long and thin, shaded the eye. bauchery. Sensual pleasure and amusement
The coloring was always dark; the hair, seemed the ends of existence among the
eyebrows, eyelashes, and beard (where there upper classes in general. False hair was
was one), being black, or nearly so, and the worn, dyes and cosmetics were used to pro-
ej'es black or dark brown. duce artificial beaut)-, magnificent dress
The Egyptians resembled the modern was worn, equipages were splendid, great
Arabs in form. They were tall, with long banquets were frequently held, games and
and supple limbs, and with the head well sports were constant, and life was passed in
placed upon the shoulders. Their move- feasting, sport and a continual succession
ments were graceful, their carriage dignified. of enjoyments. The effetft of self-indul-
Generally, however, their frames were spare, gence is seen in the national decay of these
and their hands and feet unduly large. The people, and their successive subjections to
women were as thin as the men, and their hardier races, such as the Ethiopians, Assyr-
fonns were almost similar. Children, how- ians, Babylonians, Persians, and Macedo-
ever, were sufficiently plump. nian Greeks.
The Egyptians were divided into distindl Their family affecflion is shown by the
tribes. We read in the Mosaic account of paintings, where husbands and wives are
Ludim, Anamim, Lebahim, Naphtuhim, everj-where represented with their arms
Pathrusim, Casluhim and Caphtorim as dis- around each other's necks. The Egyptians
tin<5t sons of Misraim "
'
' as separate — were industrious, cheerful and gay even

tribes of the people who occupied the under hardships; but they were
'
two ' cruel, vin-
Egypts." dicftive, treacherous, avaricious, supersti-

The Egyptians ranked high intellecflually tious and servile. The use of the basti-
among the ancient nations. In art they nado was universal, being employed to in-
exhibited wonderful power. Mr. Birch says flicfl punishment for minor offenses, while
that their archite(?ture "was on the grand- superiors freely beat inferiors. The poor
est scale, and dwarfs the Greek in compar- peasantry were forced by blows to yield to
ison." The Egyptians had a high moral the extortions of the tax-gatherers, and
standard theoretically, but pracflically their slaves were impelled to labor under fear of
morals were very lax. Saj'S Brugsch, the the rod, which the taskmaster freely applied
eminent German Egyptologist: "The forty- to the backs of laggards. The passions of
two laws of the Egyptian religion, contained the Egyptians often broke out in riot, insur-
in the 125th chapter of the Book of the recflion and murder. They were extremely
Dead, fall short in nothing of the teachings fanaticalin religious belief, and ready to
of Christianity
. '
' The .same authority further wipe out in blood any insult to their re-
says that Moses, in compiling his code of ligion.

laws, did only "translate into Hebrew the They were at times timid, submissive
religious precepts which he found in the and sycophantic. The lower classes pros-
sacred Ijooks " of the Egyptians, among trated themselves before their superiors,
whom he had been brought up. The tamely submitting to blows. The great
Egyptian women were notoriously loose in nobles were equalh^ servile to their so\-er-
their characfter, exceedingly immodest and eign, addressing him as a god, and ascribing
licentious. The men openly practiced im- tohim their continued existence in this life.
purity, and boasted of it in their writings. Though successful in their early wars,
An inclination to luxurious living was also when their disciplined troops attacked un-
B a g > S S
'-5 >
•Si f s
OS a t
° a
Cli H ^ S B^
S u
;
CIVIIJ/.ATION. 65
disciplined hordes, tlic)' were defeated when- limited povver over the lives and property of
ever they encountered a brave and skiUful his people but his authority was strictly
enemy. Their readiness to break engage- defined and limited by law, and unlliingwas
ments when their fulfdhnent was inconve- left to passion or caprice. The monarch,
nient, made them unrehable alHes; and for howe\'er, po.s.sessed the right to make new
this reason the Hebrew prophet Isaiah laws. The king's public duties and personal
spoke of Egypt as a "braised reed, whereon habits were nunutely defined by religious
if a man lean, it will go into his hand and regulations, the sacred books prescribing his
pierce it." food, drink, dressand the employment of
The government of Eg>'pt was a theo- his time, thus allowinghim less individual
cratic monarchy, the king being the earthlj' freedom than was enjoyed by the humblest
representative of the Deity. His body was and most degraded of his subjects. He was
considered sacred, and he was worshiped as not permitted to give way to excessive in-
a god. His title of Phrah, or Pharaoh, sig- dulgence of any kind. No slave or hireling
nifying the Sun, ranked him as the emblem was permitted to hold oflSce about his per-
son, for fear that he might be con-
taminated bj- such unworthy pres-
ence, but those of the highest rank
only were accorded the privilege
of attending him and ministering
to his wants. The ritual of every
moniing's worship constantly re-
freshed his memorj' with a knowl-
edge of the virtues of former
kings, and reminded him of his
own kingly and per-sonal duties.
After his death his body was
placed in an open court, where any
and every one of his subjects
might bring accusations against
him and if his conduct in life
;
was proven to have been unworthj-

his exalted station, he was for-
DRESS OK THE EGYPTIAN KING. ever excluded from the tombs of
his ancestors.
of Helios, or Phrah, or Ra, the Sun-god. His The ancient Egyptians were divided into
right and duty was to preside over the sacri- classes or castes, distinguished by their
fices and to pour out libations to the gods. ranks and occupations; the priests forming
He was thus the head of the national relig- the highest caste, the warriors the second
ion, as well as the civil and political head of and husbandmen, gardeners, boatmen
caste,
the state. The kingly office was hereditar>% and herdsmen the lowest caste.
but the monarch was not an absolute ruler The priesthood possessed great authority
and the political system was a combination in the and were the "power behind the
.stati
of theocracj-, monarch)- and hierarchy, the throne." So far as the sovereign was con-
king's power being more or less curtailed by cerned the}' used their power wisely and
the power of the priesthood, or hierarchical well. Their habits of life were simple and
class. In this respecfl Egypt differed from an moderate. Their diet was plain in quality
Asiatic despotism, where the sovereign was and limited in quantity, and they ab.stained
unlimited lord and master over his subjecfts. from fish, mutton, swine's flesh, beans, peas,
An Egyptian Pharaoh did not possess un- garlic, leeks and onions, which were articles
5
of food among the common people. Tliej- ranked next to the sacerdotal, or priestlj-
bathed twice a day and twice during the order, numbered about four hundred thou-
night, some of the more stri(ft in water .sand persons. When not engaged in mili-
tasted bj- their sacred birds, the ibis, to tary .sen-ice, either in foreign wars, in
make sure of being purged of all unclean- garri.sons or at the roj-al court, these were
ness. Their abstinence, purity and humil- .settled on their lands, which were located
ity, and their reputation for learning, en- principally on the east side of the Nile or in
abled the priests to hold the people in relig- the Delta, which portions of the countr\'
ious, and mental subjection. By
political were the most exposed to hostile invasion
their knowledge of physical .science they by a foreign foe. Each .soldier was allotted
could frighten and terrorize the superstitious about six and a half acres of land, exempt
and ignorant lower classes by optical illu- from all taxation or tribute; and from the
sions and other tricks. By their power to proceeds of this land he defrayed the ex-
try the dead they could decide the fate of pen.ses of his arms and equipments. The
any man, from the king to the swineherd, soldier, however, could not engage in an>'
by refusing him a pa.ssport to the outer art or trade. The lands of the priests and
world. The priests prescribed the religious soldiers were considered privileged propert\-.
p:gvpti.\n soldiers of diffkrent corps.
ritual of every Egyptian, from the king to while all other lands were regarded as the
the meanest of his subjet5ls. king's property, and were rented by him
The Eg>ptian priesthood embraced an to farmers, who paid a yearly rent of one-
order including many professions and occu- fifth of the produce.
pations. They alone were acquainted with Below the priests and warriors were
the arts of reading and writing, and with the various unprivileged castes, embracing
medicine and the other sciences. They cul- husbandmen, gardeners, boatmen, artisans
tivated the science of medicine from the of various kinds, and herdsmen, compris-
earliest ages. The universal pracftice of em- ing shepherds, goatherds and swineherds.
balming was exercised by the physicians, These latter were intensely de.spi.sed as the
thus enabling them to study the efFedts of most degraded of human creatures, and were
various di.sea.ses by examining the body after not allowed to enter the temples. All castes
death. Asiatic monarchs sent tj Egypt for below the priesthood and the warrior class
their physicians, and the fertile .soil of the were deprived of all political rights and dis-
Nile valley furnished drugs for the whole qualified from ownership in land.
ancient civilized world. Even in our own The two privileged castes, the priests and
time the characfters used by druggists to de- \varriors, are believed to have been the de-
note drams and ounces are the Eg>'ptian scendants of the Asiatic conquerors and im-
ciphers adopted by the Arabs. migrants into Egypt, while the lower clas,ses
The .soldiers, oi' military ca.ste, which were the descendants of the Ethiopian abo-
Egyptian King in War Chariot — Egyptian
Cykvs the Great. Warriors.
Egyptian Lady — Egyptian ooken— Egyptian Egyptian Ppiest — Men and Woman of Low
TvADV. Castc
MEDIA AND EGYPT.

"
CIVir.IZATION. 67
rigines of the Nile valley. The I^gyptian put the sickle to the crop, the locusts have
castes were not as fixed as those of the Hin- blasted a part of it; then come the rats and
doos, as the educational system enabled any- the birds. If he is slack. in housing his
one of superior talent to rise abo\-e his grain, the thieves are upon him. His horse
native rank. Saj-s Rawlinson: "Castes, in dies of weariness as it drags the wain.
the strictest sense of the word, did not exist Anon, the tax-gatherer arrives; his agents
in Eg>pt, since a son was not absolutely are anned with clubs; he has Negroes with
compelled to follow his father's profession.'' him, who carrj- whips of palm branches.
Intermarriages sometimes occurred between They all crj-, Give us your grain! and he
'
'
members of the priestly and warrior castes, has no easy way of avoiding their extortion-
and transitions between them were common. ate demands. Next, the wretch is caught,
The same was the case between members of bound and sent off to work without wage at
the various unprivileged orders. Still, in the canals; his wife is taken and chained;
the main, the same rank, professions and his children are stripped and plundered."
occupations remained in the same families Tuaufsakhrat, in the "Praise of Learning,
for hundreds and hundreds of years, and the gives a similar account in these words:
evils of class distinction were almost equal "The little laborer having a field, he passes
to those of the fixed castes of India. The his life among worn down for
rustics; he is
upper classes despised all handicrafts, and vines and pigs, to make what his kitchen of
"everj- shepherd was an abomination in the his fields have; his clothes are heavy with
sight of an Eg\ptian." There were many their weight; he is bound as a forced
slaves who had been captives taken in war. laborer: if he goes forth into the air, he
The class system tended to discourage per- suffers, having to quit his warm. fire-place;
sonal ambition, and thus to check all prog- he is bastinadoed with a stick on his legs,
ress and improvement after the earliest high and seeks to save him.self: shut against him
state of civilization had been attained, and is the hall of everj- house, locked are all
was the principal cause of the final national the chambers.

decay of this renowned ancient people. Thus it will be seen that the small culti-
The land in Eg}pt belonged exclusively vator was oppressed with extortionate taxa-
to the king, the priests and the soldiers, tion, collected by the brutal tax-gatherers;
during the period of the New Empire; all that forced labors were exacted of him, and
other land-owners having surrendered their that he was bastinadoed with a stick on the
proprietorship to the king, while the He- back or legs if he resisted. He was torn
brew Joseph was prime minister, occupying from his family and homestead, and forced
them only afterward as tenants of the crown to labor under the hot Egyptian sun at
by paying an annual rental of one-fifth of cleaning out or banking up the canals.
the produce. No wages being paid him, and insufficient
The lot of the agricultural laborer in food being furnished him, he often perished
Eg3'pt was a hard one. There were few under the hardships imposed upon him by
Eg3'ptian peasants rich enough to rent their a merciless government. If an iron consti-
farms and till them for themselves. Most tution saved him and he returned home, he
of them were hired laborers working on the frequently found his family dispersed, his
estates of others, under the supen-ision of wife carriedoff. and his mud cabin in ruins.
brutal overseers or taskmasters, who applied He was regarded with contempt, not alone
the bastinado to the backs of the idle or re- by the privileged classes, but also by their
on the slightest pretext. The pea-
fraclorj- servants, and even by their slaves.
was not much better off. Writes
sant farmer The laws of Egj'pt were remarkable, and
Amenemun to Pentaour: "Have you ever are another evidence of the high civilization
represented to yourself the estate of the of the people. Bossuet has said that "Eg>-pt
rustic who tills the sjround ? Before he has was the source of all good government."
Perjury was considered the most heinous The Egyptians were the first people to or-
of all crimes — an offense alike against gods ganize a regular ami)-, and thus to lay the
and men —
and was punishable with death. foundation for the whole system of ancient
Any one seeing a person defending his life warfare, including the military systems of
against a murderer, and failing to render him the ancient Asiatic monarchies. The war-
assistance, was also capitally punished, as chariots formed the most important part of
being equally guilty with the assassin. If an Egyptian army, and were used instead of
DISCIPLINED TROOPS OF THE EIGHTEENTH DYNASTY.
the witness were unable to assist the defend- cavalry. These chariots were mounted on
ant, he was bound to report the assailant two wheels, and were verj' carefuUj' made.
to the lawful authorities. A person falsely They were hung low, were open behind to
accusing another was punished as a calum- enable the warrior to step in and out with
niator. Everj' Egyptian was bound to fur- ease, and had no seat. They were drawn by
nish the authorities with a written state- two hor.ses, and usually contained two war-
ment means of liveli-
of his
hood ; and any one giving a
false account, or following an
unlawful pursuit, was pun-
ished with death. A wilful
murderer was likewise put
to death. A judge who con-
demned an innocent person
to death was punished as a
deliberate murderer. A sol-
dier who deserted his ranks

was punished with infamy,
but could recover his lost
honor by future gallant be-
havior. Making counterfeit
money, false weights, scales
or measures, falsifying public
EGVPTIAN WAR-CHARIOT.
records, or forging documents, were crimes riors, one to manage the horses, and the
puni.shed with the loss of both hands. A other to fight. The war-chariots of differ-
man's property could be seized for debt, but ent nations differed from each other. The
not his person and if a debtor swore that he
; harness and housings of the horses were
owed nothing to a creditor who was without elegantly decorated. A quiver and bow-
a bond, the debt was void. The interest ca.se, tastefully and skillfully decorated, were
was never permitted to exceed the principal. fixed to the chariot ou the outside. The
cn'ii.i/.A'noN. 69
Kgyptiaii national weapon was the bow, which was freel}- applied by those in charge
used by infantry and charioteers. of the captives. All captives were consid-
The Ivgyptians were the most skillfnl arch- ered as belonging to the king, and conse-
ers of antiqnity. Their bows were the most (|uenlly became his slaves, being employed
powerful, and their arrows, drawn to the by him in forced labors during the rest of
ear, were the best aimed, of those of all sometimes the monarch re-
their lives: but
ancient nations. The children of the mili- warded individual captors by allowing them
tary caste were trained to the pradlice of to hold their own prisoners, who thus passed
archery from the earliest infancy. The into pri\-ate ser\'itude.
heavy anns of the Egyptian in-
fantry were a .spear, a dagger, a

short sword, a pole-ax, a battle-
ax, a helmet and a .shield. Some
of the principal officers used coats
of mail for protection. The light
troops were armed with swords,
battle-axes, maces and clubs. Ev-
ery battalion had its standard,
w-ith some symbol or sacred objedl
represented thereon, generally the
emblem of the nome or tribe. The
soldiers were called out by con-
scription, drilled to the sound of
the trumpet, and taught to march
in measured time. In the most
ancient period cavalry were used
as skirmishers, videttes and ex-
presses. In attacking walled cit-
ies battering-rams, besieging-tow-

ers and .scaling-ladders were used.
The Egyptians, like other ancient
nations, treated their captives very-
them to death or
cruelly, putting
reducing them to slavery.
The Egyptians readily gave
quarter when an enemy submitted,
and thousands of prisoners were
often taken in their military expe- ASSAII.T ox .\ I-ORT — TKSTUDO .^ND SCALIN-G-1.AI)I1i:R.
ditions. If they ran down an enem3''s ship The Egyptians, in order to ascertain the
they exerted themselves to rescue the men number of slain among an enemy's army on
on board from the waves, and took them to the battle-field, mutilated them, cutting off
their own ves.sels at the risk of their own and carrying to the camji the right hand,
lives. Enemies who laid down their weap- the tongue or some other portion of the
ons on land and sued for mercy were usualh' body. Heaps of each of these are shown
spared. Their arms were bound together in the sculptures, which the royal scribes
by a cord passed round them a little above are represented as counting in the king's
the elbows, and they were led from the field presence, before registering them. Each
to the camp, usualh- in long strings, each soldier received a reward upon showing
condudled by one Egyptian. Laggards were these proofs of his prowess.
urged forward by fear of the bastinado, The climate of the Nile valley is warm
1—5.-U. H.
70 ANCIEKT HISTORY.— EGYPT.
and dr}-. In Southern Eg)"pt the heat is wild cat. The domestic animals were the
excessive. In Northern Eg5'pt several causes horse, the ass, the camel, the Indian or
combine to giê a lower summer tempera- humped ox, the cow, the sheep, the goat,
ture. In the desert tracftsthe air is much the pig, the cat and the dog.
drier than in the Nile valle}- itself, with The birds of Egj'pt are the eagle, the fal-
gi'eater alternations of heat and cold. In con, the xEtolian kite, the black vulture, the
summer the air is .sufTocating, while in bearded vulture, the / 'ultio- pcrcnoptcriis,
winter the days are cool and the nights the osprey, the horned owl, the .screech-owl,
acftually cold. Heavy rains and violent the raven, the ostrich, the ibis, the pelican,
thunder-storms are frequent at this sea.son. the vulpanser or fox-goose, the Nile duck,
At certain seasons green herbage and flow- the hoopoe, the sea-swallow, the Egyptian
ers cover the torrent-beds after the water kingfisher, the quail, the oriental dotterell,
has flowed into the Nile; but the solar heat the benno, the sicsac, the swallow, the spar-
and the Khanisccn, or hot de.sert wind, row, the wagtail, the crested plover, the
wither the herbage and flowers at other sea- heron and other wading birds, the com-
.sons. mon kite, the hawk, the common vulture,
The vegetable produdlions of Egypt are the common owl, the white owl, the turtle-
trees, shrubs, esculent plants, grain, arti- dove, the mi.ssel thrush, the common king-
ficial grasses and medicinal plants. The fisher, the lark, and the finch.
trees are the date-palm, the sycamore, the There were different kinds of fish in the
tamari.sk, the myxa, the acanthus and sev- Nile; and various reptiles were found in the
eral kinds of acacias. Among .shrubs and countni', such as turtles, iguanas, geckos or
fruit-trees are the fig, the pomegranate, the .small lizards, the horned .snake, the asp,
mulberrj-, the vine, the olive, the apricot, the chameleon, and others. The most re-
the peach, the pear, the plum, the apple, markable insedls are the .scorpion, the locust
the orange, the lemon, the banana, the and the solpuga spider.
locust-tree, the per.sea, the castor-oil plant Among minerals in Egypt are many ex-
and the prickly pear. These, excepting cellent kinds of stone,such as magnesian
the orange, lemon, apricot and banana, are limestone, sandstone, porphyry, alabaster,
believed to ha\-e all been producftions of granite and syenite. The inexhaustible
ancient, as well as of modem, Egypt. The supply of stone made that gift of nature the
esculent plants which
grew wild were great building material of Egypt. The dif-
the bj'blus, or papyrus, the Nymphcva lo- ferent kinds of stone were conveyed from
ins and the Lotus arni/ca. The papyrus one end of Egypt to the other by being
plant, which was used for writing, is not floated on rafts along the Nile. It was easy
now found in Egypt. The cultivated vege- to float down the river the granite and sye-
tables are mainly the same as tho.se of other nite of the far South of Egypt to Thebes,
countries. Artificial grasses of ancient Memphis, and the cities of the Delta.
Egypt were clover, vetches, lupins and the There were few metals in Eg>pt. Among
gilbdn of the Arabs, or the Lathynis sativus the.se were gold, silver, copper, iron and lead.
of Pliny. Other mineral productions were natron, salt,
The wild animals indigenous in Egypt .sulphur, petroleum, chalcedonies, cameli-

were the hippopotamus, the crocodile, the ans, ja.spers, green breccia, emeralds, agate,
lion, the hyena, the wolf, the jackal, the rock-cry.stal, .serpentine, compact felspar,
fox, the ichneumon, the hare, the jerboa, steatite, honiblende, basanite, actinolite and
the rat, the mou.se, the shrew-niou.se, the the sulphate of barytes.
porcupine, the hedgehog, and perhaps the The fertilizing of the .soil by the animal
bear, the wild boar, the ibex, the gazelle, inundation of the Nile, and the irrigation of
three kinds of antelopes, the stag, the the countr>'by means of numerous canals,
wild sheep, the .1/oiiilor Niloticus, and the contributed to make Egypt the great gran-
c7\7/j/.rnoA\ 71
ar>- of antiquity, from which other nations trodden in bj' .sheep, goats or pigs, and then
drew their supplies in times of famine. simply awaited the har\-est. Plows, of a
The naturally fertile soil and the sponta- simple construction, and hoes were used in
neous growth of the date-palm furnished preparing the ground in other portions of
the people with cheap and abundant food, the country. The plows were drawn by two
and agriculture received much attention. oxen or two cows, yoked to it by the shoul-
The rapid increase and density of the ders or by the horns. vSometimes a single
Egyptian population, which, as we have plowman guided the plow by holding one
already said, was about seven millions, handle in his left hand, and carrj-ing a whip
crowded in the narrow valley of the Nile, in his right; but generally there were two
ouh' seven miles in width, was due to the plowmen, one holding the two handles, and
abundance and cheapness of food and the the other driving the animals with tlie whip.
readiness with which it could be obtained. In light and loose soils the hoe was used
Vilillcf
KORKIOX CAPTIVKS M.\KING BRICK.S .Vt THKllKS.
This facfl accounts for the ease with which instead of the plow. The hoes and plows
great public works like the Pyramids, that were of wood. The grain cultivated was
were useless, could be built; as the mon- wheat, barley, and what Herodotus called
archs were thus enabled to employ the labor zea or olyra, probably the modem doom.
of hundreds of thousands of men, who were The wheat and barley were used by the rich,
not required by necessity to labor in any and the doora by the poor. The wheat was
other way. cut with a toothed sickle, a little below the
The non-interference of the government ear, and put in baskets or bound in sheaves.
with agriculture was an advantage. The The filled baskets were carried in b}' men or
grain was sowed when the inundation had donkeys to the threshing-floor, and there
disappeared.In some parts of EgN'pt the emptied on a heap. Sometimes the corn was
husbandman only scattered the seed upon conveyed from the harvest-field to the gran-
the rich Nile deposit and caused it to be ary or storehouse, and kept there a month.
72 ANCIENT ins TOR Y.—EG YPT.
Threshing was done by means of cattle, Beans, peas and lentils were al.so raised.
which were driven round and round the Artificial grasses, such as clover, lupins
threshing-floor, while a laborer, with a pitch- and vetches, were grown to furnish pro-
fork, threw the unthreshed ears into their vender for the cattle during the inundation.
path. The threshed corn was at once win- Flax was raised in great abundance for the
nowed, by being tossed into the air with linen out of which garments were made.
shovels, in a place where the draught of air Cotton, indigo, safflower, sesame, the ca.stor-
would blow off the chaif as the corn fell. oil plant, and various medicinal herbs were
After this operation the cleansed grain was also culti\-ated. Esculent vegetables, such
carried in sacks to the granarj', and there as garlic, onions, leeks, endive, radishes,
stored until used. melons, cucumbers, lettuces, etc., were like-
In a. harvest song, discovered by Chani- wise raised in considerable quantities, and

pollion at lulethyias, the oxen are repre- formed a large element in the food of the
.sented as mainly threshing for thcvisclvcs. people. The raising and harvesting of
The following is the song in hieroglyphics, the.se different crops employed the agricul-
with its translation into English: tural class for the greater part of the year.
In addition to the yearl)- overflow of the
Nile, the countn,- was fertilized by irrigation
A in the form of a .system of canals, with em-

III I I I 1 Lk
bankments, .sluices and flood-gates, by
y^Â^'v^«
which the overflow was retained in vast
reser\'oirs, and thus utilized. This system
of irrigation was established at an early
date, and was maintained with the greatest
care by the government. In the distridl of
//III III
the Faioom, a natural depression in the
Libyan de.sert, eight or ten miles from the
/vvww\ 11 Xile valley, a canal was cut from the Nile,
I I I
thus filling this depression with water, and
forming an artificial lake, known as the
• I « »^ III
^
"Lake Mceris." From this innnense reser-
SONG OK THRESHERS TO OXEN. voir, canals were cut in all directions to

Translated as To/lows: irrigate the surrounding desert. In this
Tbresb for yourselves, region, by this system of irrigation, the cul-
Thresh for yourselves,
'
O Oxen! was rendered possible.

tivation of the olive
Thresh for yourselves, In the edge of the Nile valley, toward the
Thresh for yourselves.
Measures for yourselves, desert of Ildi^rr, where the soil was light and
Mea.sures for your masters. composed of sandmixed with gravel, the
The cultivation of barley was similar to vine was cultivated all the way from Thebes
that of wheat, and barley bread was in to Memphis. It was also grown in the
Faioom, and in the western part of the

great demand. Beer was also brewed from
the grain. doora was pulled up by the
The Delta. The fruit, after being gathered, was
roots, and the earth was then shaken off by carried in ba.skets to the .storehou.se, where
the hand. It was bound in sheaves and the juice was extra(5led by treading or
carried to a storehouse; and after it was dry squeezing in a bag. After fermentation, the
it was unbound and drawn by the hand wine was stored away in va.ses or amphorae
through an instrument, armed at one end of an elegant shape, closed with a stopper
with a set of metal spikes, which .separated and then hermetically sealed with moist
the heads from the straw. These were, per- clay, pitch, gypsum or other substance.
haps, then also threshed and winnowed. In the large estates of the rich land-own-
ciiirrzATroN. 73
ers the herdsmen were under the supervision The ancient Egyptians of everj- class de-
of overseers. The peasant who cultivated lighted in field-sports, and the peasants con-
the land on which the flocks and herds fed sidered it a duty, no le.ss than amu.sement,
was resp>onsible for their proper sujijiort and to hunt and kill the hyena and other wild
for the exacl account of the amount of food animals which annoyed them. The paint-
which they consumed. Some persons were ings show us numerous hunting scenes and
wholly employed in taking care of the sick various devices for catching birds and beasts.
animals, which were kept at home in the The lu-ena is u.sually represented as caught
farm-yard. The overseer of the shepherds in a trap. Wild oxen were caught by a
attended, at stated periods, to give a report noose or lasso, in very much the same man-
to the scribes connected with the estate, by ner as the vSouth Americans catch horses
whom it was submitted to the steward, who and cattle, thcmgh the Egyptians are not
was accountable to his employer for this represented as riding on honseback when
and all his other possessions. The paintings the)- u.sed it. The introduction of a bush
represent the head shepherd rendering his in one painting, just behind the man throw-
account, and behind him we see the flocks ing the las.so, would seem to imply that the
assigned to his charge, con.sisting of the huntsman was concealed. Other wild ani-
sheep, goats and wild animals belonging to mals hunted were the hippopotamus, the
the person in the tomb. In one painting jackal, the fox, the crocodile, the porcupine,
the expres.sive attitude of this man, with the gazelle, the ibex, the hare, the antelope,
his hand at his mouth, is imagined to con- and even the ostrich. Wild cattle were also
vey the idea of his effort to remember the hunted. Lions, upon the borders of Egypt,
numbers which he is giving, from memory, were hunted by a few of the kings, but there
to the scribes. In another painting the is only one representation of a roj'al lion
numbers are written over the animals. The hunt. Sometimes lions were tamed, and
oxen are numbered eight hundred and were used in the chase of other animals, ac-
thirty-four, the cows two hundred and cording to a single painting. One king is
twenty, the goats three thousand two hun- represented as having "hunted a hundred
dred and thirty-four, the asses seven hun- and twenty elephants on account of their
dred and sixty, and the .sheep nine hundred tu.sks." Fishing and fowling were also fa-
and seventy-four. These are followed by a vorite sports among the Egyptians. Hounds
man carrying the young lambs in baskets were likewise used in pursuing game.
slung upon a pole. The .steward, in a lean- All the departments of agriculture, farm-
ing posture upon his staff, and accompanied ing, breeding cattle, etc., are illustrated in
by his dog, stands on one side; while the the paintings with wonderful accuracy- and
scribes, writing out their statement, occupy detail. We observe oxen lying on the
the other side. Another painting shows us ground, with legs pinioned, while herdsmen
men bringing baskets of eggs, flocks of are branding marks upon them with hot
geese,and baskets full of goslings. An irons, and other men are heating irons in the
'
Egyptian Goo.se Gibbie is represented as
'
' ' fire. The paintings give us full accounts of

making obei.sance to his master. In still the king's kine, which are generally copied
another painting we see persons feeding sick after the fattest specimens. One of these
oxen, goats and geese. The ancient Egyp- represents the Pharaoh as himself a toler-
tians carried the art of curing disea.ses in all ably exten.sive grazier, the king's ox being
kinds of animals to great perfection; and marked eighty-six. Another illustrates a
the testimony of ancient writers and paint- regular cattle-show; another the actual oper-
ings is sustained h\ a discover>' of Cuvier, ation of the veterinarv- art, cattle doctors
who found the left shoulder of a mummied being exhibited as performing operations
ibis fradlured and reunited, thus showing upon sick oxen, bulls, deer, goats and geese.
that human art inter\êned in this ca.se. The hieroglyphic denoting a physician is
74 ANCIENT HISTORY.—EGYPT.
>
w
•n
O
Q
P
«
O
«
2;
o
H
-J
W
W
'
CIVILIZATION. 75
the fowl whose cr\' is

'
quack' Quack !
!
'
tombs of kings hewn in the .solid rock,

Egyptian beasts of burden were asses, subterranean catacombs and the gigantic
cows and oxen. Horses were used for statue of Memnon, still bear witness to the
riding, for drawing curricles and chariots, immense and splendor of this great and
size
mainly b}- men of the upper classes, and for celebrated cit)-, who.se ruins extend for seven
drawing the plow. Multitudes were re- miles along both banks of the Nile.
quired for the war-chariots and for the cav- The ancient Egyptians had a wonderful
alry service. A brisk trade in horses was building instinct, and architedture was the
carried on with Syria and Palestine, where greatest of all their arts. The distinguish-
they were in great demand and commanded ing features were ma.ssiveness and grandeur,
high prices. The horses of ancient Egypt \
in which they have never been surpas.sed.
were kept con.stantly in stables, fed on This great people delighted in pyramids,
straw and barley, and were not allowed to .sphinxes, obelisks and stupendous palaces
graze in the fields. The larger land-owners and temples, with massive columns and .spa-
also possessed wild animals, such as wild cious halls of solemn and gloomy grandeur,
goats, gazelles and oryxes; and also wild in which our largest cathedrals could stand,
and
fowl, such as the stork, the \-ulpanser adorned with elaborately-.sculptured colossal
others. Egyptian farmers also bred large statues, and connedled with which were ave-
numbers of sheep, goats and pigs. nues of .sphinxes and lines of obelisks.
Egypt has been an objecfl of interest to Their pyramids are the oldest, as well as
mankind in every age, as the birth-place of the largest and most wonderful of human
civilization, art and science. In this nar- works }'et remaining, and the beauty of their
row strip of country, "the Gift of the Nile," masonry, Wilkinson declares, has never
only seven miles wide and five hundred and been surpassed. An obelisk of a single
twent>-six miles long, were seven million stone now standing in Egypt weighs three
inhabitants. The Nile valley is studded hundred tons, and a colo.ssus of Rameses the
with the ruins of ancient Memphis, cities. Great nearly nine hundred tons; and Herod-
the chief citj- of Middle Egypt, or the Hep- otus describes a monolithic temple weigh-
tanomis, so called from its seven nomes, was ing fi\'e thousand tons, which was carried
situated about twelve miles south of the apex hundreds of miles on sledges, as were also
of the Delta, and as we have said, was the huge blocks of stone, .sometimes weigh-
founded by Menes, the first Egyptian king. ing sixteen thousand tons each, with which
In the vicinity of Memphis are the most the pyramids were built. In one instance
splendid of the pyramids, which extend for two thousand men were employed three
seventy miles on the west bank of the Nile, years in conveying a single stone from the
and among which are the famous Pyramids quarry to the strudlure in which it was to
of Ghizeh, already described. In this vi- be placed. There is a roof of a doorway at
cinity is also the Great Sphinx, or woman- K&rnak covered with sandstone blocks forty
headed lion, one hundred and forty-six feet feet long. Sculpture and bas-reliefs thirty-
long and thirty-six feet wide across the five or forty centuries old, in which the
shoulders. Here are also the ruins of the granite is cut with exquisite delicacy, are
famous Labyrinth, and miles on miles of yet to be seen throughout this famous land.
rock-hewn temples. The magnificent and The pyramids were all built on stridlly
stately Thebes, the hundred-gated city of scientific and mathematical principles.
Upper Egypt, or the Thebais, is said to have The obelisks, so on account of
called
extended over twenty-three miles. On its site their peculiar shape, were tall and slender
are the villages of Kaniak and Euxor, monoliths eredled at the gateways of tem-
where the ruins of magnificent and spacious ples, one standing on each side. From the
temples, splendid palaces, colossal .statues, quarries of Syene they were floated down the
avenues of obelisks and lines of .sphinxes, Nile on rafts during an annual overflow.
76 ANCIENT HISTORY. — ECVrT.
They were formed in accordance with a cer- was taken to Paris in 1833 and erecfted in
tain rule of proportion, and were from twenty the Place de la Concorde. Several others
to one hundred and tweuty-three feet high. had previously been removed to Rome.
I'
.iiiiiiiiiiiuaiiiiii
The names and titles of the kings who Two faniou -ii^ks, after standing for
ere<5ted them were recorded in hieroglyphic eighteen centuries at the gate of the temple
carv'ings on the sides. An obelisk at Luxor of the sun at Heliopolis, where they had
cr\-n.i/..\r!ON.
been erected by King Thothnies III., were was transported to London a few years ago.
removed to Alexandria by the Romans just The other was shortly after transported to
after tlieir con(|nest of Kg>pt, in the time of New York, and is now one of the objects of
Augustus CiEsar. These were known at interest greeting the eye of the beholder in
Alexandria as Cleopatra's Needles, and one Central Park.
RUINS or TlCMl'Uii K.\RN.\K.

—
78 ANCIENT HIS TOR Y. — EG YPT.

Egypt, renowned for its discoveries in art which our word paper is derived. The
and was the ancient world's univer-
science, third kind of writing was the demotic, that
sity, where Moses, Lycurgus and Solon, of the common people, so called from demos,
Pythagoras and Plato, Herodotus and Di- the people. The writing was executed with
—
odorus lawgivers, philosophers and his- a reed pen. The hierogljphics were traced
—
torians were students. The ancient Egyp- in black, but commenced in red, and the
tians had made considerable progress in the sculptured hieroglj-phs were also embellished
sciences, particularly astronomy, geometry, with colors. The hieroglyphic signs are
arithmetic, cheniistrj-, and an-
medicine pidtorial, and are of four kinds representa- —
atom}-. Their knowledge of astronomy is tive, figurative, determinative and phonetic.
proven by the accuracy with which they Much of this ancient literature has come
calculated solar and lunar eclipses; by their down to us in a fragmentary and di.scon-
mode of reckoning time and their knowledge ne(5led form. Remnants of papyrus man-
of the length of the year as being three uscripts of the most ancient Theban dy-
hundred and sixty-five days; by their knowl- nasties —about four thousand jêars old
edge of the spherical shape of the earth; and are still in existence. The professional
by their abilitj' to compute latitude and lon- scribeswere from the priestly class.
gitude, as demonstrated by the facft that the The famous Roseffa Stone,
di.scover>' of the
tomb of Cheops, Suphis, or Khufu, the king during Bonaparte's Egyptian campaign, in
who built the largest of the three great Pyr- 1798, led to the deciphering of the hiero-
amids of Ghizeh, is located exadlly on the glyphic inscriptions on the monuments,
30th parallel of north latitude. which has been the means of throwing a flood
The ancient Egyptians had attained great of new light upon the history of ancient
skill in many of the finer mechanical arts, Egypt. All three forms of hieroglyphic
such as potter)-,manufacture of glass
the writing were unknown to the Greeks, to
and porcelain, dyeing and the making of whom the monumental in,scriptions were in-
linen and cotton goods. They likewise ex- terpreted b)' the Egyptian priests. The
celled in the polishing and engraving of key to these writings was lost, thus conceal-
precious stones, and in metallurg)-. Mining ing the treasures of Eg>ptian learning from
was one of their industries. Their walls the civilized world for centuries. The cop-
and ceilings were painted in beautiful pat- ies of the three kinds of inscriptions on the
terns, which moderns yet imitate; and in Ro.setta Stone — the hieroglyphic, the de-
the producflion of useful and ornamental motic and the Greek — given to European
articles the^^ ha\-e never befen surpassed, scholars, were the means of opening this
either in ancient or modern times. long-sealed library- on stones and papyri. In
The language of the ancient Egyptians 1815 Dr. Young, the English Egyptologist,
was related to the languages of the Semitic discovered the key to the texts, and the
nations, but differed from them in many distinguished French Egyptologist, Cham-
particulars. There were different diale(5ts pollion, made a successful application of the
in Upper and Lower Egypt. newly-discovered key. The Rosetta Stone
The Egj'ptians pracfticed the art of writing is now in the British Museum.
far more extensively than any other ancient The ancient Egyptians surpassed all othe:
people. The pyramids and monuments, nations in their love for recording all human
even to the most remote antiquity, bear in- adlions. They preserved in writing, on
scriptions, and it was the custom to mark papyrus, a record of all the details of private
every article of use or ornament. There life with surprising method and regu-
zeal,
were three kinds of writing in use. For laritj-. Ever}^ >'ear, month, week and day
monumental inscriptions hieroglj-phics were had its record of transacftions. This incli-
used. For documents the writing was exe- nation fully accounts for Egypt being the
cuted on leaves of the papyrus plant, from monumental land. No other human records
'
CIVILIZATION. 79
— whether of Chaldnen, go
India or China — The ancient Egyptian tombs likewise ex-
as far back into remote do those
antiijuity as hibit scenes of domestic life and customs
of Egypt. Bunsen says: "The genuine similar to tho.se of our own times. We
EgA'ptian writing is fully as old as Menes, ob.serve monkeys trained to gather fruit
the founder of the Old Knipire, perhaps from the trees in an orchard, houses fur-
three thousand years before Christ." Lep- nished with a great variety of chairs, tables,
sius saw the hieroglyph of the reed and ink- ottomans, carjjets, couches, as elegant and
stand on the monuments of the Fourth elaborate as any u.sed at the present day.
Dynasty. Herodotus remarked: "No Egyp- There are likewise seen comic pictures of
tian omits taking accurate note of extraor- parties, where ladies and gentlemen are
dinarj- and striking events." Everything sometimes represented as being the worse
was recorded. Scribes are everj'where seen for wine; of dances, where ballet-girls in
on the monuments, taking accounts of the short dresses perform pirouettes of the mod-
products of the farms, going into the most em kind; of exercises in wrestling, games
minute details, even so far as to giving of ball, games of chance like chess or check-
account of ever\- single egg and
chicken. Bunsen further says: "In
spite of the ravages of time, and
though systematic excavation has
commenced, we possess
scarcely yet
chronological records of a date prior
to any period of which manuscripts
are preser\-ed, or the art of writing
'
EGVPTIAN MKN CARRIED HOME KROM A DRINKING P.ARTV.
existed in any other quarter.
It is owing to their fondness for recording '
ers; of throwing knives at a mark; of the

everjthing, both in pictures and in three modem wooden dolls for
thimble-rig, chil-
kinds of writing ; also to their fondness for dren, curiously-carved wooden boxes, dice
building and excavating temples and tombs and toy-balls. We have likewise presented
in imperishable granite and lastly, to the
; to our view men and women playing on
which has preserved for us
drj'ness of the air harps, flutes, pipes, cymbals, trumpets,
these paintings, and to the sand which has drums, guitars and tambourines. We find
buried the monuments, thus preventing their glass to have been in general use by this
—
destruction it is owing to all these circum- great people nearly four thousand years
stances that we have so wonderfully pre- ago, as early as the reign of Usurtasen I.,
ser\-ed, for forty-five centuries, the account and we can see pictures of glass-blowing
of the everyday life, thoughts and religious and glass bottles as far back as the Fourth
belief of this renowned ancient people. Dynasty. The most skillful Venetian glass-
The most ancient mural paintings reveal workers can not rival some of the old
a state of the arts of civilization so perfedl Egj'ptian glass-work; as the Eg^'ptians
as to excite the wonder of archteologists, could combine all colors in one cup, place
who therefore know how few new things gold between two surfaces of glass, and
there are under the sun. We find houses finish in glass details of feathers, etc.,
with doors, windows and verandas, likewise which can not be distinguished without the
barns for grain, vineyards, gardens, fruit use of the microscof)e. This last fadl dem-
trees, etc. We also see pictures of marching onstrates that they must have understood
troops, armed with spears and shields, bows, the use of the magnifying-glass. The Egyp-
slings, daggers, axes, maces and the boome- tians likewise imitated with success the col-
rang. We also notice coats of mail, stand- ors of precious stones, and were even able to
ards, war-chariots, and the assault on forts make statues thirteen feet high, closely re-
by means of scaling-ladders. sembling an emerald. They made mosaics
8o 'ANCIENT HISrORY.— EGYPT.
in glass of colors of wonderful brilliancy. description of Egyptian customs and man-
They were able to cut glass in the most ners here given is but a small part of that
ancient periods. Chine.se bottles have also revealed to us in painting or .sculpture in the
been found in previousl5--unopened tombs tombs, or upon the walls of Thebes or Beni-
of the Eighteenth Dynasty, .showing that Ha.ssan.
there must ha\-e been commercial intercourse At their feasts, which were numerous
as far back as that period. The Egyptians among the rich, the host and hostess pre-
could spin and weave and color cloth, and sided. The seats were single or double
understood the use of mordants, as in mod- chairs, but numbers sat on the ground. The
ern calico printing. Pliny described this servants decked the guests with lotus flow-
art as practiced in Egypt. ers, and placed meat, cakes, fruits and
The art of making writing-paper from the other articles of food on the small tables in
papyrus, or paper-plant, is as ancient as the front of them. Hired musicians and dancers
Pyramids. The Egyptians tanned leather entertained company. Their games
the
and made shoes and the shoemakers are
: were something like our chess or checkers.
represented as working on their benches The rich rode in chariots, or in heavy car-
preci-sely as do our own. Their carpenters riages drawn by oxen. Women received
u.sed axes, saws, chisels, drills, planes, nders, more and enjoyed more
respectful treatment
plummets, squares, hammers, nails, and freedom in Egypt than in any of the Asi-
hones for shai-pening. They likewise knew atic nations.
the u.se of glue in cabinet-making, and there Games of ball were played by females, as
are paintings in veneering, in which a piece well as by males, and one pidlure shows us
of thin, dark wood is fastened by glue to a that the loser was obliged to allow the win-
coarser piece of light wood. Their boats ner to ride on her back.
were propelled by sails on yards and masts, Egyptian shops furnished many curious
as well as by oars. They used the blow- scenes. Poulterers suspended gee.se and
pipe in making gold chains and other orna- other fowls from a pole in front of the shop,
ments. They had rings of gold and silver which also supported an awning to .shade
for monej', and weighed it in carefully-con- them from the sun. Man}- of the shops re-
structed scales. Their hieroglyphics are semliled our stalls, being open in front, with
carved on the hardest granite so delicately the goods set on the shelves or hanging
and accurately as to indicate the use of me- from the inner wall; a custom still prevail-
tallic cutting instruments harder than our ing in the East. In the Egyptian kitchens
best steel. The siphon was known to these were likewise exhibited singular scenes,
people as earh- as the fifteenth centun,- before among which we find representations of a
Christ. The wig was worn by all the higher cook roasting a goo.se. He holds the spit,
classes, who constantly shaved their heads, with one hand, and blows the fire with a fan
as well as their chins, and frequently wore in the other. Another person is seen cutting
false beards. In the tombs are found san- up joints of meat and putting them into the
dals, shoes and low boots, .some of them pot, which is boiling close at hand while ;
ver}- elegant. Loose robes, ear-rings, finger- meat are lying on the table.
other joints of
rings, bracelets, armlets, anklets and gold Egyptian artists and .scribes put their reed
necklaces were worn by women. Vases for pens behind their ears, when examining the
ointment, mirrors, combs, needles, etc., are effe(5l of the painting or listening to a per-
fomid in the toml)s. These people al.so had .son on business, as in a modern counting
their dodlors and drugs. The prevalence of room. The paintings in some instances rep-
the pa.ssport system is also .shown by the resent the scribe at work with a spare j-yen
careful descriptions of the person contained behind his ear, his tablet upon his knee, and
in their deeds, in precisely the same style as his writing-case and inkstand on the table
tho.se required by travelers in Europe. The in front of him.
CIVILIZATION. 8i
The dress of tlie highest class consisted of the slicitti, a short linen or woolen garment,
folded or fluted, and worn around the loins, being fastened with a girdle. A fine linen robe,
reaching to the feet, was worn over this, being provided with long sleeves reaching to the
elbows. A second girdle fastened the outer robe to the waist. The arms and lower parts
Kc;VPTI.\N GUKST.S TO WHO.M WINi:, oil. .\.N1) r..\RI,.\Nl)S ARli. BROl'GHT.
of the legs wereleft bare. Sandals or shoes of leather, or of jiahn-leaves or papyrus stalks,
were worn by the rich of both sexes. The Egyptian lords wore ornaments, such as collars
of beads or gold chains round their necks, armlets and bracelets of gold round the arms,
rings upon the fingers, and anklets round the ankles. The Egyptian women wore a
single garment, tied at the neck or fastened by straps over the .shoulders, and reaching
from the neck or breast to the feet but ; sphinxes and small figures. In two cases
those of the upper class wore over this a are illustrated large granite colossi, sur-
colored sash, passed twice around the waist rounded with scaffolding, on which are rep-
and tied in front, and over this second gar- resented men employed in polishing and
ment a large, loose, fine linen robe with full chiseling the stone; the painter coloring the
open sleeves, reaching to the elbow. They hieroglyphics which the .sculptor had en-
wore sandals like the men, and the same graved on the back of the statue.
ornaments, with the addition of ear-rings Stone-cutting embraced the occupations
in the form of serpents or ending in the of quarrj'ing and shaping blocks for the
heads of animals or of goddesses. Elegant builder, and of cutting, polishing and en-
head-dresses were woni. graving gems. The Egyptians are still
The most important trades among the without rivals in the former branch. Blocks
Egyptians were those of building, stone- of stone were usually cut with a single-
cutting, weaving, furniture-making, char- handed saw in the hands of a single sawyer.
iot-making, glass-blowing, potter)-, metal- Sometimes the pick and chisel were used to
lurgy, boat-building and embalming. The a considerable extent, after which wedges
of drj- wood were in.serted and ;
these expanded on being wetted,

and split off the required block
from the mass of stone in the quarry.
The tools used were mostly of
bronze. Blocks of stone, obtained
from the quarries, were finally
smoothed and prepared for use bj-
means of the chi.sel and mallet.
The Egyptians carried on an ex-
tensive commerce with other coun-
tries ; importing gold, ivor>-, ebony,
skins and slaves from Ethiopia and
Central Africa, incense from Ara-
bia, and .spices and gems from India;
and exporting, in exchange for
the.se articles, grain and cloth. As
the Egyptians had not attained
much skill in the art of ship-build-
ing, their trade was carried on prin-
cipally by Greek and Phoenician
\ merchants.
Eg3'ptian sculpture was designed
•J
to illustrate the religious faith of
the people, and for this reason was
EGVPTI.\N HEAD-DRESSES.
charadlerized by grandeur and sub-
builders worked in wood, stone and brick. limity rather than beauty. Their peculiar
The mechanical excellence of their works is ta.ste was the outgrowth of their religious
fully attested bj- their continuance to the ideas, for the aim was to inspire awe rather
present day. than please the eye with graceful and ele-
The paintings frequently allude to the gant forms. This checked all progress in
occupations of the mason, the stone-cutter art, for all inventive genius was fettered by
and the sculptor. Workmen are represented conventional rules founded on religions Ije-
polishing and painting statues of men. liefs. Colossal statues, uncouth allegorical
CIVILIZATION. 83
figures and strange ideal fonns of animals even Osiris. The forms of the gods are all
supplied the place of nature and beauty more or less repulsive; the stiff outlines, the
in Eg>^ptian art. Painting, as illustrated close-fitting robes, the large hands and feet,
by the specimens in the interiors of tem- the frequent animal heads and innnense
ples and sepulchers, was likewise intended head-dresses, the ugly or inexpressive faces,
to ser\-e the cause of religion, and was recall the mon.strosities of the religious re-
trammeled by the same conventional rules, presentations of Brahminism and Buddhi.sm.
certain colors being strictlj' prescribed in The drawings, mostl\- of a .serious nature,
representing the bodies and draperies of the are of four kind.s — i, religiotis, where wor-
gods, thus sacrificing variety of form to an ship, especially sacrifice, is offered to the
ideal mouotou)-. The painting was often gods, or where the gods .sustain the king, or
executed in brilliant coloring, but the draw- where the soul passes through scenes it will
ing lacked accurac>-, exhibiting no compli- endure after death; 2, processional, where the
ance with the rules of perspective or the monarch goes in state, or where tribute is
plainest laws of vision. The pigments brought to him, or where the pomp of a fun-
used were characterized by durability and eral, or the installation of an official, or some
often b)- brilliancy. other civil ceremony, forms the subjedt; 3,

Ancient Egj'ptian embracesscu.pture ivar scenes, such as land and naval battles,
statuary; reliefs, or representations of forms sieges of forts, marches of armies, the return
on a flat .surface by means of a certain pro- home with bootj- and captiA-es, etc. ; 4, scenes
jedlion; and intaolios. or representations by of ordinary life, as exclusively represented in
cutting the fonns into stone or marble, thus the tombs, where the houses and goods, the
sinking them below the surtace. Completely occupations, the hunting scenes, the enter-
detached statues are rare in Egypt. The tainments, and the amusements of the de-
statues were cut out of stone. There are cea.sed are depicted.These tomb scenes are
grotesque figures of Phthah and Bes, which the most numerous and the most interesting;
produce disgust and aversion. Egyptian and here the Egyptians are sportive and
statuary' was distinguished for massivene.ss amusing, exhibiting playfulness and humor,
and strength. The statuettes, in bronze, and even approaching caricature.
basalt or terra-cotta, are less dignified than In painting the Egyptians drew figures
the statues, but possess more elegance and of men and animals, and also of other ob-
grace. The Great Sphinx, near the Pyra- jects, in outline on a white background,
mids of Ghizeh, is a .striking monument, and then filled in the outline, wholly or
and impresses the beholder with its air of partially, with ma.sses of uniform hue, prac-
impassive dignity. Other sphinxes have a ticing no shading or .softening of the tints.
certain calmness and grandeur. There are All the exposed parts of a man's body were
also statuettes of bulls, monkeys and dogs, colored with a uniform red-brown; all the
which are fairly good. •
exposed portions of a woman's body, with a
Animal forms are excellent, but the chief lighter red or a yellow. Except in the case
defecfls of P'gyptian drawings are improper of foreigners, the hair and beard were pitch-
proportion and incorrect perspecti\-e. The black. Dresses were mostly white, with
have the same defedls in this re-
bas-reliefs their folds marked by lines of red or brown,
spedl as their statues and statuettes; and and were sometimes striped or otherwise
there is a frequent intrusion of hideous patterned, generalh- red or blue. Most
forms, as seen in the three huge and mis- large surfaces were more or less patterned,
shapen figures, so frequently seen upon the generally with small patterns of various
ceilings of temples, aud which are suppo.sed colors, including much of white. The stone
to represent
'
' the heavens.

'
' Bes in all his on which the Eg^'ptians painted —whether
forms is fearful to behold: as are also Taou- sandstone, fossiliferous limestone, or granite
ris, Savak, Cerberus, Khem, and sometimes — was covered with a coating of stucco,
84 A NCIF.N T HIS TOR Y.— EGYPT.
which was white or whitish and prevented which is heightened
.sculpture, the effedl of
the colors from Ijeing lost by sinking into by the painter's on the inside walls of
art,
the background. Besides black, white, the great temple-palace. The temples and
red,blue and yellow, they used green, palaces of Thebes exhibit a similar degree
brown and gray, as colors in their paint- of form and color, which appear almost as
ings. The black is a bone-black. The perfedt as if they had just come from the
white is prepared from pure chalk with a artist's hand.
light trace of iron. The red and the yellow- As we .shall observe, the belief of the future
are ochres, the coloring matter being iron reunion of the soul and body was the reason
mixed with the earthy
substance. The Ijhie
is derived from the ox-

ide of copper combined
with pulverized gla.ss.
The green is the same
preparation combined
with yellow ochre.
The l>rown is a mix-
ture of blue-black with
the red. The colors
were mixed with water
and with a moderate
amount of gum, to
inake the mixture ad-
hesive and tenacious.
They were applied to
a stuccoed flat surface,
SCULPTURKD F.\(;.\DE OF THE TKMPI.K OF KDFU.
or to figures in relief or intaglio. taken to preser\-e the latter from decay, as

The great temple-palace of Rameses 1 1 1, at exemplified in the singular custom of em-
Medinet-Abu full\- illustrates the combined balming the dead, which was the uni^•ersal
effe(5ts of painting and .sculpture in Egypt. pracftice among this celebrated people, and
On the north-east wall of this ruined struc- also in the great pains taken to ornament
ture is represented, in painting, the king on a the insides of the rock-hewn supulchers, the
hawk-headed figure
throne, in.scribed with a dead body in the
belief pre\-ailing that the
leading a lion and .sphinx. Behind the tomb was not entirely unconscious.
king are the winged effigies of Truth and While other nations embellished the tem-
Justice. Twehe royal princes bear the ples and palaces of the living, the ancient
shrine, and high officers of .state ^vaê their Eg>'ptians decorated their tombs, the recep-
august sovereign, while
labella before their tacles of the dead, with la\ish splendor.
priests carry his arms and insignia. The Many of these highly-ornamented sepulchral
monarch's sons bear the footstool of his chambers .seem only accessible through long,
throne, and are accompanied by .scribes and narrow and intricate passages. The entrances
great warriors. There is likewi.se .seen a to others seem to be closed with the stricftest
])roce.ssion of .scholars, fan-bearers and sol- care, and hidden with reverential san<5tity.
diers. A great scribe delivers a jiroclama- A necropolis, or '
' city of the dead,

'
' belonged
mation from a roll of papyrus, and the to each city or nome. In the rock-hewn sep-
high-])riest burns incen.se before the shrine. ulchers of Memphis and Thebes were treas-
Birds fly in every dire(5tion, as if to spread ured up all the scenes in which the living
Pharaoh's fame to every quarter of the monarch and his subjects had figured.
world. This is but a part of the elaborate Egypt abounds ^\ith inniiense tombs, whose
CIV1LI/-AT10N. 85
walls, like those of the temples, are adorned The Egyptian lawgivers, having recog-
with the most wonderful paintings, exeeuted nized this provi.sion as es.sential to the
three and four thousand years ago. In public health, .secured its universal and
these paintings, the entire country, with all permanent pradlice by associating it with
its natural productions, its vegetables, ani- the doctrines of the soul's immortality and
mals, birds, fishes, and the people in all their the metempsychosis, or transmigration of
private and domestic occupations, are delin- the .soul. It was believed that every spirit,
eated with a remarkable fidelity of outline upon leaving the bod)-, must pa.ss through
and an extraordinary richness of coloring. a predestined cycle of three thou-sand years,
Religion was at the foundation of the ex- entering successively into the bodies of
traordinary care which the E.gyptians be- various animals, xuitil it returned to the
stowed upon their dead. The whole art of human body from which it had departed.
—
embalming the body the preparing, the Whenever the body which ithad last left
bandaging, the anointing, in faCl the entire became subject to corruption the course of
process of forming the inunnny was a duty — its migrations was suspended; the end of its
of the priests. This remarkable custom was long journey and its ardently-wished-for re-
a universal national usage among the an- turn to more exalted states of existence was
cient and had an inseparable
Egyptians, delaj'ed. For this rea.son the utmost care
conneclion with their religious dogmas and was taken to pre,ser\-e the bodies of human
sentiment. The origin of this singular beings and animals, and .secure them forever
pradlice has been traced to the local circum- from decomposition and putrefadtion. Thus
stances of the country. In Egypt the cus- this u.sage was enforced by stringent and
toms of burning and burying the dead, which sacred laws, and certain orders of the priest-
have prevailed among other nations, were hood were expressly empowered with the
impradlicable, — the first, because the country duty of carr^-ing it into execution. Em-
produces little timber, and its fruit-trees, balming w-as performed with .solenui relig-
such as the date-palm and others, are too ious rites. Herodotus tells us that when a
valuable for ordinary consumption: and the body was found seized by a crocodile, or
second, becau.se in the narrow Nile valley drowned in the Nile, the city upon whose
all the land available for agricultural pur- territory- the body was cast was obliged to
poses was required for the sustenance of take it in charge and to cau.se it to be em-
the dense population, and also becau.se balmed and interred in a sepulcher.
the annual inundation of the Nile would The tombs of the wealthy consisted of one
have washed up the bodies and generated or more chambers, ornamented with paint-
pestilence. The rock)- mountain ranges on ings and sculpture, the place and size o
each side of the river .seemed designed by which depended on the expen.se which the
nature for sepulchers; but the multitudes of family of the deceased incurred, or on the
the dead could not with .safety be heaped wishes of the persons who purchased them
together in a state of decomposition, even in
I
during their lifetime. These sepulchers were
the inmost chambers of their rocks, without ! owned by the priests; and as a sufficient
breeding pestilence. Ancient Egypt was number w-ere always held in readiness, the
remarkably free from the epidemic plagfues purchase was made at the shortest possible
which now desolate the Nile land, on ac- notice, even the sculptures and in.scriptions
count of the universal praiflice of embalm- being so far complete as to require only the
ing the dead, which cut off one chief .source insertion of the name of the deceased, and a
of noxious vapors. This peculiar custom few^ statements concerning his family and
was, therefore, a wise sanitary regulation, profes.sion. The numerous subjects illus-
adopted by the priestly lawgivers, and in- trating agricultural life, the trades and occu-
corporated with the civil and religious in.sti- pations of the i)eo])le, their diversions, etc.,
tutions of ihe nation. were already introduced. These were the
1— 6.-U. H.
same in all the tombs, diflfering only in their ceased, ratherthan his sepulcher. These
detailsand the manner of their execution, apartments served for the reception of the
and were probably designed as a brief epit- friends of the deceased, who often met there,
ome of human life, being adapted equally and accompanied the priests when perform-
to every future occupant. In some cases all ing the .services for the dead. Tombs were
the paintings of the tomb were completed, built of brick or stone, or cut in the solid
and even the small figures representing rock, according to the position of the ne-
the tenant were introduced, only those of cropolis. The rock-hewn tombs were pre-
larger size l)eing left unsculptured, because ferred wherever the mountains were near
they required more accuracy in the features enough to the Nile, and the.se were usually
to give a corTe(5t portrait. In .some instances the most elegant in design and variety of
even the large figures were finished before sculpture. The sepulchers of the poorer
the tomb was sold, only the hierogl3-phic classes had no upper chamber. The coffins
legends containing the names of the tenant of these were laid in pits in the plain, or in
and his wife remaining to be inserted. The recesses at the side of a rock. Mummies
priests often sold old mummy-cases and of the lower orders were interred together
tombs belonging to other persons, altering in a common and the remains
repositorj',
the and giving the name

hieroglyphics of those whose were too poor to de-
relatives
of the new tenant. This was especially the defray the expen.ses of a funeral, after being
case when the purchaser was satisfied, from cleansed and kept in an alkaline solu-
motives of economy, with a second-hand tion for seventy days, were wrapped up in
tenement for the remains of his departed coarse cloth, in mats or in a bundle of palm
friend. sticks, and laid in the earth.
The was invariably prepared as a
tomli We have the following account of the
husband and
resting-place for the bodies of a funeral of Nophri-Othph, a priest of Amun,
his wife. Whichever died first was interred at Thebes, from the walls of his tomb. The
in the .sepulcher, or was kept embalmed in scene of the funeral was on the lake, and on
the house until the death of the other. The the way from the lake to the .sepulcher. At
manner which husband and wife are
in the head of the procession was a large boat
always represented, with their arms around conveying the bearers of flowers, cakes and
each other's waist or neck, illustrates the many things relating to the offerings, tables,
aflfecftionate di.sposition of the ancient Egyp- chairs and other articles of furniture, as
tians. The presence of the different rela- well as the friends of the deceased, these
tives, who are introduced in the performance being con.spicuous by their dresses and their
ofsome tender office to the deceased friend, long walking-sticks, the distinguishing mark
shows the attachment of a family to its de- of Egyptian gentlemen. Next came a small
parted relatives. skiff, carrj'ing baskets of cakes and fruit,
Besides the upper rooms of the Egyptian with a supply of green palm-branches, which
tombs, which were ornamented with the it was the custom to strew in the way as
paintings already described, there were pits, the body was being conveyed to the tomb;
from twenty to seventy feet deep, at the the smoothness of the palm-lea\-es and
bottom and sides of which were recesses, stalks making it easy for the sled to glide
like small chambers, for the reception of the over them. The lo\-e of caricature, so gen-
coffins. The pit was closed with masonry eral among the Egyptians, even in so serious
after the interment of the body, and was, in a matter as a funeral, is exemplified in this
.some cases, reopened to receive the other portion of the scene. A large boat having
members of the family. The upper apart- run aground and being pushed off the bank,
ments were profusely ornamented with struck a smaller one with its rudder, and
painted sculptures, thus bearing the char- overturned a large table, loaded with cakes
acter of a monument in honor of the de- and other things, upon the heads of the
CIl'ILIZATlON. 87
rowers seated below, iiotwiUistaiuliiig all — were likewise embalmed. It is said that
the exertions of a man in the jirow, and more than four hundred million munnnics
the vehement cries of the frightened helnis- of human beings were made in Ivgypt. In
niau. recent years many of the.se mummies have

In another boat were men carn,-ing been brought from the land of the Pha-
bunches of flowers and boxes supported by raohs to our nui.seiuns. Tombs have been
yokes on their shoulders. Then followed opened revealing thousands of them in rows
two other boats, one convejang the male one upon another, without coffins. vShip-
mourners, and the other the female mourn- loads of them have been transported to
ers, standing on the roof of the cabin, beat- England, and ground up for fertilizers for
ing themselves, uttering cries and making the .soil.
other demonstrations of grief. At last came

the consecrated boat, carr>'ing the hearse,
around which were the chief mourners and
the female relatives of the deceased. Upon
arriving at the opposite shore of the lake,
the procession marched to the catacombs.
On their way, several women of the vicinity,
carrj'ing their children in shawls, suspended
from the side or back, joined in the lamen-
tations of the funeral train. The nuunmy
was set in a standing position in the cham-
ber of the tomb; and the sister, wife or
nearest relative, embracing it, began a
funeral dirge, calling upon the deceased
with ever}' expres.sion of affection, extolling
Kr.VPTI.\N MUMMIKS.
his virtues and bewailing her own great
loss. The high-priest presented a sacrifice The embalmers of dead bodies constituted
of incense and libation, with offerings of a numerous class among the ancient Egyp-
cakes and other usual gifts for the dead; tians, and must have carried on a prosper-
and the male and female mourners con- ous trade, if the prices mentioned by Dio-
tinued the wailing, throwing dust upon dorus were ac?tually tho.se usually exadted.
their heads, and making other demonstra- According to the Sicilian historian, the most
tions of grief. improved method of preparing a corp.se for
Another painting represents the judgment interment cost a sum which, in our money,
of a wicked soul, which is condemned to would amount to about a thousand dollars.
return to earth in the form of a pig, having A secondary and much inferior method re-
been weighed in the scales before Osiris and quired an expenditure amounting to about
found wanting. It is put in a boat, and, four hundred dollars. The lowest and
attended by two monkeys, is expelled from poorest classes had a third method, the
heaven, all intercourse with which is sym- price of which was comparatively mod-
bolically cut off by a man hewing away the erate; but the vast numbers of this class
ground behind it with an axe. must have made the profits to the em-
During the whole period of seventj'-two balmers considerable. It has been esti-
days of mourning for the dead, the process mated that between B. C. 2000 and A. D.
of embalming the body was performed. 700, when embalming ceased, there may
This embalming was perfonned by the physi- have been interred in Egypt four hundred
cians, who, as we have obser\'ed, were of and twenty million munuiiied corpses, a\'er-
the priestly order. Vast numbers of sacred aging one hundred and fiftj'-five thousand
animals —bulls, apes, dogs, cats, sheep, etc. yearly. If five-sixths of these, or one hun-
88 ANCIENT HISTOR Y. — EG YPT.
dred and thirty thousand, belonged to the and kept in place with gum. After the ban-
lower classes, while two-fifteenths, or twenty daging, an outer linen shroud, dyed red with
thousand, may have been furnished by the the cavihamus iinfloriiis, and ornamented
middle classes, and one-thirtieth, or five with a network of porcelain beads, was put
thousand, b)- the wealthy classes, and if over the entire body; or the bandaged body
the poor man paid one-twentieth of the was covered by a "cartonnage," composed
price paid by those of the upper middle class, of twenty-four layers of linen tightly pressed
the annual amount received by the embalm- and glued together, thus forming a kind of
ers would have exceeded fifteen million dol- pasteboard envelope, which was then thinly
lars of our money. coated with stucco, and painted in bright
The process of embalming was very an- colors with hieroglyphics and figures of
cient in Egypt, and by the time of the deities The bod}- was then placed within a
Eighteenth Dynasty the art had reached a wooden coffin shaped similarly, and in most
remarkable degree of perfe(5tion. In the instances similarh- ornamented; and this
most expensive system, the brain was ex- coffin was often enclosed within another, or
tra (fled with great skill by a cur\êd, bronze within several, each just capable of holding
implement through the nostrils, after which the preceding one. In the funerals of the
the skull was washed out with certain medi- wealthy the coffined body was placed
caments. The nostrils were plugged up, within a stone chest, or sarcophagus, which
the eyes were removed and their places sup- might be of granite, alabaster, basalt, brec-
plied with artificial ones of ivory or ob- cia or other good material, and was either
sidian, and the hair was likewise sometimes rectangular or in the form of the mummied
removed and placed in a separate packet, bod}-. Some sarcophagi were plain, but
covered with linen and bitumen. An open- many were adorned with sculptures in re-
ing was cut in the right side with a flint lief or intaglio, embracing mainly scenes and
knife, through which the entire intestines passages from the most sacred of Egy-ptian
were removed by the hand and deposited in writings, the "Ritual of the Dead."
sepulchral urns. The cavity was then When the family or relatives were unable
cleansed by an injection of palm-wine, and or indisposed to incur the large expen.se re-
.sometimes by a subsequent infusion of quired by this costly mode of embalming, a
pounded aromatics; after which it was filled cheaper method was adopted. The viscera,
with bruised mj'rrh, cassia, cinnamon and instead of being deposited with spices in
other spices. The whole body was then separate urns, could be returned into the
immersed in natron for seventy days. The body, accompanied by wax images of the
finger-nails were kept in place with thread, four genii. The abdominal cavity could be
or by means of silver gloves or stalls placed only cleansed with cedar oil, and not filled
over the fingers. A tin plate, in.scribed with spices. The silver finger-stalls and
with the symbolic eye, was laid .over the artificial eyes could be dispensed with. The
incision in the right side. The arms were bandages could be reduced in number and
arranged symmetrically along the sides, or made of coarser linen. The ornamentation
on the breast or groins. The body was then could be simpler. A single wooden coffin
bandaged. Linen bandages were always would be sufficient, and the sarcophagus
u.sed, and were generally three or four might be done without. Thus the expense
inches wide and .several yards long. The of funerals could be reduced within mode-
coarser linen was nearest the body, the finer rate limits.
towards the outside. In some instances the A still cheaper mode was necessary for
bandages in which a single corp.se was the poorer classes. Sometimes the bodies
swathed were over .seven hundred, or, ac- of the poor were submerged in mineral pitch.
cording to Pettigrew, over a thousand j-ards Often they were only dried and salted.
long. The bandages were joined together Bodies prepared in this manner are in some
'
Rr.T.IGION AND MYTHOLOGY. 89
cases swathed in bandages, but are frequently others in layers, one above the other. The
only wrapped These
in coarse cloths or rags. expense of these modes of embalming was
bodies are not enclosed in coffins, and have .so trifling as to be within the reach of the
been only buried in the ground, some singly, poorest.
SECTION v.— EGYPTIAN RELIGION AND MYTHOLOGY.

lONCERNING the Egyptians, in historv', possessed an established mythol-
Herodotus says "They are of
: og}-, that is, a series of gods. Before the
all men the most excessively empire of Menes the separate Egj'ptian
attentive to the worship of the states had their temple worship regularlj-
Much
'
gods." of the theology, organized.

m3'thology and ceremonies of the Hebrews M. Maun,-, the French Egj'ptologist, saj'S
and Greeks had their origin in Egj'pt. He- that everything among the Egyptians took
rodotus further says: '
'The names of almost the stamp of religion. Their writing was
all the gods came from Egypt to Greece." so full of sacred symbols as to render it
He also states that the Greek oracles, es- almost useless for any other purpose. Lit-
pecially that of Dodona, were brought from erature, science and art were branches of
Eg^'pt, and that the Egyptians first intro- theology- and worship. The most common
duced public festivals, processions and sol- labors of daily life were constantly inter-
emn supplications, which the Greeks learned
from them. He goes on to say: "The Eg>'p-
tians are beyond measure scrupulous in mat-
ters of religion." They invented the calen-
dar and connedled astrology with it. Says
Herodotus Each month and day is as-
:
'
'
signed to some particular god, and each per-

son's birthday- determines his fate." He like-
wise says :
'
' The Egyptians were also the

first to say that the soul of man is immortal
and that it transmigrates through everv^ va-
rvG.\x of animal." The Greek Mysteries of
Eleusis were taken from those of Isis, and
the storj^ of the wanderings of Ceres in pur-
suit of Proserpine was borrowed from that of
Isis in search of Osiris. Modem writers
agree with Herodotus. Wilkinson says :
"The Eg>-ptians were unquestionably the

most pious nation of all antiquity. The old-
est monuments show their belief in a future
life. And Osiris, the Judge, is mentioned
in tombs two thousand j-ears before Christ."
EGYPTI.\N TRINITY.
Bunsen says: "It has at last been ascer-
tained that all the great gods of Egypt are rupted by some reference to priesth- regula-
on the oldest monuments." He goes on to tion. The future fate of every Egyptian
say: "It is a great and astonishing facft, es- was perpetually before him, so that he only
tablished bej'oud possibility of doubt, that hved to worship the gods. When the sun
the empire of Menes, on its first appearance set, it seemed to die; when it arose, it seemed
;
90 ANCIENT HIS TOR Y. —EG YPT.

a symbol of the resurrecftion. Religion Bun.sen and Wilkinson thought that they
penetrated so deeply into the people's hab- had succeeded in tracing them from the
its that it became an instin<5t. It was of monuments. Thus there were eight gods of
all polj-theisms the last to give way to the first order, twelve gods of the second
Christianity, retaining its votaries as late order, and seven gods of the third order.
as the sixth century of the Christian era. The gods of the first order were of a higher
The ancient Egyptian religionwas a and more spiritual class; tho.se of the second
perplexing mixture of monotheism and order were a transition from the first order
polytheism, of lofty and noble conceptions to the third —children of the first and
and of degrading superstitions. parents of the third. The first order of
The sacred books of the ancient Egyp- gods was for the priesthood, and taught them
tians contained the religion of the priests, the unity, spirituality and creative power of
who were and considered it im-
raonotheists the One True and Indi\-isible Supreme
pious to represent the Supreme Being by Being.
images and idols; but they made him known The gods of the third order were for the
to the masses by personifying his various masses of the people, and were the personal
attributes and manifestations, as Phthah the agents which represented the forms and
Creator, Amun the Revealer, and Osiris the which was believed
forces of external nature,
Benefactor and Judge, and so on through an by the ignorant masses work through this
to
innumerable list of primary, secondary and third series of gods, the most popular of
tertiary characflers, which, to the untutored which were Osiris and Isis. The gods of
masses, became so many separate deities, the second or intermediate order were neither
thus accounting for the polytheistic faith of so abstracft as those of the first order, nor so
the lower classes. Some portion of the di- concrete as those of the third order —not rep-
vine was believed to pervade plants
life resenting either the spiritual charadleristics
and animals, which were consequently cher- of the gods of the first cla.ss, or the natural
ished and worshiped by the ignorant; for qualities and forces of those of the third
what to the wise and learned were merely class, but rather the powers and faculties of
symbols became to the people distindt ob- human beings. For this reason most of the
jec5ts of adoration; and the Egyptian priests, deities of this second class were adopted by
like other ancient philosophers, disdained to the Greeks, whose religious sj-stem was es-
enlighten the people, whom they despised sentiallyfounded on hunian nature, and
and deemed incapable of comprehending whose gods and goddesses were mainly the
their grand conceptions, and whom they de- imaginary representations of human char-
sired to hold in subservience to their own adleristics.
and the kingly authority. The eight gods of the first order were
Thus there were two kinds of Egyptian believed to constitute a process of divine
—
theology esoteric, or an interior theology, development, and were supposed to exercise
for the initiated, and exoteric, or an ex- the power of revealing themselves. These
terior theology, for the uninitiated. The eight divinities, according to Bunsen, were
arranged in the following order i. Amn,
interior hidden theology for the priests and :
the wise related to the unity and spirituality or Amnion; 2. Kheni, or Chemmis; 3. Mut,
of the Deity. The exterior theology for the the Mother Goddess 4. Num, or Kneph
; ;
masses consisted of mythological accounts 5. Seti, or Sate; 6. Phthah, the Artist God;
of Osiris and Isis, the judgment of the 7. Net, or Neith, the Goddess of Sais; 8.
dead, the metempsychosis, or transmigra- Ra, the Sun, the God of Heliopolis. Ac-
tion of the and everj-thing pertaining
.soul, cording to Wilkinson, they are classed in a
to the ceremonial worship of the gods. different order: i. Neph, or Kneph; 2.
Herodotus tells us that the Egyptian Anuni, or Ammon; 3. Phthah; 4. Khem
masses believed in three orders of gods, and 5. Sate; 6. Maut, or Mut ; 7. Pasht, or Diana;
'
RELIGION AND MYTHOLOGY. 91
8. Neith, or Miner\-a. In Wilkinson's list, Phthah— called HephiEstus by the Greeks,

Paslit, or Diana, is classed in the first order —
Vulcan by the Roman.s represents creation
instead of the second, while Ra is not classed by the truth, fonnation, stability; and is
ill this series. called in the inscriptions "Lord of Truth,"
Amnion, or Amun, was "the Revealer," "Lord of the Beautiful Face," "Father of
"the Concealed God," "the Absolute Beginnings, moving the Egg of the Sun and
Spirit," "the Father of all the other gods;" Moon." Horapollo and Plutarch considered
corresponding to the Zeus of the Greeks. the scarabaeus, or beetle, the sign of this god,
He "the King of the Gods," " the
is stj'led as an emblem of the world and its creation.
L,ord of Heaven," "the Ruler," "the Lord In an inscription he is called " Creator of all
of the Two Thrones, " " the Horus or God things in the world." Says lamblicus: "The
of the Two Egjpts. His city was Thebes.
'
' God who creates with truth Phthah. He is

'
'
Manetho saj's his name signifies conceal- was also related with the sun, having thirt}-
ment. The root " Anin" signifies to veil fingers, representing the thirty days of the
or conceal. His original name, as standing month. He is also represented as a defoniied
in the rings of the Twelfth Dynasty, was dwarf.
Amu. After the Eighteenth Dynasty he Khem, whom the Greeks called Pan, the
was called Amn-Ra, signifj'ing the Sun. principle of generation, is sometimes repre-
Says Bunseii: "Incontestably, he stands in sented as holding a plowshare. Amun has
EgA'pt as the head of the great cosmogonic no female companion. Mut, the mother,
development." is the partner of Khem, the father. Seti,
Kneph, the God of Spirit, was also called the Ray or Arrow, a feminine figure with
Knubis, or Num. His name, according to the horns of a cow, is the consort of Kneph.
Plutarch and Diodorus, means Spirit. At Neith, or Net, the Goddess of Sals, is the
Esna he was called the Breath of those in
'
' companion of Phthah. The Greek Athene,

the Firmament." At Elephantine he was Pallas, or Miner\-a, is believed to be derived
He from Neith, and her name signifies: I came
'
styled "Lord of the Inundations." is '
represented as wearing the ram's head with by myself. Clemens Alexandrinussaj-s that
'
'
double horns, and was universally worshiped her great shrine at Sais has an open roof
in Ethiopia. The sheep were sacred to him, bearing this inscription "I am all that was
:
and large flocks of them were kept in the and is and is to be, and no mortal has lifted
Thebais for their wool. The serpent or asp my garment, and the fruit I bore is Helios.
'
were also sacred to Kneph. He was called This signifies her identity with Nature.
Creator, and was represented in the figure of a Helios, or Ra, or Phrah, the Sun-god,
potter with a wheel. In Philae he is repre- the God of Heliopolis (City of the Sun), is
sented as forming on his wheel a figure of the eighth and last of the first order of gods,
Osiris, bearing the inscription: "Num, who according to Bunsen. It is from Ra, or
fomis on his wheel the Divine Limbs of Phrah, that the name Pharaoh is derived.
Osiris. " He is likewise called '
' the Sculptor As we have already seen, Wilkinson ex-
of all meu, " " thegod who made the sun and cludes Ra from the first order, substituting
the moon to revolve." According to Por- Pasht, or Bubastis, the Diana of the Greeks,
phyrj-, Phtliah sprang from an egg which instead. If we accept Bunsen's classifica-
came from the mouth of Kneph, and in this tion, taking the Sun-god as the eighth and
declaration he is sustained by the authority last of the first series, we shall then see in
of the monuments. Phthah thus represents Amnion, the Concealed God, the pure Spirit,
the Absolute Divine Being as Spirit, the from which emanates Kneph, the creative
Spirit of God mo\-ing on the face of the power; followed by Khem, the generative
waters, a moving spirit intertwined and in- power; followed by Phthah, the artistic prin-
terwoven with the chaotic and shapeless ciple; after which come the three feminine
mass of matter. creative principles of Nature in Neith, the
92 ANCIENT HISTORY.— FXrVPT.
nourishing principle in Mut the mother, the thenio.st remote antiquity. Says Herodotus:
developing principle in the goddess Pasht, "The Osiris deities are the only gods wor-
and the completion of the whole cycle in shiped throughout Egypt." Says Bun.sen:
Helios, or Ra, or Phrah, the Snn-god. "They stand on the oldest monuments, are
The reason for the difference between the the center of all Egyptian worship, and are
priestly and popular religions of Eg>"pt is perhaps the oldest original obje(5ls of rever-
to be attributed to the difference of race ence." Wilkinson says the only change in
origin between the and the
priesthood the EgA'ptian religious system was during
masses. The have
priests are believed to the fourteenth century' before Christ, when
been the descendants of the Asiatic immi- Amun, or Ammon, was made chief of the
grants into the Nile valley, while the great third class of gods, in place of Typhon, or
body of the people are supposed to have Seth, the God of Destru(5tion, who had pre-
been of Ethiopian extradtion. The Asiatic viousU' held the first place and had been
immigrants and conquerors brought with the most highly reverenced of the popular
them the spiritual ideas represented by the deities. Seth's name was then chiseled off
first order of gods, while the Ethiopian oc- the monuments, and Amun's substituted in-
cupiers of the Nile valley held fast to the stead. This religious revolution was the
African instindl of nature- worship. The final result of the amalgamation of the two
combination of these two principles fonned —
races and religions in Egj'pt the Asiatic
the Egyptian religious system. The first Semitic and Aryan immigrants, with their
order of gods was therefore for the priests, higher spiritual ideas, and the Ethiopian
the initiated; the third order was for the Hamitic aborigines, with their gross African
people, the uninitiated; while the second nature-worship. It was very natural that
order was a transition between the first and the priests, the descendants of the Asiatic
third —children of the first and parents of immigrants, should place their religion
the third. above that of the descendants of the abo-
As we have said, the second order of riginal inhabitants, and that they should
Egyptian gods was incorporated into the have permitted for a time the external wor-
Greek pantheon. Thus Khonso, the child ship until the public was prepared for the
of Ammon, was the same as the Greek Her- reception of a higher religious faith in the
cules, God of Strength; Thoth, child of Amun, the Revealer, for the
.substitution of
Kneph, was the equivalent of the Greek God of Terror and Destruction.
Hennes, God of Knowledge; Pecht, child The most popular of ancient Egyptian
of Phthah, was represented by the Greek myths was that of Osiris and Isis, as given
Artemis, or Diana, the Goddess of Birth, us by Plutarch. Seb and Nutpe, or Nut the —
who prote(fled women; Athor, or Hathor, Kronos and Rhea of the Greeks, the Saturn
was the same as the Grecian Aphrodite, or —
and C^'bele of the Romans were the parents
Venus, the Goddess of Love; Seb was the of the third group of deities. Seb is Time,
Greek Kronos, or Saturn, the God of Time; and Nut is Space. The Sun pronounced a
and Nutpe was the Grecian Rhea, the wife curse upon them, in not permitting them to
of Kronos. be delivered on any daj' of the year. This
The were the children
third order of gods symbolizes the difficulty of the thought of
of the second order, and were manifestations Creation. But Hermes, or Wisdom, who
of the Divine Spirit in the external universe. loved Rhea, won at dice, of the Moon, five
These, as we have said, were the popular days, the .seventieth part of all her illumina-
gods, though worshiped by the untutored tions, which he added to the three hundred
masses. The gods of the third class, though and .sixty days, or twelve months. This im-
lowest in the scale, had more of individuality plies the corredlion of the calendar. The five
and personality about them, and their wor- days added were the birthdays of the gods.
ship throughout Egypt was universal from Osiris was born on the first of these five days,
THE HATHOR TEMPLE OE DENDERAH.
RF.I.ICION AND lUVT/m/.OCV. 93
when a voice proclaimed: " The Lord of all into the chest, she gave him such a terrible
things is now horn." Arneris-ApoUo, the look as to frighten him to death. Then
elder Horus, was born on the second of Isis went to her son Horus, who was at
these days Tj-phon on the third; Isis on
;
nurse at Buto. Typhon, while hunting by
the fourth Nepthys- Venus, or V'ictory, on
; moonlight, saw the ark, with the body of
the fifth. Osiris and Arueris were children Osiris, which he tore into fourteen pieces
of the Sun; Isis was the daughter of Hermes; and cast them around. Isis went in a boat
and Typhou and Nepthys were children of made of papjrus to look for the parts of her
Kronos, or Saturn, the God of Time. hu.sband's body, and finding them, buried
Osiris took Isis for his wife, and went them all in different places. The soul of
through the world civilizing and refining Osiris then returned from Hades to train up
mankind by means of music, poetry and ora- his son, Horus. Then Horus conquered T>--
tory. On his return Tj-phon took seventj-- phon in battle, but Isis allowed Tjphon to
two men and likewise an Ethiopian queen make his escape. It is also said that Isis
and construdled an ark as large as the bod)- had another son bj' the soul of Osiris after
of Osiris, and at a feast he offered it to the his death, the god Harpocrates, who is rep-
one whom it should fit. Osiris got into the resented as lame and with his finger on his
ark, and thej- closed the lid and soldered it mouth, signifying childhood.
fast, after which they cast the ark into the Plutarch says that Osiris afterward became
Nile. Then Isis, putting on mourning, went Serapis, the Pluto of the under- world. Plu-
to look for the ark. As her inquiries were tarch, in explanation of the myth of Osiris
made to little children, these were thought and Isis, says that 0.siris is the personification
by the Egyptians to possess the power of of Water, especially the Nile, and that
divination. She then found Anubis, child of Isis is the Earth, especially the Nile valley
Osiris by Nepthys, wife of Typhon, who in- of Egypt overflowed by the river. Horus,
formed her that the ark was entangled in a the son, is the Air, especially the moist, mild
tree which grew up around it and concealed air of Egypt. Typhon is Fire, especially
it from view. The king construdled from the summer heat which dries up the Nile and
this tree a pillar to support his house. Isis parches the land. His seventy-two com-
satdown and wept, whereupon the queen's panions are the seventy-two da^'s of most
women came to her, and she stroked their intense heat, as viewed by the Egyptians.
hair, thus causing fragrance to pass into it. Nepthys, Typhon's wife, sister of Isis, is the
She became nurse to the queen's child, feed- Desert out of Egypt, but which, when over-
ing him with her finger, and burning his flowed by a higher inundation of the Nile,
impurities by means of a lambent flame dur- becomes productive and has a child by Osiris,
ing the night-time. After this she converted named Anubis. The confinement of Osiris
and flying around
herself into a swallow, in the ark signifies the summer heat dr>'ing
the house, fate. The queen
bewailed her up the Nile and confining it to its channel.
watched her proceedings and cried out in The entanglement of the ark in a tree means
alarm, thus depriving her child of immortal- the division of the Nile into many mouths
ity. Isis then begged the pillar, and taking at the Delta and the overhanging of the
it down, took out the chest and cried so river by the wood. Isis nunsing the king's
loud as to frighten the king's younger child, the fragrance, etc., signifies the nour-
son to death. Then taking the ark and the ishment of plants and animals by the earth.
king's elder .son she sailed away. Being The tearing of the body of Osiris into four-
chilledby the cold air of the river she be- teen parts by Typhon means either the divis-
came angry and cursed it, so that it became ion of the Nile at its mouths or the pools of
drj-. Then opening the chest, she put her water left after the inundation has dried up.
cheek to the cheek of Osiris, weeping bit- Besides this geographical explanation of
terly. The little boy coming and peeping this allegory, Plutarch gives a scientific and
— '

astronomical view. Thus Osiris is the pro- from spirit to matter, while Phthah is at the
dudlive and creative principle in nature. origin of a cosmogony a.scending by evolu-
Isisis the feminine quality in nature, and for tion from matter to spirit. From Phthah,
this reason is called by Plato the nurse. Ty- or heat, comes from light comes life;
light;
phon is the destructive principle in nature. from life proceed gods, men, plants, animals
Horus is the mediator between creation and and all organic existence. In the inscrip-
destru(5lion.This gives us the triad of Osi- tions Phthah is called, "Father of the Father
ris, Typhon and Horus, corresponding to of the Gods," "Kingof both Worlds," "God
the Hindoo triad of Brahma, Siva and Vish- of all Beginnings, " " Former of Things. '
nu, and likewise to the Persian triad of Or- The egg, as containing the germ of life, is
mazd, Ahriman and Mithra. In this way one of his symbols. The scarabaeus, or
the Egyptian myth symbolizes the struggle beetle, which supposed
rolls its ball of earth,
between the principles of good and evil in to contain its egg, is sacred to Phthah.
the world of nature. Memphis was his sacred city. His son, Ra,
The priestssought to turn the worship of the Sun-god, had his temples at On, which
Osiris and an allegory- of the strug-
Isis into the Greeks called Heliopolis, meaning "City
gles, trials, sorrows and self-recovery of the of the Sun,
'
' so named from Ra's Greek name

human soul. After death every human soul Helios. The catwas sacred to Ra. As
adopted the name and symbols of Osiris, Phthah is the god of all beginnings in
after which he retired to the under- world, Lower Egypt, so Ra is the life-giving god,
there to be judged by that god. Closely re- the adlive ruler of the world, holding in one
lated with this was the dodlrine of the soul's hand a sceptre and in the other the symbol
transmigration through various bodies of life.
which dodlrine Pythagoras brought from The goddesses Lower Egypt were
of
Egypt. These do(5lrines were taught in the Neith at goddess whose tem-
Sais, Leto, the
My.steries. Herodotus says "I know them,
: ple was at Buto, and Pasht at Bubastis. As
but must not tell them." lamblicus, in his we have already said, the chief god in Up-
work on the Mysteries, says that they taught per Egypt was Amun, or Amnion, the Con-
that One God existed before all things, and cealed God; and next to him is Kiiepli, or
that this One God was to be venerated in Knubis, the vSpirit of God. Their compan-
silence. Then Emeph or Neph was god in ions were Mut, the mother, and Khonso.
his self-con.sciousness. After this in Aniun The two oldest gods were Mentu, the rising
his mind became truth, diffusing light. sini, and Atmu, the setting sun.
Phthah represents truth working b^' art, In Egypt, as in Greece, the earliest wor-
and Osiris symbolizes art producing good. ship was of local divinities, who were after-
Bunsen says that according to the monu- wards united in a Pantheon. As in Greece
ments Osiris and Isis, besides emanating Zeus was at first worshiped in Dodona and
from the second order of gods, are them- Arcadia, Apollo in Crete and Delos, Aphro-
selves the first and second order. Osiris, dite in Cyprus, Athene at Athens, and after-
Isis and Horus embrace all Egyptian my- wards these local deities were united in one
thology, excepting Amun and Neph. In company as the twelve great gods of Olym-
Lower Egypt Phthah was the highest god, pus, so in Egypt the different early theol-
corresponding to the Greek Hephaestus, the ogies were combined in the three orders
Roman Vulcan, the god of fire or heat, the of gods, with Amnion at their head. But
father of the sun. In Upper Egj'pt Amun in Eg>'pt, as in Greece, each cit_\- and dis-
was the chief god. According to Manetho, tridl retained the special worship of its own
Phthah reigned nine thousand years before local deity. As in Greece Athene contin-
the other gods, signifying that this was the ued to be the protedling goddess of Athens,
oldest worship in Egypt. Amun is the head and Aphrodite of Cyprus, so, in Eg>-pt, vSet
of a cosmogony proceeding by emanation continued to be the god of Ombos, Leto of
KF.I.IGION AND JlIVniOLOGY. 95
Buto, Horus of Edfii, Kheiii of Coptos, etc. was embalmed and buried with great pomp,
The oue great singûlar feature about the and the priests went in quest of another
Egyptian religion was animal-worship. He- Apis, which, when discovered by the dis-
rodotus saj's "All animals in Egypt are
: tinguishing marks, was taken to Mem-
accounted sacred, and if any one kills the.se phis, fed with care and exerci.sed, and con-
animals willfully he is put to death." This sulted as an oracle. The burial-place of the
account of Herodotus is not stridlly corre(5l, was
sacred bulls in recent years discovered
as many animals were not considered sacred, near Memphis. It consists of an arched
though most of them were. Wilkinson men- gallery cut in the solid rock, two thousand
tions more than one hundred Egyptian ani- feet long, twenty-five feet high and twenty-
mals, over one-half of which number were five feet wide. On each side is a .series of
sacred. Hunting and fishing being favorite recesses, each of which contains a large sar-
amusements of the Egyptians, the killing of cophagus of granite, fifteen bj' eight feet, in
some animals must have been tolerated. If, which the body of a sacred bull was depos-
however, anj' one killed any of the sacred ited. In 1852 thirty of these had been dis-
animals, either accidentally or willfulh% he covered. Before this tomb is a paved road,
was immediately put to death. In different with lions in rows on each side, and before
parts of Egypt different animals were ac- this is a temple with a vestibule. As we have
counted sacred. Besides the sacred bull at previously remarked, the animals sacred in
Memphis, the most striking sacred animals one place were not so regarded in another,
were the Mnevis, or sacred calf at Heliopolis, and this difference of worship often led to
the sacred sheep at Sais and Thebes, and the bitter enmities between the several nomes.
sacred crocodiles at Ombos and Arsinoe. Thus at Ombos was wor-
the crocodile
Thus the animal sacred in one place was not shiped, while at Tentyra was hunted and
it
so regarded in another. The cat, the ibis abhorred. The ram-headed Aniun was
and the beetle were particular objecfts of wor- adored at Thebes, and the sheep was there
ship. The death of a cat in a private house a sacred animal, while the goat was killed
caused the whole family to shave their ej-e- for food. In Mendes the goat was worshiped
brows in token of their grief The Persian and the sheep killed and eaten. Mutton was
king Cambyses was enabled to conquer the likewise eaten at Lycopolis, in compliment
Egyptians by placing in the van of his to the wolf, which was there an objecft of
army multitudes of cats, which the Egyp- veneration.
tians were fearful of killing, so that they The sacred animals at death were em-
abandoned all resistance. balmed by the priests and buried, and
Cows were sacred to Isis, and this god- thousands upon thousands of mummies of
dess was represented in the form of a cow. dogs, cats, wolves, sheep, crocodiles, birds
The gods often wore animals' heads. Am- and other animals are found in the tombs.
un is represented with the ram's head. The The sacred animals were reverenced as con-
worship of Apis, the sacred bull of Memphis, taining a divine element. Says Wilkinson:
the representative of Osiris, was one of the "The Egyptians may have deified some
most striking and imposing among Egyp- animals to insure their preser\âtion, some
tian religious ceremonies. Plutarch describes to prevent their unwholesome meat being
him as a fair and beautiful image of the soul used as food." The cow, the ox, the dog,
of Osiris. He was a bull with black hair, the cat, the appeared to the Egyptians
ibis,
a white spot on his forehead, and some other as gifted with supernatural powers. This
distinguishing marks. He was kept in a people reverenced the mysterious manifesta-
magnificent temple at Memphis. The fes- tion of the Divine presence in all external
tival honor continued seven days,
in his nature. Animals were considered expres-
during which time a great multitude of sions of Divine thoughts. This belief
people as.sembled. When he died his body reached its extreme point in the Egyptian
reverence for animal life. This people saw the bird Weiniu took place on the four-
;
something divine and found Deity in nature. teenth of Toby no voluptuous songs must
The Egyptians had more religious festi- be listened to, for Isis and Nepthys bewail
vals than any other ancient people, everj' Osiris on that day. On the third of Mechir
month and day being governed by a god. no one can go on a journey, becau.se Set
There were two feasts of the New Year; then began a war.
'
None must go out on

'
twelve of the days of the months; one

first another specified day. The day on which
of the rising of the dog-star; and others to the other gods conquered Set was regarded
the great gods, to seed time and
harvest, to the rise and fall of the
Nile, as the nine days' feast in
honor of Osiris, the Benefadlor of
men. The lamps at
feast of the
Sais was inhonor of Neith, and
was observed throughout Egypt.
Other noted festivals were the
feast of the death of Osiris, and
the feast of his resurrecflion, when
the people exclaimed: "We have
found him! Good luck!" One
of the feasts of Isis lasted four
days. The great feast at Bubastis
was the most noted of all the
Egyptian festivals. On one of
these occasions hundred
seven
thousand persons sailed on the
Nile with nui.sic. At another
blood}- conflicts occurred betu'een EGYPTI.\N PRIESTS.
the armed priests and the armed men who as lucky, and the child born on that day was
conveyed the image of the god to the temple. believed to be sure to live to a good old age.
The daily life of the people was an em- The priests, of which every temple had
bodiment of the history of the deities. The itsown separate body, did not fonn an ex-
SACRED WOMEN.
French Eg3ptologist, De Rouge, describes elusive caste, though the priestly office was
an old papyrus which says: "On the twelfth generally continued by inheritance in cer-
ofChorak no one is to go out of doors, for tain families. Priests could be militant com-
on that day the transformation of Osiris into manders, provincial governors, judges oi
'
RELIGION AND MYTIIOI.OCY. 97
architecfls. The sons of soldiers were often Truth were spread over the sacred beetle.
priests, while soldiers frequently married The most highly esteemed of the priestly
daughters of priests. Josejih, who was a order were the prophets, who studied the
foreigner naturalized in Eg>pt, married the ten hieratical books. The stolists dre.ssed
daughter of the High Priest of On, or Heli- and undressed the images, attended to the
opolis. The Eg>'ptian priests were of differ- vestments of the priests, and marked the
ent grades — the chief priests, or pontiffs, beasts chosen for sacrifice. The .scribes
the prophets, the judges, the scribes, those served for the Apis, or sacred bull, and their
who examined \ic5tims, the keepers of the chief requirement was great learning.
robes, the keepers of the sacred animals, and The priests, who.se life was full of duties
others. Women also performed official du- and restricflions, had only one wife, and
ties in the temples. were circumcised like other Egyptians.
The priests were exempt from taxation They devoted all their time to study or re-
and were supported out of the public stores. ligious service. The gloomy character of
Their duties were to superintend sacrifices, the Egyptian religion was in strong contrast
processions, funerals, etc. They were ini- with the cheerful worship of the Greeks.
tiated into all the religious mysteries, and One Greek writer says: "The gods of Egypt
were taught sur\-eying. They were par- rejoice in lamentations, those of Greece in
ticular as to their food, refraining from eat- dances." Another says: " The Egyptians
ing peas, beans, onions and garlic, while offer their gods tears.
'
fish and swine-fle.sh were stridlly forbidden. The Egyptian temples surpassed in grand-
They bathed twice a day and twice during eur all other architecflural monuments in the
the night, and shaved the head and body world. The temple of Amun, in the fertile
every third day. Their fasts, which lasted oasis of Siwah, in the Libyan desert, was
from one to six weeks, took place after their one of the most celebrated oracles of anti-
purification. The\' offered prayers for the quity. Near this temple, in a grove of palm-
dead. trees, rose a hot spring, the Fountain of the
The priestly dress was simple, made Sun, whose bubbling and smoking were be-
chiefly of linen, and consi.sted of an under- lieved to betoken the Divine presence. The
garment and a loose upper robe, with full oasis was a stopping-place for caravans pass-
sleeves, and the leopard-skin above; while ing between Egypt and Central Africa, and
sometimes there were one or two feathers in many rich offerings were left in the temple
the head. by traveling merchants, who thus .showed
Chaplets and flowers were placed upon their gratitude for e.scaping the perils of the
the altars, such as the lotus and papyrus; desert, or thus sought the favor of Amun
likewise baskets of figs and grapes, and ala- for their journey when just begun.
baster vases of ointment. Necklaces, brace- The immortality of the .soul and the be-
lets and jewelrj- were also offered as invoca- lief in a future state, based on rewards and
tions and thanksgivings. punishments for good or evil in this life,
Oxen and other animals were offered as formed a cardinal point of Egyptian relig-
.sacrifices, and the blood was permitted to ious faith from the earlie.st period; and the
flow over the altar. Incense was offered to belief in the transmigration of the soul was
all the gods and goddesses in censers. clo.sely connetled with the reverence for ani-
Religious processions were another char- mals. Bun.sen says the Egyptians viewed
a.cfleristic feature of the EgV'ptian system. the human soul and the animal .soul as the
In one of these shrines were carried on the same, and for this reason the animal was
shoulders by means of long staves passed considered sacred to man. The Egyptian
through rings. In others the statues of dodtrine of transmigration differed from that
the gods were carried, and arks o\'er- of the Hindoos in one es.sential point; there
shadowed bj' the wings of the Goddess of being no idea of retribution in the Egyptian
doclrine, as in the Hindoo. The Egyptian tom of embalming the dead to preserve
docftrine, according to Herodotus, was that their bodies from decay. The period of
every human soul must pass through all mourning for the dead lasted seventy-two
animals, fishes, insedls and birds, thus com- days, during which the body of the deceased
pleting the whole circuit of animated exist- was in the charge of the embalmers. After
ence, after which it would again enter the the process of embalming had been finished,
human body from which it came. The the mummy thus formed was returned to
Hindoo doctrine regards transmigration as a the house of its earthly abode, where its
punishment for sin and wickedness, and friends kept it for a month or a year, and
that only those who lead an unholy life where feasts were given in its honor, it be-
are subjected to this punishment, from which ing always present in the company of guests.
the only release is the leading of a pure and The mummy, in its stone chest, or sarcopha-
holy life. Herodotus further says that the gus, was then carried in an imposing funeral
complete circuit of transmigration is per- procession to the borders of the sacred lake,
formed by the soul in three thousand years, where occured the trial of the deceased by a
and that it does not begin until the body de- priestly tribunal of forty-two judges, symbol-
cay's. This explains the extraordinary care izing the soul's trial before the judgment-seat
taken in ornamenting the tombs, as the per- of the gods presided o\'er by Osiris. Masked
manent resting-places for the dead during a priests represented the gods of the under-
long period. Diodorus says that the Egyp- world. Typhon is represented as accusing
tiansornamented their tombs as the endur- the deceased and demanding his punish-
ing residences of mankind. The dodlrine ment. The intercessors plead for him. Any
of transmigration also accounts for the cus- one was at liberty to bring accusations
tom of embalming the dead, in order to pre- against the deceased. A large pair of scales
body from decay, and to render it
ser\-e the was brought forward, on one side of which
fit to receive the soul on its return. was placed the conduct of the deceased in a
Mr. Birch says that the docftrine of the bottle, and on the other side was set the
soul's immortality is as old as the inscrip- image of truth. If it was clearly shown
tions of the Twelfth Dynasty, of which that the deceased had led an evil life, the
many contain extracts from the Ritual for priestly judges pronounced an unfavorable
the Dead. Mr. Birch has translated one upon it as to its future fate, in which
verdicft
hundred and forty -six chapters of this Rit-" case the body was denied the privilege of
ual from the text of the Turin Papyrus, burial with the just opposite the sacred lake
which is the most complete in Europe. and was returned to its friends, who usually
Chapters of it on mummy-cases, on
are seen buried it on the side of the sacred lake op-
mummy-wraps, on the walls of tombs, and posite the resting-place of the just. If,
on papyri within the sarcophagi. This howe^•er, the verdi(fl of the'judges was {ax-
Ritual is the only remnant of the Hermetic orable, the lamentations of the funeral train
Books constituting the library of the priests. gave way to songs of triumph, and the de-
This liturgy represents Osiris and his triad ceased was congratulated upon being admit-
as struggling with Set and his devils for the ted into thehappy companionship of the
soul of the departed, in the presence of the friends of Osiris;and the body in its sar-
Sun-god, the .source of life. cophagus was ferried across the sacred lake
The Egyptians believed that happiness in and interred with those of its ancestors in a
the future state depended upon well-doing tomb richly ornamented. These ceremonies
in this life. As we have seen, the belief are represented on the funeral papyri. The
that the soul, after making the
circuit of forty-two judges who tried the dead repre-
transmigration through the animal creation, sented the forty-two nomes, or provinces of
would return to the body from which it had Eg^'pt; and every nome had its sacred lake,
departed, caused the universal national cus- across which all funeral processions must
'
RELIGION AND MYTHOLOGY. 99
pass on their way to the citj- of the dead. counterfeited, nor killed the sacred beasts,
On the sides of these sacred lakes nearest the nor blasphemed, nor refused to hear the
abodes of the living have been found the truth, nor despi.sed God in my heart." In
remains of great numbers who were rejecfled other texts the soul is represented as .saying:
by the judges at their trial, and whose " I have loved God. I have given bread to
bodies were in consequence returned in dis- the hungry, water to the thirsty, garments
grace to their friends, to be disposed of in to the naked, and an a.sylum to the aban-
the most speedy manner possible. At death doned."
all became equal, and every one, from the Many of the virtues taught by Christi-
king and highest pontiff to the lowest swine- anity appear to have been the ideal of the
herd, was subject to the same .solemn judg- ancient Egyptians. Brugsch tells us that a
ment passed at death, and the fear which it thousand voices from the tombs declare this.
inspired exercised a wholesome influence One inscription in Upper Egv'pt .says: "He
over all cla.sses. loved his father, he honored his mother, he
The soul's trial before the judgment-seat loved his brethren, and never went from his
of the gods, as represented in the papyrus home in He never preferred
bad temper.
Book of the Dead, and before which the the great man low one." Another
to the
soul had to pass an acquittal before it could saj^s: "I was a wise man, my soul loved
enter the abode of the blessed, is described God. I was a brother to the great men and
as follows: Forty-two gods occupj- the judg- a father to the humble ones, and never was
ment-seat, over which Osiris presides, and a mischief-maker." An inscription at Sais,
before whom are the scales, in one of which on a priest who lived in the days of Cam-
is placed the statue of perfect Justice, while byses, says: "I honored my father, I es-
in the other is the heart of the deceased. teemed my mother, I loved my brothers. I
The soul of the departed stands watching found graves for the unburied dead. I in-
the balance, while Horus examines the structed little children. I took care of
plummet showing on which side the beam orphans as though they were my own chil-
inclines; and Thoth, the Justifier, records dren. For great misfortunes were on Egv'pt
the sentence. If the decision of this divine in my time, and on this city of Sais." The
tribunal is favorable, the soul is sealed as following an inscription on a tomb of a
is
"justified." nomad prince atBeni-Hassan: "What I

The Hall of the Two Truths, described in have done I will say. My goodness and my
the Book of the Dead, recounts the scene kindness were ample. I never oppressed
when the soul appears before the gods, the fatherless nor the widow. I did not treat
forty-two of whom are ready to feed on the cruelly the fi.shermen, the shepherds or the
blood of the wicked. The soul, addressing poor laborers. There was nowhere in my
the Lord of Truth, denies having done evil, time hunger or want. For I cultivated all
saying: "I have not afflicted any. I have mj- fields, far and near, in order that their
not told falsehoods. I ha\e not made the inhabitants might have food. I never pre-
laboring man do more than his ta.sk. I ferred the great and powerful to the humble
have not been idle. I have not murdered. and poor, but did equal justice to all." A
I have not committed fraud. I have not king's tomb at Thebes describes the relig-
injured the images of the gods. I have not ious creed of a Pharaoh thus: "I lived in
taken scraps of the bandages of the dead. truth, and fed my soul with justice. What
I have not committed adulter^-. I have not I did to men was done in peace, and how I
cheated by false weights. I have not kept loved God, God and my heart well know.
milk from sucklings. I have not caught I have given bread to the hungry, water to
the sacred birds." He then says to each the thirsty, clothes to the naked, and a
god: "I have not been idle. I have not shelter to the stranger. I honored the gods
boasted. I have not stolen. have not with sacrifices, and the dead with offeriugs.
'
I
' '
lOO AATIENT JUS TOR Y. — Ed 'PT.

A rock at Lycopolis pleads for an ancient .separated from his main force by a strategem,
ruler in these words: "I never took the was in extreme peril; and Pentaour describes
child from its mother's bosom, nor the poor him as calling upon Amun, God of Thebes,
man from the side of his wife." Hundreds for aid, recounting the sacrifices he had
of stones in Egypt declare the best gifts offered to the god, and imploring the god
which the gods bestow on their favorites to be not to leave him to the mercy of the cruel
the respecft of men, and the love of women. Rameses is represented as
'
'
' Syrian tribes.
On a monumental stele discovered at Kar- pleading thus; "Have I not eredted to thee
nak by M. Mariette, and translated by De great temples ? Have I not sacrificed to
Rouge, is an inscription recording the tri- thee thirty thousand oxen ? I have brought
umphs Thothmes III. in strains sounding
of from Elephantine obelisks to set up to thy
like the song of Miriam or the Hymn of name. I invoke thee, O my father, Amun.
Deborah, the king recognizing his power I am in the midst of a throng of unknown
and triumph as the work of the great god tribes, and alone. But Amun is better to
Amun. A like strain of religious poetry is me than thousands of archers and millions
found in the Papyrus of Sallier, now in the of horsemen. Amun will prevail over the
British Museum. This is an epic poem by enem}-." After defeating his enemies, Ram-
the Egyptian poet Pentaour, celebrating the e.ses, song of triumph, says; "Amun-
in his
campaigns of Rameses the Great, and was Ra has been at my right and my left in the
can-ed in full on the walls of Karnak. It battles; his mind has inspired my own, and
especially describes an incident in a war with has prepared the downfall of mj^ enemies.
the Kheta, or Hittites, of Syria, who had Amun-Ra, my father, has brought the whole
Rameses being world to my feet.
'
revolted against Rameses.
SECTION VI.— THE ANCIENT ETHIOPIANS.

OUTH of Egypt — in the region laws, were acquainted with the use of hiero-
now called Nubia and Abys- glyphics, and the fame of their progress in
sinia — lived the ancient Ethi- knowledge and the .social arts had in the
opians, some tribes of whom earliest ages spread over a con.siderable por-
were as highly civilized as the tion of the earth.
ancient Egyptians, but we know very little The soil of the portion of the Nile \-alley
of their history, and their origin is involved occupied bj^ was in
the ancient Ethiopians
in the impenetrable obscurity of a remote their day as fertile as the richest part of
antiquity. The ruins of splendid monu- Eg^'pt, and where protecfted it yet continues
ments, obelisks, sphinxes, colossal statues, to be so, but the hills on both sides are
rock -cut temples, etc., along that portion of bordered by sandy deserts, against which
the Nile valley, fully attest the progress of they afford but a scanty protecflion. The
this ancient Hamitic people in the art of navigation of the Nile is impeded by the
architecflure. windings of the river, and by the obstru(5tion
Besides the civilized Ethiopians, this re- of catara(fts and rapids, so that intercourse
gion was occupied in ancient times, as now, ismore generally maintained by caravans
by various Arab tribes in different stages of than by boats. In the southern part of the
advancement from the complete savage to valley the river incloses a number of fertile
the hunting and fishing tribes, and from islands. The productions of the Nile valley
these to the nomadic herdsmen and shep- in Nubia are e,s.sentially the same as those
herds. The civilized Ethiopians dwelt in of Egypt. All along this portion of the
cities, possessed a civil government and valley is a succession of stupendous monu-
THF. ETHIOPIANS. lOI
ments, rivaling in beauty those of Thebes, and held sway over a large portion of Ara-
and surpassing them in grandeur. bia. The expen.se of so vast and distant an
—
The island of Meroe so called because it expedition bears e\'idcnce to the facfl that
was almost surrounded with rivers pos- — the Ethiopian kingdom must then have been
sessed large numbers of camels, which were in a flourishing condition.
used in its inunense caravan trade; and the The gradual increa.se of the Ethiopian
ivory, ebony and spices which the Ethi- power finally enabled the King Sabaco, or
opians sent down the river into Eg>pt were Shebak, to conquer Eg>'pt, over which he
obtained by traffic with the inhabitants of and his two successors, Sevechus and Tara-
Central Africa. Meroe had better harbors kus, reigned successively. Sevechus, called
for commerce with India than had Egypt, as So was so powerful a monarch
in vScripture,
the Ethiopian ports on the Red Sea were that Hoshea, King of Israel, rose in revolt
superior to the Egyptian, and the caravan- against the Assyrians, relying upon the aid
routes to them were shorter and the perilous of So; but, not being supported by his Ethi-
portion of the navigation of that sea was opian ally, Hoshea and his subjecfts were
entirely avoided. In the wild tradts of carried into the Assyrian Captivity. Tara-
country in the vicinity of Meroe are ani- kus, the Tirhakah of Scripture, was a more
mals which were hiuited by the ancient warlike sovereign, for he led an army
savage tribes, as they are by the modem, against Sennacherib, King of Assyria, who
such as the giraffe, or camelopard. The was then besieging Jerusalem; and the
elephant is found in Abyssinia, not far south Eg^'ptian traditions, preser\'ed in the time
of the neighborhood of Meroe. of Herodotus, g^ve the account of the de-
About one thousand years before Christ, strucftion of Sennacherib's army of one hun-
Meroe was the seat of a flourishing Ethi- dred and eighty-five thousand men in a
opian kingdom, which for a time held night panic, as mentioned in the Hebrew
Upper Eg3'pt under sway, bat its early his- Scriptures.
tory is shrouded in the obscurity of a dim In the reign of Psammetichus in Egi^pt,
past. The monuments of Meroe are believed in the seventh century before Christ, two
to have been modeled from the wonderful hundred and forty thousand Egyptians of
architecftural stru(5lures of Egj'pt; but cut off the warrior-caste, offended at their king's
from the rest of the civilized world hy Egypt, favor to Greek merchants whom he had in-
the Ethiopians can only be traced in historj' vited to settle in Egypt, migrated to Ethi-
when their country is invaded, or when they opia, and were settled in the extreme south-
themselves invade other lands. have We ern part of that country, where they ad-
seen that several Egj'ptian kings conquered ded immensely to the prosperity of the state.
Ethiopia and ruled the countrj' for short in- The.se useful colonists instrudled the Ethi-
tervals. The fabled Assyrian queen, Semi- opians in the improvements then recently
ramis, is said to have invaded Ethiopia in made in the art of war, and thus prepared
the eleventh century before Christ. This is them for resisting the formidable invasion
doubtful, but we have certain knowledge by the Persians.
that the Ethiopians at this time were a pow- No sooner had the Persian king, Cam-
erful nation, and that they aided Shishak, byses, conquered Egypt, in 525 B. C, than
King of Egypt, in his war against Reho- he invaded Ethiopia without preparing any
boam. King of Judah, in 957 B. C. Sixteen store of provisions, ignorant of the deserts
years later Zerah, King of Ethiopia, is said through which he had to pass, so that
to have invaded Judah with an immense when the invasion took place the Persian
army, but was totally defeated. According army was destroyed bj^ famine.
to the Scripture narrative, the Ethiopians The religion of the ancient Ethiopians
had made considerable progress in the art was in early times similar to that of Egypt.
of war, controlled the Red Sea navigation, Aramon was the chief of the Ethiopian
1—7.-U. K.
I02 ANCIENT HISTORY.— EGYPT.
gods, and several temples were ere(5led to sepulchers exhibit the greatest purity of
his worship. The political power was vested taste. The use of the arch by the Ethiopi-
in a priesthood, who comprised a sacred ans fully attests their progress in the art of
caste. They chose the king from one of building. Mr. Hoskins has asserted that
their own number, and could take his life the Ethiopian pyramids are more ancient
at pleasure in the name of their gods. The than the Egyptian, but this is disputed by
Ethiopian priests possessed such influence the best authorities. The Ethiopian vases
over the superstitious African tribes that a depicfted on the monuments, though not
solitary priest at the head of a caravan richly ornamented, exhibit a taste and ele-
was able to secure a safe passage of untold gance of form that has never been surpassed.
wealth through the countries occupied by In sculpture and coloring, the edifices of
the most ferocious savages. The temples, Meroe, though less profusely adorned, rival
also, were a safe place for the deposit of the best specimens of Egyptian art.
merchandise; and here, under the shadow Another famous Ethiopian kingdom was
of an inviolable sanifluary, people of hostile that of Axume, an ofi"shoot of Meroe. Its •
nations met to transacfl their business in capital, Axum, is still in existence, and con-
absolute peace and security. At any place tains remarkable antiquities, among which
where it was considered necessary to have is an obelisk eighty feet high, in the great
a commercial emporium a temple was built square, beside forty others of smaller size.
for its protedlion. Some of the ruins of Axum are believed by
Whenever the Ethiopian priests became the inhabitants to be as old as the time of
king they sent a courier with
tired of their Abraham. A stone slab, eight feet by three
orders for him
to die. Ergamenes, who and a half, found here, has an antique Greek
reigned early in the third century before inscription, which, translated, begins as fol-
Christ and had been instrudted in the Greek lows:
philosophy, resisted this foolish custom,
'
' We Aeizamus, king of the Axomites, and

stormed the fortresses of the priests, massa- of the Homerites, and of Raeidan, and of the
cred many of them, and founded a new re- Ethiopians, and of the Sabeans, and of Zeyla,
ligion. and of Tiamo, and the Boja, and of the
The sovereigns of Ethiopia were frequently Taguie, King of Kings, Son of God, etc."
queens. An Ethiopian queen named Can- Aeizamus was King of Ethiopia in the
dace made war on Augustus Caesar about time of the Roman Emperor Constantine the
twenty years before the birth of Christ, and, Great, who wrote him a letter. Adulis, the
although the superior discipline of the port of Axume, was celebrated for its ivory
Romans brought them an easy triumph. trade.
Queen Candace obtained an honorable peace. All along the banks of the Nile in Nubia
During the reign of another Queen Candace are strewn pyramids of unknown antiquity,
the Jewish religion prevailed in Meroe, as a ruins of temples and monuments similar to.
result of the change made by Ergamenes and ; those of Eg>pt. Near the present Merawe
the queen's confidential adviser went to wor- are seven or eight temples, adorned with
ship at Jerusalem, and when he returned, sculpture and hieroglyphics. One of these
A. D. 53, he was converted to Christianity by temples is four hundred and fifty by one
St. Philip, and thus became the means of hundred and fifty-nine feet in extent. Near
introducing that religion into Ethiopia. Shendy are forty p>-ramids.
Ever since that time the Christian religion The most remarkable of all the monu-
has prevailed among the Ethiopians and their ments of Nubia is the rock-temple of Ipsam-
descendants, the modem Abyssinians. bul, near Derr. This temple is cut from a
The pyramids of Meroe, though not as mountain of solid rock, adorned inside with
large as those of Middle Egypt, exceed them colossal statues and painted sculptures,
in architedlural beauty, and the Ethiopian representing castles, battles, triumphal pro-
THE ETHIOPIANS. 103
cessions and religious pageants. On the out- which are huge rock-hewn temples, the
side are four colossi, larger than any sculp- walls of which are covered with hieroglyph-
tured figures in Eg^'pt, except the Sphinx. ics in high relief, representing figures of
One of these colossi is sixty-five feet high. kings and gods, among which we are able
This temple is one hundred and seventy feet to distinguish Isis, Amnion, Apis, Horus
in depth, and contains fourteen apartments, and Mendes. There are other gigantic ruins
one of which is fifty -seven feet by fifty-two, in this region.
and is supported by images with folded arms, Meroe, on account of its favorable situa-
thirty feet high. The rock in which this tion forcommercial intercourse with India
temple is built is six hundred feet high. and Central Africa, by its location on the
The great rock-temple of Ipsambul is said intersedlion of the leading caravan-routes of
to resemble the famous excavated struc- ancient commerce, was the emporium of
tures on the island of Elephanta, nearBom- trade between the north and the south, be-
bay, on the west coast of Hindoostan. The tween the east and the west, while the fer-
general plan is the same in both massive — tility of its soil enabled the Ethiopians to
pillars, stupendous figures, symbolic devices purchase luxuries with native productions.
and mystic ornaments. It is also asserted Fabrics were woven in Meroe, and the
that a frequent resemblance is discovered be- manufactures of metal were here as flour-
tween the religious vestiges of Eg^'pt and ishing as in Egj'pt.

Ethiopia and those of India. The great changes in the lines of trade,
Among the numerous other remarkable the ravages of successive conquerors and
antiquities of this region we must mention revolutions, the fanaticism of the Saracens,
those of Barkal, about a mile from the Nile, and the ruin of the fertile soil by the moving
and near the village of Merawe, the ancient sands of the desert, together with the pres-
Napata, the capital of Queen Candace. sure of nomadic hordes, all contributed to
Here is a rock rising four hundred feet per- the extindlion of this powerful ancient em-
pendicularly toward the river, at the foot of pire.
Ruck. te.mi'I.jc uf ii'-samulx.

JI A P OF THE
EARLIEST HISTORIC REGIOISS
!A. N D THE
BIRTHPLACE OF CIYILIZATIQN
B.C. 3000 -1000.
By I S.Clare
SCALE OF MILES
25 50 100 200 300 100
frhc lighi part represents, the cradle of civilisation aad history.
LiHisituJe Easl HJ frou^ Grteuwicii 4o 50

^™
i: I
CHAPTER II.
THE CHALDEAN EMPIRE.

SECTION I.— GEOGRAPHY OF CHALDÂ.
(ISIA, as we have noticed, was the empty after the Euphrates has flowed about
cradle of the human race. The 1780 miles and the Tigris about 1146 miles.
and
cradle of Asiatic histor>- Both these rivers, like the Nile, overflow
was the valley of
civilization their banks in the lower part of their courses;
the Tigris and Euphrates riv- and though these inundations do not deposit
ers. This region was earh' occupied by a fresh soil, as in the case of the Nile, they
Semitic and Hamitic tribes. The civiliza- are the cause of the fertility of the plain of
tion which grew up in the Tigris- Euphrates Mesopotamia, and in ancient times they
valle}' was almost as ancient as that which were condudled throughout its entire extent
arose in the Nile valley. There is an adtual by a system of canals, by which these over-
date in Chaldaean historj' as far back as flows were utilized and the countrj- thus
2234 B. C. ; while authentic Egj-ptian his- irrigated. The Tigris-Euphrates vallej^
tory —the period of the Pyramid-builders, comprises a fertile region in the midst of
the Fourth Dynasty — antedates this date the great belt of desert extending from the
by only two centuries, B. C. 2450. western shores of Africa almost to the north-
The Hebrew Scriptures assign the be- eastern coast of Asia.
ginning of the history of the human race This fertile vallej- anciently embraced a
in Speaking
the Tigris-Euphrates valley. number of territorial and political divisions,
of the immediate posterity of Noah and whose boundaries were often very indefinite.
his sons, Shem, Ham and Japheth, after the The region between the two ri\'ers was
Deluge, the Book of Genesis says: "And it called Mesopotamia by the Greeks (from
came to pass, as they journeyed from the mesos, midst, and potamoi. rivers). This
east, that they found a plain in the Land of was merely a geographical or territorial dis-
Shinar, and dwelt there." Shinar was the tricft, and not a political division. Chaldaea,
southern portion of the Tigris-Euphrates or Babylonia, was a political as well as a ter-
valley. In this region the Scriptures place ritorial division, situated between the lower
the building of the Tower of Babel, and course of the Tigris on the east and Arabia
Confusion of Tongues on the west, and corresponding to the geo-
'
the ' and disper-

'
'
sion of the human race. The record of graphical region which the Hebrews desig-
this event is preser\-ed in the Babylonian nated as the Land of Shinar. As the Per-
tradition, as well as in the Mosaic narra- sian Gulf in ancient times extended about
tive; and an account of this has been re- 1 20 or 1 30 miles farther north than at present,
cently discovered among the cuneiform in- ancient Chaldsea was quite a small section
scriptions on the Babylonian tablets now in of country compared with that region in
the British Museum. our day. The distri(5t east of the lower
The Tigris and Euphrates rivers rise in the course of these rivers, immediately east of
highlands of Armenia and unite near the head Babylonia, was a territorial and political
of the Persiou Gulf, into which their waters divi.sion called Susiana, or Elam, the chief
(105)
io6 ANCIENT HISTORY.— CHALDÂ.
city of which was vSusa. Assyria proper, as to those who have never \-isited the coun-
a territorial division, lay to the east of the try."
Euphrates, west of the Zagros mountains, Saj'S another writer: "Babylonia, in the
north of Susiana and Chaldgea, and south of neighborhood of the Euphrates, rivaled the
Armenia; while Assyria as a political power, fertility of the valley of the Nile; the .soil
or the Assyrian Empire, varied in territorial was so peculiarly suited for com that the
extent at different times, and often comprised husbandman's returns were sometimes three
the entire region from the Mediterranean to hundred fold, and rarely less than two hun-
the plateau of Iran. dred fold. The rich oily grains of the pan-
Three great empires successively flour- cium and sesamum were produced in luxu-
ished in the Tigris-Euphrates valley — the riant abundance; the fig-tree, the olive and
Chaldaean, or Early Babylonian Empire, the vine were wholly wanting; but there
from 2400 B. C. to 1300 B. C; the Assyrian were large groves of palm-trees on the
Empire, from 1300 B. C. to 625 B. C; and banks of the river. From the palms they
the Eater Babylonian Empire, from 625 obtained not only fruit, but wine, sugar and
B. C. to 538 B. C. molasses, as the Arabs do at the present
The Chaldaean, or Early Babylonian Em- time. Dwarf cypress-trees were scattered
pire, was the first great monarchy of South- over the plains; but these were a poor sub-
western Asia. As we have seen, its seat stitute for other species of wood. To this
was the great alluvial plain lying to the deficiency of timber must be attributed the
north-west of the Persian Gulf. The popu- negle(5t of the river navigation, and the
lation of this region increased very rapidly abandonment of the commerce of the Indian
in the most ancient times, because of the seas, by the Babylonians."
extreme natural fertility of the soil, which Chaldsea produced no stone or minerals of
produced everything requisite for man's sup- any kind. The stone used in building was
port. Groves of date-palm lined the banks brought there from other lands. But the
of the rivers, and such cereal grains as wheat, country yielded an abundant supply of clay,
barley, millet, sesame and vetches grew in from which were manufactured excellent
luxuriant abundance, as did also various bricks for building purposes, while the wells
other grains. Says a certain writer: "Ac- of bitumen afforded an inexhaustible amount
cording to a native tradition, wheat was in- of admirable cement. These materials sup-
digenous in Chaldaea. Its tendencies to plied the place of wood, stone and mortar.
grow leaves was so great that the Babylon- Considering its luxuriant yield of cheap and
ians used to mow it twice, and then pasture abundant food and its never-failing supply
their cattle on it for a while, to keep down of building material, it is not surprising that
the blade and induce the plant to turn to Chaldsea in primeval times became densely
ear." Speaking of this country, Herodotus populated and abounded in great cities.
says: " Of all the countries that we know of, Assyria was better supplied with minerals
there is none so fruitful in grain. It makes than Chaldaea; good qualities of stone, iron,
no pretension indeed of growing the fig, the copper, lead, silver, antimony and other
olive, the vine or any other tree of the kind; metals existed in abundance; while bitumen
but in grain it is so fruitful as to yield two naphtha, petroleum, sulphur, alum and salt,
hundred fold. The blade of the wheat plant were also yielded.
and barley plant is often three or four As regards climate, the winters of Chal-
fingers in breadth. As for the millet and dffia and snow
are mild, frosts being light
the .sesame,I shall not say to what height unknown; while the summers are hot and
they grow, though within my own knowl- dry; and heavy rains fall in November and
edge; for I am not ignorant that what I December. The wild animals indigenous
have already written concerning the fruit- in Chalda3a were the lion, the leopard, the
fulness of Babylonia must seem incredible hyena, the lynx, the wild cat, the wolf, the
SOURCES OF CHALDyRAN HISTORY. 107
jackal, the wild boar, the bnffalo, the stag, fifteen miles north-west of Larsa, are the
the gazelle, the jerboa, the fox, the hare, the ruins of Huruk, the Scriptural Erech and
badger and the porcupine. The domestic the Greek Orchoe; called by the present na-
animals of the country were the camel, the tives Urka or Warka, and celebrated for the
horse, the buffalo, the cow, the ox, the goat, ruins of its ma.ssive temple. Sixty-five
the sheep and the dog. miles north-west of Warka, thirty miles
The Book of Genesis, in speaking of Nim- east of the Euphrates, are the ruins of Ni-
rod,"the mighty hunter before the L,ord," pur, called Calneh by Moses, and Niffer by
says: " And the beginning of his kingdom the present inhabitants. About sixty miles
was Babel, and Erech, and Accad, and from Niffer, on the west bank of the Euphra-
Calneh, in the Land of Shinar." The tes, are the remains of the ancient Borsippa,
southern tetrarchy of four cities consisted chiefl}^ its temple, whose modem name
of Ur or Hur, Hunik, Nipur, and Larsa or is Birs-i-Nimrud. Fifteen miles north-west,
Larancha, which are believed to be identical on both banks of the Euphrates, are the
with the Scriptural "Urof the Chaldees," ruins of Babylon the Great, which cover
'
'
'
'
Erech, Calneh, and Ellasar. The northern a space three miles long by between one
tetrarch}- consisted of the cities of Babel or and two miles wide, and which consist of
Babylon, Borsippa, Cutha and Sippara. three mounds now called Babil, Kasr and
Ur, or Hur, in the southern part of Chal- Amram bj- the Arabs. The ancient Sippara,
daea, betn'een the Euphrates and the Ara- the Sephan'aim, was twenty
Scriptural
bian border, was the early capital and me- miles north-west of Babylon, on the east
tropolis of Chaldasa, and is celebrated as bank of the Euphrates, and is now called
the birth-place of Abraham. Its stately Sura. Dur-Kurri-galzu, now
Akker- called
ruins, now called Mugheir bj- the Arabs, kuf on the Saklawiyeh was six miles
canal,
and chief among which are the remains of from the site of the present Bagdad. About
a great temple, consist principalh- of a series twenty miles north-east of Babylon was
of low mounds of an oval shape with the Cutha, now Ibrahim. Ilii, or Ahava, was
largest diameter running from north to the modem Hit, about one hundred and
south. Thirty miles north-west of Ur, on twenty miles north-west of Babylon, on the
the east bank of the Euphrates, are the Euphrates. Chilmad was the present Kal-
ruins of Larsa or Larrak, the Biblical Ella- wadha, near Bagdad. Rubesi was probably
sar, the Laranchse of Berosus, and the Lar- Zerghul. There were a large number of
issa of Apollodorus; now called Senkereh or smaller cities in ever}' part of Chaldaea, of
Sinkara. On the same side of the river. which nothing is known.
SECTION II.— SOURCES OF CHALD^ÂN HISTORY.

EGARDING the great anti- of Sj'ria. Unfortunately this work has been
quity of Chaldaea we have the lost,excepting a few fragments which were
authority of Berosus, the na- copied by Apollodorus and Polyhistor, two
tive Babylonian historian, who Greek writers of the first centur\- before
was a priest of Bel at Babylon, Christ, and these fragments were afterwards
and flouri-shed during the first half of the quoted bj- Eusebius and Syncellus, and
third century B, C. Soon after Alexander from them we learn the Babylonian histor-
the Great took Babylon, Berosus wrote a ian's account of his country's annals. Other
History of Chaldaea in Greek, in three books, ancient sources of Chaldsean, Assyrian and
and dedicated the work to Antiochus, King Babj'lonian history are the Old Testatment
io8 ANCIENT HISTORY.— CHALDÂ.
and the writings of the Greek historians, Henr>' Rawlinson and Mr. E. Norris. Many
Herodotus, Ctesias and Diodorus Siculus. of these inscriptions have been deciphered
As in the case of Egypt, our knowledge by M. Oppert, the French Orientalist. The
of the history of the three great successive evidence of both classical writers and the
empires in the Tigris-Euphrates valley has monumental inscriptions shows that the
been vastly enlarged through the diligent Chaldaeans, Assyrians and Eater Babylon-
research of modem historians, antiquarians ians paid great attention to chronology.
and Orientalists. By the diligence of the The Canon of Ptolemy, which contained an
great beginning with Layard
explorers, exadl Babylonian computation of time from
nearlj' half a century ago, Nineveh, Babjdon 747 B. C. to 331 B. C, is generally credited
and the buried cities of the plain have been as a most authentic document. The Assyr-
excavated; their temples and palaces have ian Canon, discovered by SirHenry Raw-
been exposed to view; the mysterious in- linson, and consisting of a number of clay
scriptions in the cuneiform, or wedge-shaped tablets, contains a complete .system of Assyr-
and arrow-headed charadlers, which were ian chronology from 911 B. C. to 660 B. C,
discovered on the slabs that lined the in- by the record of a solar eclipse which
verified
sides of the palaces and temples, have, by a must have occurred June 15, 763 B. C; and
grand triumph of modem scholarship, been is regarded as equally reliable. Among the
deciphered, so that a new flood of light has eminent modem writers on the.se ancient
been shed upon the darkness of these famous Oriental monarchies are the English histor-
ancient monarchies. Specimens of the cu- ians, George Rawlinson and and P. Smith,
neiform inscriptions have been published in the renowned German and Ori-
historians
the British Museum Series, edited by Sir entalists, Niebuhr, Bunsen and Duncker.

HE Chaldaeans were a Semitic hunter before the Lord; wherefore it is said,
and Hamitic race, and their Even as Nimrod, the mighty' hunter before
origin is involved in the ob- the Lord; and the beginning of his kingdom
unknown anti-
scurity of an was Babel, and Erech, and Accad, and Cal-
The Chaldaean mon-
quity. neh, in the land of Shinar. " Nimrod's
archy probably began about 2400 B. C, as capital was the celebrated " Ur of the Chal-
we have an account of astronomical obser- dees, " which at this early period was a
vations dating back to 2234 B. C. Berosus greater city than the four which Nimrod is
assigns nine dynasties to Chaldaea and said to have founded. By means of his per-
Babylonia from the Deluge to the Persian sonal prowess and strength, as "a mighty
conquest of Babylonia in 538 B. C. The hunter before the Lord, Nimrod had earned
'
'
first of the.se dj-nasties is largely traditional, the gratitude of his countrymen by reducing
and ended, according to Rawlinson, in the the number of wild animals which roamed
2286 B. C, and according to Duncker
3êar over that region in primitive times. Evi-
in the year 2458 B. C. dently one of the greatest charadlers of an-
The Hebrew Scriptures mention Nimrod, tiquity, Nimrod was by the Chal-
deified
the .son of Cush and the grand.son of Ham, was worshiped
daeans after his death, and
as the founder of thismost ancient Asiatic by them and by the Assyrians and Later
empire. Says the Mosaic narrative: "And Babylonians for two thousand years, under
Cush begat Nimrod he began to be a ; the title of Dilu-Nipru, or Bel-Nimrod, "the
mighty one in the earth he was a mighty ; god of the chase," or "the great hunter."
— —
Pi VJTICAL ins TOR Y. 109
Rawliiison thinks that the title assigned by though the tradition concerning Nimrod is
the Arab astronomers to the constellation of almost universal, his name has not yet been
Orion El Jabbar, "the giant"— was in found among o.\\y of the monuments or cu-
memon.- of Xinirod. The ignorant people neiform inscriptions.
who occupy that region at the present day We have no account of the immediate suc-
still remember Ninirod, Solomon and Alex- cessors of Nimrod. Some time after his
death there followed a migration of Semitic
and Haniitic tribes from ChakUea to the
northward and westward. Thus the Assjt-
ians, a Semitic people, migrated to the mid-
dle portion of the Tigris valley, where they
laid the foundations of their kingdom; the
Phoenicians, a Hamitic race, descended from
Canaan, a .son of Ham, settled on the west-
ern shores of the country afterwards called
Canaan, or Palestine, where they became
the most famous commercial and colonizing
people of antiquity; while the Semitic tribe
which produced Abraham, the shepherd and
native of " Ur of the Chaldees," and from
whom are descended the Hebrews and Arabs,
passed into Northern Mesopotamia, whence
Abraham journeyed westward with his flocks
and herds into the "promised land" of
Canaan.
One of the successors of Nimrod was
Urukh, or Urkham. He is the first Chal-
dsean king of whom any traces have been
discovered in the countr>'. The exadl time
of his reign is uncertain. He eredled many
stupendous edifices, which appear to have
been designed as temples. These structures
are gigantic in dimensions, but rude in work-
manship. Thebricks of which the)- are
built are rough, and put together awkwardl}',
moist mud or bitumen being used for mortar.
In speaking of the works eredled by this
monarch, Professor Rawlinson says: "In
his architedture, though there is much that is
rude and simple, there is also a good deal
which indicates knowledge and experience."
Astronomy was cultivated during the reign
of Urukh. Ur was still the capital of the
NIMROD.
Chaldsean monarchy, Babylon having not
ander the Great as the three great heroes of yet risen into importance. At Warka, on
antiquity, while all others have been forgot- the site of the ancient city of Huriik the —
ten. Calah, one of the Assyrian capitals, —
Erech of the Book of Genesis is the famous
was regarded as Nimrod's sacred city, and mound called Bowariyeh by the present in-
the town which now occupies its site bears habitants. The general form of the ruin is
his name slightly corrupted Niinrud. Al- pyramidal, but the ravages of ages have de-
" '
ANCIENT HISTORY.— CHALDÂ.

stroj-ed its sj-mmetn-. Recent discoveries the base measure one hundred and ninet}'-
have brought to light the fatt that this mas- eight feet, and the .shorter sides one hun-
sive structure was a tower two hundred feet dred and thirty-three feet. The first story
square at its base and two stories high. The above the basement is about forty feet high,
lower storv' was built of bricks baked in the and is secured outside by a wall ten feet
sun and cemented together with bitumen, thick, made of burnt brick cemented to-
in which were placed laj-ers of reeds ever>- gether with bitumen. The .second story,
four or five feet. In the upper story, which now mostly in ruins, had the same form and
is now in ruins, the middle portion was like- character originally. According to a local
wise of .sun-baked brick, but on the outside tradition this immense structure had a third
were burnt bricks. As it now stands, this storj', said to be the shrine of the god to
ancient temple is about one hundred feet whose worship the temple had been erecfled.
above the level of the plain, and not much Tiles glazed with a blue enamel and copper
is known of the original dimensions of the nails have been found in such a position as
massive edifice, but the ruins indicate that to indicate that they were used in the con-
it must have been of immense altitude and strudlion of this third story.
grandeur. All the bricks of the buttresses Similar ruins have been discovered in
are stamped with cuneiform inscriptions, and other parts of Chaldsea, of which the most
the layers are strongly' cemented with bitu- important are those of Calneh and Larsa.
men. The dimensions of the whole
solid Heaps of rubbish, the ruins of wrecked
strudlure have been estimated at three million temples, are seen in ever>' part of this
cubic feet, and the number of bricks used in famous land of remote antiquity. In Cal-
its eredlion have been computed at thirty neh the fragments of temples eredled dur-
millions. The name of its royal builder ing the reign of Urukh are buried beneath
frequently occurs on the burnt bricks of this two mounds. The first of these temples
ruined temple. In some places his name is was dedicated to the goddess Beltis and the
stamped in the baked clay, and in other other to Bel-Nimrod. In Larsa the ruins
places the inscription records that " Urukh, indicate that San, the Sun-god, was adored
King of Ur, King of Sumir and Accad, has as the tutelary divinity of that city. In the
built a temple to his ladj-, the goddess cuneiform inscriptions of Ur, his capital,
Nana," or that "Urukh has built the temple Urukh is sometimes called King of Ur, '
'
'
and fortress of Ur in honor of his Lord, the and also '
' King of Accad. It was chiefly at

'
'
god Sin," or that "The mighty Lord, King Ur that his great architecflural works were
of Ur, may name continue "
his ! ere(5led. The ruins of this once-famous
The temple of Ur was also built by Urukh, cit} — his great capital — display his inscrip-
and is like the one just described. Recent tions in greater profusion than those of any
excavations have unearthed the ruins of this other Chaldaean monarch.
old Chaldjean structure after it lay buried Urukh, at his death, was succeeded on the
for centuries beneath the mounds of rubbish. Chaldaean throne by his son, Ilgi, or Elgi,
In the portion of the strucflure which has who also styled himself "King of Ur.
escaped the ravages of time ma}- be seen the The royal seal or signet of the Chaldaean
traces of the temple of Hurki, the Moon- and Assyrian monarchs was formed in the
god. The four corners of the vast edifice, shape of a small cylinder, with figures and
and not its four sides, face the four cardinal characters engraven in the surface. When
points of the compass, and the ground-plan rolled upon wax or any other plastic mate-
of the strucflure is in the form of a parallelo- rial this cylinder left name and
the king's
gram, with its longest sides facing to the emblems in jrelief upon the substance em-
north-east and south-west. The foundation ployed in sealing. In one of the mounds
of this temple is raised twenty feet above near Erech, or Orchoii, the signet-cylinder of
the level of the plain. The longer sides of Ilgi has been found, and is now in the Brit-
POL ITICA L HIS TOR Y. Ill
ish Museum. The legend inscribed upon it This repulse .secured Canaan against any
has been deciphered as follows: " For sav- further attack from the King of Chaldsea
ing the life of Ilgi, from the mighty Lord, Only three of the succeeding Chaldsean
the King of Ur, son of I'rukh. " Ilgi fin- kings of this Susiaiiian, or Elamite dynasty
ished the great archite<flural strudlures com- are known. The first of the.se, vSinti-shil-
menced by his father, and is reputed to khak, is known only by name. The sec-
have repaired two of the great temples of ond, Kudur-Mabuk, whom the inscriptions
Erech. The inscriptions testifj- to the fame call" Conqueror of the West," is credited
of both Urukh and Ilgi as architedls and with having enlarged and beautified the
warriors. city of Ur, which he made his capital, thus
After Ilgi's reign there is a blank in Chal- ingratiating himself with his Chaldaean sub-
daean historj-, broken \iy the conquest of the jects. Tradition also gives him the honor
kingdom by a Susiaiiian, or Elamite dynastj-, of restoring the old Chaldaean religion,
the second in the lists of Berosus, about 2286 which his predecessors of the Elamite dy-
B. C. The first monarch of this dynasty nasty had discouraged. The temples were
was Kudur-Nakhunta, who governed repaired and the worship of the old deities
Chaldaea through viceroys, while he held once more prevailed. Kudur-Mabuk was
his court at Susa, his capital. One of his suc- succeeded by his son, Arid-Sin, the last of
cessors was Kudur-Lagajier — the Chedor- the known monarchs of the Susianian, or
laomer of Scripture — who likewise reigned Elamite dynasty, which ended in the 3'ear
at Susa, and divided Chaldsea into several 2052 B. C.
provinces, which he governed by means of Then came the third dynasty mentioned
viceroys. Kudur-Lagamer, or Chedorlao- by Berosus, a dj-nasty consisting of eleven
mer, was the first great Oriental conqueror. monarchs, whose aggregate reigns embrace
After conquering Assj-ria he invaded Ca- a period of only forty-eight years; but
naan, or Palestine, where he was opposed by neither monumental inscriptions nor tradi-
King of So-
the Canaanitish princes, Bera, tion afford us any knowledge concerning
dom ; Birsha, King
Gomorrah Shinah,of ; the events of their reigns. The fourth d}--
King of Admeh Shemeber, King of Ze-

; nasty recorded by Berosus, one embracing
boiim and the King of Bela or Zoar. A
; forty-nine native Chaldsean kings, reigned
great battle in the valley of Siddim, near for four hundred and fiftj--seven 3-ears, from
the Dead Sea — the first great battle recorded 2004 B. C. to 1546 B. C.
in history —resulted in a victorj' for Chedor- One of the first kings of the fourth
laomer, who for twelve years held the Ca- dynasty was Ismi-Dagon, who probably
naanitish kings in vassalage. At the end of reigned during the first half of the nine-
this period these kings attempted to free teenth century before Christ, and who sub-
themselves from this j'oke, whereupon Che- I
jecfted As.syria to the Chaldaean supremacy.
dorlaomer again led an expedition into Pal- His sou, Shamas-Vul, was the Chaldsean
estine, and defeated the Canaanites in a sec- viceroy over Assj'ria, and built a temple at
ond battle in the vallej^ of Siddim, on which Asshur. The monumental in.scriptions prove
occasion Lot, Abraham's nephew, was taken the Chaldsean ascendency over Assyria at
prisoner. After plundering the cities of this early period, the last-named countrj-
Palestine, the vicftorious Chaldees set out being governed by Chaldsean viceroys. Isini-
upon their march home but encumbered ; Dagon was succeeded on the Chaldsean
by their captives and plunder, they were throne by his son, Gurguna, who is chieflj'
routed near Damascus by Abraham, who distinguished as the builder of the great
with a small band had made a night attack cemeteries at Ur, among the most wonderful
upon the retreating Chaldjean host, and of the ruins of Chaldaea. The next king
driven them in a panic across the Syrian was Naram-Sin, who erected the great tem-
desert, recovering the booty thej' had taken. ple at Agana and fixed his capital at Babj--
112 ANCIENT HIS TOR K— CIIALD.-EA.
Ion, which had at this time become the "it changed desert plains into well-watered
largest city of Chaldaea. Ur had for some fields; it .spread around fertility and abund-
time ceased to be the Chaldaean capital; ance." Khammurabi also eredled several
Erech, or Huruk, having taken its place; important edifices, one of which was a new
but the latter city now gave wa}' to Babylon, palace at Kalwadha, in the vicinity of the
which thenceforth remained the capital of present city of Bagdad. He likewise re-
the empire. paired the great temple of the Sun at Lar-
After Naram-Sin, who reigned about the sa, or Earrak (now Senkereh). He was
middle of the eighteenth century liefore succeeded by his son, Samsu-iluna, whose
Christ, followed the reign of Sin-Shada, name has only been found on one series of
who built the upper terrace in the temple of inscriptions, and of whose immediate suc-
Erech, now the ruins of Bowariyeh, already cessors no traces can be found for three
described. The next king was Zur-Sin, the quarters of a centur\^
most celebrated sovereign of his time. He The next known Chaldaean king is Kara-
founded the city of Abu-Shahrein, the ruins IN-DAS, the first of five monarchs during
of which testify to the adoption of a new whose reigns intimate relations were main-
style of archite(flure, much in advance of tained with Assyria, which was now grad-
the previous style, both in the charadler of ually rising into importance, and which
its strucfture and in its ornamental richness. eventually .shook off the Chaldaean suprem-
Here also we get a better idea of the simple acy. Chaldaea and Assyria were during
arts of life prevalent among this celebrated this period sometimes united by treaties
people in the early times. Stone knives, of alliance or by royal marriages, and were
chisels and hatchets are everywhere found sometimes at war with each other. When
among the ruins, and some samples of gold the Chaldaean king, Kara-khar-das, was
and bronze have also been discovered. Or- overthrown and killed in an insurredtion
naments for the person were also made out headed by Nazi-bugas, an Assyrian army
of iron. Of Nur-Vul, the next to the last destroyed the insurredlionary chief and
of the kings of this dynasty, as mentioned placed the brother of the murdered sover-
by Berosus, no trace has been found on the eign upon the Chaldaean throne. Some time
monuments. Rim-Sin, the last of this afterward Purna-puriyas, King of Chal-
dynasty, is mentioned on a single tablet dis- daea, married the daughter of Asshur-upallit,
covered in the ruins of Ur. King of Ass)Tia. The last of the five
In the 3'ear C, Chaldaea was
1546 B. kings just mentioned was Kurri-galzu, of
conquered by an Arab chief named Kham- whose reign relics have been disco\-ered at
MURABi, who founded the Arabian dynasty Mugheir, the ancient Ur, and at Akkerkuf,
of Chaldaean —
monarchs the fifth dynasty in the latter of which cities is said to have
the lists of Berosus, and in which he in- been founded by this monarch. The re-
cludes nine kings; but the names of fifteen maining kings of the fifth, or Arabian dy-
monarchs of this race have been deciphered nasty are Saga-raktigas, the builder of the
from the cuneiform inscriptions and from temple of the Sun at Sippara, Ammidi-
the tablets. Khanimurabi reigned twenty- KAGA, and six others whose reigns were
six years, and was a wise and able sover- unimportant.
eign. He fully appreciated the benefits ac- In the year 1300 B. C, Tiglathi-Nin,
cruing to the country from a proper sys- King of Assyria, invaded Chaldaea, took
tem of artificial irrigation. He constructed Babylon, and extended his supremacy over
a canal from one of the rivers for this pur- kingdom. Thus ended
this ancient Asiatic
pose; and a white stone tablet, now in the the Arabian dynasty in Chaldaea; and the
Lotivre at Paris, bears an inscription which sixth dynasty, according to Berosus, prob-
says that the canal cut by Khannnurabi ably A.s.syrian, ascended the throne of Chal-
proved a blessing to the Babylonians, that daea, which, with occasional intermissions,
CIVILIZATION. 1.3
remained in dependence upon Assyria of Chaldsea in the year 1300 B. C. is gener-

thenceforth until 625 B. C, the forty-five ally regarded as the end of this most ancient
kings of the sixth dynasty being merely of Asiatic empires — this great mother of Asi-
Assyrian viceroys. The Assj'rian conquest atic civilization.
KINGS OF CHALDÂ.
DYNASTY.
114 ANCIENT HIS TOR Y.— CHALD.Â.
siibjedlion for twelve years, and who was them as ethnologically different peoples.
the first of all those great Oriental conquer- and other traditions sustained by
Cla.ssical —
ors who within the last forty centuries have such Greek poets as Homer, Hesiod and
built up vast empires in Asia, which have —
Pindar represent the early inhabitants of
in larger or shorter spaces of time succes- the shores of the Persian Gulf and the oc-
sively crumbled to deca}-. cupants of the Nile valley as the same
In speaking of this ancient empire, Pro- race, calling them all Ethiopians.
fessor Rawlinsou saj^s: "The Chaldsean The Hebrew Scriptures also regard the
monarchy is rather curious from its antiquity people of these two regions as belonging to
than illustrious from its great names, or ad- a kindred race, namely, Hamites, or Cush-
mirable for the extent of its dominions. Less ites; Cush, the father of Nimrod, being a
ancient than the Egyptian, it claims the ad- son of Ham; and the ancient Ethiopians be-
vantage of priority over ever\' empire or ing called the people of Cush ; while the
kingdom which has grown up upon the soil Egyptians were regarded as the posterity of
of Asia. The Aryan, Turanian, and even Misraim, aLso a son of Ham. Recent philo-
Semitictribes, appear to have been in the logical investigations demonstrate the truth
nomadic condition when the Cushite set- of the Scripture view of the national affini-
tlers of lower Babylonia betook themselves ties of these primitive nations, and show
to agriculture, erecfled temples, built cities the language of the primeval Chaldees
and established a strong and settled govern- to have been Ethiopic or Cushite, thus
ment. The leaven which was to spread by de- ranking them as belonging to the same
grees through the Asiatic peoples was first Hamitic race as the Egj'ptians and Ethi-
deposited on the shores of the Persian Gulf opians. Although the predominant por-
at the mouth of the Great River; and
'
' tion of the early Chaldaean population
hence civilization, science, letters, art, ex- was Cushite, was an infu-
or Hamitic, there
tended themselves northward and eastward sion of Semitic, Arjâu and Turanian ele-
and westward. Assyria, Media, Semitic ments. The Semites —such as the Syrians,
Babylonia, Persia, as they derived from Assyrians, Hebrews and others
migrated —
Chaldasa the chara(5ter of their writing, .so from Chaldsea at a very early period to the
were they indebted to the same countrj- for northward and westward. Accad was a
their general notions of government and ad- Turanian .settlement, and the Aryans occu-
ministration, for their architedlure, for their pied the portions of the countrj' bordering
decorative art, and still more for their science on Cissia, likewise called Susiana, or Elam,
and literature. Each people no doubt mod- whose people were also Ar>'ans. The name
ified in some measure the boon received, add- Chaldseans was unknown to these early peo-
ing more or less of its own to the common ple, but was given them by Berosus and has
inheritance. But Chaldsea stands forth as been used by writers ever since. The He-
the great parent and original in\'entress of —
brew prophets such as Isaiah, Habakkuk
Asiatic civilization, without any rival that —
and others spoke of the Babylonians, even
can reasonably dispute her claim. " to the latest times, as Chaldseans. Isaiah
It was believed by such eminent Gennan called Babylon the "daughter of the Chal-
.scholars and antiquarians as Heeren, Nie-
'
daeans, and
'
' the beauty of the Chaldees'
'
buhr, Bunsen, and Max Miiller, that the excellency." In a restri(?led sen.se, the term
ancient Chaldseaus belonged to the Aramaic, Chaldceans was applied to the learned men
or Semitic race, and that they were thus of Babylon to the latest ancient times. Af-
kindred with the A.ssyrians, Syrians, He- ter theAssyrian conquest of Chaldaea, in B.
brews and Arabs. Herodotus regarded the C. 1300, there was an admixture of new
Assyrians and Babylonians, from the earliest Semitic elements from the north, so that in
times, as belonging to the same race ; but the process of time the Chaldeans became
Berosus, Diodorus and Pliny considered Semitized; and the preponderating portion
'
cn'fijz.rno.y. 115
of the later Babj-lonian population was if a year had not elap.sed since they were put
Aryan and Tu-
'
Semitic, while the Haniitic, together.

ranian elements occupied a subordinate The most imposing ruins of ancient Chal-
place. The language of the learned in Baby- drea are their temples, two of which have
lon in later times was the classic Chaldee, been described. The temple of Abu-Shah-
while the national language of the Semi- rein was similar in characfler to those of
tized Babylonians was akin to that of the Erech and Ur, and was one of the few Chal-
Hebrews. dean edifices built of stone, which may be
—
At an early period earlier than 2,000 accounted for by the proximity of a stone-
B. C. —
the Chaldees had made considerable quarry in the neighboring Arabian hills.
progress in the arts, especially in archi- In this massive strucfture are also marble,
itedlure, and from the first they showed alabaster and agate, skillfully cut and pol-
the building tendency which seemed to be ished, while gold plates and gilt-headed
instinctive in other famous Hamitic nations, nails have also been discovered in the ruins.
such as the Eg^-ptians and Ethiopians. The In the sacred shrine of the deity to whose
attempt to build a tower
'
which' should ' worship the temple was consecrated, the

reach to heaven," made here, as mentioned wood-work and images of the god were or-
in the Mosaic narrative, was in accordance namented. Like the Egypîîi Pyramids,
with the general spirit of the Chaldees. Out the Chaldtean edifices were chiefly remark-
of such simple and rude building material as able for their grandeur and massive propor-
brick and bitumen they construdled edifices tions, v^'hile architedlural beauty was want-
of vast size, the ruins of which have recently ing.
been discovered by the explorations of Lay^- In the cities the dwellings were built of
ard and Botta. These vast strudlures were brick, but in the rural districts they con-
pyramidal in design, and were built in suc- sisted of reed huts plastered with slime.
cessive steps or stages to a considerable alti- The houses of even the rich seem to have
tude, and so placed as to face the four cardinal been rude and coarse. The remains of a
points of the compass. dwelling-house have been found among the
Speaking of the building material of the excavations at Ur, in which the foundation
'
Chaldees, a certain writer says Stone and : ' was a brick platform raised above the sur-
marble were even more rare in this country face, the floors were of bunit bricks well
than wood, but the clay was well adapted cemented with bitumen, and the walls were
for the manufa<5lure of bricks. These, plastered with gypsum. In the apartments
whether dried in the sun or burnt in kilns, of a house discovered at Abu-Shahreiu the
became so hard and durable that now, after walls were frescoed with designs in red,
the lapse of so many centuries, the remains black and white; and figures of birds, beasts
of ancient walls preserve the bricks unin- and men were skillfully drawn on the plaster
jured by their long exposure to the atmos- of the walls. The Chaldsean dwellings usu-
phere, and retaining the impression of the ally had flat wooden roofs, though some-
inscriptions in the arrow-headed character times there were arched roofs built of bricks
as perfeClly as if they had only just been cemented with bitumen.
manufa(5tured. Naphtha and bitumen, or Next to their architedlural stni<5tures, the
earthy and pitch, were produced in
oil most remarkable remains of the ancient Chal-
great abundance above Babylon, near the The immense
dseans are their burial-places.
modem town of Hit. The.se served as sub- number of ancient tombs discovered in what
stitutes for mortar and cement; and so last- was Chaldaea proper is truly wonderful.
ing were they, that the layers of rushes and Large sepulchers are filled with the bones
palm-leaves laid between the courses of and relics of the dead. At Warka, the
bricks as a building material, are found at ancient Erech, except the triangular space
this day in the ruins of Babylon as perfect as between the three principal ruins, the
ii6 ANCIENT HISTORY.— CHALDÂ.
whole remainder of the platform, the space two large jars, from tn'o and a half to three
within the walls, and a wide extent of the feetdeep and two feet in diameter, and ce-
neighboring desert, are filled with human mented together with bitumen, as found at
bones and sepulcliers. Coffins are heaped Mugheir and Tel-el-Lahm, readily contained
upon coffins from thirty to sixty feet, and a full-sized corpse and had an air-hole at
there are miles on miles of tombs in portions each end to allow the gases generated by
of this once-famous laud. The most striking decomposition to escape.
of these burial-places are those at Warka, The coffins containing the bodies of the
the ancient Erech; at Mugheir, the ancient dead were placed in rows, and then covered
Ur; at Abu-Shahrein and Tel-el-Lahm. with earth so as to form a mound. These
The tombs are of three kinds brick — mounds were repeatedlj- covered with fresh
vaults, clay coffins shaped like a dish cover, earth, so that they were often elevated to a
and clay coffins formed of two large jars height of sixty feet above the original level
placed mouth to mouth and cemented to- of the plain. The mounds were carefully
gether with bitumen. The brick vaults, drained by means of tube-like shafts of pot-
principally found at Mugheir, are seven feet tery, consisting of a succession of rings or
long, three and a half feet wide, and five joints, two feet in diameter and a foot and a
feet high. The floors and walls of these half wide, skillfully put together and ce-
vaults were made of sun-dried bricks cemented with bitumen, and filled with masses
mented together with mud or bitumen, and of broken pottery' to resist external pressure.
the side walls were closed in above with an These drains reached from the surface to the
arch. The body was laid to rest on its left original ground-level; and by their means
side on a matting of reeds spread upon the the sepulchral mounds have been protecfled
floor. The fingers of the right hand were from dampness, and their utensils, orna-
placed upon a copper bowl set in the palm ments and skeletons have been preserved to
of the left. The head rested upon a brick the present day, and appear perfecfl on open-
for a pillow. Articles of use and ornament ing the tombs, but usuallj^ crumble to dust
were placed in the vault, and vessels with when touched.
food and drink were set near the head of the Monuments have also been exhumed bear-
departed. The remains of several bodies ing inscriptions in the aineiform, or wedge-
are in many cases found in the same vault, shaped charadlers, the deciphering of which,
and one vault contained eleven skeletons. as we have said, has given us new light on
It is believed from this that the brick vaults early Chaldsean history. This kind of writ-
were family sepulchers. ing was used for monumental records, and
Where the dish-cover clay coffins were was either hewn or carved in rocks and
used, the body was laid on a mat spread sculptures, or impressed on tiles and bricks.
over a sun-dried brick platform, disposed of The legends stamped upon the baked bricks
in thesame manner as in the brick vaults, of this ancient period prove the extent to
and surrounded with articles of food and which this kind of writing was in use. The
ornaments. The large clay coffins shaped earliest date that can be assigned to its use
like a dish-cover, seven feet long, two and was about 2000 B. C, and it was little, if at
a half wide at the bottom, and two or three all, used as late as 300 B. C. A vast d«âl
feet high, then covered the body, matting, of labor and erudition have been spent in
utensils, ornaments and all. Never were deciphering these cuneiform inscriptions.
more than two skeletons, one male and the The great inscription of Behistuu, in Persia,
other female, discovered under one cover. is of special interest. It is engraved in three
Children were interred under covers half the forms of cuneiform writing, upon the per-
size of those for adults. These tombs were pendicular face of a mountain, at a height
found seven or eight feet under ground at of three hundred feet; and gives an account
Mugheir. The clay coffins consisting of of the genealogy of Darius, his exploits.
CIVILIZATION. 117
1— S.-TT. H.
iiS ANCIENT HISTORY.— CHALDÂ.
and the provinces of his empire. Tliis in- the fine cloths and delicate textile fabrics
scription was deciphered by Sir Henry Raw- manufa(5tured by their looms, showing that
linson. the spinner's and weaver's art had attained
The writing of the Chaldees is well-nigh a high degree of skill and perfedtion among
as abundant as that of their Hamitic kins- this renowed primeval race.
men, the Egyptians. The writing was im- The Chaldees were also skillful in the art
pressed on the clay while it was moist and of cutting, polishing and engraving gems,
plastic. The inscriptions on the bricks re- some of their work in this art rivaling the
cord the history of the building in which best modem specimens. The signets and
they are found, the name of the monarch seals were of this class, and several of them
who built it, his titles and his fame. The have been deciphered and rendered in En-
inscriptions on the clay tablets are usually glish. The inscription on the seal of Urukh
of a private character, relating to such mat- has been translated as follows: "The sig-
ters as deeds, contracfts and personal records. net of Urukh, the pious chief. King of Ur,
The writing is from left to right, except on High Priest of NifFer." On Ilgi's seal was
signet-cylinders, on which it is reversed, the following legend: "To the manifesta-
because of the manner in which it was tion of Nergal, King of Bit-Zida, of Zur-
stamped, as described in a previous sedlion. guUa, for the saving of the life of Ilgi, the
The legend on the bricks was always stamped powerful hero, the King of Ur, son of Urukh
in the form of a square in the center; and * * * May his name be preserved." A
was some cases impressed upon the clay,
in signet-cylinder of one of the Sin kings bears
and in others was cut or engraved in the sur- this inscription: "Sin, the powerful chief,
face with some implement. On many of the the King of Ur, the King of the four races
tablets the signet-cylinder of the maker or * * * his seal." Some of the cylinders
contradtor was rolled across the surface, bear neither figures nor inscriptions; while
showing the wearer's motto and seal in re- others have no legend, but bear figures and
lief These tablets were preserved as family symbols. They were usually of jasper oi
records, just as moderns file important docu- chalcedony, ai:d were used to impress the
ments for preservation. These inscriptions seals of their owners on clay tablets. They
abound in all the ruins of ancient Chaldsea. were half an inch in diameter and three
The earthenware coffins and drainage- inches long. The
cylinder was rolled upon
shafting, besides the many jars, vases and the tablet bj-means of a copper or bronze
drinking-vessels, attest the skill of this parallelogram, one side of which was passed
ancient people in pottery from the earliest through a hole bored through its axis. It
ages of their history. On many burnt-clay was suspended from the owner's neck or
tablets are figures representing lions, bulls waist by means of a string or chain attached
and men; in most of which are illustrated to a metal frame. The design of the wearer's
deadly combats between men and lions. seal was cut in reverse on the surface of the
The Chaldees fashioned arms, implements signet, leaving the impression in relief
and ornaments from various metals. In the The Chaldees likewise engaged in com-
oldest ruins are discovered flint knives, merce with other countries. Their trading
hatchets, stone hammers and occasional caravans journeyed to the Ar>-an and Tu-
articles of bronze, such as arrow-heads, ranian countries of Central Asia, and the
knives, hatchets and sickles. Articles of "ships of Ur" navigated the Persian Gulf
iron, gold and copper have been discovered and traded with the people on its shores.
in great abundance in the mounds. Orna- The Chaldaeans found cheap and abun-
ments were usually made of iron or gold, dant articles of food in the luxuriant growth
while arms and weapons were generally of the date-palm and the abundant yield of
fashioned from copper or bronze. The such cereals as wheat, barley, millet and
primitive Chaldees were also celebrated for sesame; in addition to which the wealthier
cnii.r/.ATiON. TIQ
classes induljjcd in animal food, snch as ing sunrise on the equinocflial moniing.
fish, chickens and the wild boar. They thus inferred that the sun's orbit
The worship of the heavenly bodies led measured seven hundred and twenty times
the primitive Chaldces at an early day to his disc, and from this they derived a unit
the study of astronomy and chronology. to measure space and time. In regard to
Diodorus declares that the Chaldasans were space this unit constituted half a degree, and
far in advance of all other ancient nations in in the calculation of time the same unit
theirknowledge of the starry heavens. This equaled two minutes, or one-thirtieth of an
celebrated people discovered and recorded hour. A stadium was the distance an active
the relation of the sun's circuit to the other foot-courier could walk in one unit of time,
cycles of the solar system. They observ-ed or two miiuites; and the distance he could
that the sun's apparent course through the walk in thirty units, sixty minutes, or one
firmament equals about twelve rounds of hour, at the same ratio of speed, was called
the moon, and for this reason they divided a. parasang. The stadium was divided into
the year into twelve months of thirty days three hundred and sixty cubits, and sixty
each, and when they discovered the inaccu- cubits was called a. plcthron.
racy of this sj-stem they introduced new cal- The Chaldaeans discovered and recorded
culations, re<5tifying the calendar so as to the fact that each cycle of the moon's
agêe with the sidereal year of three hundred eclipses is completed in a ]3eriod of two hun-
and and six hours. By their
sixty-five days dred and twentj--three months, and from
obser\-ation of the sun's course through the this discovery they computed the length of
heavens the}- were able to establish the the synodic and periodic months so accu-
twelve signs of the Zodiac; and by observ- rately that modem astronomers have found
ing the variation of the orbits of the planets the calculation to fall short of less than five
from that of the sun thej- were enabled to fix seconds of our time. They carefully re-
the limits of the zodiacal signs, and to divide corded all the results of their observations.
each sign into thirty degrees by the progress The Greek Callisthenes, who had accom-
of the sun. By watching the moon's phases panied the expedition of Alexander the
they adopted seven days as the length of Great, sent to Aristotle from Babylon a
the week. They day
further divided each series of tablets on which were inscriptions
into twelve hours; each hour into sixty, or recording astronomical observations dating
five times twelve, minutes; and thus estab- as farback as 1903 years before the year 331
lished the basis of the duodecimal method B. C,
the 3-ear that Alexander entered that
of calculation. Two times twelve, or city. These observ-ations would therefore
twenty-four, finger-widths was fixed upon reach back 2234 years before Christ.
as the measure of a aibit. A cycle of sixty- The Chaldaeans had also made considerable
years was called a soss; was
ten times sixty progress in arithmetic, and they employed
a and the square of sixt>', or thirty-six
7ier; —
two systems of notation decimal and duo-
centuries, was a sar. decimal. They used cuneiform, or wedge-
They measured distances in the heavens shaped and arrow-headed characters, to re-
by taking the width of the sun's disc as a present numbers. Their system of weights
unit. By comparing the quantitj^ of water was based upon their system of measures.
di.scharged through an orifice in a jar in the A cubit of water, which weighed sixty-six
time occupied by the sun in crossing the pounds, was divided into sixtj' logs, each log
horizon on the morning of the equinox with measuring about five-sixths of a pint. The
the amount discharged through the same log was the unit of measure; and its weight,
orifice at the next sunrise, they discovered called a niiiia, was the unit of weight. A
that the amount discharged between the two duck-shaped stone belonging to King Ilgi
risings of the sun was seven hundred and has been discovered bearing the inscription,
twenty times the amount discharged dur- "Ten minse of Ilgi," Like most other na-
ANCIENT HISTORY.— CHALDÂ.
tions, the Chaldasans had one sj'stem of sand years ago, and its massive architectural
weights for the ordinary' articles of the mar- structures have slumbered in eternal repose
ket-place, and another system for the pre- beneath the sands and dust of more than
cious metals and gems. Circular pieces or thirty centuries, the grand mental triumphs
rings, called talents, shekels, etc. —names of its venerable civilization j-et remain, as a
afterwards used by the Hebrews and the permanent legacy to posterity — the ground-
—
Greeks were taken as units in weighing work of the science and learning in which
gold and silver. they have ever since been recognized as the
Although the brilliant intellecftual adtivity pioneers — the wonder and admiration of the
of Chaldasa ceased more than three thou- ages.
SECTION v.— CHALDEAN COSMOGONY AND RELIGION.

EROSUS begins his history by were in her he caused to perish. And he
recounting the Chaldsean tra- split the darkness, and divided the heaven
ditions regarding the creation and the earth asunder, and put the world in
of the world and the origin of order; and the animals that could not bear
the human race. The follow- the light perished. Bel, upon this, seeing
ing is an account of the Chaldaean cosmo- that the earth was desolate, yet teeming
gony: "In the beginning all was darkness with produiftive power, commanded one of
and water, and therein were generated mon- the gods to cut off his head, and to mix the
strous animals of strange and peculiar forms. blood which flowed forth with earth, and
There were men with two wings, and some form men therewith, and beasts that could
even with four, and with two faces; and bear the light. So man was made, and was
others with two heads, a man's and a intelligent, being a partaker of the divine
woman's, on one body; and there were men wisdom. Likewise Bel made the stars, and
with the heads and horns of goats, and men the sun and moon, and the five planets."
with hoofs like horses, and some with the There is likeness between
a remarkable
upper parts of a man joined to the lower certain Chaldaean and Jewish legends, such
parts of a horse, like centaurs; and there as the traditions of the destrudtion of man-
were bulls with human heads, dogs with kind by a great Flood, because of its wicked-
four bodies and with fishes' tails, men and ness, and the Tower of Babel and dispersion
horses with dogs' heads, creatures with the of the human race. Among .some claj' tab-
heads and bodies of horses, but with the letsbrought from Assyria to London by Mr.
tails of fish, and other animals mixing the George Smith are a series of fragments
forms of various beasts. Moreover, there which, joined to some smaller pieces in the
were monstrous fish and reptiles and ser- British Museum coUecftion, give the history
pents, and divers other creatures, which of the world from the Creation down tosome
had borrowed something from each other's period after the fall of man. Mr. Smith
shapes; of all which the likenesses are still succeeded in translating these legends in
preser\-ed in the temple of Bel. A woman 1875, and the following is his brief account
ruleth them all, by name Omorka, which is of the contents of the tablets: "Whatever
in Chaldee Thalatth, and in Greek Thalassa the primitive account ma)' have been from
(or 'the sea'). Then Bel appeared, and which the earlier part of the Book of Gene-
split the woman and of the one
in twain; siswas copied, -it is evident that the brief
half of her he made the heaven and of the narrative given in the Pentateuch omits a
other half the earth; and the beasts that number of incidents and explanations — for
COSMOGONY AND RlilJClON. 121
instance, as to the origin of evil, the fall of fabulous reigns of the ten antediluvian kings
the angels, the wickedness of the serpent, of Chaldaea, there appeared at different times
etc. Such points as these are included in six other fish-monsters who, like Oan, in-
the cuneiform narrative." strucfled mankind. The ten kings whom Be-
Mr. Smith then proceeds to give a sketch rosus mentions as reigning in Chaldoea during
of the Assyrian cosmogony, as follows:
'
' The the antediluvian period, and who correspond

narrative on the Assyrian tablets commences in number with the ten patriarchs of the same
with a description of the period before the period mentioned in the Mo.saic record, will
world was created, when there existed a now be named with the lengths of their
chaos or confusion. The desolate and empty reigns. Alorus, a Chaldaean, reigned 36,000
state of the universe and the generation by- years; Aloparus, son of Alorus, 10,800 years;
chaos of monsters are vividly given. The Almelon, a native of Sippara, 46,800 years;
chaos is presided over by a female power Ammenon, a Chaldaean, 43,200 years; Ame-
named Tisalat and Tiamat, corresponding to galarus, of Sippara, 64,800 years; Daonus,
the Thalatth of Berosus; but as it proceeds of Sippara, 36,000 years; Edorankhns, of
the Assyrian account agrees rather with the Sippara, 64,800 years; Amempsinus, a Chal-
Bible than with the short account from Bero- dsean, 36,000 years; Otiartes, a Chaldjean,
sus. We are told, in the inscriptions, of the 28,000 years; and Xisuthrus, the Chaldaean
fall of the celestial being who appears to Noah, 64,800 years — the ten reigns covering
correspond to Satan. In his ambition he a period of 432,000 years.
raises his hand against the san(fluar\^ of the The Chaldaean or Babylonian account of
God of heaven, and the description of him the Deluge, as narrated by Berosus, is as
is really magnificent. He is represented follows: "The god Bel appeared to Xisu-
riding in a chariot through celestial space, thrus (Noah) in a dream, and warned him
surrounded by the storms, with the light- that on the fifteenth day of the month Dae-
ning playing before him., and wielding a sius, mankind would be destroj'ed hy a del-
thunderbolt as a weapon. This rebellion uge. He bade him bur>' in Sippara, the City
leads to a war in heaven and the conquest of the Sun, the extant writings, first and
of the powers of evil, the gods in due course last; and build a ship, and enter therein
creating the universe in stages, as in the with his family and his close friends; and
Mosaic narrative, sur\'eying each step of the fumi.sh it with meat and drink; and place on
work and pronouncing it good. The divine board winged fowl, and four-footed beasts
work culminates in the creation of man, of the earth; and when all was ready, set
who is made upright and free from evil, and sail. Xisuthrus asked Whither he was to
'
endowed hy the gods with the noble faculty' sail?' and was told, 'To the gods, with a
of speech. The Deity then delivers a long prayer that it might fare well with mankind.'
address to the newly-created being, instruct- Then Xisuthrus was not disobedient to the
ing him in all his duties and privileges, and vision, but built a ship fifteen stadia (3125
pointing out the glorj- of his state. But feet) in and six stadia (1250 feet)
length,
this condition of blessing does not last long in breadth; and colledled all that had been
before man, yielding to temptation, falls; and commanded him, and put his wife and chil-
the Deity then pronounces upon him a terri- dren and close friends on board. The flood
ble curse, invoking on his head all the evils came; and as soon as it ceased, Xisuthrus
which have since afflicted humanity." let loose some birds, which, finding neither
After his mythical account of the Crea- food nor a place where they could rest, came
tion, Berosus mentions a sea-monster, half back to the ark. After some days he again
man and half fish, named Oan, who came sent out the birds, which again returned to
out of the deep to teach men language and the ark, but with feet covered with mud.
letters, astronomy, the arts, agriculture and Sent out a third time, the birds returned no
all that pertains to civilization. During the more, and Xisuthrus knew that land had
122 ANCIENT HISTORY.— CHALDALA.
reappeared; so he removed some of the cov- the army, the wild and tame animals; and
ering of the ark, and looked, and behold! all that thou hearest thou shalt do. And
the had grounded on a mountain.
vessel Sisit gathered together all his possessions of
Then Xisuthrus went forth with his wife silver and gold, all that he had of the
and his daughter, and his pilot, and fell seeds of life, and caused all of his .slaves,
down and worshiped the earth, and built male and female, to go into the .ship. The
an altar, and offered sacrifice to the gods; wild and tame beasts of the field also he
after which he disappeared from sight, to- caused to enter, and all the sons of the army.
gether with those who had accompanied And Shamas, the Sun-god, made a flood,
him. They who had remained in the ark and said: 'I will cause rain to fall heavily
and not gone forth with Xisuthrus, now left from heaven; go into the ship and shut the
it and searched for him, and .shouted out his door.' Overcome with fear Sisit entered
name; but Xisuthrus was not .seen any more. into the .ship, and on the morning of the
Only his voice answered them out of the air, day fixed by Shamas the storm began to
saying, 'Worship the gods; for because I blow from the ends of heaven, and Vul
worshiped them, am I gone to dwell with thundered in the midst of heaven, and Nebc
the gods; and they who were with me have came forth, and over the mountains and
shared the same honor. And he bade them' plains came the gods, and Nergal the De-
return to Babylon, and recover the writings stroyer overthrew, and Nin came forth and
buried at Sippara, and make them known dashed down; the gods made ruin; in their
among men; and he told them that the land brightness they swept over the earth. The
in which they then were was Armenia. So storm went over the nations; the flood of
they, when they had heard all, sacrificed to Vul reached up to heaven; brother did not
the gods and went their way on foot to Baby- see brother; the lightsome earth became a
lon, and, having reached it, recovered the desert, and the flood destroyed all living
buried writings from Sippara, and built things from the face of the earth. Even the
many cities and temples, and restored Baby- gods were afraid of the storm, and sought
lon. Some portion of the ark still continues refuge in the heaven of Ana; like hounds
in Annenia, in the Gordiasan (Kurdish) drawing in their tails, the gods seated theni-
mountains; and persons scrape off the bitu- seh-es on and Ishtar, the great
their thrones,
men from it to bring awa>', and this they goddess, .spake: 'The world has turned to
use as a remedy to avert misfortunes." sin, and therefore I have proclaimed destruc-
The Assyrian inscriptions discovered by tion. I have begotten men, and now they
George Smith give an account of the Del- fill the .sea like the children of fishes. ' And
uge nuich resembling the narrative of the the gods upon their wept with her.
.seats
same event by Berosus. Among the ruins On the se\-enth da}- the storm abated, which
of the palace of the A.ssyrian king Asshur- had destroyed like an earthquake, and the
bani-pal, tablets have been di.scovered from sea began to dry. Sisit perceived the move-
which the account of the Deluge has been ment of the sea. Like reeds floated the
deciphered, agreeing in some particulars corpses of the evil-doers and all who had
with the Chaldsean tradition. The legend turned to .sin. Then

opened
Sisit the win-
found recorded on the tablets states that the dow, and the light fell upon his face, and
god Hea commanded Sisit to build a ship of the ship was stayed upon Mount Nizir, and
specified size and to launch it on the deep, could not pass over it. Then on the seventh
as he intended to detroy the wicked. Then day Sisit sent forth a dove, but she found
Hea said :
'
' When the flood comes which I no place of rest, and returned. Then he
will send thou shalt enter the ship, and into sent a swallow, which also returned; and
the midst of it thou shalt bring thy com, again a raven, which saw the corpses in the
thy goods, thy gods, thy gold and silver, water and ate them, and returned no more.
thy slaves male and female, the sons of Then Sisit released the beasts to the four
' '
COSAKXiONV AND REIJGION. 123
winds of heaven, and jiouixd a libation, and Tower of Babel, the Phrrnician analogies
'
built an altar upon the top of the mountain, failing us here altogether.
and cut seven herbs, and the sweet savor of The following is the Chaldaean account of
the sacrifice caused the gods to assemble, the Tower of Babel, as related by Berosus:
and Sisit prayed that Bel might not come to
'
The earth was still of one language, when

'
the altar. For Bel had made the storm and the primitive men, who were proud of their
sunk the people in the deep, and wished in strength and stature, and despi.sed the gods
his anger to destroy the ship, and allow no as their inferiors, erecfted a tower of vast
man to escape. Nin opened his mouth, height, in order that they might mount to
and spoke to the warrior Bel: 'Who would heaven. And was now near to
the tower
then be left?' And Hea spoke to him: heaven, when the gods caused the winds to
'
Captain of the gods, instead of the storm blow and overturned the strudlure upon the
let lions and leopards increase, and dimini.sh men, and made them speak with divers
mankind; let famine and pestilence desolate tongues whereupon the city was called
;
the land and destroy mankind.' When the Babylon."

sentence of the gods was passed, Bel came Sa)-s Rawlinson, concerning Chaldaean
into the midst of the ship and took Sisit by mythology: The striking resemblance of the
'
'
the hand and condudted him forth, and Chaldaean system to that of classical mythol-
caused his wife to be brought to his side, ogy seems worthy of particular attention.
and purified the earth, and made a covenant; This resemblance is too general, and too close
and Sisit and his wife and his people were in some respedls, to allow of the supposition
carried away like gods, and Sisit dwelt in a that mere accident has produced the coinci-
distant land at the mouth of the rivers.
'
dence. In the Pantheons of Greece and
Traditions of a great Flood have been pre- Rome, and in that of Chaldasa, the same gen-
valent in all countries subject to overflows eral grouping is to be recognized; the same
of rivers, with the exception of Egypt, genealogical succession is not unfrequently
where the annnal inundation was .so regular. to be traced; and some
cases even the
in
Legends like those of Chaldasa and Assyria familiar names and titles of classical divini-
have been discovered among the inhabitants ties admit of the most curious illustrations
of Annenia, Greece, India and all countries and explanations from Chaldaean sources.
expcsed dangerous floods. The account
to We can .scarcely doubt but that, in some
of the Deluge as narrated by Moses is a way or other, there was a communication of
same story as given by Berosus
record of the beliefs — a passage in very early times, from
and as found inscribed upon the Assyrian the shores of the Persian Gulf to the lands
tablets. It is not known when the great washed by the Mediterranean, of mytholo-
Flood occurred in Chaldsea, and the dates gical notions and ideas. It is a probable
assigned by Berosus are fabulous, as are his conje(5lure that '
among the primitive tribes
accounts of the antediluvian dynasty- and the who dwelt on the Tigris and Euphrates,
first postdiluvian dynasty in Chaldcea. when the cuneiform alphabet was invented,
" In a valuable contribution to the London and when such writing was first applied to
Academy, in the year 1875, Mr. Sayce the purposes of religion, a Scythic or Scytho-
showed that the Phoenician legends fomi, as Arian race existed, who subsequently mi-
it were, the link between the Chaldaean and grated to Europe and brought with them
the Hebrew so far as the so-called Elohistic those mythical traditions which, as objedls
portion of Genesis is concerned; this being of popular belief, had been mixed up in
especially noticeable in the legend of the the nascent literature of their native coun-
Creation and the sacrifice of Isaac. Mr. Sayce trj',' and that these traditions were passed
also explained the very close resemblance on to the classical nations, who were in part
between the Babvlonian and Jewish legends descended from this Scythic or Scytho-
of the Garden of Eden, the Deluge and the Arian people."
—
124 ANCIENT HISTORY.— CHALD.EA.

The religion of Chaldsea, or Babj-lonia, parentage were II, the chief god; Hoa; San,
was from the most ancient times a gross the Sun-god; Ishtar, the planetary Venus;
polytheism, and was a kind of Sabsean wor- and Nergal, the representative of the planet
ship, the heavenlj' bodies being objecfls of Mars. Sometimes the relation.ship is con-
adoration and represented by their special fused and contradi(5lor\-; Nin, the planetary
deities. L,ocal divinities abounded, every Saturn, being represented as the son and
town being under the protedlion of some father of Bel, and as the son and husband
particular deity. The Chaldaean gods and of Beltis.
goddesses therefore dwelt in the sky. The El, or root of the well-known
//, is the
deities of the first order were grouped as Biblical Eloliim, and also of the Arabic or
follows: At the head of the Chaldaean Pan- Mohammedan Allah. It is the name which
theon stood El, or //, or Ra ; after whom was Diodorus represents z.sEhis; and Sanchronia-
named the great city, Babylon, or Bab-El, thon, or rather Philo-B5'blius, under the name
meaning Gate of El. Next to the chief deity of Elus, or Ilus. The meaning of the word
was a triad of gods A7ia, or Anu,- Bil, or Bel, El, or II, is simply "God," or "the God."
or Belus ; and Hea or Hoa , —who corresponded Ra had the same meaning in Chaldsea, but in
to the classical Pluto, Jupiter and Neptune. Egypt it was the special designation of the
Each of these three gods was accompanied Sun-god. The Semitic name of Babylon was
by a female principle, or wife; Anal, or Aii- Bab- II, signifying "The gate of II, " or "the
ata, being the wife of Ana; Mulila, or Belfis, gate of God." Ra was a sort of fount or
the wife of Bel; and Davkina the wife of origin of deity and had few attributes. He
Hoa. These were followed by a second was not much worshiped, and does not ap-
triad of gods, consisting of Sin, or Hurki, pear to have had any temple in early times.
the Moon-god; San, or Sa/isi, the Sun-god; He was the common father of Bel and Ana.
and I'ltl, or /z'a, or Bin, the Air-god. Each Though Babj'lon, from its name Babil, was
of this second triad was
accompanied also originally under Il's proted;ion, Bel was the
by a feminine power, or wife; a goddess god chiefly worshiped in that city in early
called "the Great Lady," whose name is un- times, and Merodach in later times. El,
certain, being the consort of Sin, or Hurki; or II, was the lord of heaven. He was
Gula, or Anunit, the companion of San; the Warrior, " " the Prince of the
'
styled '
and Shala, or Tala, the wife of Vul. Next gods, " " the Eord of the universe. In
'
'
to these great gods and goddesses at the an Assyrian tablet he is styled

'
' the Lamp

head of the Pantheon were a group of fi\'e of the divinities.
'
In his anger at the

'
minor deities representing the five planets wickedness of mankind II sent the great
—
then known Nin or Ninip (Saturn), Mero- Flood to destroy the human race, and Sisit
dach (Jupiter), Nergal (Mars), Ishtar (Ve- with the rest.
nus), and Nebo (Mercury). All the deities The residence of Ana, the
first god of the
thus far named constituted the principal was in the concave dome of the
first triad,
gods and goddesses, and after them were nu- sky, to which the other gods fled to escape
merous divinities of the second and third the ravages of the Flood, which the wrath
order. of II had sent against the wicked world.
The chief Chaldaean godsand goddesses On some tablets Ana was called the Old '
'
were not all descended from the same parent- Ana," " the Original Chief, " "the Father of
"
age, like the Egyptian, or the Greek or gods, " "the Lord of spirits and demons,
Roman deities, yet some relationship existed "the King of the lower world, " "the Lord
among them. Ana and Bel were brothers, of darkness, " "the Ruler of the far-off city,"
the sons of II. Vul was the son of Ana; etc. The old city of Erech, or Huruk ( now
and Sin, or Hurki, the Moon-god, was the Warka), was the chief seat of Ana's wor-
son of Bel. Nebo and Merodach were sons ship, and here was a favorite burial-ground
of Hoa. Among the many deities without of the Chaldees, over which Ana was be-
' '
cosj/o(;ojyy and RJiUGioN. •25
lieved to preside as a tutelary divinitj'. He dedicated to his w'orship at Calah (now Nim-
was worshiped in the most remote antiquity, rud), and Dur-Kurri-galzu (now Akkerkuf).
and Urukh alhided to him as one of the He is sometimes said to have had four
gods of Ur. King Shamas-Vul built a tem- "arks" or "tabernacles." Inscriptions are
ple to Ana at Asshur, (now Kileh-Sherghat), found on Assyrian tablets, in which his
about 1830 B. C. The temple of Erech name is invoked as the Lord of the world. ' '
'
bore the name of Bit- Ana, or House of Ana; This facfl attests that his worship was general
and the goddess Beltis, whose worship su- throughout Chaldaea and Assyria. In As-
perseded that of Ana, in this temple, was syria he was inferior only to. Asshur, and in
the companion of Ana and was called "the Chaldaea only to El and Ana. Thus Bel
Lady of Bit- Ana." and Bel-Nimrod were virtually the same
Anat, or Anata, the wife of Ana, was but god. Beltis was his wife; and Nin, the As-
a reflecflion of her husband, and had no dis- syrian Hercules, was their son, and was fre-
tinguishing characfleristics, being nothing quently joined in their invocations. Sin,
but the feminine form of the masculine Ana. the Moon-god, is also said to be Bel-Nim-
All his epithets were applied to her with rod's son, in some inscriptions. His title
only a distincflion of gender, and she had no "Father of the gods" would indicate an al-
personality different from his, and is rarely, most infinite paternity. Bel-Nimrod was
if ever, mentioned in the historical or geo- worshiped during the whole period of the
graphical inscriptions. One tablet repre- monarchy. Urukh built him his temple at
sents Ana and Anata as having nine chil- Calneh, or Nipur (now Niffer), and Kurri-
dren. Two of Ana's sons were Vul, the galzu erecfted the one at Akkerkuf. LIrukh
Air-god, and Mariu, the representative of often mentions him in the inscriptions in
"Darkness," "the West," etc., correspond- connedlion with Sin, or Hurki, the Moon-
ing to the Erebus of the Greeks. god, whom he calls Bel-Nimrod's "eldest
Bel, also called Enii, and known as Bc/ns son."
by the Greeks, was the second of the first Mulita — the Mylitta of Herodo-
Beltis, or
triad of gods. His name Bit. or Bel signifies tus — as the wife of Bel-Nimrod, presented a
"Lord." He was called "the Supreme," strong contrast to Anata, the wife of Ana.
the Father of the gods, " " the Procreator,
'
'
'
Beltis was not only power of Bel- a female
"the Lord," "the King of all the spirits," Nimrod, but was really a and import- distinct
the Lord of the world, " " the Lord of all the ant deity. Her common
'
' title was the Great
'
'
countries." When Nimrod, "the mighty Goddess." Her Chaldsean name, Mulita, or
hunter before the Lord," the legendary Enuta, signifies '
' the Lady.
'
' Her Assyrian

founder of the Chaldaean Empire, after his name, Bilta or Bilta-Nipruta, were the femi-
death was deified as Bel-Nimrod, or Bilu- nine fomis of Bil and Bilu-Nipm. Her
Nipru, "the Hunter Lord," his attributes favorite title was "the Mother of the gods,"
and titles were mingled with those of Bel. or "Mother of the great gods," likewise
Calneh, or Nipur, the modern Niifer, was '
Queen-mother of the gods, " " the Queen of

'
his sacred city and the seat of his worship, the land," "the Great Lady," "the Goddess
and here was the great temple consecrated of war and battle," "the Goddess of birth."
to him. Many legends and traditions Though usually classed as the wife of Bel-
connec5l his name with this ancient city, Nimrod and the mother of his son Nin, .she
which was also dedicated to his wife Beltis. issometimes called "the wife of Nin," and
Bel-Nimrod was called "Lord of Nipra," in
'
one place the wife of Asshur.

' She is '
'
and his wife " Lady of Nipra." His temple the lady of Bit- Ana, " " the
'
likewise styled '
at Nipur, called Kharris- Nipra, and famed lady of Nipur." Her worship was general,
for its wealth, magnificence and antiquity, and her temples were numerous. At Erech
was an objecft of intense veneration to the (now Warka) she was worshiped on the
Assyrian monarchs. Temples were likewise same platform with Ana. At Cahieh, or
126 ANCIENT HISTORY.— CHALD.ÊA.
Nipur Cnow Niffer), she shared fully in her called "the Powerful," "the Lord of the
husband's honors. She had a shrine at Ur spirits," "He who dwells in the great
(now Mugheir), another at Rubesi, and an- heavens, " " the Chief of the gods of heaven
other outside the walls of Babylon. Some and earth," "the King of the gods," "the
of these temples were ^•ery ancient, those at Bright, " " the Shining, " " the Lord of the
Erech and Nipur being built by Urukh, month." As the patron and protedtor of
while that at Ur was either built or repaired buildings and architedlure, he was styled
by Ismi-Dagon. One record makes Beltis the Supporting Architecfl, " " the Strength-
'
'
Queen of ener of fortifications, " " the Lord of build-

'
the daughter of Ana, and as '
Nipur" she was "the wife of Nin." Beltis ing. " Bricks were under his protecflion,
was "the Goddess of fertility and birth," and the sign of the month under his special
'
the Lady of offspring.

' The worship of '
' care was the one by which they were desig-

Beltis was general throughout Chaldsea, and nated. His common symbol was the crescent,
the magnificence of her temples prove the or new moon. The monuments represent
adoration of the Chaldseans and the Later him in the form of an aged bearded figure
Babjdonians for her as the source of beaut}^ with illustrations of the different phases of
and the dispenser of love. the crescent near his head. The signet-
Hea, or Hoa, the third of the first triad King Urukh, now in the British
cylinder of
of deities, was the Sea-god, who, Berosus Museum, bears this representation of the
says, taught language and letters, art and Moon-god. In this figure he is represented
science, and agriculture to the primitive as offering one hand in salutation in the
Chaldees. Though he is represented as a presence of three worshipers standing before
fish-monster, Berosus calls him the Great '
' him. The Moon-god was the special objedl

Giver of good gifts to man," and he also of kingly worship. Ur, or Hur, which de-
its name from Hurki, was his sacred
'
bears the title of ' and
Lord of the abyss, '
' rived
'
Lord of the great deep.

' He was adored '
' city, and here was the great temple built for
as the dispenser of life and knowledge, and his worship by King Urukh and his famous
as such his emblem was the serpent, which son and successor, Ilgi. This deity was like-
Eastern races generally emplojêd as the wise worshiped by the princes of Borsippa
symbol of more than human wisdom. Raw- and Babylon, and one dynasty of Chaldsean
linson considers the legend of Hea in the monarchs bore the title of the Sin kings.
form of a serpent teaching men wisdom, as The Moon-god was adored by the Chal-
bearing some relation to the story of the daeans and Babylonians to the latest days of
.serpent in the Garden of Eden, enticing antiquit}', through the period of Assyrian
Adam and Eve to eat the forbidden fruit of supremacy to the times of Nebuchadnezzar
the tree of knowledge by promising them and Nabonadius, the last of whom restored
extended wisdom. The connecftion of Hoa his shrine at Ur and bestowed on him high-
with the introdu(ftion of letters is symbol- sounding titles, such as "the Chief of the
ized in the arrow-head in the cuneiform in- gods of heaven and earth, the King of the
scriptions. The Assyrian kings built him gods, God of gods, H6 who dwells in the
temples at Asshur and Calah. Davkina great heavens." In some inscriptions the
was the wife of Hoa, and her name signifies Moon-god is called the eldest son of Bel-
"the Chief Lady." Like Anata, Davkina Nimrod. His wife, the Moon-goddess,
had no distineflive titles or important position called "the Great Lady," was often asso-
in the Pantheon, but took her husband's ciated with him in the lists. Hurki and his
epithets with a simple distincflion of gender. wife were the tutelary deities of Ur, or Hur,
Merodach and Nebo were the sons of Hoa and a part of the temple was dedicated to
and Davkina. his wife. Her "ark" or "tabernacle,"
Sin, or Hurki, the Moon-god, was the which was separate from that of her hus-
first deity of the second triad. He was band, was also deposited in this sancftuarj-.
' ''
cosMoco.yy and rki.icion. [27
It was called "the lesser light," while his Most of the signet-cylinders of the Chal-
ark was styled "the light." daean monarchs have the emblem of the sun
or Sansi, the Sun-god whose Semi-
Sail, — among their symbols of divinitj-.
tic names were Sanias, Shanias, and Shem- Ai, Gula, or Anunit, the wife of San, as
—
esh was the second deitj- of the second the female power of the sun, was usually as-
triad. He was regarded as the lord of the sociated with the Sun-god in temples and
daj-light, and was represented as lighting invocations. Gula signifies "great. " As
the universe. His emblem was the circle. a deitj' separate from her husband, she pre-
He was called "the Lord of fire," "the sided over life and birth. She was wor-
Light of the gods, " " the Ruler of the day, shiped with her husband both at Larsa and
'
" He who illumines the expanse of heaven Sippara, and her name appears on the in-
and earth," "the Regent of all things," scriptions at both places. She is believed
'
'the Establisher of heaven and earth The
. '
' to have been the Anammelech whom the

Sun-god inspired warlike thoughts in the Sephar\'ites adored in combination with Ad-
minds of kings, and diredled and favored rammelech, the "Fire-king." In later
their militarj- expeditions. He caused the times she had temples independent of her
Chaldsean monarchs to assemble their char- husband at Bab}-lon and Borsippa, as well
iots and warriors, and went forth with their as at Calah and Asshur. Her emblem was
armies and defeated their foes in battle. He the eight-rayed disk or orb, which is often
extended their dominions, and brought associated with the four-rayed orb in the
them back to their own land as conquerors. Babylonian representations, or sometimes an
He chased their enemies before them and eight-raj-ed star, and frequently a star of
crushed all opposition. He aided them to only six rays.
swaj' the kingly sceptre and to enforce their Vul, or Iva, the Air-god —also variously
authorit}^ over their subjects. He was thus translated as Bin, Yem, Ao or Hu—was the
called '
the Supreme Ruler who casts a fa- third god of the second triad. Like the
vorable eye on "the Van-
expeditions," Zeus of the Greeks and the Jupiter of the
quisher of the "the
king's enemies," Romans, Vul wielded the thunderbolt and
Breaker-up of opposition." As the sun dif- directed the storm and the tempest. The
fused light and wannth throughout the Chaldasan account of the great Flood repre-
realm of nature, so San lightened men's sents Vul as thundering in heaven. He
minds and hearts with wisdom and inspira- was considered the destroj-er of crops, and
tion. The chief seats of the Sun-god's wor- consequently the author of famine, scarcity
ship were at Larsa and Sippara. At Larsa and pestilence. The '
' flaming sword '
was the great temple to San, called Bit- which he is said to have held in his hand is
Parra, built by Urukh, and restored at times represented as his symbol on the tablets and
to as late a period as the age of Nebu- cylinders, where it is figured as a thunder-
chadnezzar. At Sippara the worship of this bolt. He was regarded as "the Prince of
deity took precedence of all others, so that the power of the air." His usual titles
the Greeks called this place Heliopolis, or were "the Minister of heaven and earth."
City of the Sun. The idolatry of the "Fire- the Lord of the air, " " He who makes the
'
'
king," Adrammelech, which the Second tempest to rage." He was the great de-
Book of Kings mentions as being set up in stroyer in the realm of nature, but as the
Samaria, was the worship of the Chaldaean dispenser of rain he was adored as the source
Sun-god. At Sippara, called Tsipar sha of the fertility of the nourishing earth. He
Shamas, "Sippara of the Sun," in the in- was regarded as the prote(5lor of rivers,
was the large temple to the Sun-
scriptions, canals and aqueducts. Thus he was st\led
god which was repaired and adorned bj- the Careful and Beneficent Chief, " " the
'
'
many Giver of abundance, " " the Lord of canals,

'
of the ancient Chaldaean kings, as

Nebuchadnezzar and Nabouadius. and the Establisher of works of irrigation.
'
'
well as bj- '

128 ANCIENT HIS TOR } '.— CHALDÂ.
The name of King Shamus-Vul, son and characfter, he is called "the Lightof heaven,"
successor of Ismi-Dagon, indicates that Vul "He who, like the sun, the light of the gods,
must have been worshiped in early times, as irradiates the nations." In the sculptured
that king set up his worship at Asshur, courts of the Assyrian palaces, Nin is rep-
(now Kileh-Sherghat), in Assj-ria, where a resented as a winged man-bull, the impenso-
temple was built to him and Ana conjointly. nation of strength and power. He guards
All through the period of Assyrian ascend- the palaces of the Assyrian kings, who con-
ency and end of the Later Babylonian
to the .sider him their tutelary deity, and whose
Empire the Air-god was highly venerated. capitalcitj', Nineveh, is named in his honor.
Shala, or Tala, was the wife of Vul, or Iva Nin does not rank with the most ancient of
and her usual title is sarrat or sharrat, mean- the Chaldsean gods on the monuments; but
ing "queen, " the feminine of the word sa?', as the Fish-god, whom Berosus represented
which signifies "king,'' "chief," or "sov- as coming out of the sea to teach the Chal-
" dasans letters and science, he must have
ereign.
First among the deities who represented been an object of veneration from primeval
the five planets then known, was Nin, or times. His oldest temples were the two at
Ninip, also called Bar, or Adar, who was the Calah (now Ninirud), and his temple at
representative of Saturn. Bar, the Semitic Nineveh was widely famed for its splendor,
name, and Nin, the Hamitic designation, and is noticed in the Annals of Tacitus.
'
'
'
'
signify "Lord" or "Master." Ninip signi- His worship was very general throughout
fies "Nin by name," or "He whose name is Chaldsea and As.syria, as is shown by the
Nin." Barshen signifies "Bar by name," frequency with which his emblems are found
or "He whose name is Bar." In his char- among the inscriptions. As we have said,
and attributes Nin most nearly corres-
acfter Nin was the .son of Bel-Nimrod, and the in-
ponded to the Hercules of the Greeks, as he scriptions represent him as the husband and
was adored as the god of strength and son of Beltis. One tablet calls Nin the
heroism, according to the testimony of the father, instead of the son, of Bel-Nimrod.
inscriptions. He boldly faced the foe in This contradi(flion is the result of the double
battle, and his name was invoked to encour- characfler of Nin, who, as Saturn, was the
age the warrior in the deadly confiicft. He father, but as Hercules, the son of Jupiter.
was styled "the Lord of the brave," "the Merodach, or Bel-Merodach, represented
Champion," "the Warrior who subdues the planet of Jupiter, and was called
'
' the
foes, " " He who strengthens the hearts of his Old Man of the gods," "the King of the
followers," "the Destroyer of enemies," earth" "the Most Ancient," "Senior of the
the Reducer of the disobedient, " " the Ex- gods," "the Judge," and the like. He was
'
'
terminator of rebels, " " He whose sword is regarded as the god of judgment, justice and
good." In characfler he thus very much re- right. He was believed to preside wherever
sembled Bel-Nimrod and Nergal, and also the justice was dispensed by kings sitting in
Greek Hera, the Roman Mars, and the Scan- the gates, the early seats of justice. He was
dinavian Odin. The in.scriptions call Nin, considered the most spiritual of the Chal-
and not Hoa, the Fish-god. '
His emblem
'
'
' dsean deities, and in the Babylonian in.scrip-
was generally the fish; and on some reliefs he tions he is classed as superior to all celestial
is represented as part man and part fish, and and terrestrial divinities, under the title of
beneath are such titles as "the God of the Belrabu. The Tel Sifr tablets indicate
sea," "He who dwells in the deep," "the that Merodach must have been worshiped
Opener of aquedudls. On other tablets he
'
' in the early Chaldsean kingdom. He is be-

is styled "the Powerful Chief," "the lieved to have been the tutelary deity of
Supreme," "the First of the gods," "the Babylon from the most remote antiquity,
Favorite of the gods," "the Chief of the and as the city grew into importance his
.spirits," and like titles. In his planetary worship became more and more prominent.
'
COSA/OaON]' AND Rl'.l.ICIO.y. 129
The Assyrian kings alvvaj's associated Baby- into the land of their forced adoption. Ner-
lon with Merodach, and in the Later Baby- gal' s emblem was the famous winged man-
lonian Knipire his worship took precedence lion, the impersonation of human intelli-
of that of the other gods. Herodotns mi- gence and phy.sical .strength, as .seen at the
nutely described his temple, and the prophet entrances of the great palaces of vSusa and
Uanicl bore testimony to the devotion with Nineveh. Of Nergal's wife, called Lax,
which he was worshiped by the Babylonians. only her name is known.
Nebuchadnezzar called him "the King of Ishtar, or Nana, was the representative
the heavens and the earth," "the Great of the planetary Venus, and in characfler
Lord, " " the Senior of the gods, " " the Most and attributes she mainly corresponded with
Ancient," " the Supporter of .sovereignty," the classical goddess whose name the planet
"the Layer up of treasures," and the like; bears. Ishtar was her Assyrian name, and
and attributed to this god all his glorj- and Nana was her Bab^'lonian appellation. The
success. His emblem is not definitely Phoenicians called her Astarte, and the He-
known; but Diodorus states that the great brews Astoreth. Ishtar is styled in the in-
statue of Merodach at Babylon was a figure .scriptions, "the Goddess who rejoices man-
"standing and walking," and such a form kind," and her most common epithet is
frequently appears upon the Babj-lonian A.surah, "the Fortunate," or "the Happy."
cylinders. Merodach's wife, Zir-Banit, had She is also called the Mistress of heaven
'
'
a temple at Babylon, attached to her hus- and earth," "the Great Goddess," "the
band's, and is believed to have been the Queen of all the gods; " and also "the God-
goddess whose worship was introduced into dess of war and battle, " " the Queen of vic-
Samaria \>y the Babj-lonian colonists, and tor}-," "She who arranges battles," and
who is called Succoth-benoth in the Old '
She who defends from attacks.

' In the '
'
Testament. inscriptions of one monarch she is repre-

Nergal, the War-god, was the representa- sented as "the Goddess of the chase." Her
tive of the planet Mars, and his name, which worship was general, and her shrines were
is Hamitic, signifies "the Great Man" or the Queen
'
numerous. She is often styled '
of Babylon," and must have had a temple

' '
the Great Hero.

' In the Assyrian ac-
'
count of the Deluge, Nergal is alluded to in that city. She likewise had temples at
as the destroyer; but he was chiefly cele- Asshur, Arbela and Nineveh. Her symbol,
brated for his power over the chase and as represented on the cylinders, is the naked
the battle-field, thus partaking of the charac- female form.
ter and attributes of Bel-Nimrod, with which Ishtar, in her journey to the under-world,
deity he is compared in the adoration symbolized the disappearance in winter of
bestowed upon him as the ancestor of the Life in nature as ushered in at spring.
the Assyrian monarchs. He was called Ishtar is represented as going down to the
"the King of battles," "the Champion of House of Lskalla. Mr. Fox Talbot, the Eng-
the gods," " the Storm ruler, " "the Strong lish Orientalist, gives the following transla-
Begetter,
'
'the Tutelary God of Babylonia,
'
'
'
tion of the descent of Ishtar to Hades, or
and "the God of the cha.se." He is usually the House of lskalla:
coupled with Nin, who also presides over
'
' To the land of Hades, the land of her
battles and hunting. The chief seats of desire, daughter of the Moon-god
Ishtar,
Nergal' s worship were the ancient cities of Sin, The daughter of
turned her mind.
Cutha and Tarbissa. Cutha was the sacred Sin fixed her mind to go to the House where
city where he was said to "live," and in all meet, the dwelling of the god lskalla, to
which was his famous shrine. The "men the house which men enter, but cannot de-
of Cuth," when transported as colonists to —
part from the road which men travel, but
Samaria by the Assyrians, naturally "made never retrace — the abode of darkness and of
Nergal their god, introducing his worship
'
' famine, where earth is their food, their
'
I30 ANCIENT HISTORY. — CHALDyEA.

—
nourishment clay where Hght is not seen, the precious stones were taken from her
but in darkness they dwell where ghosts, — head. '
Keeper, do not take off from me
like birds, flutter their wings, and on the the gems that adorn my
Excuse it, head. '
'
door and the door-posts the dust lies undis- lady, the Queen of the Land insists upon
turbed. their removal.' The fourth gate let her in,
"When Ishtar arrived at the gate of but .she was stopped, and there the small
Hades, to the keeper of the gate a word she jewels were taken from her brow. '
Keeper,
spake: 'O keeper of the entrance, open thy do not take off" from me the small jewels
gate! Open thy gate, I say again, that I that deck my brow.' 'Excuse it, lady, the
may enter in! If thou openest not thj-gate, Queen of the Land insists upon their re-
if I do not enter in, I will assault the door, moval.' The fifth gate let her in, but she
the gate I will break down, I will attack the was stopped, and there the girdle was taken
entrance, I will split open the portals. I from her waist. '
Keeper, do not take off
will raise the dead, to be the devourers of from me the girdle that girds my waist.'
the living! Upon the living the dead shall 'Excuse it, lady, the Queen of the Land
prey.' Then the porter opened his mouth t
insists upon its removal.' The sixth gate
and spake, and thus he said to great Ishtar: let her in, but she was stopped, and there
'Stay, lady, do not shake down the door; I the gold rings were taken from her hands
will go and inform Queen Nin-ki-gal.' So and feet. '
Keeper, do not take off" from me
the porter went in and to Nin-ki-gal said: the gold rings of my hands and feet. '
'
Ex-
'These curses thy .sister Ishtar utters; yea, cu.se it, lady, the Queen of the Land insists
she blasphemes thee with fearful curses.' upon their removal.' The seventh gate let
And Nin-ki-gal, hearing the words, grew her but she was stopped, and there the
in,
pale, like a flower when cut from the step; last garment was taken from her body.
like the stalk of a reed, she shook. And 'Keeper,' do not take off, I pra}', the last
she said, '
I will cure her rage — I will garment from my body.' 'Excuse it, lady,
speedily cure her fury. Her curses I will the Queen of the Land insists upon its re-
repa}-. Light up consuming flames! Light moval.'
Be her doom with the
'
up a blaze of straw! ' After that Mother Ishtar had descended

husbands who left their wives; be her doom into Hades, Nin-ki-gal saw and derided her
with the wives who forsook their lords; be to her face. Then Ishtar lost her reason,
her doom with the youths of dishonored and heaped curses upon the other. Nin-ki-
lives. Go, porter, and open the gate for gal hereupon opened her mouth, and spake:
her; but strip her, as some have been '
Go, Namtar, * * * and bring her out for
stripped ere now.' The porter went and punishment, =*= * * afflict her with disease
opened the gate. '
Lady of Tiggaba, enter,' of the ej'e, the side, the feet, the heart, the
he .said: 'Enter. It is pennitted. The head' (some lines effaced). * * *
Queen of Hadesmeet thee comes.' So
to
'
' The Divine messenger of the gods lac-

the first gate let her in, but she was stopped, erated his face before them. The assembly
and there the great crown was taken from of the gods was full. * * * The Sun came,
her head. Keeper, do not take off" from
'
along with the Moon, his father, and weep-
me the crown that is on my head.' Excu.se '
ing he spake thus unto Hea, the king:
it, lady, the Queen of the Land insi.sts upon 'Ishtar has de.scended into the earth, and
its removal.' The next gate let her in, but has not risen again; and ever since the time
she was stopped, and there the ear-rings that Mother Ishtar descended into hell, *
were taken from her ears. Keeper, do not '
* * * tijg master has ceased from com-
take off" from me the ear-rings from my ears. manding; the slave has ceased from obey-
'
Excu.se it, lady, the Queen of the Land in- ing.' Then the god Hea in the depth of
.si.sts upon their removal.' The third gate his mind formed a design; he modeled, for
let her in, but she was stopped, and there her escape, the figure of a man of clay.
' " '
COSMOCrONV AND RliLKilON.
Go to save her, Plmiitom, present thj'self The god Nebo represented the planet
at the portal of Hades; the seven gates of Mercury, and was the last of the five plane-
Hades will all open before thee; Nin-ki- tary deities. Nebo was the god of wisdom
gal will see thee, and take pleasure because and intelligence, the patron and protecflor
of thee. When her mind has grown calm, of knowledge and learning, and the teacher
and her anger has worn itself away, awe of mankind. His attributes were the .same
her with the names of the great gods! as those of the Greek Hermes. He was
Then Fix on deceitful
prepare thy frauds! styled
'
' the God who possesses intelligence,

tricks thy mind! Use the chiefest of thy
'
' He who hears from afar, " " He who

Bring forth fish out of an empty teaches, " or " He who teaches and '
tricks! instrucfls.
vessel! That will astonish Nin-ki-gal, and He thus somewhat resembled Hoa, whose
to Ishtar she will restore her clothing. The son he is called in .some in.scriptions. Like
reward —a great reward — for these things Hoa, he had for his emblem the simple
shall not fail. Go, Phantom, save her, and wedge or arrow-head, the primarj' element
the great assembly of the people shall in the cuneiform writing, to signify his as-
crown thee! Meats, the best in the citj% sociation with that god in the patronage of
.shall be thy food! Wine, the most delicious letters. Nebo's other titles were "the Lord
in the city, .shall be thy drink! A royal of lords, who has no equal in power, " "the
palace shall be thy dwelling, a throne of Supreme Chief, " "the Sustainer, " "the Sup-
Magician and con-
state shall be thy seat! porter, " " the Ever- ready, " "the Guardian
juror shall kiss the hem
of thy garment!' over the heavens and the earth," "the Lord
"Nin-ki-gal opened her mouth and spake; of the constellations," "the Holder of the
to her messenger, Namtar, commands she sceptre of power," "He who grants to kings
gave: Go, Namtar, the Temple of Justice
'
the sceptre of royalty for the government
adorn! Deck the images!
Deck the altars! of their people." Sometimes he is cla.ssed
Bring out Anunnak, and him take his let with the inferior deities.His worship was
seat on a throne of gold! Pour out for Ishtar more general in Chaldaea than in Assyria.
the water of life; from my realms let her In the later ages Borsippa was the chief seat
depart.' Namtar obeyed; he adorned the of Nebo's worship, and there the great tem-
Temple; decked the images, decked the al- ple, called Birs-i-Nimrud, was consecrated to
tars; brought out Anunnak, and let him him. The ruins of one of his shrines are
take his seat on a throne of gold; poured found on the site of the ancient Assyrian
out for Ishtar the water of life, and suffered city of Calah, (now Nimrud), whence im-
her to depart. Then the first gate let her posing statues of this god have been trans-
out, and gave her back the garment of her ferred to the British Museum. He was a
form. The next gate let her out, and gave favorite deity of the later Babylonian kings,
her back the jewels for her hands and feet. many of whom were named after him, such
The third gate let her out, and gave her as Nabonassar, Nabopolassar, Nebuchad-
back the girdle for her waist. The fourth nezzar and Nobanadius. Nebo's wife was
gate let her out, and gave her back the Varamit, or Urmit, a name signifying "ex-
small gems she had worn upon her brow. alted," who was only a companion of her
The fifth gate let her out, aud gave her back husband and had no special attributes. Be-
the precious stones that had been upon her sides the deities described, the Chaldaean
head. The sixth gate let her out, and gave Pantheon embraced a multitude of inferior
her back the ear-rings that were taken from whom but verj- little is known.
divinities, of
her ears. And the seventh gate let her out, It is thus seen that the Chaldaean religion
and gave her back the crown she had car- was, from the mo.st remote antiquity, an
ried on her head.
'
astronomical worship. The twelve constel-
Ishtar's return to earth .symbolized the were the sun's "twelve
lations of the Zodiac
reappearance of spring. hou.ses," and his proper abode was in the
132 ANCIENT HIS TOR Y.—CHALDyÂ.
constellation of Leo. The planets likewise mythical and semi-scientific learning which
traversed twelve stages in their course, and became diffused throughout the whole West
each sign or
'
' house
'
' passed lay any one of of Asia. The performed the task of
priests
these celestial bodies was regarded as a seat watching the courses, positions and phases
of divine power, w'hile the planets them- of the celestial orbs and luminaries, and
selves were considered gods. Thirty of the estimating and calculating the influence of
fixed stars were associated with the planets this ever-varjing aspedl upon the destinies
as "counseling gods;" and twelve others in of men and The seer and the
nations.
the northern heavens, and twelve in the prophet endeavored to show how the good
southern firmament, were designated the
'
' and evil fortune of the state was blended

judges." The twelve "judges" above the with conjuncftions and oppositions in the
horizon controlled the destines of the living, starry firmament. Thus astrology became
while the twelve below were masters of the mingled with astronomy. In the Book of
fate of the Each of the twelve
dead. Daniel the Chaldaeans are mentioned as in-
months of the year was assigned to one of terpreters of stars and signs. The following
the twelve great gods, beginning with Ana. inscription has been deciphered from a tab-
The seven days of the week were controlled let found at Nineveh: " If Jupiter is seen in
by the seven great heavenly bodies — the sun, the month of Tammuz, there will be corpses.
the moon, and the five planets then known. If Venus comes opposite the star of the fish,
The hours were assigned to certain stars. there will be devastation. If the star of the
Thus in the earliest twilight of Oriental great lion is gloomy, the heart of the people
history, more than four thousand years ago, will not rejoice. If the moon is seen on the
the Wise Men of ancient Chaldsea — priests, first da}' of the month, Accad will pro.sper."
bards, sages and prophets —by their observa- From that ancient period to the present there
tions of the heavens and their explorations has prevailed among the superstitious, in
of the paths of the celestial luminaries, be- all ages and nations, a belief that stars and
came the great pioneers of astronomical astrological signs bear some relation to the
science, and the founders of that semi- fate of men and nations.
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30 35 40
CHAPTER III.
THE ASSYRIAN EMPIRE.

SECTION I.— CxEOGRAPHY OF ASSYRIA.
^SSYRIA, as we have seen, em- jackal, the ibex, the gazelle, the jerboa, the
braced the portion of the Ti- bear, the deer, the wolf, the stag, the buffalo,
gris - Euphrates valley north the beaver, the fox, the hare, the badger,
of Chaldoea, or Babylonia — the the porcupine, the wild cat, the wild boar,
region now known as Kurdis- the wild sheep and the wild ass. The riv-
tan. The soil was not so fertile
of Assyria ers abounded with fish, and the marshy
as that of Chaldaea, but was generally pro- thickets with wild fowl. The domestic ani-
dudtive; and careful cultivation and irriga- mals were the camel, the horse, the ass, the
tion brought luxuriant yields of various mule, the ox, the cow, the sheep, the goat
grains and vegetables; while such fruits as and the dog.
the citron, the orange, the lemon, the date- The true heart of Assj'ria was the coun-
palm, the pomegranate, the olive, the vine, try close along the Tigris between latitude
the fig and the apricot flourished in profu- tliirt3"-five degrees and thirty-six degrees
sion,and the mulberry gave nourishment to and minutes north. Within these
thirtj'
an unusually large silk-worm found no- limits were the four great cities marked by
where else; but ever since the fall of the the mounds of Khorsabad, Mosul, Nimrud
Assyrian Empire the country has been ex- and Kileh-Sherghat, besides a multitude of
posed to the ravages of plundering nomad cities of minor importance. Three of the
hordes and to the devastations of hostile four great capitals of the Assyrian Empire
armies, so that this region is now almost a were located on the east bank of the river;
wilderness. but the early capital, Asshur, now called
Unlike Chalda;a, which, as we have ob- Kileh-Sherghat, was on the west bank. The
senêd, produced no stone or minerals of anj^ Assyrian ruins strew the countrj- between
kind, Assyria was supplied with an abund- the Tigris and the Khabour. Mounds ex-
ance of stone, iron, copper, lead, silver, an- ist along the Khabour' s great western afflu-
timony and other metals; while bitumen, ent, and even near Seruj, in the country
naphtha, petroleum, sulphur, alum and salt between Harran and the Euphrates. But
were also yielded in sufficient quantities. the remains on the east side of the Ti-
Assyria has a varied climate, but on the gris are more extensive and more import-
whole the summers are cooler and the win- ant. Nebbi-Yunus, Koyunjik and Nim-
ters more severe than in Chaldrea, because —
rud which have furnished by far the most
of mountain breezes from the Zagros and valuable and interesting of the Assyrian
from Armenia; while there is also more —
monuments are all situated on the east
moisture, and in portions of the country side of the Tigris, while the only places on
heavy rains, snows and dews fall during the the west side which have yielded striking
winter and spring. relics are Arban and Kileh-Sherghat.
The wild animals of Assyria were the In Assyria, as in Chaldaea, four cities were
lion, the leopard, the lynx, the hyena, the in early times preeminent. The Book of
1-9.-U. H. -
^ 37)
; .
138 ANCIENT HIS TOR Y.—ASS lUA )
Genesis iu speaking of the Assyrian emi- Sargon, one of the most celebrated of
gration from Chaldsea, or the Land of Shi- Assyrian monarchs. The.se ruins were
nar, says: "Out of that land went forth brought to light in recent ^-ears by the ex-
Asshur, and builded Nineveh, and the city cavations of that enterprising French ex-
Rehoboth, and Calah and Resen." In the plorer,M. Botta. The present town of
flourishing period of the Assyrian Empire Nimrud, on the east side of the Tigris, about
—
we find four cities Nineveh (or Ninua), twenty miles south of the ruins of Nineveh
Calah, Asshur and Dur-Sargina, ( or City ot in a diredt line, and about thirty miles by
Sargon ) — all of which were cities of the first the course of the Tigris, occupies the site of
rank. Besides these four capitals, there the ancient Calah, the second great Assyrian
were a vast number of minor cities and capital cit}', whose ruins, among which are
towns, so numerous that the whole country those of several royal palaces, cover an area
is strewn with their ruins. Among these of nearly one thousand English acres, which
minor places were Tarbisa, Arbil or Arbela), { is little over half the area of the ruins of
Arapkha and Khazeli, in the region between Nineveh. Forty miles south of Nimrud, at
the Tigris and the Zagros mountains, the Kileh-Sherghat, on the west bank of the
ancient Assj'ria proper and the modern Tigris, are the remains of the ancient city of
Kurdistan; and Harran, Tel-Apni, Razappa vAsshur, the third great city and the early
(or Rezeph) and Amida in the North-west Asssjrian capital, who.se ruins, marked by
Nazibina, (or Nisibis) on the eastern branch long lines of low mounds, are scarcely less
of the Khabour; Sirki (or Circesium), at the in extent than those of Calah.
confluence of the Khabour with the Eu- Four miles north-west from Khorsabad
phrates; Anat on the Euphrates, a little be- are the ruins of Tarbisa, among which are
low the junction Tahiti, Margarisi, Sidi-
; those of a royal palace and several temples.
kan, Katni, Beth-Khalupi, and others be- About twenty miles south-east of Khorsabad
tween the lower course of the Khabour and is the ruin of Keremles. About halfway
the Tigris. between the ruins of Nineveh and Nimrud,
On the east bank of the Tigris, opposite or Calah, is Selamiyah, supposed by .some to
the present town of Mosul, are the ruins of be the Resen of vScripture. About forty
the once-mighty city of Nineveh, the cele- miles east of Nimrud was the famous citj'
brated and magnificent capital of the Assyr- of Arabil, or Arbil, called Arbela by the
ianEmpire when that monarchy was iu the Greeks, and still retaining its ancient desig-
its greatness and splendor.
zenith of The nation. Besides these principal towns of
name Nineveh is read on the bricks, and Assyria proper, the inscriptions mention a
a uniform tradition from the time of the large number of cities whose .site is not
Arab conquest gives the mound this title. known.
These are the most exten.sive ruins of Considering the wonderful discoveries
Assyria. As the city will be described in a made in this field of ancient Oriental histors^
sub.secjuent part of this book, we will not within the last half century by the patience
enter into any minute description of the and diligence of .such renowned explorers as
place in this connection. At the present Layard and Botta, the day may not be far
town of Khorsabad, on the east bank of the distant when other ruins ma}- be identified
Tigris, about nine miles north of Nineveh, with undiscovered places recorded in ancient
are the ruins of I)ur-vSargina (City of Sar- writings. Let us hope that the zeal of some
gon), chief of which are those of the mag- future explorer may further add to our stock
nificent palace erected there by the famous of knowledge of the ancient Oriental world.
—
sofA'C/'s OF .issy-Av.ix ///sroA'y. '39
SECTION II.— SOURCES OF ASSYRIAN HISTORY.

UR sources of Assyrian historj- lus, Nicolas of Damascus, Trogus I^jmpeius,
are tlie Greek historians, He- Agathias, Syncellus, Velleius Paterculus,
mdotus and Ctesias, and the Josephus, lui.sebius, and Moses of Chorcne,
Assyrian inonuiiK-ntal inscrip- among the ancients, and by Freret, Rollin
tions. Little reliance can be and Clinton, among the moderns. He-
placed upon exact dates relating to the an- rodotus has been sustained by such mf)dern
nals of most of the very ancient nations. writers as Volnej-, Heeren, B. G. Niebuhr,
With ^\ssyrian chronologj-, however, we Brandis, the two Rawlin.sons and many
can depend upon the accuracy of the two others. The English historians and Orient-
trustworthy documents already alluded to alists consider the Assyrian Empire as hav-
the Canon of Ptolemy, a Babylonian record ing ended in 625 B. C, while the French
having important bearing upon Assyrian regard the \ear 606 B. C. as the date of that
dates,and the Assyrian Canon, discovered event.
and edited by Sir Henry Rawlinson in 1862, Herodotus wrote within two centuries
and which gives the succession of the Ass^-r- after the fall of the Assyrian Empire, and
ian kings for 251 years, beginning with the about thirty years before Ctesias. He had
year 911 B. C. and ending 660 B. C. These traveled extensively in the East, as well as
two documents not only harmonize remark- in Eg3"pt, and had availed himself of all the
ably with each other, but they agree admir- accessible sources of information, consulting
ably with statements of Berosus and Hero- the Chaldseans of Babylon and others. He
dotus. According to Berosus, Assyria be- was thoroughly honest and conscientious,
came independent of Chaldsea about 1300 and implicit reliance can be placed in the
B. C, and according to Herodotus half a accuracy of his statements. He had espe-
century later, about the jêar 1250 B. C. cially endeavored to inform himself fully
From these sources, and from the inscrip- and correcth- regarding A.ssyria, of which
tions on Assyrian tablets, bricks and sculp- country he designed writing an elaborate
tures, we are able to fix the dates of As.sj'r- work entirely distinct from his general his-
ian events with tolerable accuracy. tor\-.
With respedl to the duration and antiquity Ctesias also visited the East, .spending"
of the Assyrian monarchy, the two original seventeen years at the court of the Persian
authorities are the Greek historians alluded king. Being the court-phjsician to Arta-
to at thebeginning of the preceding para- xerxes Mnemon, he may have had access to
graph, and between these two the judgment the archives in the pos.session of the Persian
of the learned has since been divided. Cte- monarchs. He was a man of such temper
-sias maintained that the Assyrian mon- and spirit as to be di.sposed to differ with
archy had an existence of 1306 or 1360 others. He flath' called Herodotus "a
years, had almost as remote
and that it liar," and was therefore resolved to differ
an antiquity as had the city of Baby- with him. He continually differs with
lon while Herodotus as.serted that the
: Thucydides wherever the>- handle the same
Assyrian Empire had a duration of le,ss .subject. He
peqietuallj- di.sagrees with
than seven centuries, beginning about the Ptolemy on Babylonian chronology, and
j-ear B. C. 1250, when a flouri.shing Empire with Manetho on Egyptian dates. He is also
had alreadj- existed in Chaldaea for more constantly at variance with the cuneifonu
than a thousand years from the time of inscriptions, which generally confirm the
Nimrod. Ctesias was followed by such statements of Herodotus. His Oriental his-
writers as Cephalion, Castor, Diodorus Sicu- torj- likewise contradicts the Old Testament.
' '
140 ANCIENT HISTOR Y.— ASSYRIA.

as he places the destrudlion of Nineveh and thirty years longer, to the close of the
at 875 B. C, long before the time of Jonah. seventh century before the Christian era,
The judgment of Aristotle, of Plutarch, of when the Medes took and destroyed Nineveh
Arrian, among the ancients, and of Niebuhr, (B. C. 603). These dates, though nearer
Bunscn and other modern historians and the truth than those of Ctesias, are not abso-
Orientalists, is all on the side of Herodotus, lutely accepted by modern historians and
whose chronology is to be preferred, on Orientalists.
every account, to that of Ctesias. The chronology of Berosus coincides more
Herodotus assigns the year B. C. 1250 as nearly with that of Herodotus than with
the beginning of the Assj'rian Empire, that of Ctesias. As his sixth Chaldaean, or
which, according to his account, lasted six Babjdonian djaiasty, which was Assyrian in
and a half centuries. During the first five race, began to reign about 1300 B. C, and
hundred and twent}^ j'ears of this period, as the Assj-rian monarchy became inde-
from B. C. 1250, to B. C. 730, the Assyrians pendent when this dynasty was founded, it
maintained their supremacy over Western follows that the foundation of the Assyrian
Asia, after which the Medes revolted and Empire dates from that year. As Berosus
formed an independent kingdom east of the also placed the fall of the AssyrianEmpire
Zagros mountains. The Assyrian mon- at 625 B. C, that empire must have existed
arch\-, thus reduced, lasted one hundred six hundred and .seventy-five years.

IE history of Assyria is divided dudlive region where nature so readily sup-
into three periods — the period plied everj'thing requisite for the support of
of its subjection to Chaldcea, man, with .so little exertion on his part — it
from the time of the settlement was there that the Assyrians had grown
of the Ass}'rians in the Tigris from a family into a tribe or nation, and had
valley and Upper Me.sopotamia to B. C. developed a religion and learned the most
1300; the Old Assyrian Empire (B. C. 1300- essential of the arts. The style and char-
745); and the New or Lower Assyrian Em- adter of the Assyrian archite(5lure indicates
pire (B. C. 745-625). that it originated in the low flat alluvium
The origin of the Assyrians is shrouded where brick and bitumen were the only
in obscurity, although it is known that the}' building materials. The cuneiform writing
were a Semitic tribe originally dwelling in of the As.syrians also shows its Chaldtean
Chaldaea, the Scriptural Shinar, and that origin; while their religion was verj^ nearly
they migrated to the middle Tigris ^•alley identical with that of their southern neigh-
during the general movement of Semitic and bors, the onh' essential point of difference
being that the chief Assyrian god, Asshur,
' '
Hamitic tribes from the land of Shinar, '
some time after Nimrod's death. Says the was unknown in Chaldaea. The monu-
Mosaic account: "Out of that land went mental and tablet inscriptions thus verify
forth Asshur and builded Nineveh, and the the statements of the Pentateuch, in repre-
city Rehoboth, and Calah, and Re.sen be- senting the Assyrians as originally dwelling
tween Nineveh and Calah; the same is a in Chaldaea, and at an early period migra-
ting northward to the middle Tigris region.
'
great city.
Itwas before their settlement along the It is not known whether the Semitic and
middle Tigris, and while they yet dwelt in Hamitic migrations from Chaldaea, their
the flat alluvial plain in the southern portion mother country, were voluntar>' removals on
of the Tigris-Euphrates valley — that pro- the part of the migrating tribes themselves,
POLITICAL Ills '/ V )R )
-.
141
or conipulsor)- colonizations inaugurated affairs of Chaldaea, deposing a usurper and

and carried out by the Clialdnean nionarclis. restoring the rightful claimant, his own rela-
One body led by Terah, Abraham's father, tive, to the throne. Intermarriages occurred
reni()\-ed from Ur to Harran: another from between the royal families of Assyria and
the shores of the Persian Gulf to Syria, Chakkea at this early period; and Asshur-
Canaan and Phoenicia; and a third, the upallit, the last of these three Assyrian
Assyrian branch, larger than either of the kings, had given a daughter in marriage to
other two, ascended the Tigris valley, occu- the Chaldaean king, Purna-puriyas. On the
pied Adiabene, with the neighboring dis- death of the latter, his son, Kara-khar-das,
tridls, gave its own tribal name of Asshur to became king of Chakkea, but lost his life
its chief city and territory, and was known in attempting to jjut down a rebellion of
to adjacent peoples first as a separate tribe, his own subjects, and was succeeded by a
and afterwards as an independent and pow- usurper, Nazi-bugas. Thereupon A,s,shur-
erful nation. The date of their settlement in upallit marched an army into Chaldaea,
Assyria is uncertain, but it must have oc- defeated and killed the u.surper, and placed
curred before the reigns of the Chaldsean Kurri-galzu, another sou of Purna-puriyas,
kings, Purna-puriyas and Kurri-galzu, in on the Chaldaean throne.
the fifteenth century before the Christian The tablet just referred to shows the
era. A temple to Anu and Vul was erecled power and influence of Assyria at this early
on the site of Asshur, as early as the nine- day as fully equal to that of her more ancient
teenth century^ before Christ, by Shamas- southern neighbor. After the events just
Vul, the son and viceroy of the Chaldaean narrated Assyrian history is a blank for
king, Ismi-Dagon. sixty years, only the names of the kings
The Assyrians were likelj- at first gov- being known to us. The bricks of Kileh-
erned in their new country by viceroys under Sherghat show us that Asshur-upallit was
the Chaldsean sovereigns. Bricks of a Baby- succeeded as king by his son, Bel-LI'SH, or
lonian description have been discovered at Bellikhus, who was followed in succession
Kileh-Sherghat, the site of the ancient by his son Pudil, his grandson Vul-lush
Asshur, the early Assyrian capital, which I., and his great-grandson ShalmanESER I.
are belie\êd to be older than any distincflly All that is known of Bel-lush, Pudil and
Assyrian remains, and which were in all Vul-lush I. is that they eredled or repaired
probability stamped by these viceroys. Very important edifices at A.sshur (now Kileh-
soon, however, the Assyrians liberated them- Sherghat), which remained the capital of
selves from the Chaldaean yoke and founded Assyria for several centuries later. This
an independent kingdom of their own in place, located on the west bank of the Ti-
their new abode, while the old Chaldaean gris, was not favorably situated, the most
Empire continued to flourish in the alluvial fertile region of Assyria being on the east
plain at the head of the Persian Gulf. The bank; but Calah and Nineveh were not yet
co-existence of the.se two kingdoms side by built.
side is attested by a mutilated tablet of much Shalmaneser I., who reigned from B. C.
later date, containing a .synchronistic record 1320 to B. C. 1300, is chiefly distinguished
of Assyrian and Chaldaean annals from a as the founder of Calah (now Nimrud), the
very remote antiquity. This tablet gives which the Assyr-
.second of those great cities
us the names of three of the most ancient ian kings delighted to embellish with mag-
Assyrian monarchs —
Asshur-bil-nisi-su, nificent edifices, and which in the cour.se of
BuzuR-AssHUR and Asshur-upallit the — .several centuries succeeded Asshur as the
first two of whom are recorded as having capital. Calah was advantageously situated
concluded treaties of peace with contempo- on the east bank of the Tigris, forty miles
rar>' Chaldsean, or Babylonian .sovereigns, north of A.sshur, in a region of exceeding
while the third interfered in the domestic fertility and great natural strength, being
142 ANCIENT HISTORY ASSYRIA.
protected on one side by the Tigris and on shaken off, and Babylonian kings with
the other by the Shor-Derreh torrent, while Semitic names, and perhaps of Assyrian de-
itwas defended on the south hy the Greater scent, were engaged in wars with the As-
Zab and on the north-east by the Khazr, or syrian monarchs. The Babylonian king-
Ghazr-Su. The inscriptions of Asshur-izir- dom was not permanently subjected to the
pal show us that Shalmaneser I. undertook Assyrian dominion until the time of Sargon,
expeditions against the tribes on the upper in the latter part of the eighth century be-
Tigris,and founded cities in that region, and even under the dynasty of the
fore Christ,
which he colonized with settlers brought Sargonida; the Babylonians were constantly
from other distant quarters. Shalmaneser's and were only reconciled to As-
in revolt,
extension of the Assyrian dominion to the syrian rulewhen Esar-haddon united the
northward ranks him as the first known As- two crowns and reigned alternately at Baby-
syrian conqueror. With the death of vShal- lon and Nine\'eh. Nevertheless, from the
maneser I. in B. C. 1300 ends the first period time of Tiglathi-Nin's conquest Assyria
—
of Assyrian historj" the period of its sub- was recognized as the ruling power in the
je(5lion to Chaldcea. Tigris-Euphrates valley, as is fully .shown
Shalmaneser I. was succeeded on the As- by its conquest of, and its imposition of a
syrian throne by his .son Tiglathi-Nin I., dynasty upon, the southern kingdom. Its
the founder of theOld Assyrian Empire, influence was therefore felt, even while its
which embraces the second period of As- yoke was rejected; and from the time of
.syrian historj' ( B. C. 1300-B. C. 745). Tiglathi-Nin's conquest, throughout the
The date of this monarch is seen to syn- whole period of Ass^'rian ascendenc}' in the
chronize with the time given by Berosus as Tigris-Euphrates valley, the process of
the beginning of the .sixth Chaldsean, or Semitizing the Chaldseans went on the ;
Babylonian dynasty, and b}- Herodotus to names of the Babylonian kings during all
the founding of the Assyrian Empire. The this time being Semitic, whether those kings
inscriptionsmention Tiglathi-Nin as trans- recognized the domination of Assj-ria or
ferring to Assj'ria the supremacy hitherto were at war with that power.
claimed and exercised by Chaldsea, or Tiglathi-Nin I., who was the eighth and
Babylonia, in consequence of a successful last Assyrian king of the line founded by
war with the latter kingdom, which circum- A.sshur-bil-nisi-su, died about B. C. 1280.
stance induced him to in.scribe upon his sig- After an inter\'al of half a century there fol-
net-seal this title: "Tiglathi-Nin, King of lowed another series of eight kings, known
A.ssyria, son of Shalmaneser, King of As- to us chiefly through the celebrated Tiglath-
and conqueror of Kar-Dunyas. Who-
.syria, Pileser cj-linder, which gives us the succes-
my device or name, maj' Asshur
ever injures sion of five of them, but completed from the
and Vul destroy his name and country." united testimony of .several other documents,
This signet-seal, recovered six centuries the most important of which are the Baby-
later at Babylon by Sennacherib, shows that lonian and Assyrian synchronistic tablet
Tiglathi-Nin I. reigned personally for some and the mutilated statue of the goddess Ish-
time in that city, where he afterwards estab- tar now in the British Museum, which bears
lished an Assyrian dynast)- of dependent an inscription giving the names and di-
kings — probably a branch of his own family. re6t genealogical succession of the last three
On a genealogical tablet he is called "King of these monarchs. The combined reign.s
of Sumir and Accad, a title not bestowed

'
' of these eight sovereigns embraced about
on any of the other kings. one hundred and sixty years, from about
ChakUea, or Babylonia, was not, however, B. C. 1230 to B. C. 1070.
from this time permanently subjedl to As- Bel-kudur-uzur, the first king of this
syria. Nearl\- a century after Tiglathi- .second .series, is only known on account of
Nin'.''. conquest the .\ssyrian supremac}' was his unsuccessful war with the contemporary
iHî.rric.ii. ///S7()h')'. 143
king of Bal)\li)n. Tlu- Scinilic line of kings that he warred with Nebuchadnezzar I., or
established at Babj-loii l)y the Assyrians Nabu-kudur-uzur, of Babylon, who began
were dissatisfied with their state of vassal- the struggle by in\-ading A.ssyria by way of
age; and during Bel-kudur-uzur's reign in the Zagros mountains, but was repulsed by
Assyria, Vul-baladan, the Babylonian vassal As.shur-ris-ilim in person in this mountain
ruler, attempted to throw ofiFthe yoke of his region, and driven back. Nebuchadnezzar
Assyrian suzerain, and the war which fol- invaded Assyria a .second time, directly from
lowed ended in the defeat and death of Bel- the south, but was defeated by Asshur-ris-
kudur-uzur in a great battle about B. C. ilim's general, and driven back, leaving to
1210. the victorious Assyrians fortj- chariots and
NiN-PALA-ziRA was the second Assyrian a baiuier.

monarch of this second series. It is not Tiglath-Pileser I., the son and succes-
certain whether he was related to his prede- sor of Asshur-ris-ilim, who died about B.
cessor, but he avenged his death. The in- C. 1130, was the first Assyrian king of
scriptions call him "the king who organized who.se histor)^ we possess elaborate details.
the country of Assyria, and established the The discover}' of his inscription on two du-
troops of AssA'ria in authority." Sooii after plicate c}dinders, now in the British Mu-
he ascended the throne, Vul-baladan of seum, and which was by
tran.slated in 1857
Babylon, encouraged by his triumph over SirHenry Rawliuson, Mr. Fox Talbot, Dr.
Bel-kudur-uzur, invaded Assyria and at- Hincks and M. Oppert, has given us the
tacked Asshur, its capital, but was com- record of events during the first five }-ears
pletel}- defeated in a battle under the walls of his reign.
of the cit\- and fled into his own dominions, The Tiglath-Pileser inscription begins by
leaving Assyria in peace during the re- naming and glorifying the "gjeat gods"
mainder of Nin-pala-zira's reign. who "rule over heaven and earth," and who
AsSHUR-DAYAN I., the third king of the are "the guardians of the kingdom of Ti-
second series, enjoyed a long and prosperous glath-Pileser." These deities are "A.sshur,
reign, according to the inscription of Tig- the great Lord, ruling supreme over the
lath-Pileser I. He made a successful raid gods; Bel the lord, father of the gods, lord
into Babylonia and returned to Assyria with of the world; Sin, the leader, the lord of
valuable spoils. He also tore down the de- empire; Shamas, the establisher of heaven
lapidated temple eredled by Shamus-Vul, and earth; Vul, he who causes the tempest
the son of Ismi-Dagon, at Asshur; and the to rage over hostile lands; Nin, the cham-
structure was not rebuilt until sixty years pion who subdues evil spirits and enemies;
later. and Ishtar, the source of the gods, the queen
Mutaggil-Nebo, the son and succes.sor of victorj', she who arranges battles. These
'
'
of Asshur-dayan I., reigned from about B. gods, it is said in this inscription, have
C. 1 170 to B. C. 1 150. The Tiglath-Pileser placed Tiglath-Pileser upon his throne, have
in-scription informs us that "Asshur, the "made him firm, have confided to him the
great Lord, aided him according to the supreme crown, have appointed him in
wishes of his heart, and established him in might to the sovereignt}^ of the people of
strength in the government of Assyria." Bel, and have granted him preeminence, ex-
AssHUR-Ris-iLiM, the son and successor altation and warlike power; and are in-
'
'
of Mutaggil-Nebo, reigned between about voked to make the "duration of his empire
B. C. 1 150 and B. C. 1130; and the inscrip- continue forever to his royal posterity, last-
tion of his son, Tiglath-Pileser I., calls him ing as the great temple of Kharris-Matira."
"the powerful king, the subduer of rebel- Then follows a self-glorification of the
he who has reduced all the
lious countries, king with an enumeration of his titles,
accursed." The synchronistic tablet of Ba- thus: "Tiglath-Pileser, the powerful king,
bylonian and Assyrian history informs us king of the people of various tongues; king
' ;
144 ANCIENT HISTORY.— ASSYRIA.

of the four regions; king of all kings; lord heaps, like moimds of earth. Their mova-
of lords; the supreme; monarch of nionarchs bles, their wealth, and their valuables 1
the illustrions chief, who, imder the aus- plundered to a countless amount. Six thou-
pices of the Sun-god, being armed with the sand of their common soldiers, who fled be-
scepter and girt with the girdle of power fore my servants, and accepted my yoke, I
over mankind, rules over all the people of took and gave over to the men of my own
Bel; the mighty prince, whose praise is territory' as slaves."
blazoned forth among the kings; the ex- The Moschians still refusing to pay trib-
alted sovereign,whose servants Assliur has ute, Tiglath-Pileser condudted a second
appointed to the government of the four campaign in their country and again sub-
regions, and whose name he has made cele- dued them, completely overrunning Comma-
brated to posterity; the conqueror of many gene, which was annexed to the Assyrian
plains and mountains of the Upper and Empire. He also attacked the neighboring
Lower country; the victorious hero, the tribes in their fastnesses, burned their cities
terror of whose name has overwhelmed all and ravaged their territories. He likewise
regions; the bright constellation who, as he invaded the countrj^ of the Khatti (Hittites),
wished, has warred against foreign coun- because two of their tribes had committed
tries, and under the auspices of Bel there — an aggression on Assyrian territory, and
being no equal to him has subdued the — completely chastising them, carried away
one hundred and twenty chariots and much
'
enemies of Asshur.
Tiglath-Pileser then recounts his con- valuable booty. He also invaded the moun-
quests during his first five years as king. tainous region of the Zagros, reduced its
The first people he subdued were the Mus- stronghold and seized much treasure.
kai, or —
Moschians believed to be the Me- Tiglath-Pileser's campaign was
third
shech of the Old Testament who were — against the Nairi tribes of the Euphrates
governed by five kings and inhabited the valley in Northern Syria and Mesopotamia,
countries of Alzi and Purukhuz, parts of the distridl subsequently known as Comma-
Taurus or Niphates. The Moschians had gene. These were ruled by many
tribes
negledled for fifty years to pay the tribute petty kings. Those east of the Euphrates
due from them to the Assyrians; and at this were easily conquered, but those west of the
time, with a force of twenty thousand men, river were only subdued after a desperate
they had invaded the neighboring coun- and protracfted struggle. The Assyrians
try of Qummukh (afterwards Commagene), gained a great vidlory, taking one hundred
an Assyrian dependency, and had subdued and twenty chariots, and pursued the Nairi
it; but were there attacked and defeated by and their allies to the Mediterranean. The
Tiglath-Pileser I. who then conquered Com-
, country was frightfully ravaged, and the
magene, burned its cities, plundered its tem- vanquished were required to pay a tribute
ples, ravaged the country, and carried away of twelve hundred horses and two hundred
cattle and treasure as booty or tribute. cattle.
The following is a passage from this in- In his fourth campaign, Tiglath-Pileser at-
scription: "The country of Kasiyara, a tacked the Aramaeans, or Syrians, who then
difficult region, I passed through. With occupied the narrow valley of the Euphra-
their twenty thousand men and their five tes for a distance of two hundred and fifty
kings, in the country of Qummukh I en- miles, from the territories of the Tsukhi, or
gaged. I defeated them. The ranks of Shuhites, between Anah and Hit on the
their warriors in fighting the battle were south-east, to Carchemish, the capital and
beaten down as if by the tempest. Their stronghold of the Khatti, or Hittites, on the
carcasses covered the valleys and the tops north-west. Tiglath Pileser says in his in-
of the mountains. I cut off their heads. scription that he reduced this region "at one
Of the battlements of their cities I made blow. " He first plundered the east bank
'^.'
«^~^ i^/ ^
/
//
'''^m
TIGI.ATHl'U.EsKK SIDKMIN'G A TUWN. I'AI.ACK Ol N IN HVh 1 1.

POLITICAI. ins TOR ) '.
145
of the river, and then crossed the stream in which he had eredled and
of the Iniildings
boats covered with skins, and burned six of the improvements which he had intro-
cities on the west bank and carried away a duced. Among these buildings are the tem-
vast amount of boot}-. ples to Ishtar, Martu, Bel, II, and the pre-
Tigkith-Pileser's fifth and last campaign siding deities of the citj- of Asshur, his own
was against the land of Musr, or Muzr, in royal palaces, and castles for the military
the upper part of the present Kurdistan, defence of his dominions. Among his pub-
which was completely overrun, and its lic improvements he mentions the construc-
armies were defeated, its cities bunied and tion of works of irrigation, the introducftion
its strongholds taken. Ann, the capital, of cattle and wild animals from other coun-
was spared because of its submission, and a tries into Assyria, as well as of foreign veg-
tribute was imposed upon the countn,-. The etable productions, the increase in the num-
Comani, who, though Assyrian subjedls, ber of chariots, the enlargement of his do-
had assisted the inhabitants of Musr, were minions, and the growth of the population.
punished for their defetflion by Tiglath-Pi- Before speaking of the restoration of two
leser, who invaded their countn,-, defeated old temples in the city of Asshur, Tiglath-
their army of twenty thousand men, and took Pileser gives an account of his descent from
their towns and castles, some by stonn and Nin-pala-zira, the founder of the dynast\-,
others without resistance, burning the for- as follows: "Tiglath-Pileser, the illustrious
mer and sparing the latter, but destroj-ing prince, whom Asshur and Nin have exalted
the fortifications of both; and the "far- to the utmost wishes of his heart; who has
spreading country of the Comani was soon '
' pursued after the enemies of Asshur, and
reduced to submission and an increased trib- has subjugated all the earth the son of —
ute exadled from it. Asshur-ris-ilim, the powerful king, the sub-
After this fifth campaign, Tiglath-Pileser's duer of rebellious countries, he who has re-
inscriptionsums up the result of his wars —
duced all the accursed the grandson of
thus: "There fell into my hands altogether Mutaggil-Nebo, whom Asshur, the Great
between the commencement of mj- reign and Lord, aided according to the wishes of his
ray fifth 3'ear, forty-two countries with their heart,and established in strength in the
kings, from the banks of the river Zab to —
government of Assj^ria the glorious off-
the banks of the river Euphrates, the coun- spring of Asshur-dayan, who held the scepter
try of the Khatti, and the upper ocean of of dominion, and ruled over the people of
the setting sun. I brought them under one Bel; who in all the works of hands and
his
government; I took hostages from them; the deeds of his life placed his reliance on
and I imposed on them tribute and offer- the great gods, and thus obtained a long
ings." and prosperous life —the beloved child of
The king next boasts of his hunting ex- Nin-pala-zira, the king who organized the
ploits. He says that he killed with his ar- country' of Assyria, who purged his territo-
rows in the country of the Hittites, "four ries of the wicked, and established the
wild bulls, strong and fierce;" and in the troops of Assyria in authoritj'."
vicinitj' of Harran, on the banks of the river The temple torn down by Asshur-dayan
Khabour, he slew ten large wild buffaloes I., the great-grandfather of Tiglath-Pileser
and took four alive. He took these cap- I., and which had stood for six hundred and
tured animals, with the hides and horns of forty-one jêars, was not rebuilt; and, after
the killed beasts, to Asshur, his capital citj-. its site had remained vacant for sixty years,
He also says that he slew nine hundred and Tiglath-Pileser, soon after his accession, re-
twenty lions in his various journeys, and at- solved upon the eredlion there of a new tem
tributes all these exploits to the protetflion pie to the old gods, Ann and Vul, believed
of the gods Nin and Nergal. to lie tutelan,^ deities of the city of Asshur.
This great monarch then gives an account Tiglath-Pileser relates the circumstances
!
146 AXCIENT HIS TOR y.—ASS YRIA.

•of the building and dedication of this new for the use of the Great Gods, my lords,
temple, as follows: "In the beginning of mj' Anu and Vul, and have laid down an adytum
reign, Ann and Vul, the Great Gods, my for their special worship,and have finished
lords, guardians of ni)' steps, gave me a it and have delighted the hearts
successfully,
command to repair this their shrine. So I of their noble godships, may Anu and Vul
made bricks; I leveled the earth; I took its preserve me in power May the}' support !
dimensions: I laid down its foundations the men of my government May they es- !
upon a mass of strong rock. This place, tablish the authority of m^' officers ! May
throughout its whole extent, I paved with they bring the rain, the joy of the year, on
bricks in set order; fifty feet deep I prepared the cultivated land and the desert, during
the ground; and upon this substrudture I my time ! In war and in battle may they
laid the lower foundations of the temple of preserve me vicftorious ! Manj- foreign
Anu and Vul. From its foundation to its countries, turbulent nations, and hostile
roof I built it up was before.
lêtter than it kings have reduced under my yoke; to my
I
I also built lofty towers in honor of

two children and my descendants, may they keep
their noble god.ships, and the holy place, a them in firm allegiance ! I will lead my
spacious hall, I consecrated for the conven- steps" (or, "may they establish mjf feet"),
ience of their worshipers, and to accommo- "firm as the mountains, to the last days,
date their votaries, who were numerous as before Asshur and their noble godships
the stars of heaven. I repaired, and built, The list of my vi(5tories and the catalogue
and completed my work. Outside the tem- of my
triumphs over foreigners hostile to
ple I fashioned with the same care as inside. Acshur, which Anu and Vul have granted
The mound of earth on which it was built I to my arms, I have inscribed on my tablets
enlarged like the firmament of the rising and cylinders, and I have placed, [to remain]
stars, and I beautified the entire building. to the last days, in the temple of my lords,
Its towers I raised up to heaven, and its Anu and Vul. And
have made clean the
I
roofs I built entirely of brick. An invio- tablets of vShamas-Vul, my ancestor; I have

lable shrine for their noble godships I laid made sacrifices, and sacrificed vidlims before
down near at hand. Anu and Vul, the them, and have set them up in their places.
Great Gods, I glorified inside the shrine. I In after times, and in the latter daj-s * * *
set them up in their honored purity, and the if the temples of the Great Gods, my lords
hearts of their noble godships I delighted." Anu and Vul, and these shrines .should be-
The other temple, which Tiglath-Pile.ser come old and fall into decay, may the prince
I. says he restored, was one to Ann only, who comes after me repair the ruins May !
which, like the one just mentioned, was he raise altars and sacrifice vidtims before
originally built by Shamas-Vul, the son of my tablets and cylinders, and may he set
Ismi-Dagon. This building had likewise them up again in their places, and may he
fallen into decay, but had not been taken inscribe his name on them together with my
down like the other. Tiglath-Pileser says name As Anu and Vul, the Great Gods,
!
that he "leveled its site," and then rebuilt have ordained, may he worship honestly
it "from its foundations to its roofs," en- with a good heart and a full trust Who- !
larging and embellishing it. Inside the ever shall abrade or injure my tablets and
building he "sacrificed precious vicftims to cylinders, or shall moisten them with water,
his lord, Vul." In the temple he likewise or scorch them with fire, or expose them to
deposited a collecflion of rare stones and mar- the air, or in the holy place of God shall
bles, which he had procured in the countrj' assign them a place where they cannot be
of the Nairi during his wars there. seen or understood, or shall erase the writ-
Tiglath-Pileser's inscription ends with the ing and inscribe his own name, or .shall di-
following lengthy invocation: '

' Since a holy vide the sculptures and break them ofi" from
place, a noble hall, I have thus consecrated my tablets, maj- Anu and Vul, the Great
'
Gods, my lords, coiisigîi his iiainc to perdi- nations rejecl. His buildings are temples
ditioii ! Maj- thej^ curse him with an irre- for the worship of the gods. His whole
vocable curse ! May the\- cause his sov- mind is deeply imbued with religious feeling,
ereignty to perish ! Ma\- they pluck out the showing that the gods are "in all his
'
stabilit}' of the throne of his empire ! Let thoughts. ' This religious feeling is highly
not his ofFsprius^ survixe him in the king- exclusive and intolerant.
dom !Let his ser\-ants be broken Let his ! The king, while exalting himself, is .still
troops be defeated Let him fly vanquished

! "the illustrious chief, who, under the aus-
before his enemies May Vul in his furj' ! pices of the Sun-god, rules over the people
tear up the produce of his land May a ! of Bel," and "whose servants Asshur ha.s
scarcitj' of food and of the necessaries of life appointed to the government of the four
afflict his countrj- ! For one day may he not regions." If his enemies fly, "the fear of
be called happy ! May his name and his A.sshur has overwhelmed them; if they re-
race perish !
'
fuse tribute, they withhold the offerings due

The document is then dated — "In the to Asshur." The king himself feels inclined
month Kuzalla (Chisleu), on the 29th day, to make an expedition against a countrj-;
in the year presided over hy Ina-iliya-pallik, "his lord Asshur, invites him" to proceed
the Rabbi-Turi." thither; if he collects an army. "Asshur has
The most striking feature of Tiglath-Pi- committed the troops to his hand." When
leser's inscription is its religious tone.His a countr\- not previously subjedt to Assyria
wars are not onlj^ wars of conquest, but thej^ is attacked, it is because the people "do not
are religious wars, designed to extend the acknowledge Asshur;" when its plunder is
worship of Asshur, as well as to enlarge the carried off, it is to adoni and enrich the
dominion of the Assyrian monarch. All temples of Asshur and the other gods; when
the king's successes in war and hunting are it yields, the first thing is to "attach it to
ascribed to the aid and favor of Asshur. the worship of Asshur." The king hunts
The wars were untertaken to chastise the "under the auspices of Nin and Nergal,"
enemies of Asshur, as the Hebrews fought or of"Nin and Asshur; " he puts his tablets
to punish the enemies of Jehovah. The under the protedlion of Anu and \'ul; he
commanding position which religion occu- life of one ancestor to his
attributes the long
pied in the hearts of the Assyrian kings and exceeding piety, and the prosperity of an-
people is proven hy the long and solemn in- other to the protecftion which Asshur be-
vocation of the Great Gods, the religious stowed upon him. The name of A.sshur
character and purposes of the wars, the ac- occurs in the inscription almost forty times,
count given of the building and renovation or once in nearly every- paragraph. Shamas,
of the temples, the dedication of offerings, the Sun-god, and the gods Anu, \w\ and
and the characteristic final praj-er. The Bel, are mentioned frequently; while Sin,
deep earnestness of this religious faith of the Moon-god, and the deities Nin, Nergal,
the Assyrians, in its outward manifestations, Ishtar, Beltis, Martu and II, are also ac-
displayed a zeal and fanaticism akin to that knowledged. All this is on an historical
of the Israelites in their wars with the Ca- inscription.
naanites, Philistines and other nations, or to The energetic charaeler of Tiglath-Pileser
that of the followers of Mohammed in their I. is fully attested by his militarj' exploits
warfare against the foes of Islam. The Assyr- during the first five years of his reign, as
ian king glorifies himself much, but he glori- displayed in the conquest of six neighbor-
fies the gods more. While fighting for his ing nations and many petty tribes; the
own and the extension of his own do-
credit humbling of forty-two kings; the traversing
minion, he likewise fights for the honor and of difficult mountain regions; the vicflories
glorj- of Asshur, the Great Lord, and the in battle; the sieges of towns; the stonning
other Great Gods, whom the neighboring and destruction of strongholds; the ravaging
'
14? ANCIENT HIS TOR i \—ASS YRIA.

of countries; the incessant employment of who possessed many cities; and above the
the monarch; his pursuit of the chase; his Aramaeans, also on both sides of the stream,
contests with the wild bull and the lion, in were the Khatti, or Hittites, who were di-
which he rivaled "the mighty hunter before vided into tribes, and whose chief city was
the Lord," counting his victims by the hun- Carchemish. North and north-west of the
dreds; while all this time he was concerned Khatti were the Muskai, or Moschi, a war-
for the welfare of his dominions, as shown like people, who endeavored to extend their
in the magnificent strucftures which he dominion eastward into the territory of the
eredled, the introducftion of the animal and Qumnuikh, or people of Commagene. The
vegetable producfts of other regions and Qummukh occupied and ruled the mountain
climes, the fertilizing of the land bj' works region on both sides of the upper Tigris,
of irrigation, and bis measures in general, and had many strongholds, most of which
'
improving the condition of the people, and
' were on the west bank of the river. East
obtaining for them abundance and security. of the Qummukh were the Kirkhi, while
'
Asshur was still the Assyrian capital, and south of them were the Nairi, who occupied
no other native city is yet named, though the region from Lake Van, along the line of
mention is made of "fortified cities." In the Tigris, to the district called Commagene
his inscription Tiglath-Pileser calls himself by the Romans. The Nairi had, at least,
'
' king of the four regions, '
' and also

'
' the twenty-three kings, each of whom ruled his

exalted sovereign whose servants Asshur own tribe or city. South of the eastern
has appointed to the government of the Nairi was the country of Musr, or Muzr,
country of the four regions. The Assyrian
'
' a mountain region densely inhabited and

territory seems at this time to have been abounding in strong castles. To the east
bounded on the east by the Zagros moun- and south-east of Muzr were the Comani, or
tains, on the north by the Niphates ranges, Quwana, the most powerful of Assyria's
on the west by the Euphrates, and on the neighbors, like the Moschi, able to raise
south by Chaldaea, or Babylonia. The an army of twenty thousand men. The
plunder of other countries poured wealth Comani and the people of Muzr were at this
into Assyria, the introduction of enslaved time close allies. Across the lower Zab,
captives cheapened labor, irrigation was im- skirting the Zagros, were the many petty
proved, new and animals were intro-
fruits tribes who offered little resistance to the
duced, fortifications were repaired, palaces Assyrian arms.
were renovated, and temples were embel- Thus, late in the twelfth century before
lished or rebuilt. Christ, Assyria a compa(fl and powerful
was
The countries bordering upon Assyria on kingdom, surrounded on her eastern, north-
the north, east and west exhibited condi- em and western sides, by weak neighbors.
and were divided
tions of political weakness, Centralized therefore under one monarch,
into a multitude of petty nations
and tribes, Assyria, with a single great capital, was
the most powerful of which could raise an easily able to triumph over foes, who, al-
army of only twenty thousand men. These though united in confederations to resist
nations lacked the essential elements of their common enemy, were easily dispensed
unity, being di\'ided into many separate after suffering a defeat. Only on her south-
communities governed by their own kings, ern border did Assyria have a powerful
who in times of war united against the neighbor in the ancient and venerable mon-
common foe, but who were too jealous of archy of Chaldaea, or Babylonia, whose
each other to even .selecfl a generali.ssimo. Semitic sovereigns, although established in
On the Euphrates, between Hit and Carch- that country by Assyrian mfluence, had re-
emish, were, first, the T.sukhi, or Shu- nounced all dependence upon their old pro-
hites; next above them, on both banks of tedlors. Chaldaea, almost equal in territor-
the river, were the Aramaeans, or Syrians, ial extent and population to Assyria, and as
s
POLITICAL HIS TOR V. 149
much centralized and consolidated in her In a cavern from which rises theTsnpuat,
govenimeiit, served as a check to her ag- or eastern branch of the Tigris, near the vil-
gfressive and vigorous northern neighbor, lage of Korkhar, about fifty or sixty miles
thus preserving some semblance of the bal- north of Diarbekr, is a bas-relief .sculptured
ance of power in Western Asia. on rock smoothed for the purpose, consisting
In addition to the great cylinder inscription of a figure of Tiglath-Pileser I. in his

of Tiglath-Pileser I., more years of his
five priestly dress, with the right ann extended
annals exist in fragments, which give us ac- and the left hand grasping the sacrificial
counts of the continuance of his aggressive mace, wiih the following inscription: "Bj'
expeditions, principally in the dire(5lion of the grace of As,shur, Shamas and Vul, the
the north-west, during which he subdued the Great Gods, I, Tiglath-Pileser, King of As-
Lulumi in Northern Syria, attacked and took syria, son of Asshur-ris-ilim, King of As-
Carchemish, and pursued the fleeing inhabi- syria, who was the son of Mutaggil-Nebo,
tants across the Euphrates in boats. King of Assyria, marching from the great
Near the end of his reign Tiglath-Pileser sea of Akhiri" (the Mediterranean) "to
I. marched an army into Babj'lonia, and the sea of Nairi" (Lake of Van), "for the
ravaged its northern territories with fire and third time have invaded the countrj' of
sword for two years, taking the cities of Dur- Nairi."
Kurri-galzu (now Akkerkuf ), Sippara of the Tiglath-Pileser I. was succeeded on the
Sun, and Sippara of Anunit (the Sephar- Ass3'rian throne by his son Asshur-bil-
vaini, or "two Sipparas " of the Hebrews), KALA, of whom verj' little is known besides
Hupa (or Opis), on the Tigris, and finally his war with Merodach-shapik-ziri, king of
the great capital, Babylon, itself. Babylonia, the succes.sor of Merodach-iddin-
After the capture of Babylon, Tiglath- akhi. This war is recorded on the Synchro-
Pileser I. led an army np the Euphrates, nistic Tablet, along with the wars of As.shur-
and took several of the cities of the Tsukhi. bil-kala's father and grandfather, but the
But the Babj'lonian king, Merodach-iddin- injured condition of this portion of the tab-
akhi, captured some of Tiglath-Pileser' let pre\-ents us getting details from it. A
baggage during his retreat from Babj'lon. monument of Asshur-bil-kala's time —one
The images of the gods which Tiglath- of the oldest Assyrian sculptures yet remain-
Pileser had carried with him in his expedi- ing —bears witness that he was adluated by
tion against Babylonia, to secure him vidlor}- the same religious spirit displayed by his
b}- their presence, were captured bj- Mero- father, and that he also adorned temples and
dach-iddin-akhi, who carried them to Baby- set up images of the gods. A mutilated
lon,where they remained over four centuries female figure, supposed to be the image
as mementoes of victory. The Sj'nchronis- of the goddess Ishtar, discovered by Mr.
tic Tablet, the chief authorit},- for this war, Loftus at Koyunjik, and now in the British
says nothing of the capture of the.se idols, Museum, bears a dedicators- inscription,
but this fadl is mentioned in a rock inscrip- almost illegible, from which it appears to
tion of Sennacherib's at Bavain, near Khors- have been .set np by A.sshur-bil-kala, the
abad. son of Tiglath-Pileser I. and grandson of
Thenceforth a spirit of ho.stility and jeal- Asshur-ris-ilim.
ous rivairs'marked the relations between It is suppo.sed that Asshur-bil-kala reigned
Assj^ria and Babylonia, and no more inter- from about B. C. mo
to B. C. 1090. His
marriages occurred between their roj'al fam- successor seems to have been his j-ounger
ilies, while wars between them were almost brother, Sha jias-Vui, I. of whom nothing,
constant, nearly every Assyrian king of is known except his building or repairing a
whose historj' we possess detailed knowl- temple at Nineveh. He is thought to have
edge, leading one or more expeditions into reigned from B. C. 1090 to B. C. 1070: being
Babylonia. thus contemporary with Samuel or Saul in
I50 ANCIENT HISTORY.— ASSYRIA.
Israel. During the eleventh centur>^ before the sources of the Tsupnat river beside the
Christ, Assyria for a time passed under a sculptures .set up by his ancestors, Tiglath-
cloud, and its ancient glories were then Pile-ser and Tiglathi-Nin I. The A.ssyr-
I.
eclipsed by the imperial splendor of the ian Canon assigns the reign of Tiglathi-Nin
Israelitish kingdom under David and Sol- II. between the years B. C. 889 and B. C.
omon. two centuries, between the

For 883.
reigns of Shamas-Vul I. and Tiglathi-Nin Asshur-izir-pal, the son and successor
II., who, according to the Assyrian Canon, of Tiglathi-Nin II., reigned twenty-five
ascended the throne of Assyria in B. C. years, from B. C. 883 to B. 858, whichC.
889, Assyrian history is a blank. The very- period one of the most flourishing in the
is
names of the kings are almost entirely un- annals of the Assyrian Empire. Asshur-
known to us for three-fourths of this period, izir-palwas an adtive and energetic mon-
from about B. C. 1070 to B. C. 930. The arch, and did not allow himself any repose.
inscription of Shalmaneser II., the Black- The limits and influence of Assyria were
Obelisk king, speaks of certain cities on the expanded in everj' diredtion, and her pro-
west bank of the Euphrates being taken gress in wealth and the arts was so rapid
from AssHUR-MAZUR, whose reign has been that she suddenly attained a point not pre-
assigned to this period. viously reached by any people. The size,
While Assyria, from the absence of records; magnificence and excellent artistic embel-
had apparently simk into insig-
at this time lishment of Asshur-izir-pal' s architectural
seems to have ex-
nificance, her influence .stru(5lures, the high skill in the pracftical
tended into Egypt, whose kings of the arts which they exhibit, the pomp and
Twenty-second Dynasty beginning with splendor of this reign which they imply,
Sheshonk I., or Shishak, a contemporar>- have e.Kcited the wonder and admiration
of Solomon, married Assyrian women of of modern Europe, which has seen that
royal or noble birth, who gave Ass>Tian the Assyrians nine centuries before Christ,
names to their children, thus introducing or nearly twenty-eight centuries ago, had
Semitic names in Egyptian dynastic lists. reached a degree of advancement in the in-
When Ass^-ria again emerged from dark- ventions and arts of practical life equal to
ness with the accession of Asshur-d.wan the boasted achievements of the modern
II. about B. C. 930, Asshur was still the ages.
capital of the kingdom. A.sshur-da^-an II. Asshur-izir-pal' s first campaign was in
was the first of a series of kings who re- the north, in portions of Armenia, where he
paired and enlarged public edifices, which is saj'she penetrated a region "never ap-
recorded to their honor in the inscription of proached by the kings his fathers." Here
a sub.sequent sovereign. Asshur-dayan II. he easily .subdued the mountaineers, the
reigned from B. C. 930 to B. C. 911. His Numi, or Elanii, and the Kirkhi, from
son and successor, VuvLUSH II., occupied whom has been derived the name of the
the throne from B. C. 911 to B. C. 889. modern Kurkh, as applied to some ruins on
Nothing is j-et known of the history' of these the west bank of the Tigris, about twenty
two kings, no historical in.scriptions of their miles below Diarbekr, some remains of
reigns being yet found, and no exploits be- which have been transferred to the British
ing recorded of them in the inscriptions of Mu.seum. Asshur-izir-pal took and de-
later sovereigns. stroyed the fortresses of the.se mountain
TiGL.'VTHi-NiN II., the .succe.s.sor of Vul- tribes, and one captive was taken to Arbela,
lush II., reigned only six years; but accord- where he was flayed and hung up on the
ing to the inscriptions of his son and .suc- town wall.
cessor, Asshur-izir-pal, on the Nimrud mon- Asshur-izir-pal's second expedition oc-
olith, he recorded his militarj- exploits and curred in the same year as the first, and was.
also the facfl that he .set up his sculptures at diredted against the tribes to the west and
POLITICAL inSTOR Y. 151
north-west of A,ss\Tia. He first overran the dozen petty kings. On his return, he built
Qummiikh, Serki and Sidikan,
countries of a city which the Babylonian king Tsibir had
or Arbau, and reduced them to tribute. destroyed at an early period, and named it
Then he took the field against the Laki Dur-A.sshur, in gratitude for the protedlion
bestowed upon him by Asshur,
'
of Central Mesopotamia, where the people " the Great

of the city of Assura had rebelled, killed Lord," " the chief of the gods."
their governor, and invited a foreigner to Asshur-izir-pal's fifth campaign was di-
govern them. The rebels submitted on rected to the north. Crossing the country
Asshur-izir-pal's approach and .surrendered of the Qummukh and receiving their tribute,
tohim their city and their new ruler, who the warlike king invaded the Mons Masius
was carried in fetters to Nineveh. The and took the cities of Matyat (now Mediyat)
rebellious inhabitants were cruelly punished and Kapranisa. He then crossed the Tigris
by Asshur-izir-pal, who plundered the city, and warred along the Niphates ranges
gave the houses of the rebel leaders to his against the people of Kasijara and other
own officers, placed an Assyrian governor enemies. He next invaded the country of
over the citj-, crucified some of the inhabi- the Nairi, where he says he destroyed two
tants, bunied others, and cut off the ears hundred and fiftj' strong walled cities, and
and noses of the remainder. The other put to death many princes.
kings of the Laki submitted, and sent in Asshur-izir-pal's sixth campaign was in
their tribute readily, though it was " a heavy the west. He started from Calah (now Nim-
and much-increased burden." rnd), where he crossed the Tigris, marched
In the second ^-ear Asshur-izir-pal under- through Central Mesopotamia, received trib-
took a third expedition. Marching north- ute from many subjecft towns, among which
ward, he reduced to submission the kings of were Sidikan (now Arban), Sirki and Anat
the Nairi, who had recovered their inde- (now Anah). He then entered the terri-
pendence, and exadled from them a yearly tories of the Tsukhi, or Shuhites, took their
tribute in and
gold, silver, horses, cattle city Tsur, and compelled them to surrender,
other commodities. Ascending the Tsupnat although the}- were aided by the Babylon-
river, or Eastern Tigris, he .set up his memo- ians; after which he invaded Babylonia, or
rial beside monuments hitherto eredled on Chaldsea, and chastised its people.
the same site by Tiglath-Pileser I. and by the His seventh campaign was likewise
first or second Tiglathi-Nin. The inscrip- against the Shuhites, who had rebelled
tions also give Asshur-izir-pal's own account against the Assyrian yoke and invaded the
of his severe treatment of the revolted c\ty Assyrian territories, being aided by their
of Tela, upon retaking
it, in the following north-eastern neighbors, the Laki. The allied
words: "Their men, young and old, I took army numbered twenty-thousand men, in-
prisoners. Of some I cut off the feet and cluding many warriors who fought in char-
hands; of others I cut off the noses, ears and iots. Asshur-izir-pal first reduced the cities
lips: of the young men's ears Imade a heap; on the east bank of the Euphrates, and, as
he says, made a desert of the banks of the
'
of the old men's heads I made a minaret. '
' '
I exposed their heads as a trophy in front Khabour, and impaled thirty of the chief
of their city. The male children and the captives on stakes, in punishment for the
female children I burnt in the flames. The rebellion. He then crossed the river on
city I destroyed, and consumed, and burnt rafts and defeated the Tsukhi and their
with fire." allies with great slaughter, many of them
Asshur-izir-pal's fourth campaign was in being drowned in their flight across the
the south-east, where he crossed the Lesser the river. Six thousand five hundred of the
Zab and entered the Zagros range, ravaged rebels were killed in the battle, and the west
the fruitful valleys with fire and .sword, took bank of the river was frightfully ravaged
many towns, and exadled tribute from a with fire and sword; cities and castles were
.
152 A NCIEN T HIS TOR V.—ASS'} HIA

bunied, men were massacred, and women, went inland, and cut timber, set up sculp-
children and cattle were carried away. One tured memorials, and offered sacrifice on the
king of the L,aki escaped, but another was Amanus mountains. Among the plunder
carried in captivity to Assyria. An in- which he carried to Assyria were cedar
creased rate of tribute was exacfled of the beams for his public buildings at Nineveh.
conquered people, and two new cities were Asshur-izir-pal's tenth campaign, and the
built by the Assyrian king, one on either last recorded, was in the region of the Upper
bank of the Euphrates, the one on the east Tigris, where he defeated his enemies and
bank being named after the king, and the overcame all resistance, burned cities and
one on the west bank after the god Asshur. carried away many captives. The chief
Asshur-izir-pal's eighth campaign was "roj'al city" which he assailed was Amidi,
higher up the Euphrates, where the Assyr- now Diarbekr.
ian monarch in^-aded the country of the Beth- During all his ten campaigns, which were
Adina, to piuiish its people for giving refuge prosecuted during the first six years of his
to Hazilu, the king of the Laki who had reign, Asshur-izir-pal indulged in the sports
escaped capture after his defeat in the pre- of the cha.se. He records among his in-
vious war. Asshur-izir-pal besieged the scriptions that on one occasion he killed fifty
people of Beth-Adina in their chief city, large wild bulls on the east bank of the
Kabrabi, which he soon took and burned. Euphrates, and captured eight of the same
The part of Beth-Adina east of the Euphra- kind of beasts; while at another time he
tes, in the vicinity of the modern Balis, was slew twenty ostriches and captured as many.
overrun and annexed to the Assyrian Em- This monarch's .sculptures bear testimony
pire, and two thousand five hundred cap- that hunting the wild bull was a favorite
tives were settled at Calah. recreation with him. He had a menagerie
Asshur-izir-pal's ninth and most interest- park in the vicinity of Nineveh, in which
ing campaign was the one against S^'ria. he kept various strange animals. He re-
After marching across Northern Mesopota- ceived, as tribute from the Phoenicians, ani-
mia, and receiving tributes from various —
mals called /rt!;^//A-, or pagdls believed to be
nations and tribes on the wa)-, the A.ssj'rian elephant.s —
which were placed in this zoo-
king crossed the Euphrates on rafts and en- logical enclosure, where he says they throve
tered the city of Carchemish, where he re- and bred. A certain King of Egypt sent
ceived the submission of the Hittite king, him a present of curious animals when he
Sangara, whose capital was that cit}-, and of was in Southern S3'ria. In an obelisk in-
many other princes, "who came reverently scription, designed to commemorate a great
and kissed his scepter." Then he "gave hunting expedition, he says he took all sorts
command to advance toward Lebanon." of antelopes to Asshur and killed lions,
He entered the country of the Patena, which wild sheep, red deer, fallow deer, wild goats,
embraced the region about Antioch and or ibexes, leopards large and small, bears,
Aleppo, and took their capital, Kinalua, wolves, jackals, wild boars, ostriches, foxes,
located between the Abri (or Afrin and Oron-
) hyenas, wild asses, and other animals not
tes; whereupon the rebel king, Lubarna, in yet identified. An inscription of his at
alarm, submitted and agreed to pay a tribute. Nimrud informs us that in another hunting
The Assj-rian monarch then crossed the expedition he slew three hundred and sixty
Orontes and destroyed some of the cities of large two hundred and fifty-seven
lions,
the Patena, and marched along the northern large wild cattle, and thirty buffaloes; and
flank of Lebanon to the Mediterranean. In that he sent to Calah fifteen full-grown lions,
this region he built altars and offered sacrifi- fifty young lions, some leopards, .several
ces to the gods, and then received the submis- pairs of wild buffaloes and wild cattle, along
sion of the leading Phoenician states, such as with ostriches, wolves, red deer, bears,
Tyre, Sidon, Byblus and Aradus. He then cheetas and hyenas. Thus, like his distin-
POLITICAL HISTORY. '53
jjiiished ancestor, Tighith-Pileser I., As- out with sculptured slabs illustrating the
shur-izir-{)al was renowned alike as a war- king's various deeds, and which contained
rior and a Inniter. at the eastern end a raised stone platform
Asshur-izir-pal surjiassed his predecessors cut into steps or stages, which La>-ard be-
in the grandeur of his public edifices, and lieves was designed monarch's
to sup])ort the
the profusion of sculpture and painting in carved throne. A
grand jwrtal in the
their embellishment. The strudlures of the southern wall of the chamber, guarded on
earlier Ass\rian kings at Asshur were far in- either sideby .sculptured representations of
ferior to the buildings of Asshur-izir-paland winged man-headed bulls carved out of yel-
his successors at Calah, Nineveh and Dur- low limestone, opened the way into a .second
Sargina. The mounds of Kileh-Sherghat hall much smaller than the first, and with
have not revealed bas-reliefsor traces of build- less variety of ornament. This .second hall
ings which can be compared with those which was about one hundred feet long by twenty-
excite the wonder of the traveler at Nim- five broad, and all the slabs which adorned
rud, Koyunjik and Khorsabad. Asshur- it were ornamented with colossal eagle-
izir-pal's great palace was at Calah (now Nim- headed figures in pairs, facing one another
rud), which he raised from the condition of and separated by the sacred tree. This
a provincial town to that of a metropolis of second hall was connedled with the central
his empire. This palace was three hundred court by an elegant gateway towards the
and .sixty feet long and three hundred feet south, and communicated likewise with a
wide, had .seven or eight large halls, and third hall towards the east. This third hall
many more small chambers grouped round a was one of the most remarkal)le apartments
central court one hundred and thirt}' feet of the palace, and was better proportioned
long and almost one hundred feet broad. than most of the others, being about ninety
The longest hall faced toward the north, was feet long by twenty -six wide. It ran along
the first room entered upon coming from the the eastern side of the great court, with
city, and measured one hundred and fifty- which it was connecfted bj- two gatewaj'S,
four feet in length and thirty-three feet in and on the inside it was ornamented with
breadth. The others were of different di- more elaborately-finished sculptures than
mensions, some almost as spacious as the any other apartment in the palace. Back
largest one, while the smallest room had a of this eastern hall was another hall open-
length of sixtj^-five feet with a breadth of ing into it, somewhat longer, but only
less than twenty feet. The chambers were twelve feet broad; and this led to five .small
nearly or altogether square, and none of chambers, \\hich here bounded the palace.
them were more than thirty feet in their South of the great court were also two halls
greatest dimensions. The entire palace was communicating with each other, but these
raised upon a high platform, con.structed of were smaller than those on the north and
sun-dried bricks, but cased on the outside west, and were less profusely adorned. Mr.
with hewn stone. Of the two grand facades, Layard believes that there were also two or
one faced the north, and on that side was an three halls on the west side of the court to-
ascent to the platform from the town;- the ward the ri\êr. Nearly everj- hall had one
other, in the opinion of Mr. Layard, faced or two .small chambers adjoining it, which
the Tigris, which in ancient times flowed at were generally at the ends of the halls, and
the foot of the platform toward the W'est. connnunicated with them by large doorways.
On the northern were two or three
front The grand halls of this palace, so narrow
great gateways flanked with andro-sphinxes, for their length, were decorated on all sides,
or .sculptured figures representing the body first with ,scul])tures as high as nine or ten
of a winged lion with the head of a man. feet, and then with enameled bricks or pat-
These gatewaj-s led to the principal hall or terns painted in frescoes to the height of
audience chamber, which was lined through- seven or eight feet more. The rooms were
I-IO.-U. H.
154 ANCIENT HIS TOR Y.—ASS YRIA.
sixteen or eighteen feet high. The square the other, a little farther to the east, compris-
chambers had no other embeUishnients than ing a shrine and chambers without a tower.
inscribed alabaster slabs. The tower of the first strudlure was partly
Asshur-izir-pal's .sculptures displaj' great builtby A.sshur-izir-pars son and successor,
boldness, force and spirit, but are usually Shalmaneser II. These temples were highly
clumsily drawn and roughly executed. As- adorned with embellishments, both inter-
syrian mimetic art suddenly sprung up at nally and externalljf; and in front of the
this period, the only specimens more ancient larger one was an ere(5lion indicating that
than this monarch being the rock-tablet of the Assyrian kings received divine honors
Tiglath-Pileser I., already referred to, and from their subjedls. On a plain square
the mutilated female statue brought from pedestal two feet high was raised a solid
Koyunjik to the British Museum and in- limestone block cut in the form of an arched
scribed with the name of Asshur-bil-kala, frame, within which was carved a figure of
the son and successor of Tiglath-Pileser I. the king in sacerdotal costume, with the
As.shur-izir-pal's ornamentation was his own sacred collar encircling his neck, and the
invention. Not a solitary fragment of a five chief divine symbols represented above
sculptured slab has been found about the his head. In front of this figure was a tri-
mounds of Kileh-Sherghat, while bricks angular altar with a circular top, resembling
have been found in abundance. This mon- the Grecian tripod. A stele of Asshur-izir-
arch was the first to use bas-reliefs on a pal, re.sembling the figure just described, has
large scale for architecftural ornamentation, been brought to England from Kurkh, near
and employ them to illustrate the history
to Diarbekr, and is now in the British Museum.
of the monarch. This king likewise adorned Asshur-izir-pal built a temple at Nineveh,
his edifices by means of enameled bricks which was dedicated to the goddess Beltis.
and painted frescoes upon plaster. A white stone obelisk, set up as a memorial
Asshur-izir-pal's .sculptures attest the sur- of his reign, is now in the British Museum.
prising advance made in manufadlures by The sculptures and inscriptions which com-
the Assyrians at this early period. The memorated his military and hunting exploits,
metallurgy of the time is represented by and which covered the four sides of this
swords, sword-sheaths, daggers, earrings, monument, are now almost obliterated. The
necklaces, armlets and bracelets. The char- obelisk a monolith, twelve or thirteen feet
is
iots, the harness of the horses, and the em- high, and two feet wide on the broader side
broidery which adorned the robes, further of the ba.se and less than fourteen inches on
attest the mechanical .skill of the Assyrians the narrower side. It tapers slightly and is
in the age of this famous king. The sculp- crowned at the top by three steps or gra-
tures bear testimony to the fa(5l that this dines. Fragments of two other obelisks
ancient people at this early day already rev- erecfled by this great monarch were discovered
eled in luxury, and that in the useful arts, at Koyunjik by Mr. lyoftus, and are likewise
in dress, furniture, jewelry, etc., they were now in the British Museum. One of these,
not far behind the modems. in white stone, had sculptures on one side
Besides the splendid palace which he only, being mostly covered by an in.scription
eredled at Calah, Asshur-izir-pal built many recording his hunting exploits in vSyria and
temples, the most important of which have his repairs of the city of Asshur. The other,
already been described. They occupied the in black basalt, had sculptures on every side
northwestern corner of the Nimrud plat- representing the great king receiving tribute-
form, and consisted of two structures; one bearers.
precisely at the corner, embracing the higher Asshur-izir-pal construdled a tuiuiel and
tower, or ziggurat, which stood out as a cor- canal by which the water of the Greater
ner buttress from the great mound, and a Zab was brought to Calah. He records this
shrine with chambers at the tower's base ;

fadl in his annals, and Sennacherib, who
:
/V V, / TICA I. HIS T( > A' >

155
repaired tlie tuinicl two centuries later, set ians of Damascus, were attacked by the ar-
up therein a tablet with an inscription com- mies of vShalmaneser II. , their hosts defeated,
memorating Asshur-izir-pal as its author.- their cities be.sieged and taken, their kings
Asshur-izir-pal's favorite capital was Ca- reduced to submission and forced to pay tri-
lah, although he beautified Asshur, the old bute.
capital, and the rising city of Nineveh. The Shalmaneser II. took tribute from the Phoe-
continual spread of the Assyrian dominion nician cities of Tyre, Sidon and Byblus;
northward necessitated the removal of the from the T.sukhi, or Shnhites; from the peo-
capital to amore central point than A.sshur; ple of Muzr, or Musr; from the Bartsu, or
and for that rea.son Calah, which was forty Partsu (believed to be the Persians), and
miles farther north, on the opposite or east from the Israelites. He thus traversed the
side of the Tigris, was selected for the seat entire region from the Persian Gulf on the
of government. Calah, located in the fer- south to the Niphates mountains upon the
tile and healthy region of Adiabene, near north, and from the Zagros range on the
the junction of the Greater Zab with the east to the Mediterranean sea on the west.
Tigris, was strongly protected b\' nature, Over this whole A'ast domain he made his
being defended on either side by a deep river. power felt, while his influence extended be-
The new capital rapidly grew to great- yond its limits, where the nations feared and
ness, and palace after palace rose on its high respected him and willingly sought his favor
platform, profuseh' embellished with carved bj' placing themselves under his protecftion.
woodwork, gilding, painting, sculpture and In the closing years of his reign he deputed
enamel; while stone lions, sphinxes, obelisks, the command of his armies to his favorite
shrines and temple-towers also adorned the general, Dajân- Asshur, in whom he reposed
scene. The lofty ziggurat attached to the great confidence. Dayan-Asshur held an
temple of Nin stood forth preeminent amid important office in the fifth year of Shal-
the varied mass of royal palaces and sacred maneser's reign; and in the twenty-seventh,
temples, giving unity to the whole. twentj'-eighth, thirtieth, and thirty-first he
After his glorious reign of twenty-five was sent with an army against the Anne-
3'ears, Asshur-izir-pal —who styled him.self nians, the rebellious Patena, and the people
'
' The conqueror from the upper passage of of the region included in modem Kurdistan.
the Tigris to Lebanon and the Great Sea, In his twenty-ninth year the king himself
who has reduced under his authoritj- all led an expedition into Khirki, theNaphates
countries from the rising of the sun to the where he "overturned, beat to
districft,
going down of the same" died at no ad- — pieces, and consumed with fire the towns,
vanced age, and was succeeded on the throne swept the country with his troops, and im-
by his son, Shalmaneser II. pressed on the inhabitants the fear of his
Shalmane.ser II. inherited the warlike presence."
spiritand genius of his illustrious father; Shalmaneser's most interesting campaigns
and during his reign of thirty-five years, are those of the sixth, eighth, ninth, elev-
from B. C. 858 to B. C. 823, he conducted enth, fourteenth, eighteenth and twenty-first
twenty-three military' expeditions in person, years of his reign. Two of these campaigns
and entrusted four others to a favorite gen- were direcfted against Babylonia, three
eral. His twenty-three expeditions were against Een-hadad of Damascus, and two
undertaken during the first twenty-seven against Kha/.ail (Hazael) of Dama.scus.
years of his reign, and were diredled In his eighth j-ear, while Babylonia was
against the territories of neighboring peoples. rentby a civil war between King Merodach-
Babjdonia, Chaldcea, Media, the Zimri, Ar- sum-adin and his younger brother, Mero-
menia, Upper Mesopotamia, the country of dach-bel-usati, Shalmane.ser II. invaded that
the Upper Tigris, the Hittites, the Patena, kingdom ostensibly to aid its legitimate sov-
the Tibareni. the Hamathites, and the Syr- ereign, but reall)- for his own aggrandize-
ment. He at once seized several Babylonian ments of war. The coalition at once fell to
towns, and in the following year he defeated pieces, and the Hamathites and Hittites
and killed the pretender to the Babylonian submitted to the conqueror's 3-oke, Damas-
crown, entered Babylon and invaded Chal- cus being deserted by her allies.
daea, the countiy along the Persian Gulf, The next year Shalmaneser II. advanced
then independent of Babylon, and compelled against the Syrians of Damascus, who were
its kings to become his tributaries. He in- strongly posted in the Anti-Lebanon fast
the power nesses, and wêre under the leadership of
'
forms us in his inscriptions that '
of his army struck terror as far as the sea." their new king, Hazael, who had treacher-
The wars of Shalmaneser II. in Southern ously murdered Ben-hadad. Hazael raised
Syria began in the ninth year of his reign. an immense army, including over eleven
He had extended his dominion in Northern hundred chariots, and took a strong position
Syria over the Patena and most of the in the mountain range dividing the king-
Northern Hittites. Alarmed at the rapid doms of Damascus and Hamath, where he
growth of the Assyrian power, Ben-hadad, was attacked and utterly defeated by the
King of Damascus; Tsakhulena, King of Assyrian king, losing sixteen thousand men,
Hamatli; Ahab, King of Israel; the kings of eleven hundred and twenty-one chariots, a
the southern Hittites; the kings of the Phoe- large amount of war material and his camp.
nician cities upon the coast, and others, This blow completely broke the power of
formed an alliance, but their combined forces Damascus, and three years later Hazael
were defeated by the King of Assyria, with made no resistance when Shalrnaneser II.
the loss of twenty thousand men killed in again invaded Syria and took and plundered
battle, while many chariots and much war his towns. In his inscription, Shalmaneser
material fell into the hands of the vicftori- II. .says: "I went to the towns of Hazael
oua Assyrians. of Damascus, and took part of his provis-

Five years later, in the eleventh year of his ions." He next saj's: " I received the trib-
reign, Shalmaneser II. again took the field utes of Tyre, Sidon and Byblus." Jehu,
against Hamatli and the Southern Hittites. King of Israel
— ".son of Omri," as he is
Suddenly invading their territories, he took called in the Assyrian inscription — sent a
many towns without resist-
ance ;but Ben-hadad of Da-
mascus joined the Hittites,
and though the allies were
again defeated by the Assyrian
monarch, the latter did not
succeed in extending his sway
over Southern Syria. Three
years afterward, Shalmaneser
II. again attempted the con-
quest of Southern Syria. Col-

ledling his people "in multi-
tudes that were not to be
counted," he crossed the Eu-
phrates with an anny of more
JEHU'S EMUAbSV BEFORE SHALMANESER II.
than a hundred thousand men
and marched southwards. This time he quantity of gold and silver, in bullion and
gained a decisive vicflon,' over the allied manufacftured articles, as tributes to the
armies Ben-hadad of Dama.scus, the
of Assyrian monarch. Sculptures at Nimmd
Hamathites and the Hittites, who fled in represent the Israelitish ambassadors pre-
dismay, losing many chariots and imple- senting this tribute to Shalmaneser II., the
4
)
POLITICAL I//S 7Y)A' '.
157
^:-;S'\«ir'7'~: -''',•.';', '-'''V-'Vs'
)f;..,..^':^.-.. .,1 /->-,_.;

>^. ri -1.' .
."'"i-. ,
.
...-,.,. I w-*-.-''ll-'^
MSU'
), ,1-., % ; !,- 'y.;i "-'<<^^''.. -.- i-j--^
wmsi " -K
LMAMASiAf I >r 1[HU Rul D

ftEL rALA S DE Ê POD IX S '«
yilfliililllllllllH^ll^'lliii^'i'li^^'lll|M^lllln^ll!^ll l'|li'|l'''l'i"'''"'''i"''':'lMi;i:l.'
THE BLACK CHiKUSK Ol- SHALMANESER II.

,
158 ANCIENT HISTOR Y.— ASSYRIA.

articles appearing' carried in the hands or on copper bars and cubes, goblets, elephants'
the shoulders of the envoys." tusks, tissues, etc., and are carried in the
Like his distinguished father, Shalman- hand; but there are also animals, such as
eser II. had great taste for architecture and horses, camels, monkeys and baboons of va-
the other arts. He completed the :-iggurat rious types, stags, lions, wild bulls, ante-
of the great temple of Nin at Calah, which lopes, and the rhinoceros and elephant.
his father had commenced. He also built a As already related, the Israelites are one of
more splendid palace than the one eredled the nations offering tribute. The others
by his father on the same lofty platform of will now be noticed. The people of Kirzan,
that city, about one hundred and fifty yards a country adjoining Armenia, present gold,
from the former palace. This is known as silver, copper, horses and camels, and occupy
Central Palace of the Nimrud plat- the four highest compartments with
' '
the ' ' nine
form, and was disco\'ered by Mr. Layard on envoys. The Muzri, or people of Muzr, or
his first expedition. The ruined condition Musr, as we have obser\-ed, almost in the
of this magnificent edifice rendered it impos- same region, bring various wild animals and
sible for its modern discoverer to obtain a fill the four central compartments with six
clear idea of its ornamentation. Two mass- envoys. The Tsukhi, or Shuhites, from the
ive winged man-headed bulls partiallj^ de- Euphrates, are represented h\ thirteen en-
stroyed, in the grand portals of this great voys, bringing two lions, a stag and various
strudture, and the sculptured fragments of precious objecfts, such as metal bars, ele-
bas-reliefs, which must have adorned its phant tusks, and shawls or tissues; and are
walls, illustrate its points of similarity to given four compartments below the Muzri.
Asshur-izir-pal's great edifice. The sculp- The Patena, from the Orontes, fill three of
tures of Shalmaneser's palace were on a the lowest compartments, with a train of
grander scale and more mythological than twelve envoys bearing gifts similar to those
tho.se of his father's building. of the Israelites. A stele of Shalmaneser II.
A famous monument of Shalmancser II. closely resembling those of his father, was
isan obelisk in black marble, in shape and brought to the British Museum from Kurkh
general arrangement resembling that of his in 1S63.
handsomer
father already described, but of a Calah. where he and his father built their
and better material. This obelisk was dis- great palaces, was the usual capital of Shal-
covered lying prostrate under the rubbish maneser II. ; but he sometimes held his court
covering Shalmaneser's palace. It contained in the new city of Nineveh, and also in the
ba.s-reliefs intwenty compartments, five on old capital, Asshur. At the latter place
each of its four sides, the space about them he left a monument in the .shape of a stone
being covered with minute cuneiform in- statue representing a king seated, which
scriptions; the whole in an excellent state was found by Mr. Layard in a nuitilated
of preservation. It is somewhat smaller condition. In his later years Shalmaneser
than Asshur-izir-pal's obelisk, being only II. was troubled by a dangerous rebellion of
seven feet high and twenty-two inches on his eldest son, the heir apparent to the crown,
its broad face. Its proportions make it more Asshur-danin-pal. The rebellious prince
solid-looking and taper less than the former had a powerful popular support, and was
obelisk. The Shalman-
bas-reliefs represent proclaimed king at Asshur, at Arbela in the
eser II., accompanied by his and other vizier Zab region, at Amidi on the Upper Tigris,
chief officers, receiving tribute from five at Tel-Apni near the site of Orfa, and in
nations, whose envoys are ushered into the more than a .score of other fortified places.
royal presence by officials of the court, and The aged monarch called his second son,
prostrate themselves at the feet of the Great Shamas-Vul, to the command of the loyal
King before they present their offerings. troops, and this prince reduced the rebellious
The gifts are mostly articles of gold, silver, cities in succession and soon completely
PL )l.rriCAL HIS 71 >A' } •
159
crushed the revolt. Asshur-danin-pal, the beyond Amanus, the region between the
rebellious crown-prince, forfeited his claims two belonging to theTibareni (Tubal), who
to the crown by his treason, and is supposed had submitted as tributaries. The northern
to have been put to death; while his younger limits were the Niphates range "the high —
brother and conqueror, Shamas-Vul, became grounds over the affluents of the Tigris and
the heir to his father's kingdom, to which the Euphrates" —
where Shalmaneser II.,
he shortly' afterwards succeeded, upon Shal- setup "an image of his majesty." The
maneser's death, in B. C. 823, after an a(5live eastern frontier was in the central Zagro.s
and glorious reign of thirty-five years. region, the tra<5l between the Lower Zab and
Shamas-Vul II. reigned thirteen years, Holwan, then called Hupuska. On the
from B. C. 823 to B. C. 810. We will now south the Assyrian kingdom was still
briefly notice the extent of the Assyrian do- bounded by the territories of the Baby-
minion at his accession. Since the time of lonians and Chaldaeans, who j'et remained
Tiglath-Pileser I. the limits of the A.ssyrian unconquered.
Empire had been extended in different direc- These conquests and changes, which con-
tions, but mainly toward the west and the verted Assyria's former enemies into sub-
north-west. In this diredlion the Assyrian jedts, brought the empire into contadl with
limits had been pushed bej'ond the Euphrates new enemies on her western, northern and
over all Northern Syna, over Phoenicia, Ha- eastern sides. In the west the Assvrians
Ab.SVRIANS GLIiNi; Tu H.\TT1.1'..
math, and Samaria, or the Israelite kingdom. came in collision with the Syrians of Damas-
These countries were not, however, reduced cus, and with the kingdom of Judah,
to the condition of provinces; they still re- through their tributary', Samaria, or Israel.
mained under their own native kings, and In the north-west they found new foes in
retained their administration and laws ; but the Ouin, or Coans, who occupied the
they were virtually subje(5l to Assyria, as farther side of Amanus, near the Tibareni,
they acknowledged the suzerainty of the in a portion of what was subsequenth- called
Assyrian monarch, paid him an annual trib- Cilicia, and the Cilicians also, who are now
ute, and allowed his armies a free passage first mentioned. The Moschi had migrated
through their territories. On the west the from this section. On the north the Anne-
Assj'rian Empire extended to the Mediter- nians were at this time Assyria's onlj- neigh-
ranean, from the Gulf of Iskanderun to bors. Toward the east were the Manual, or
Cape Camiel or to Joppa. The north-western Minni, about Lake T 'nnniyeh; the Kharkhar,
boundary- was the Taurus mountain range in the Van region and in North-westera
i6o ANCIENT HISrOR Y.— ASSYRIA.
Kurdistan; the Bartsu, or Persians, then in dered and burned, and the Assyrian mon-
South-eastern Armenia; the Mada, or Medes, arch went in hot pursuit of the flying foe.
east of the Zagros; and the Tsimri, or Zimri, Shamas-Vul II. next defeated the Babylon-
in ITpper Luristan. These new neighbors ian king, Merodach-belatzu-ikbi, at the
and enemies were all weak, and no power- head of an allied host of Babylonians, Ara-
fully-organized monarchy at this time ex- maeans, or Syrians, and Zimri, on the river
isted to contest with Assyria the dominion Daban; the allies losing five thousand killed,
of Western Asia. The Medes and Persians, two thousand made prisoners, one hundred
afterwards so celebrated as powerful nations, chariots, two hundred tents and the Baby-
at this period were no more important than lonian royal standard and pavilion. The
the other insignificant tribes and nations annals of Shamas-Vul II. here abruptly ter-
upon the Assyrian borders. Neither of these minate; but it appears from other circum-
kindred Ar>ân peoples had yet a capital stances that from this time, for over half a
cit}-, neither was united under one sovereign, century-. Babylonia, which had for a long
but each was divided into many tribes, time been a separate and independent king-
headed by chiefs, and dispersed in scattered dom, was reduced to the condition of a
and defenseless towns and villages. They tributan,-.
were thus in the same condition as the Nairi, The stele of Shamas-Vul II. contains one
the Qummukh, the Patena, the Hittites and allusion to a hunting exploit, stating that he
other frontier nationalities whose compara- killed se\-eral wild bulls at the foot of the
tive weakness Assyria had demonstrated to Zagros, while leading his expedition against
the world in a long course of wars in which Babylonia. His stele consists of a single
she had uniformly triumphed. figure in relief, representing the king in his
Like his father, Shalmaneser II. Shamas-, priestly dress, wearing the sacred symbols
Vul II. resided principally at Calah, where round his neck, standing with his right arm
he, like his father and grandfather, set up upraised, and enclosed in the usual arched
an obelisk, or rather a stele, to commemo- frame. This figure is somewhat larger than
rate his exploits. This monument, covered life, and is cut on a single solid stone, and
on three sides with an inscription in the then set on a larger block serving for a ped-
hieratic, or cursive characfter, contains an estal. The figure closely re.sembles that of
opening invocation to the god Nin, con- Asshur-izir-pal, already described.
ceived in the usual terms, the king's gene- Shamus-Vul II., upon his death, in B. C.
alogy and titles, an account of Asshur-da- 8 ID, was succeeded on the Assyrian throne by
nin-pal's rebellion and its suppression, and his son VuL-LUSH III., who reigned twenty-
Shamas-Vul's own annals for the first four nine years, from B. C. 8io to B. C. 781.
years of his reign. These infonn us that The .scant}' memorials of this king consist
he exhibited the same acflive and energetic of two slabs found atNimrud, of a short
spirit as his father and grandfather, con- dedicatory inscription on duplicate statues
ducting campaigns against the Nairi on the of the god Nebo, brought from the same
north, Media and Arazias on the east, and place, of some brick inscriptions from the
Bab}lonia on the south. The people of Nebbi-Yunus mound of Nineveh, and of
Hupuska, the Minni, and the Bartsu, or short notices of the regions in which he
him tribute.
Persians, paid conducted campaigns, contained in one copy
The fourth campaign of Shamas-Vul II. of the Assyrian Canon.
was against Babylonia, which country he Vul-lush III.was as warlike as any of his
entered from the north-east. He took a predecessors, and extended the Assyrian do-
strongly-fortified position of the Babj-lonians minion in every direction. He led seven
thousand of
after a vigorous siege, eighteen expeditions across the Zagros mountains into
the garrison l)eing and three thousand
.slain, Media, two into the Van region, and three
made prisoners, while the city was plun- into Syria. He says that in one of his
POLITICAL HISTORY. i6r
Syrian expeditions he reduced Damascus, a centur\- later, she was already, as described
whose kings had defied the repeated at- by the Hebrew prophet Ezekiel, "a cedar
tacks of Shahnaneser II. He counts as of Lebanon," who.se "height was exalted
his tributaries in this region, besides Da- above all the trees of the field; and his
mascus, the Phoenician Tyre and
cities of boughs were multiplied, and his branches
Sidon, and the countries of Khumri, or Sa- became long," and "under his shadow
maria; Palestine, or Philistia; and Hudxnn dwelt great nations."
( Edom, or Idumâ ). On the north he Vul-lush III. calls himself the "restorer
received tokens of submission from the of noble buildings which had gone to de-
Nairi, the Minni, the Mada, or Medes, cay." On the Nimrud mound, between the
and the Bartsu, or Persians. On the south north-western and south-western palaces, are
he ruled Babj'lonia like a so\êreign, re- chambers built by him, and on the Nebbi-
ceived homage from the Chaldjeans, and Yunus mound of Nineveh are the ruins of
in the great cities of Babylon, Borsippa and a palace erecled bj- him. The walls of the
Cutha, or Tiggaba, he was permitted to sacri- Nimrud chambers were plastered, and then
fice to the gods Bel, Nebo and Nergal. In painted in fresco with patterns of winged
one place he styles himself "the king to bulls, zigzags, squares, circles, etc. The
whose son Asshur, the chief of the gods, has superstitious regard of the nati\-es for the
:
granted the kingdom of Babylon

'
from ' supposed tomb of the prophet Jonah has

which it has been inferred that he appointed thus far thwarted all efforts of Europeans to
his own son viceroy of Babylon. explore the Nebbi-Yunus palace.
Thus, by the time of \'ul-lush III., early Sir Henr\- Rawlinson disco^•ered two rude
in the eighth century before Christ, Assyria statues of thegod Nebo in a temple at Nim-
was master of Babylonia in the south, and rud dedicated to that deitj- by Vul-lush III.,
of Philistia and Edom in the west. Her do- along with four colossal statues of the same
minion thus skirted the Persian Gulf on the god, and two others resembling those now
one hand and came into conta(5l with Egj-pt in the British Museum. These statues dis-
on the other. At the same time she re- play no artistic merit, as Assyrian sculptors
ceived the submission of some of the Median were trammeled by precedent and conven-
tribes on the east; and held Southern Arme- tional rules in religious subjects, and in rep-
nia, from Lake \'an to the sources of the resentations of kings and nobles, being thus
Tigris, on the north. She was in possession limited by law or custom to certain ancient
of all Northren Sj^ria, including Comma- forms and modes of expression, which we
gene and Amanus, and had tributaries be- see repeated with uniform monotony through
yond that mountain range. She ruled su- all the periods of Assyrian historj-.
preme over the entire Syrian coast from Issus These statues are interesting as containing
to Gaza; and her sway was acknowledged inscriptions showing that they were offered
bj- all the tribes and kingdoms between the to Nebo by an officer who was governor of
Mediterranean coast and the Syrian desert, Calah, Khamida (Amadiyeh) and three other
such as the Phoenicians, the Hamathites, places for the life of Vul-lu.sh III. and of his
the Patena, the Hittites, the Syrians of Da- wife, Sammuramit, "that the god might
mascus, the Israelites, or Samarians, and lengthen the monarch's life, prolong his
the Edomites, or Idumseans. In the east days, increase his years, and give jêace to
she had .subjugated nearlj- the whole region his house and people, and victory to his
of the Zagros, and had tributaries in the armies." This Sammuramit, wife of Vul-
highlands on the east side of that range. lush III., has been identified as the legend-
On th^ south she had either absorbed Babj-- ary Semiramis, whom the Greek historians
lonia, or made her influence supreme in that represented as a woman of masculine quali-
kingdom. Although she had not attained ties, the mightiest queen that ever reigned,
the highest pinnacle of her greatness until and whose conquests rivaled or surpassed
—
l62 ANCIENT HISTORY.— ASSYRIA.

those of Cyrus the Great or Alexander the as his expedition against Menahem is fol-
Great. This Sammuramit, or Semiramis, the lowed, at most, thirty-two years later, by
Babylonian wife of Vul-lush III., gave that an expedition by Tiglath-Pileser II. against
king his title to the Babylonian dominions, Pekah, King of Israel. Berosus represented
and reigned jointly with him both in Baby- Pul as a Chaldsean king, whom Polyhistor
lonia and Assyria. The exaggerated stories calls Pulus, and is believed to be the Porus
of this princess, as transmitted to modern mentioned in the Canon of Ptolemy.
times through the accounts of Herodotus During this interval of Assyrian darkness
and Ctesias, have been exploded in the pres- and decay, under the first three successors
ent century; the renowned German histori- of Vul-lush III., the frontier kingdoms be-
ans, Heeren and Niebuhr, first pronouncing gan to assert their power and independence.
the story of her conquering career a myth, Babylon, which had remained under Assyr-
and patient explorers in the field of Assyrian ian sway since its conquest bj- Shamas-Vul
antiquity substituting for the shadowy mar- II. , the father and immediate predecessor of
vel of Ctesias a very prosaic Assyrian queen, Vul-lush III., reestablished its independence
a very common-place Babylonian princess, under Nabonas.sar in B. C. 747, from which
who never reall}' executed great works or point— thereafter known as the Era of Na-
performed great exploits. bonassar— the Babylonians thereafter reck-
With the death of Vul-lu.sh III., in B. C. oned time. Enterprising Kings of Israel,
781, ended the brilliant Calah line of Assyr- such as Jeroboam II. and Menahem, also
ian sovereigns; and for a period of almost cast off the Assyrian j'oke and extended
forty years A.ssyrian historj- is again in- their own dominions, as did the tribes of
volved in partial obscurit}'. The Ass3'rian Armenia and the Zagros region. The
Canon informs us that three monarchs reign of Asshur-dayan III. was disturbed
reigned during this interval Shalmaneser by three foniiidable rebellions in the heart
HI. from B. C. 781 to B. C. 771, Asshur- of Assyria itself —
one at the city of Libzu,
DAY.'i.N III. from B. C. 771 to B. C. 753, and another Arapkha, the chief town of
at
Asshur-lush from B. C. 753 to B. C. 745. Arrapachitis, and a third at Gozan, the
During this short period Assj-rian conquests chief city of Gauzanitis, or Mygdonia. The
ceased, Assyrian glory for the time had inscriptions do not inform us of the re-
pa.ssed away, and a general decline seems to .sults of these revolts, but the degenerac}- of
have set in. None of these three kings left the military spirit, and the \'oluptuous and
any important buildings, memorials or luxurious disposition of the kings, give
monumental records. The onward march ground for the belief that the attempts made
of this great empire, which remained un- to subdue the rebels were failures. Asshur-
checked for over a century, was thus brought dayan III. and Asshur-lush spent their
to a .sudden halt. reigns mostly in inaction and inglorious
At this point there is an apparent contra- ease at their rich and luxurious capitals.
didlion between the native Assyrian records At the close of this period of darkness and
and the incidental allusions to their history decline, Calah, the .second city of the king-
as found in the Second Book of Kings. The dom, revolted, and thus inaugurated the
Scriptural Pul the —King of As,syria who
'
'
'
' dynastic and revolution which

political
came up against the land of Israel and re- ushered in the brilliant period of the New or
ceived from Menahem a thousand talents of Lower Assyrian Empire, founded by the
silver, "that his hand might be with him to great Tiglath-Pileser II.
confirm the kingdom in his hand" — is not It has been supposed that it was during
mentioned in the Assyrian inscriptions, and this period of general national weakness
is not named in the A.ssyrian Canon. The and decay, when an unwarlike sovereign
Scrii)ture records would make Pul the im- was reveling in inglorious ease amid the
mediate predecessor of Tiglath-Pileser II.; luxuries and refinements of Nineveh, and
)
POLITIL AL JUS Tl >A' '.
163
when the Ninevites had abaudoued them- threatened destrucflion, was the Jewish
selves to vicious indulgences, that they were prophet Jonah. He sat in vain outside the
suddeul}- startled bj' a strange voice in their eastern limits of the city, waiting to behold
streets uttering the solemn warning: "Yet the destrucflion which he expected that the
forty days, and Nineveh shall be over- Lord Jehovah would visit upon the "great
thrown!" A strange wild man clad in a
'
city, which then is said to have had six

'
'
'
—
rude gannent of skin a traveler unknown score thousand persons that could not dis-
to the inhabitants, pale, emaciated, wearj^ — cern between their right hand and their
proclaimed in every quarter of the great and left." The expedted doom was not inflidled
luxurious city: "Yet forty days, and Nin- in fort}^ days, and Nineveh was not over-
eveh shall be overthrown! " Coming as this thrown until more than a century later.
cry did, when the glory of Assyria had de- With TiGLATH-PiLESER II., wlio became
parted, and when it had to defend its own King of A.ssyria in B. C. 745, began theJVcw
existence against the foes it had subdued in or Lowe}- Assyrian Empire (B. C. 745-625)
the da>s of its former prosperity, the people — the third and last, and the most brilliant,
were seized with consternation and alann. period of Assyrian history. Tiglath-Pile.ser
This dismay invaded the royal palace, and II. was thus the restorer of Assyrian great-
his frightened servants came and told the
'
' ness. The circumstances of his accession

King of Nineveh," who then sat on his are iniknown to us, but he was the founder
throne in the great audience-chamber, sur- of a new dynasty, and Rawlinson thinks he
rounded b}- all the wealth, luxun,-, pomp was a usurper, and places no reliance upon
and magnificence of his court. The mon- the story- of Bion and Polyhistor that this
arch at once "arose from his throne, and monarch ro.se from the humble station of a
laid aside his robe from him, and covered vine-dresser who had been employed in keep-
himself with sackcloth and ashes." After ing in order the king's gardens. In his in-
having an edidl framed, he "caused it to scriptions Tiglath-Pileser II. is repeatedly-
be proclaimed and published through Nin- represented as speaking of "the kings his
eveh, by the decree of the king and his no- fathers," and as calling the royal palaces at
bles, Let neither man nor beast,
saying. Calah "the palaces of his fathers," but he
herd nor flock, taste anything; let them not never gives the name of his actual father in
feed, nor drink water; but let man and beast an}- record that has come to the eye of mod-
be covered with sackcloth, and cry mightily ern archaeologists and antiquarians. This
unto God; yea,them turn everj' one
let circumstance gives ground for the conclu-
from his evil way, and from the violence sion that he owed his possession of the
that is in their hands." The fast thus com- crown, not to the legitimate title of heredi-
manded by royal authority was at once pro- tary- succession, but to the fortunes of a suc-
claimed, and the Ninevites, fearing the Di- cessful re\-olution which displaced the pre-
vine wrath, clothed theni.selves in sackcloth ceding d\-nasty.
'
' from the greatest of them even to the least Tiglath-Pileser II. undertook to effedl the
of them." From joy and merriment, from restoration of the A.ssyrian Empire by a
revelry and feasting, the great city turned series of wars upon his different frontiers,
to lamentation and mourning. The people seeking by his iniwearied activity and tire-
abandoned their vices and humbled them- less energ>- to recover the losses occasioned
selves; they " turned from their evil way," by the imbecility of his predecessors. The
and by a sincere repentance of their past chronological order of these wars, which
sins thej- sought to avert their threatened was previously unknown, is now definitely
doom. The haggard and travel-stained determined by the A.ssyrian Canon. Among
stranger who had alarmed the inhabitants his man\- military expeditions only those
of this great capital and metropolis to re- undertaken into Babylonia and vSyria are of
pentance, by announcing to them their any con.sequence. The expeditious of Tig-
) . —
164 ANCIENT HIS TOR Y. —A SS YRIA

latli-PileserII. against Babylon occurred Sj'rian wars of Tiglath-Pileser II. The
and fifteenth j-ears of his reign,
in the first common danger united Pekah, King of Sa-
B. C. 745 and 731. As soon as he was maria, and Rezin, King of Damascus, in a
fimily seated upon his throne he led an close alliance; and when Ahaz, King of
army against Babylon, over which, accord- Judah, refused to unite with them they in-
ing to the Canon of Ptolemy, Nabonassar vaded his kingdom and attempted to de-
throne him and put
' '
then reigned, and against the other petty the son of Tabeal
' in '
Chaldcean princes, among whom was Mero- his place. Ahaz applied to the King of As-
dach-Baladan, who reigned in his father's syria for help, offering to be his "servant"
city of Bit-Yakin. After attacking and de- —
his vassel and tributary if he came to his
feating several of these princes, and taking relief. Tiglath-Pileser II. gladly came to
the towns of Kurri-galzu ( now Akkerkuf the rescue of Ahaz, and with a large anny
and Sippara, or Sephar\-aim, and other places he entered Syria, defeated Rezin and besieged
in Chaldaea, Tiglath-Pileser II. compelled him in Damascus for two j-ears, when he
Merodach-Baladan to acknowledge him as was taken captive and slain. The Assj'rian
suzerain and agree to pay an annual tribute, king then invaded Samaria: and the tribes
whereupon the Assyrian monarch assumed of Reuben and Gad, and the half tribe of
the title of "King of Babylon" and offered Manasseh, who occupied the provinces east
sacrifice to the Babylonian gods in all the of the Jordan, were carried captiA'e to As-
chief cities (B. C. 729). syria and colonized in Upper Mesopotamia,
The first Syrian war of Tiglath-pileser II. on the affluents of the Bilikh and the
began in the third year of his reign (B. C. Khabour, from about Harran to Nisibis.
743), and lasted five years. During its pro- Some cities on the west bank of the Jordan,
gress he conquered Damascus, which had in the territory of Issachar, but belonging
recovered its independence and was governed to Manasseh —

among which were Megiddo,
by Rezin. He also subdued Syria, where in the plain of Esdraelon, and Dur, or Dor,
Menahem, Pul's old foe, was still reigning. —

upon the coast were also seized and occu-
He likewise reduced Tyre, whose reigning pied by the conquering Assyrians; and As-
common name of Hiram.
sovereign bore the syrian governors were placed over Dur and
The Assyrian monarch also subjedled Ha- the other leading cities of Southern Syria.
math, Gebal and the Arabs bordering upon Tiglath-Pileser II. then marched south-
Egypt, who were ruled by a queen named ward and subdued the Philistines and the
Khabiba. He also defeated a large anny Arab tribes of the Sinaitic peninsula as far
under Azariah, or Uzziah, King of Judah, as the borders of Egypt. He deposed the
but failed to reduce him to submission. native queen of these Arabs, and put an
Tiglath-Pileser II. did not conquer Judaea, Assyrian governor in her place. Returning
Idumaea, Philistia, Phcenicia, or the tribes of to Damascus, he there received the submis-
the Hauran, in hisfirst war; aud in B. C. 734 sion of the neighboring states and tribes;
he renewed the struggle by an attack on and before he left Syria he received submis-
Samaria, whose kiog at that time was sion and Ahaz, King of Judah;
tribute from
Pekah, and taking " Ijon, and Abel-beth- Mit'enna, King of Tyre; Pekah, King of
maachah, and Janoali, and Kedesh, and Samaria; Khanun, King of Gaza; Mitinti,
Hazor, and Gilead, and Galilee, and all the King of Ascalon; and from the Moabites,
land of Naphtali, and carr\'ing them cap- the Ammonites, the people of Ar\-ad, or
tive to Assyria," thus "lightly afflicting the Aradus, and the Idumâns. Thus Tiglath-
land of Zebulun and the land of Naphtali," Pileser II. fully reestablished the Assyrian
or the more northern part of the Holy Land, power in Syria, and restored to his emjiire
about Lake Merom, and thence to the Sea the territorj' from the Mediterranean on
of Gennesareth. the west to the Syrian desert on the east,
Then followed the most important of the and from Mount Amanus on the north to
POLITICAL JUSTORY. 165
the Red vSea and the frontiers of I'-gypt on he had sent messengers to So, King of
the south. Egypt, and brought no present to the King
Tiglath-Pileser II. afterwards .sent an- of Assyria, as he had done year by year."
other expedition into Syria, to ([ucll the dis- The Pharaohs of Egypt had been
native
orders occasioned hy the revolt of Mit'cnna, friendly to Assyria, but the Ethiopian dy-
King of Tyre, and the a.s.sassination of nasty which had recently conquered Egj'pt
Pekah, King of Israel, by Hoshea. The was the natural foe of the A.ssyrians, and
Tyrian king quickly submitted, and Ho.shea gladl\- accepted the proposals of Hoshea for
agreed to govern his kingdom only as an an alliance against Shalmaneser IV. Hoshea
Assyrian province; \vhereni)on the Assyrian then revolted against the Assyrian monarch,
anny retired beyond the Ivuphrates. withheld his tribute and declared his inde-
Calah was the chosen residence of Tig- pendence. Shalmaneser at once invaded
lath-Pile.ser II. Here he repaired and Judah a second time, and seized, bound and
adorned the palace of Shalmaneser II., imprisoned Hoshea. A year or two later
whose ruins are now in the center of the Shalmaneser led a third expedition into
Nimriid mound. Here he also erecfted a Syria and "came up throughout all the
new edifice, the most splendid of his struc- land," and laid siege to Samaria, B. C. 724.
tures. The sculptures which embellished But the siege lasted two 3-ears, on account
Shalmaneser' s palace were afterwards u.sed of the heroic resistance of the iidiabitants,
by Esar-haddon to adoni his own palace. aided by the Egyptians; and the city was
The new palace which Tiglath-Pileser II. only taken after the reign of Shalmaneser
built,was afterward ruined by some invader, \\ . had been ended by a .successful revo-
and then built upon by the last Assyrian lution.
king. The excavations of this palace by While engaged in the .siege of Samaria,
Messrs. Layard and Loftus have revealed Shalmaneser IV. was likewi.se prosecuting
the ground-plan of the edifice, showing its hostilities against the Phoenician cities,
arrangements of courts and halls and cham- which had also revolted against Assyria
bers, and the sculptures which ornamented death of Tiglath-Pileser II. Shal-
after the
the walls, representing animal forms, such maneser quicklj- overran Phcenicia in the
as camels, oxen, .sheep, goats, etc. firstyear of his reign, and forced all the re-
The Assyrian Canon gives Tiglath-Pileser volted cities to submit to the Assyrian yoke.
II. a reign of eighteen years, from B. C. Insular Tyre soon again revolted; whereupon
745 to B. C. 727. He was succeeded by Shalmaneser reentered Phcenicia, and col-
Sh.\lm.\nesER IV. It is not known wheth- lecfling a fleet from the other Phoenician
er this monarch was related to his prede- cities, Sidon, Pala;-Tyrus and Akko, he
cessor or not, but he is supposed to have began the siege of Tyre. His sixty ves.sels
been his son. Shalmaneser IV. reigned were manned by eight hundred Phoenician
only between five and six years (B. C. rowers, cooperating with a smaller number
727-722). Soon after he became king he of unskilled Assyrians. Shalmaneser' s large
terrified Hoshea, King of Judah, into a fleet, however, was easily routed and dis-
renewal of his submission, so that "Ho- persed, with the loss of five hundred pris-
shea became his sen'ant and gave him oners, by a Tyrian fleet of only twelve
presents," or "rendered him tribute." vessels manned by skillful seamen. Shal-
Tile arrears of tribute were rendered and maneser thereupon abandoned a(5li\-e opera-
the homage of the vassal king to his lord tions against the de\-oted city, but left a
were paid. But soon afterward Hoshea, body of troops on the main-land to cut off" the
disregarding his engagements, was seeking supplies of water which the T\-rians were in
the alliance of the King of Egypt. Says the habit of drawing from the river Litany,
the Second Rook of Kings: "And the King and from the aqueducfls which conducted
of Assyria found conspiracy in Hoshea; for the water from springs in the mountains.
.
1 66 ANCIENT HIS T( ^RY.— A SS YRIA

The Tyrians heroicall)' held out against not fully reduced to subje(flion. In the
this pressure for five years, using rain- same year, B. C. 722, Samaria surren-
water, which they collecTied in reser\-oirs, dered to Sargon' s generals, after its two
to quench their thirst. It is not known years' siegebegun by Shalmaneser IV.

whether they submitted, or whether the Sargon punished the devoted city by depos-
siege was abandoned, as the quotation from ing its native king and placing an Assyrian
Menander, our only authority on this point, governor over it instead, and by carrying
here breaks off aljruptly. into slavery 27,280 of its inhabitants. On
Before either of the two great militarv^ en- those who remained he re-imposed the rate
reign were concluded, Shal-
ter[3rises of his of tribute to which the city had been sub-
maneser IV. was hurled from his throne by jecfled before its revolt. The next year, B.
a successful revolution, which put the C. 721, Sargon was obliged to lead an expe-
usurper Sargon in his place. The monu- dition into Syria to quell a formidable revolt.
ments furnish us no knowledge of the cir- The usurper, Yahu-bid, or Ilu-bid, King of
cumstances concerning this usurpation, be- Hamath, had headed a rebellion, in which the
yond the mere absence of Shalmaneser in cities of Arpad, Zimira, Damascus and Sa-
Syria; but it is believed that discontent, maria had participated; but the allied rebels
caused by the distress in consequence of the were defeated by Sargon at Karkar, or Gar-
king's long absence from the capital of his gar, Yahu-bid and the other revolted leaders
empire, and by his failure to speedily reduce being taken prisoners and put to death.
Samaria and Tyre, encouraged Sargon in Having crushed this revolt in Syria, Sar-
his usurpation. The usurper's station must gon marched southward against the Egyp-
previously have been obscure, or, at least, tians, who had extended their dominion over
mediocre, as no inscription can be found in a part of Philistia. At Rapikh, on the Medi-
which he glories in his ancestrj', or even terranean coast, half-way between Gaza and
names his father, as was the custom with Wady-el-Arish, or " River of Egypt" the —
the legitimate heirs and successors of Assyr- Raphia of the Greeks and Romans, and the
ian and Babylonian monarchs, but he only —
modern Refah the united forces of the
alludes to the Assyrian kings, in a general Philistines under Khanun, King of Gaza,
way, as his ancestors. Sargon, or Sargina, and tho,se of Sabaco, or Shabak, the Ethi-
means firm " " well-establi.shed opian King of Eg^-pt, were defeated by the
'
' the or
king." Assyrian monarch Khanun being made
;
Sargon determined to confirm his doubtful prisoner., and Shabak seeking safety in flight,
title to the throne by the prestige of mili- B. C. 720. Khanun was deprived of his
tary success, and at once began a series of crown and carried a captive by to Assyria
warlike expeditions. He condudled success- his conqueror. The Raphia is im-

battle of
ive wars in Susiana, in Syria on the borders portant as being the beginning of Egypt's
of Egypt, in the tract beyond Amanus, in subjecftion to the successive dominion of
Melitene and Southern Armenia, in Media Asiatic and European nations A.ssyrians, —
and in Chaldaea. His expeditions occupied Babylonians, Medo-Persians, Greeks, Ro-
the whole of the first fifteen years of his mans, vSaracens and Turks.
reign. Immediately upon his accession he After conducfling unimportant wars to-
invaded vSu.siana and defeated its king, ward the north and north-east, Sargon led
Hnnibanigas, and Merodach-Baladan, the another expedition towards the .south-west
old enenn' of Tiglath-Pileser II., who had in B. C. 715, five years after his vidlory at
revolted and made himself King of Baby- Raphia. He first chastised the Arab tribes
lonia. Though an important vicflory was who had made plundering raids into Syria,
thus gained, and many captives taken and during which "he subdued the uncultivated
transported to the country of the Hittites, plains of the remote Arabia, which had
'
the Susianian and Babvlonian kings were never before given tribute to Assyria. ' sub-
POLITICAL IIISl'OR Y. 167
je(5ted the Thaimidites and other Arab tribes, Sutruk-Nakhunta, King of Susiana, and
and settled a certain number of them in Sa- the Aramaean, or Syrian, tribes above Bal)y-
maria. The surrounding princes sought the lonia, to resi.st any attack by the Assyrian
conqueror's favor by sending him embassies monarch. Nevertheless when Sargon ad-
and offering to become Assyrian tributaries. vanced against Babylon, Merodach-Baladan
The King of Egypt, as well as It-hamar, fled to his own city, Beth-Yakin, leaving
King of the Sabaâns, and Tsamsi, the Arab garrisons under his generals in the more
queen, tlius became vassals to Sargon and important inland towns. At Beth-Yakin,
sent him presents. which was situated on the Euphrates, near
Four years afterward, B. C. 711, Sargon its mouth, the Babylonian king prepared for
conduc5led a third expedition into this region a stubborn resistance, summoning the Ara-
to punish Azuri, King of Ashdod, who had maeans to his assistance. He posted him-
revolted against the Assyrian monarch, self in the plain in front of the city, and
withheld his tribute and incited rebellion and left flank with a deep
proteefted his front
among the neighboring princes. Sargon ditch, which he filled with water from the
deposed Azuri and put his brother Akhimit Euphrates. Sargon soon appeared at the
on the throne of Ashdod in his stead; but head of his armj-, and defeated the Baby-
the people of this Philistine city refused to lonian troops and drove them into their
recognize Sargon's creature as their king, own dyke, where many of them were
and chose a certain Yaman, or Yavan, for drowned, while the allies were also driven
their ruler, who, to secure himself, entered away in headlong flight. Merodach-Baladan
into alliances with the other Philistine cities, shut himself up in Beth-Yakin, which was
and with Judah and Edom. Thereupon besieged and taken by Sargon. The Baby-
Sargon led an army against Ashdod, but lonian king himself became a prisoner, but
Yaman sought safety in flight, and "escaped his life was generously spared b)- his con-
to the dependencies of Egypt, which were queror, who, however, plundered the palace
under the rule of Ethiopia." The Assyrian and burned the city, and himself assumed
king besieged and took Ashdod, and Ya- the government of Babylonia, depriving
man's wife and children, with most of the Merodach-Baladan of his throne. In the
inhabitants, were transported to Assyria, Canon of Ptolemy, Sargon is called Arce-
while captives from other nations taken in anus.
Sargon's Eastern wars were colonized in Sargon then reduced the Aramaeans and
Ashdod, over which an Assyrian governor conquered a portion of Susiana, to which
was also placed. Shabak, or Sabaco, the countn,' he transported the Commukha from
Ethiopian king of Egypt, greatly terrified, the Upper Tigris, placing an Assyrian gov-
sent an embassy imploring his favor, and ernor over the mixed population, and mak-
surrendered the fugitive Yaman. In conse- ing dependent upon the A.ssyrian
him
quence of this suppliant attitude of the viceroy of Babylon. Thus the Assyrian
Ethiopian .sovereign of Egypt, "the Assyr- dominion was firmly established over Chal-
ian monarch boasts that the King of Meroe, daea, or Babylonia, whose power was now
who dwelt in the desert, and had never sent completely broken. Thenceforth, with a
ambassadors to any of the kings his prede- few brief intemiptions, Chaldasa remained
cessors, was led by the fear of his majesty an Assyrian dependency until the downfall
to diredl his steps towards Assyria and of the Ass>rian Em]iire in B. C. 625. Now
humbly bow down before him." and then, for a short interval, the unwilling
Sargon next led an expedition against .subject kingdom cast off the conqueror's
Babylon, over which Merodach-Baladan had yoke only to be again reduced to a more
been quieth^ reigning for twelve years. humiliating state of vassalage, until it event-
Having established his court at Babylon, unlU- submitted to the hand of fate and re-
Merodach-Baladan fonned alliances with mained (juiet. During the last half century
16S ANCIENT HIS TOR } '.—ASS YRIA.
of the Assj-rian Empire, from B. C. 680 to trj' which the Assyrians had wrested from
B. C. 625, Babylonia was one of the most Urza. Having rapidly overrun Media, Sar-
tranquil of its provinces. gon seized a number of towns and annexed '
'
While Sargon held his court at Babj-lon them to Assyria," thus reducing a large
in B. C. 708 or 707, he received embassies part of that country to the condition of an
from two quarters, both from
opposite Assyrian province. He erecfted a number
islanders dwelling in the middle of the
'
' of fortified posts in one part of the country,

that bordered on his dominions. One and imposed upon the Medes a tribute con-
'
seas '
embassy was sent by Upir, King of Asmun, sisting wholly of honses.

the ruler of the island of Khareg, or Bah- After the fourteenth year of his reign, B.
rein, in the Persian Gulf; and the other by C. 708, Sargon resigned the leadership of
seven kings of Cyprus —princes of a countr>' his armies entirely into the hands of his
which was located
'
' at the distance of seven generals. A disputed succession in Illib, a

days from the coast, in the sea of the setting small country on the borders of Susiana, in
sun" —who offered the great Oriental sov- B. C. 707, affisrded him an occasion for in-
ereign treasures of gold, silver, vases, logs terference in that quarter. Nibi, a pretend-
of ebony, and the manufadlures of their own er to the throne of Illib, had solicited the
country. By bestowing these presents the aid of Sutruk-Nakhunta, King of Elam, or

Cypriots acknowledged the suzerainty of Susiana, who held his court at Susa, from
the King of Assj^ria; and they carried home whom he received promises of support and
with them an effigy of their sovereign lord protecflion. The other claimant, named Is-
carvêd in the usual form, and bearing an in- pabara, thereupon sought and received the
scription recording his name and titles, assistance of Sargon, who
sent "seven cap-
which they .set up at Idalium, near the tains with seven armies, and these defeated
'
'
center of the island. This effigy of Sargon, the troops of the King of Susiana and estab-
found upon the sight of Idalium, is now in lished Ispabara on the throne of Illib. The
the Berlin Museum. In the inscriptions, next year, however, Sutruk-Nakhunta in-
"setting up the image of his majesty" is vaded Assyria, and took some of its cities
always a sign that a monarch has conquered and annexed them to his kingdom.
a country. Such images are sometimes rep- In all his wars Sargon made use of the
resented in the bas-reliefs. plan of wholesale deportation of populations.
Sargon' s expeditions to the north and Israeliteswere thus transferred from Sama-
north-east also yielded successful results; ria toGozan, or Mygdonia, and the cities of
and the mountain tribes of the Zagros, the the Medes. Armenians were colonized in Ha-
Taurus and the Niphates the Medes, the — math and Damascus. Tibarenians were set-
Armenians, the Tibarenians, the Moschians tled in Assyria, and Assyrians were trans-
—
and others were thus subdued. Ambris ported to the countr}' of the Tibarenians.
tlie Tibarenian, Mita the Moschian, and Mountaineers from the Zagros were likewise
Urza the Armenian had become allies carried captive to Assyria. Chaldaeans,
against their common foe, King of
the Arabians and others were established in
Assyria; and their submission was only Samaria. Medes and other Eastern people
forced after a long and fierce contest. Am- were placed in Ashdod. The Commukha
bris was deposed, and an Assyrian governor were removed from the extreme North to
was placed over his countr\-. Mita, after a Susiana, and Chaldaeans were brought from
resistance of many pay
years, onl)- agreed to the far South to supply their place. In
tribute. Urza committed .suicide, in despair every quarter of his dominions Sargon
at his defeat. But this region was only "changed the abodes" of his subjecfts, with
brought (juietly under tlie Assyrian yoke a view of weakening the more powerful
when the King of Van was conciliated by nationalities by di.spersion, and of .smother-
the cession to him of a large extent of coun- ing all patriotic impulses in the feebler races
POLITICAL lUSTOR Y. 169
by severing' at one stroke all the bonds of vated mound, and consisted of a series of
attachment Although
to their native land. structures ranged around inunen.se courts.
this system had been practised by fonner The main building occupied by the king
Assyrian kings, none had carried it out on was located at the bottom of the principal
so extensive and so grand a scale as Sargon. court, and had a perfectly regular fa9ade,
The splendid palace which this monarch with a magnificently-omamented gateway
had erected at Dur vSargina (City of Sargon), in the middle. Two-thirds of the north-
the modern Khorsabail, was the most strik- west part of the palace was occupied by the
ing of his great architectural works. It was grand reception hall and its large and mag-
not as large as the palaces built by previous nificent galleries, with walls ca.sed with
or subsequent kings, but it surpassed all bas-reliefs; one-third, to the .south-east, by
other royal residences by its magnificence the inhabited apartments, with smaller and
and grandeur, with the solitary exception less decorated rooms. Passages led into
of the great palace of Asshur-bani-pal at two of the .sides of the large court; one on
Nineveh. Its ornamentation was resplendent the north-west to a square esplanade, or
be>-ond description. was literally covered
It court, occupying the northern angle of the
with sculptures, both inside and outside, artificial mound of the palace, in front of a
generally arranged in two rows, one above building joining the north-west face of the
the other, and illu.strating the events in seraglio, with which
it had no communica-
Sargon' s wars, his battles and sieges, his tion intemall)-.This edifice was most pro-
captives, his treatment of prisoners, etc. fusely ornamented; it contained six im-
Above this it was embellished with en- mense halls decorated with sculpture, and
ameled bricks, fashioned in beautiful mod- some other smaller rooms. It was "a .second
els. Leading to this magnificent edifice palace grafted on to thefirst —
a second sela-
were noble flights of steps; and the structure mik, rivaling in splendor that of the serag-
stood by itself, .so that its appearance was glio." The pa.ssage leading into the .south-
not marred by the proximity of other build- east side of the reception hall of the serag-
ings. Its entrances and passages were lio opened to the lower platform, and to
guarded by colossal winged man-headed the great court of the offices. The lower
bulls and lions. It was in many partic- platform of the artificial hill raised for the
ulars the most interesting of As.S5-rian palace of Sargon was occupied by the khan
works. The city where this palace was and the harem. This part of the structure
located was surrounded with strong walls, faced towards the city, and connnunicated
enclosing a square two thousand ^-ards each directly with In the midst was the
it.
way. Assigning fifty square }'ards to each khan proper, enormous square court,
an
person, this space could have accommodated surrounded on every side by buildings, sta-
eighty thousand people. The cit)-, as well bles, lodgings for grooms and for most of
as the palace, was wholh- built by Sargon, the sla\'es. It was reached from the city by
whose name it bore until after the Arab two immense flights of steps in the center of
conquest in the seventh century after Christ. the south-east face of the terrace. As we
Sargon's palace is the most complete of have obser\-ed, an elaborately-decorated pas-
the Assyrian royal residences j-et unco\-ered. sage led from this court of the khan into
It exhibits the architecture, the decorative the reception hall of the seraglio. Two
art and sculpture of the A.ssyrians in their small doors likewise communicated directl)'
highest fonns. Like all other Assyrian with the occupied rooms of the palace. To
palaces, it stands on the summit of an im- the right of the khan was the khazneh, or
mense mound constructed of bricks. The treasury, with its many courts and cham-
mound was arranged in two platforms of bers, constituting some of the offices or com-
unequal height in the form of the letter T. mon rooms of the palace. Here were the
The palace proper was built on the more ele- stores of provisions for the royal hou.sehold,
1— ll.-U. H.
170 ANCIENT HIS TOR y.—ASS\ 'RIA.
and places for the custod}- of the vahiables had many long galleries and many rooms for
which Sargoii informs us, in his dedicatory habitation. The harem was shut in in the
inscription, that he had acquired by his closest possible manner; all communica-
conquests and stored in his palace. Adjoin- tion with the outside world was intercepted,
w
Q
<
O
-<!
z
A
w
{-
o
w
a.
o
H
en
SJ
ing the khazneh was the harem, containing [ and the women were virtually imprisoned,
three courts, the %valls of one of them being j
A solitarj' vestibule, guarded by eunuchs,
covered with rich decorations in enameled led to it by two i.ssues; one connedling with
bricks. Besides the three courts, the harem ,'
the great court of the offices being from
'
poi.rncAr. irrsroRV. 171
the outside; the other opening to a long, peciall)-, shows verj- remarkable accuracy.
narrow court leading to the inhabited apart- Sargon died in B. C. 705, after a glorious
ments of the seraglio, through which pass- reign of seventeen years, and was succeeded
age the king found access to the harem with- on the throne by his son, Sennacherib, the
out being exposed to the view of the public. most renowned of all the Assyrian kings,
Behind the harem was the Temple Court, and of whom w-e have such long notices in
consisting of an immense tower, or pyramid, the Old Testament. Sennacherib reigned
in seven stages, nearly fifty yards high. The twenty-four years, from B. C. 705 to B. C.
.seven stages, equally high, and each one 68 1. The sources which we have of the
.smaller in area than the one below it, were annals of his reign are the notices in the
covered with stucco of various colors, thus Hebrew some fragments of Polj--
Scriptures,
exhibiting to view the colors consecrated by Eusebius, a passage from
histor preserved
to the seven great celestial bodies, the least Herodotus mentioning his name, and two
important being at the base. This tower records written during his reign, giving de-
was the ziggurai, or observatory, on whose scriptions of his military exploits and his
summit the priestly disciples of the Chaldse- buildings, and known respedlively as the
' '
ans endeavored to divine the future in the ' Taylor Cylinder and the Bellino Cyl-
'
'
'
'
stars. inder.
Before the constru6lion of the great palace The Canon of Ptolemy shows an interreg-
at Dur-Sargina, Sargon's residence was at luim of two years at Babylon, from B. C.
Calah, where he repaired the decayed palace 704 to B. C. 702, and Polyhistor mentions
of Asshur-izir-pal. He also repaired the three pretenders to the throne of Babylonia
ruined walls of Nineveh, where he built a during this brief interval. These were a
temple to Xebo and Merodach. He like- brother of Sennacherib; a claimant named
wise improved the embankments at Babylon, Hagisa; and Merodach-Baladan, who had
thus controlling and directing the distribu- escaped from captivity, murdered Hagisa
tion of the waters. The number of Assjt- and resumed the throne of which Sargon
ian scientific tablets, .shown by the dates had deprived him six years before. In B. C.
upon them to have been written in his time, 703 Sennacherib led an army into Babylonia
fully attest his patronage of science. and defeated the troops of Merodach-Bala-
There was nothing .significant in the pro- dan and their Su.sianian auxiliaries, took
gress of mimetic art during Sargon's reign, Babylon and overran Chaldaea, plunder-
but several branches of industry showed ing (according to his own account) seventy-
signs of impro\-ement, while there was bet- six large and four hundred and
towns
ter ta.ste in design and ornamentation. At twenty villages. Merodach-Baladan again
this time transparent glass was first brought escaped from the countn,', and his sons were
into u.se, and intaglios were first cut upon afterwards found living as refugees in Susi-
hard stones. The furniture of this period is ana. Before leaving Babylon, Sennacherib
far superior in design to that of any former appointed as tributary king an Assyrian
age represented, while the models of sword- named —
the Belibus of Ptolemy's
Belipni
hilts, maces, armlets and other ornaments Canon, and the Elibus of Polyhistor. After
are singularly tasteful and elegant. At this returning from Babylon, Sennacherib rav-
time the enameling of bricks had attained aged the countrj- of the Aranueans on the
its highest degree of perfection; while the middle Euphrates, carrying into captivity
styles of va.ses, goblets and boats indicate a more than two hundred thousand inhab-
decided advance upon the same class of itants, and seizing al.so large numbers of
works of previous times. In sculpture the horses, camels, a.sses, o.xen ami .sheep. The
advance in animal fonns in the times of next year, B. C. 702, Sennacherib attacked
Tiglath-Pileser H. still went on inider Sar- the mountain tribes of the Zagros, driving
gon; and the drawing of horses' heads, es- from the country Ispabara, whom Sargon
— .
172 ANCIENT HIS TOR Y. — ASS YRIA

had elevated to power, and reducing to sub- iots, with their drivers, falling into the
jecflion many cities, over which he placed hands of the conquering Assyrians. In
Assyrian governors. consequence of their great vi<5lory, the As-
In the fourth year of his reign, B. C. 701, s>Tians inmiediately captured the towns of
Sennacherib engaged in the most important Altaku and Tamna. Rebellious Ekron also
of all his military expeditions. This was at once submitted to Sennacherib, opening
his invasion of Syria, Phcenicia and Pales- its gates to the vidlorious monarch, who in-
tine,during which he attacked Luliya, King punishment upon the rebels,
flidted a terrible
of Sidon, and also Hezekiah, King of Ju- whose leaders were put to death, their bodies
dah. With an immense host he first invaded being exposed on stakes round the entire
Phcenicia, where Luliya — the Elulaeus of circuit of the city walls; while large num-
Menander —had broken out into revolt during bers of inferior rank were sold into slavery.
the early years of Sennacherib's reign.
Lu- Padi, the expelled king who was friendly to
liya had made himself master of most of Assyria, was restored to his authority as
Phcenicia, including T}-re, Akko and many king, tributarj' to the Assyrian monarch.
otlier leading cities. On the approach Besides the Egyptians and Ethiopians,
of the Assyrian king, the Sidonian chief fled the revolted city of Ekron had Hezekiah,
from the main-land and found refuge in "an King of Judah, for an ally. When the
island in the middle of the sea," probably Ekronites deposed Padi, they seized him,
the island of T5're, or perhaps Cj-prus. Sen- loaded him with chains, and sent him to
nacherib received the submission of the Hezekiah for safe keeping. To punish the
Phcenician which Luliya had ruled,
cities King of Judah for his complicity in the
and placed over them a tributary prince Ekronite revolt, "Sennacherib, King of
named Tubal. The King of Assyria next Assyria, came up against all the fenced
marched southwards into Philistia, and put cities of Judah and took them. And Heze-
an end to the resistance of Sidka, King of kiah, King of Judah, sent to the King of
Ascalon, who, with his wife, children and As.syria to Lachish, saying, I have offended;
brothers, were made captives; while the city retiurn from me; that which thou puttest on
was also taken and another prince set up, me will I bear. And the King of Assyria
the revolted chief being carried a prisoner to appointed unto Hezekiah, King of Judah,
Assyria. The towns of Hazor, Joppa, three hundred talents of silver and thirty
Bene-berak, and Beth-Dagon^dependencies talents of gold. And Hezekiah gave him
of Ascalon —were soon afterwards taken and all the silver that was found in the house of
plundered. the Lord, and in the treasures of the king's
The conquering Sennacherib then took the house. At that time did Hezekiah cut off
field against Egypt, whose Ethiopian king the doors of the hou.se of the Lord, and the
theSevechusof Manetho, and the So of Scrip- pillars which Hezekiah, King of Judah, had
—
ture had come to the support of the revolted overlaid, and gave it to the King of As-
Philistine city of Ekron, which had expelled syria." Such is the short account of this
its king, Padi, who had remained loyal to As- expedition of Sennacherib, as recorded in
syria. The Egyptian ami}-, consisting of the Second Book of Kings.
chariots, horsemen and archers, was so We will now give the account recorded by
large that Sennacherib called it " a host that Sennacherib himself in these words: "Be-
could not be numbered." —be-
At Altaku cause Hezekiah, King of Judah, would not
lieved to be the Eltekeh of the Jews —was submit to my j'oke, I came up against him,
fought the .second great battle between the and by force of arms and by the might of
A.ssyrians and the Egyptians. Again the my power I took forty-six of his strong
power of Asia triumphed over that of Africa. fenced cities; and of the smaller towns
The Egj-ptians and Ethiopians were defeated which were scattered about I took and.
with frightful slaughter, many of their char- plundered a countless number. And from
SKNNACHHRII! ATTACKING JKRUSALEM.
POLITICAL HISTORY. •73
these places I captured and carried off as — beholding and gladness, slaying oxen
jo}-
spoil two hundred thousand and one hun- and killing sheep, eating flesh and drinking
dred and fifty people, old and young, male wine — Let us eat and drink, for to-morrow
'
and female, together with horses and mares, we shall die.' " Seeing the hopelessness
asses and camels, oxen and sheep, a count- of further resistance, Hezekiah offered to
less multitude. And Hezekiah himself I surrender upon terms which Sennacherib
shut up in Jerusalem, his capital cit\', like a granted. It was agreed that Hezekiah
bird in a cage, building towers round the should pay an annual tribute of thirty tal-
city to hem him in, and raising banks of ents of gold and three hundred talents of
earth against the gates, so as to prevent es- silver, and that he should al.so give up the
cape. * * * Then upon this Hezekiah there chief treasures of the city as a "present"
fell the fear of the power of my arms, and to the Great King. To procure an ade-
he sent out to me the chiefs and the elders quate supply of gold, Hezekiah was obliged
of Jerusalem with thirty talents of gold and to strip the walls and pillars of the Temple
eight hundred talents of silver, and divers of this precious metal, with which they
treasures, a rich and immense bootj-. * * * were partly overlaid. He gave up all the
All these things were brought to me at Niu- silver- from the royal treasury and from the
e\-eh, the seat of my govennnent, Hezekiah treasury of the Temple, which amounted to
having ser.t them by way of tribute, and as five hundred talents more than the fixed
a token of his submission to mj- power." rate of tribute. Besides these sacrifices the
After wreaking his vengeance upon the Jewish king was obliged to deliver up Padi,
people of Ekron, Sennacherib invaded Ju- the Ekronite king whom he had held in
dali, directing his march toward Jerusalem, captivity, and was forced to surrender cer-
taking many small towns and villages on tain parts of his territories to the neighbor-
the way, and carrying two hundred thou- ing Philistine kings.
sand of their inhabitants into slaverj- and After this triumph over Hezekiah, Sen-
captivity. Upon reaching Jerusalem he laid nacherib returned to Nine^•eh, and in the
siege to the city in the usual waj-, erecfling following year, B. C. 700, he led an expe-
towers around it, from which stones and ar- dition into Babylonia, where Merodach-
rows were discharged against the defenders Baladan, with the aid of Susub, a Chaldaean
of the fortifications, and "casting banks" prince, had again risen in arms against the
were hurled against the walls and gates. authority of the Assyrian monarch. After
The fortifications of Jerusalem were weak, defeating Susub, Sennacherib marched upon
and there had recently been many 'breaches '
Beth-Yakin, and compelled Merodach-Bal-
of the city of David." The inhabitants adan to flee for refuge to one of the islands
had ha.stily fortified the city by pulling of the Persian Gulf, leaving his brothers and
down the houses near the wall. Great adherents to the conqueror's merc\-. I'pon
alarm was felt for the safety of the holy returning to Babylon, Sennacherib removed
places. Jerusalem was "full of stirs and the viceroy Belibus, whom he blamed for
tumult." The people rushed to the house- disloyalty or incompetency, appointing in
tops, and saw "the choicest vallej-s full of his stead his own eldest son, Asshur-inadi-
chariots, and the horsemen set in array at su, the A.sordanes of Polyhistor, and the
the gates.
'
' Then
a day of trouble,
followed
'
' Aparanadius, or As.saranadius, of Ptolemy's

and of down, and of perplex-
treading Canon.
—
ity" a day of "breaking down the walls The dates of the remaining events of Sen-
and of crying to the mountains." In the nacherib's reign can not be fixed with cer-
midst of this consternation some were made tainty, Ptolemy's Canon taking no account
reckless by despair; so that there was a gen- of an>' subsequent event recorded in the
call to weeping, and to mourning, and
'
eral ' inscriptions of this reign. It is believed that

to baldness, and to girding with sackcloth his .second expedition into Palestine occurred
B. C. 699, Hezekiah having again revolted and nations which had the hardihood to re-
against the Assyrian king, and entered into sistthe mighty Assyrian power, and again
an alliance with the Ethiopian King of urging the Jewish king to submit. Heze-
Eg>-pt, Tehrak, or Tirhakah. Sennacherib kiah took this letter iuto the Temple, where
direcfled his expedition first against his more he "spread it before the Lord," praying:
powerful foe, and marched his amiy through " Lord, bow down and hear; open.
thine ear,
Palestine southwards to Libnah and Lach- Lord, and see; and hear the
thine eyes,
ish, laying siege to the latter city, and send- words of Sennacherib, which hath sent him
ing a detachment of his army, under a Tar- to reproach the living God." Thereupon
tan, or general, supported by two high officers the prophet Isaiah declared to his afBidled
—
of his court the Rabshakeh, or Chief Cup- sovereign Jehovah would "put his
that
bearer, and the Rab-saris, or Chief Eunuch hook and his bridle
in Sennacherib's nose,
—to demand the surrender of Jerusalem. in his lips, and turn him back by the way
Hezekiah sent high dignitaries to treat with by which he came." The prophet further
the Assyrians encamped outside the city declared: "Therefore thus saith the Lord
walls, but the Assj-rian envoys demanded concerning the King of Assyria, He shall
the unconditional submission of the Jewish not come into this city, nor shoot an arrow
king and people. The Rabshakeh, or Chief there, nor come before it with shield, nor
Cupbearer, familiar with the Hebrew lan- cast a bank against it. By the way that he
guage, took the word and delivered the came, by the same shall he return, and shall
message in insolent phraseology, laughing not come into this city, saith the Lord.
at Hezekiah's simplicity in relying upon For I will defend this city, to .save it, for mine
Egypt, and at his foolish superstition in de- own sake, and for my .ser\'ant David's sake."
pending upon a Divine deliverance, and defi- After receiving the submission of Libnah,
antly asking the Jewish king to produce Sennacherib advanced toward Egypt, and
two thousand disciplined soldiers capable of had come within sight of the Egyptian army
serving as horsemen. Then the prophet at Pelusium when Hezekiah received his let-
" Isaiah said unto them, Thus shall ye say ter and made the prayer to which Lsaiah de-
unto your master, Thus saith the Lord, livered the response. The immense host of
'
Be not afraid of the words which thou hast the Egyptians and Assyrians encamped op-
heard, with which the servants of the King posite each other for the night, the Egyptians
of Assyria have blasphemed me. Behold, I and their king full of anxious alarm, and
will send a blast upon him, and he shall Sennacherib and his Assyrians in proud con-
hear a rumor, and shall return to his own fidence of a vi(5lor>^ on the morrow as grand
land; and I will cause him to fall by the as those of Raphia and Altaku. But these
sword in his own land. When asked to
'
'
' bright hopes were destined to sad disappoint-

speak in some other language rather than ment. Ere the morrow appeared the im-
the Hebrew, for fear that the people upon mense Assyrian host was destroyed in a
the walls might hear, the intrepid envoy, in night panic. Says the Hebrew record:
utter disregard of diplomatic courtesy, made "And it came to pass that night, that the
a loud and diredl appeal to the fears and angel of the Lord went out, and smote in
hopes of the people. Seeing that they the camp of the Assyrians an hundred four-
could make no impression upon the Jewish score and five thousand and when they aro.se
;
king or people, and regarding their military early in the morning, behold, they were all
detachment as inadequate for a siege, the dead corpses.
'
' While the Hebrews ascribed

Assyrian amba.ssadors returned to their sov- this destrucflion of Sennacherib's army to
ereign at Libnah and informed him of their the miraculous interpo.sition of Jehovah, the
failure. Thereupon Sennacherib sent other Eg3'ptians regarded their deliverance as the
mes.sengers with a letter to Hezekiah, re- special inter\-ention of their own gods, and
minding him of the fate of other kingdoms pursued the fleeing Assyrian hosts, distress-
:
POLITICAL HIS roR ) 175
iug their retreating columns and cutting tho.se waters. The Chaldacans, who had
off stragglers. The haughty Sennacherib navigated tho.se waters for many centuries,
returned to Nineveh with the shattered rem- were far inferior as ship-builders and mari-
nants of mighty host, shorn of his
his ners to the Phoenicians, who.se ships with
glory. The proud capital of Assyria was their masts, sails, double tiers of oars and
plunged into such grief and despair as is shaq) beaks, were novelties to the nations
beyond the power of the historian to describe. in these parts.
The Assyrian annals say nothing of this dis- Sennacherib, in his Phoenician ships,
astrous campaign. crossed from the mouth of the Tigris to the
According to Sennacherib's own annals, new settlement of the emigrant Chaldacans,
his fifth campaign was in a mountainous destroyed their newly-built city, captured
country called Nipur, or Nibur, supposed to the deserters, ravaged the vicinity, burned
be near Mount Ararat. He there took many many Susianian towns, and transported his
towns, and then moving westward toward the captives, Chaldaean deserters and Susian-
Taurus range bordering on Cilicia, he war- ians, across the gulf to Chaldaea, and thence
red with Maniya, King of Dayan, and, ac- took them to A.ssyria. The Susianians, not
cording to his own and rav-
boast, plundered expecting an invasion b}- sea, had as.sembled
aged the country^ burned the towns and car- an army near their north-western frontier,
ried away the inhabitants, their flocks and so that Sennacherib had found no force to
herds, and their valuables. oppose him when he landed on the Susianian
His next contest was a fierce struggle of coast.
three years with the Babylonians and Susi- Taking advantage of circumstances, the
anians. The Chaldaians of Beth-Yakin, dis- Babylonians now revolted and .set up a king
satisfied with the Assyrian yoke, migrated of their own called Susub; but the Babylon-
in a body from their own city to the territory^ ian army was defeated by the Assyrian
of the King of Susiana. Carrying with them troops upon their return from Susiana, Su-
their gods and their treasures, they set sail sub being captured; and the Susianian army
in their ships, crossed "the Great Sea of the which had come to the aid of the revolted
—
Rising Sun" the Persian Gulf and landed — Babylonians was routed. Susub and many
on the Elamite, or Susianian coast, where other captives were carried to Nineveh.
they were kindly received by the Susianian Kudur-Nakhunta, who was still King of
monarch, who allowed them to build a new Susiana, held the cities of Beth-Kahiri and
city on his territon,-. This voluntary- de- Raza, which Sennacherib regarded as part
sertion of Beth-Yakin by its own people The Assyrian
of his paternal inheritance.
aroused the anger of the A.ssjrian king, who king now easily retook the.se towns, and
accordingly determined to bring back his leading his anny into the heart of Susiana,
deserting subjedls to their native city, and took and burned thirty-four large cities and
to his dominion, by force. many small villages. After besieging and
The suzerainty of Assyria over Phoenicia taking by storm Vadakat, or Badaca, the
had placed Assyrian king's disposal
at the .secondcity of Susiana, after it had been
the most skilled shipwrights and the best abandoned by Kudur-Xakhunta, Sennach-
sailors in the world, and Sennacherib re- erib returned to Nine\eh with a large booty.
.solved to invade Susiana by sea to reclaim Susub, the Babylonian prince, having es-
his emigrant subjects. The shipwrights of caped from his captivity at Nineveh, re-
Tyre and Sidon \\-ere work
therefore set to turned to Babylon, where he was again
at building a fleet of war-galleys on the hailed as king by the inhabitants. He se-
Tigris. This fleet, manned by Phoenician cured the alliance of the new King of .Susiana,
sailors, descended the river to the Persian ITmmanniinan, the \onnger brother and suc-
Gulf astonishing the inhabitants on the cessor of Kudur-Nakhunta, by sending him
shores with a spectacle ne\-er before seen in as a present the gold and silver belonging
' '

to the great temple of Bel at Babylon. The Still he was the most illustrious and the most
Susianian monarch at once led an ami}- to successful of Assyrian warrior kings. In
the Tigris, while many Aranijean, or Syrian, his inscription, Sennacherib calls himself
tribes on the middle Euphrates, which Sen- "the great king, the powerful king, the king
nacherib had subjugated in his third year, of nations, the king of Assyria, the king of
revolted, and their army joined that of Su- the four regions, the diligent ruler, the
sub. Sennacherib defeated the allied host favorite of the great gods, the observer of
in a great battle at Khaluli, a town on the sworn faith, the guardian of the law,
Lower Tigris, both Susub and the Susianian the embellisher of public buildings, the
king escaping, but Nebosumiskun, a son of noble hero, the strong warrior, the first of
Merodach-Baladan, and many other chiefs, kings, the punisher of unbelievers, the de-
being made prisoners. Sennacherib entered stroyer of wicked men.
'
Bab>-lon in triumph, destroyed its fortifica- Sennacherib takes the first rank among
tions, burned its temples,
pillaged and Ass5'rian monarchs as an architedl and
and broke to pieces the images of the patron of art, as well as that of a warrior.
gods. Either Regibelus, or Mesesimor- The gigantic palace erecfled by him at Nin-
dachus, whom the Canon of Ptolemy makes eveh surpassed ni dimensions and grandeur
contemporary with the middle part of Sen- and covered
all previouslj'-built strucftures,
nacherib's reign, is believed to have been an area of more than eight acres. The grand
placed o^'er the rebel citj' as viceroj- by the halls and smaller chambers of this vast and
conqueror. magnificent edifice were arranged around at
Sennacherib is said to have also led an ex- least three courts or quadrangles, which were
pedition against Cilicia, and, according to respectively one hundred and onefiftj'-four bj-
Abydenus, a Greek writer, a Grecian fleet hundred and twenty-five feet, one hundred
was beaten by the Assyrian fleet on the Ci- and twenty-four by ninety feet, and ninety-
lician shores; while according to Polyhistor, three by eighty-four feet. Small apartments
Sennacherib's army defeated a Greek land were grouped around the smallest of these
force in Cilicia itself; after which Sennach- courts. A narrow passage leading out of a
erib took possession of which
Cilicia, in long galler\', two hundred and eighteen by
country he built the city of Tarsus, after- twenty-five feet, opened the way to the
wards renowned as the birth-place of St. king's seraglio. This galler}- was entered
Paul. Among the inscriptions of Sennach- through two other passages, one leading from
erib's wars upon the Koyunjik bulls is one each of the two main courts. The principal
stating that he " triumphanth" subdued the halls were immediately within the two chief
men of Cilicia inhabiting the inaccessible entrances, one on the north-east, and the
'
forests. other on the south-west front of the palace.
The Canon of Ptolemy marks an interreg- One of these seems to have been one hun-
num at Babylon from B. C.
for eight years, dred and sixty feet long, and the other one
688 to B. C. 680, the year of Esar-haddon's hundred and eighty feet, while each was a
accession; from which circumstance it is little over fortj' feet wide. The palace had
evident that Babylonia had again thrown off about twent}' other rooms, and from forty to
the Assyrian yoke and maintained her inde- fift}- smaller chambers, about square, entered
pendence for eight 3'ears. from some hall or large apartment. Mr.
Thus the military glory of Sennacherib, Eayard saj^s he explored seventy-one cham-
the greatest and best-known of Assyrian bers, including the three courts, the long
kings, was tarnished by two great disasters gallery and four passages.
— the destruction of his anny at Pelusium by Sennacherib's palace, like other A.ssyrian
a night panic during his war with Hezekiah architecflural works, was built on an artifi-
of Judah and Tirhakah of Egypt, and the cial platform, eighty or ninetj' feet above
successful revolt of Bal)ylon just mentioned. the plain, and covered with a brick pave-
POl. I TICA L IfIS 7 Y )A'
}
'.
'77
ment. It is believed to have had three from one tree to another, or standing over
grand facades, respectively on the north- their nests feeding their young as they
east, south-east and south-west sides. Its stretch u]) to receive the food; fi.sh swim
chief apartment was first entered by the in the water; fishermen, boatmen and agri-
visitor. All the walls ran in straight lines, cultural laborers are depicted; the entire
and all the angles of the rooms were right scene being striking and real in appearance.
angles. Although there were numerous pas- On the walls of the passages of Sennach-
sages, the apartments in many instances di- erib's palace are depicted ordinary .scenes of
rec5tly opened into one another, nearly half every-day life. Trains of ,ser\auts daily
of the rooms being passage-rooms. The bring to the royal residence game and locusts
doorwaj-s were usuall\- towards the comers for the monarch's and cakes and
diinier,
of the apartments. In many ca.ses a room fruits they walked
for his dessert, just as
was entered b}- two or three doorways from through the courts canying the delicacies
another room or from a court. There were for which he displaj-ed special fondness. In
also many square recesses in the sides of another place is exhibited the work of car\'-
rooms. The walls were êr^• thick. The ing and transporting a gigantic bull of .solid
apartments, never much over fortN" feet wide, stone, from removal of the material from
tlie
were comparatively narrow for their length, the quarry, to its elevated position on a
but the courts were much better propor- palace-mound as part of the great entrance-
tioned. passage of the ro\-al dwelling. The trackers
Sennacherib's royal building differed from are shown dragging the huge rough block,
others in the size and luimber of its rooms, supported on a low flat-bottomed boat, along
in its u.se of pa.ssages and in its style of or- the course of a river, divided in gangs per-
namentation. His principal state apart- forming their work under taskmasters who
ments were one-third wider, though very ply their rods upon the most trifling provo-
little longer, and thus were in better pro- cation. The trackers, three hundred in
portion. But one galler\-, coiuiecling the number, in their national costumes, are each
more public portion of the building with the delineated with the utmost precision. We
harem, or private apartments, foniied a cor- next see the stone block conveyed to land,
ridor, two hundred and eighteen feet long and carved into the rough likeness of a bull,
b}- twenty-five feet wide, iniiting the two and in that shape it is set on a sledge and
parts of the palace. This corridor commun- mo^•ed along le-vel ground by gangs of
icated by passages with the two public laborers, arranged \"ery much as before, to
courts, which were also joined by a third the base of the mound, at the top of which
passage. Timber from Lebanon and Amanus it must be located. The building of the
was used in the roofing of this palace. mound is illustrated in detail. Brick-makers
Sennacherib's ornamentation was marked are represented moulding the bricks at the
by the first general use of the back-ground foot of the mound, and workmen are seen
in completing each scene, as it really existed with baskets at their backs, filled with earth,
at the time and place of its occurrence. bricks, stones or rubbi.sh, climbing the as-
Mountains, rocks, trees, roads, rivers and cent after the mound is partially raised, and
lakes were represented with the highest de- emptying their burdens upon the top. The
gree of perfection which the ability of the bull on the sledge is then drawn up an in-
artist and the means and facilities at his clined plane to the summit by four gangs of
command would permit. In Sennacherib's laborers, before the eyes of the king and his
bas-reliefs the species of trees is distin- attendants. The carving is then finished,
guished; gardens, fields, ponds, reeds, etc., and the gigantic figure is set into an upright
are portrayed with great exadtness; wild position and dragged along the surface of the
animals, such as stags, boars and antelojies, platform to the place assigned it.
are illustrated; birds are represented flying Sennacherib also restored the old nnal
178 ANCIENT HISTORY.—ASSYRIA.
palace at Nineveh. He built a brick em- The year of Sennacherib's assassination
bankment on the banks of the Tigris to con- and Esar-haddon's accession was B. C. 68i,
fine the river to its channel,and supplied according to the Assyrian Canon the year —
his capital with good water by construcfting just before his first year in Babylon on the
for that purpose a system of canals and authority of the Canon of Ptolemy. This is
aquedu(5ls. He strengthened the defenses to be accounted for by the facft that a king
of Nineveh by the erecftion of colossal was not entered on the Babylonian list until
towers at some of the brick gateways. the Thoth which followed his accession, and
Lastly, he eredled a temple to the god Ner- the Thoth in this instance occurred in Feb-
gal at Tarbisi (now Sherif KhanJ, on the ruar3'. Thus the Babylonian dates are gen-
Tigris, about three miles above Nineveh. erally one year later than the Assyrian, and
Sennacherib's conquering expeditions into the two Canons are seen to harmonize with
other lands furnished him with a sufficient remarkable precision.
amount of forced labor, which he employed Esar-haddon held the throne for thirteen
in the construdtion of his great works. The years, and reigned alternately at Nineveh
Bellino Cylinder tells us that he employed and Babylon, thus placing the two great
Chaldseans, Aramaeans, or Syrians, Armeni- capitals on an equality, and reconciling the
and Quhu, or Coans, in this
ans, Cilicians, Babylonians to the Assyrian rule. Esar-
way. A bull-inscription informs us that in haddon's inscriptions show that he was en-
one raid he carried into slavery two hun- gaged for some time after the opening of his
dred and eight thousand Aramaeans. By reign in a civil war with his half-brothers,
this means the colossal bulls of stone were who, at the head of large bodies of troops,
transported and elevated, the vast mounds contested his claims to the Assyrian crown.
built, the bricks moulded, the walls of edi- Esar-haddon, who, at the time of his father's
fices erecfted, the canals excavated and em- death, was stationed on the Armenian front-
bankments They were forced
construcfted. ier, at once marched upon Nineveh, defeated
to labor in gangs,under the rods of brutal the army of his brothers in the country of
and exacfting taskmasters, and in their re- Khanirabbat, north-west of Nineveh, and
specftive national costumes. The work was entered the capital, where he was univer-
direcfted by Assyrian foremen, and the sally acknowledged king. Abydenus says
forced laborers were frequently compelled to that Adrammelech fell in the battle, but bet-
work in fetters, sometimes supported bj- a ter authorities state that both he and his
bar fastened to the waist, and sometimes brother Sharezer escaped into Armenia,
consisting of shackles around the ankles. where the ruling sovereign treated them
The king, standing in a chariot drawn by with kindness, bestowing upon them lands,
his attendants, often witnessed the laborers which long remained in the possession of
at their task. their po.sterity.
Sennacherib's glorious reign of twenty- Our informationof Esar-haddon's reign
four years experienced a sad end. The is mainly derived from a cylinder inscrip-
great monarch fell a vicflim to a plot of as- tion, existing in duplicate, which records
sassination on the part of his sons, Adram- nine campaigns. A memorial which he set
melech and Sharezer. He was slain while up at the mouth of the Nahr-el-Kelb, and a
at worship in a temple; and his son Nergilus, cylinder of his son's, give us .some additional
who claimed the crown, was also soon mur- knowledge concerning the closing portion
dered by his brothers, Adrannnelech and of his reign. The Old Testament, in .several
Sharezer; but these were soon overthrown in.stances, connedls him with Jewish history';
by their brother Esar-haddon, who, in com- and Abydenus alludes to some of his for-
mand of the army on the Armenian frontier, eign conquests. An incomplete cylinder
marched to Nineveh and was recognized as inscription of Esar-haddon's reign contains
the rightful successor to his father's throne. accounts of his civil war with his brothers
POI.TTIC.M. I [[STORY. 179
and also his Arabian and Syrian uxpeditions. in Northern Syria, and another in South-
Ksar-liaddon's first expedition was into eastern Armenia against the Mainiai, or
Phoenicia. The civil dissensions resulting Minni. He then made an expedition into
from vSeniKicherib's murder encouraged a re- Chaktea, against Nebo-zirzi-sidi, Merodach-
volt in that region on the part of Abdi-Mil- Baladan's son, who, aided by the Susianians,
kut, King of Sidon, and Sandu-arra, King of had regained a footing on the Chaldaean
the neighboring portion of Lebanon, who had coast: while his brothcj- >Jahid-Marduk,
entered into an alliance to cast off the Assjt- sought the favor of the Assyrian king, quit-
ian yoke. Esar-haddon first attacked Sidon ting his refuge in vSusiana to present himself
and .soon took the city, and Abdi-Milkut before the Great King's foot-stool at Nineveh.
sought refuge in an island, either Aradus or After subduing Nebo-zirzi-sidi, E.sar-haddon
Cyprus, but was pursued and made prisoner bestowed the entire coast distri<fl previously
by Esar-haddon, who, it was said, traversed ruled by that prince on Nahid-Marduk. At
the .sea "like a fish." Esar-haddon next at- the .same time the Assyrian king depo.sed
tacked Sandu-arra in his mountain fastnesses, Shamas-ipni, a Chaldaean prince, who had
defeated his troops and took him prisoner. extended his .sway over a small town in the
Both captive kings were executed in punish- vicinity of Babylon, putting Nebo-sallim
ment for their rebellion; the walls of Sidon in his place. Esar-haddon next engaged in
were destroyed, its inhabitants and tho.se of a war with Edom, where he took a city bear-
the whole neighboring coast were carried ing the .same name as the country a city, —
off into Assyria, and thence dispersed among which he saj^s, had been previously taken by
the provinces: while a new city was built his father — tran.sporting the inhabitants into
and named after Esar-haddon, which was Assyria, and carrying away certain of the
designed to succeed Sidon as the leading Edomite gods. Thereupon the Edomite king, .
city in this region,and Chaldtean and .Susi- Hazael, sent an embassy to Nineveh, to offer
anian captives were colonized in the new submission and presents, while he also beg-
city and the adjacent country, over which ged the Assyrian monarch to restore his gods
an As.syrian governor was appointed. and permit them to be returned to Edom.
Esar-haddon' s second campaign was in This humble request was granted by Esar-
Armenia, where he took a city named Arza, haddon, who restored the images to the en-
which, he says, was in the neighborhood of voy but he increased the annual tribute hy
:
Muzr, and carried away its inhabitants, along .sixty-five camels, and appointed to the suc-
with a number of mountain animals, settling cession, or joint sovereignty of the throne of
the captives "beyond the eastern gate of Edom, a woman named Tabua, who had been
Nineveh." At the same time he received bom and brought up in his own palace.
the submission of Tiuspa, the Cimmerian. E.sar-haddon's next expedition was into a
Esar-haddon's third campaign was in country named Bazu, said to be "remote, on
Cilicia and the adjacent regions. The Cili- the extreme confines of the earth, on the
This countrj- was
'
cians, so recently subdued by Sennacherib, other side of the desert. '
re-asserted their independence at his death, reached by traversing a hundred and forty
and formed an alliance with the Tibareni, farsakhs (four hundred and ninety miles) of
or people of Tubal, who occupied the high sandy desert, then twenty farsaklis (seventy
mountain district about the junction of miles) of fertile land, and beyond that a stony
Amanus and Taurus. After defeating the region. None of Esar-haddon's predecessors
Cilicians, Esar-haddon invaded the moun- had ever penetrated so far "into the middle
tain region, where he took twenty-one towns of Arabia." Bazu was located Iieyond Kha-
and many villages, all of which he plundered zu, the .stony tract, and its ])rincii)al city was
and burned, carrying the inhabitants into Yedih, which was ruled by a king named
captivity. Laile. The country here noticed is supposed
Esar-haddon next conducted a pett\- war to have been the region of the modem Ara-
i8o ANCIENT HISTORY.— ASSYRIA.
bian kingdom of Hira. Esar-haddon boasts his principal cylinder, which was not appar-
that he marched into the middle of this re- ently led by the king personally, was against
gion, that he slew eight of its kings, and car- the country of Bikni, or Bikan, a remote
ried their gods, their treasures and their sub- part of Media, supposed to be Azerbijan.
jects into Assyria; and that Laile's gods were None of his predecessors ever penetrated
also conveyed to Nineveh, though Laile him- this region, which was governed by many
self escaped. Laile, like the Edomite monarch petty chiefs, each of whom ruled over his
went Nineveh, and, prostrating himself at
to own town and its territory, and
surrounding
the foot-stool of the Assyrian king, humbly whose names illustrate their Aryan charac-
requested the return of the images of his ter. Esar-haddon carried two of these
gods. This request Esar-haddon granted, but chiefs captive to As.S5'ria, whereupon the
only on the condition that Laile became one others submitted, agreeing to pay tribute
of his tributaries. In this invasion of Arabia, and to share their power with Assyrian of-
Esar-haddon led an army across the deserts ficers.
which enclose that country on the land side, The various expeditions of Esar-haddon
and penetrated to the more fertile tra(5ts be- already described have been made known
yond them, a region of cities and fixed set- to us from his cylinder inscriptions; but his
tlements, where he took towns and carried conquest of Egypt and his punishment and
off their This invasion
plunder to Assyria. pardon of Manasseh, King of Judah the —
was a most remarkable success, taking in greatest and most interesting events of his
account the natural perils of the desert, and —
reign have been brought to our knowledge
the warlike character of its inhabitants, who from other sources. All that \\'e know of
have never fully bowed to the yoke of anj' the circumstances of Esar-haddon's con-
foreign conqueror. The dangers of the si- quest of Egypt is derived from an imperfecft
moom and the aridity of the northern portion transcript of the Nahr-el-Kelb tablet, and
of Arabia, with the difficulty of carrj-ing the brief annals of his son and successor,
water and provisions for a large army, and Asshur-bani-pal, who alludes to his father's
the perils of plunging into the wilderness proceedings in Egypt, for the purpose of
with a small one, have deterred most Oriental making known the condition of affairs when
conquerors from e\-en the thought of leading he himself invaded that country.
an expedition into this dreary and desolate It thus appears that Esar-haddon led a
region. Esar-haddon is the only monarch large army into Egypt about B. C. 670, won
who ever ventured upon the hazardous un- a great vicftory over the forces of Tirhakah,
dertaking of penetrating in person into this or Tehrak, the reigning Ethiopian sovereign
vast de.sert land. of that country, took Memphis, his capital,
Esar-haddon next in\-aded the marshy and conquered the entire Nile valley as far
region on the Euphrates, where the Ara- southward as Thebes, taking Thebes itself.
maean tribe of Gamljulu dwelt, as he says, Tirhakah fled into Ethiopia, leaving Esar-
"like fish, in the mid.st of the waters." haddon master of all Egypt as far as Thebes,
The sheikh of this tribe had revolted, but the Diospolis of the Greeks and the No, or
submitted on the approach of the Assyrian No- Anion, of the Old Testament. The con-
monarch, bringing in person the arrears of quering Assyrian king weakened Egypt by
his tribute and a present of buffaloes, thereby dividing the country into twenty govern-
seeking to propitiate his suzerain. Esar- ments, appointing a petty king in each
haddon says that he forgave him, and town, but placing all the others under the
strengthened his capital with fresh works rule of the prince reigning at Memphis.
of defense and garrisoned it, making it a This Memphite prince was Neko, tlie father
stronghold to protedl the country against of Psammetichus, or Psamatik I., a native
the attacks of the vSusianians. Egyptian mentioned both by Herodotus and
Esar-haddon's last expedition recorded on Manetho; and the other petty kings were
poi.rricAi. iiisrokv. i8i
also native Egyptians, with a few excep- them under an officer of high rank — "the
tions where Assyrian ollicers were appointed great and noljle Asnapper."
governors. After thus arranging the gov- When iiltelligence of Esar-haddon's ill-
ernment of Kgypt, and setting up his tablet ness reached Ivgypt in B. C. 669, Tirhakah,
at the month of the Nahr-el-Kelh beside the Ethiopian king, whom Esar-haddon had
that of Rameses the Great, I{sar-haddou re- driven out of ICgypt the previous year, at
turned to Assyria and began to introduce once descended the Nile from Ethiopia,
sphinxes into the ornamentation of his pal- drove out the petty kings set over Egypt by
aces, at the same time adding to his previous the Assyrian monarch, and reestablished his
titles the following: "King of the kings of authority over all ICgypt. Esar-haddon
Egypt, and conqueror of ECthiopia." This thereupon resigned the crown of Assyria to
title does not occur on the cylinders, but his son Asshur-ljani-pal, tint retained that
appears on the back of the slabs at the en- of Babylonia, residing in Babylon until his
trance of the south-west palace of Nimrud, death shortly afterward, B. C. 668, when
where the sphinxes are found, and also on a Asshur-bani-pal succeeded to the .sovereignty
bronze lion dug up at the Nebbi-Yunus of the whole empire.
mound of Nineveh, and on the slabs of Esar-haddon was one of the most active
Esar-haddon's palace at Sherif-Klian. of Assyria's royal builders and architecfls.
The revolt of Manasseh, King of Judah, During his .short reign of thirteen years he
occurring about the time of Esar-haddon's eredted four palaces and more than thirty
conquest of Egypt, was suppressed by the temples. Three of his great palaces were
"captains of the host of the King of As- located at Babylon, Nineveh
respe(51:ively
syria." These Assj'rian generals invaded and Calah; but that at Calah, or Nimrud, is
Judah to subdue Manasseh, and "took and the only one which has been explored to
bound him with chains, and carried him to anj- great extent, and even the ground-plan
Babylon," where Esar-haddon had eredted of that has been but imperfectly traced.
a palace for himself and frequently held his This palace had never been fini.shed, its
court. The Great King at first treated his ornamentation had hardly been commenced,
royal captive with severity, and Manasseh's and the .small portion of this that was orig-
affliction is said to have humbled his pride and nal had been so .seriously injured by a de-
to have led him to humiliate himself before struiftive fire that it perished inunediately
Jehovah and to repent of his cruelties and ujx)!! its disco^•er^^ We must therefore rely
idolatries. According to the Book of Chron- for our knowledge of Esar-haddon's .sculp-
icles, God "was entreated of him, and heard tures upon the report of jiersons who saw
his supplication, and brought him back them before thej' were destroyed, and upon
again to Jerusalem into his kingdom." one or two drawings; and our only knowl-
Esar-haddon generously pardoned Manasseh edge of the palace is derived from a half-e.x-
for his defedlion, and .sent him liack to Je- plored fragment of a half-finished palace
rusalem, restoring him to his throne, on the destroyed 1)>- the flames before its completion.
condition of paying an increased tribute. Esar-haddon's palace at Calah was built
To augment the As.S3-rian power in Pales- at the .south-western corner of the Nimrud
tine, Esar-haddon determined to strengthen mound, abutting towards the west on the
the foreign element already introduced into Tigris, and towards the valley formed by
the country by Sargon, \\'ho, as we have the vShor-Derreh torrent. It faced north-
seen, colonized Samaria with foreign settlers ward and w.is entered on this side from the
from Babylon, Cutha, Sippara, Ava, Ha- open space of the platform, through a jiortal
math and Arabia. Esar-haddon settled guarded b)- two winged man-headed bulls.
colonists in Palestine coUedled from Babylon, The entrance led into a large court, two
Erech, or Orchoe, .Susa, Elymais, Persia, Innulred and eighty by one hundred feet,
and other surrounding nations, and placing bounded on the noith side by a mere wall,
12
"
I82 ANCIENT HISTORY.—ASSYRIA.

but surrounded by buildings on the east, bers was coimedled by a grand doorway,
west and south sides. The chief building guarded by sphinxes and colossal lions,
was opposite, and was entered from the either with a small court or with a large
court by two gateways, one direcftly facing chamber extending to the southern edge of
the great northern portal of the court, and the mound; while the two end rooms were
the other slightly to the left, the former be- connecfted with smaller apartments in the
ing guarded by colossal winged man-headed same direcftion, but Mr. Layard's excava-
bulls, and the latter only reveted with tions here were incomplete. The buildings on
slabs. The.se gateways both opened into the right and left sides of the great court
the same room, the design of which was on appear to have been wholly .separate from
the most magnificent scale of all the Assyrian those at its southern end. Tho.se on the
apartments, but it was so thoroughly broken left have not been explored, but on the
up through the archite(5l's inability to cover right several long narrow apartments, with
the wide space without sufficient supports, one or two passages, have been examined.
that this room virtually constituted four Eastward the palace has not been explored,
chambers of moderate size rather than one and its extent northward, southward and
grand hall. As one apartment this room westward is not certain. Southward and
was one hundred and sixty-five feet long by westward the mound has been worn away
sixty-two feet wide, ^'iewed as a .suite of by the Tigris and the Shor-Derreh torrent.
four chambers, the rooms appeared to be The walls of Esar-haddon's palace were
two long and narrow halls running parallel built of sun-dried bricks, reveted with ala-
to each other, and conne6ted by a grand baster slabs, taken from the decaj-ed palace.-
doorwây in the middle, with two smaller of his predecessors. Ere the new sculp
chambers located at the two ends, running tures on these slabs were completed, Esar-
at right angles with the principal ones. haddon died, and the work ceased, or the
The smaller chambers were sixty-two feet palace was ruined by fire. The only sculp-
long, and respedlively nineteen feet and tures finished were the winged man-headed
twenty-three feet wide. The larger ones bulls and lions at the various portals, a few
were one hundred and ten feet long, and re- bas-reliefs near them, and some sphinxes
spedlively tweut)' feet and twenty-eight feet within the span of the two widest doorways.
wide. These sphinxes were Egyptian in idea, but
Mr. Fergu.s.son's account of the grand had the horned cap like those on the bulls,
apartment of this palace is as follows: "Its the Assyrian arrangement of hair, Assyr-
general dimensions are one hundred and ian ear-rings, and wings like those of the
sixty-five feet in length, by sixty-two feet bulls and lions. The figures near the lions
in width; and it consequentlj' is the largest were mythic, and according to Mr. Eayard's
hall yet found in As,syria. The architeAs, representations, were more than ordinarily
however, do not seem to have been quite grotesque.
equal to roofing so large a space, even with The inscriptions give us a full account of
the number of pillars with which the}' seem the character of Esar-haddon's buildings
usually to have crowded their floors; and it and their ornamentation. These inform us
is consequently divided down the center by that the thirty-six temples which this king
a wall .supporting dwarf columns, forming erected in Assyria and Babylonia were pro-
a center gallery, to which acce.ss was had by fu.sely adorned with plates of gold and sil-
bridge galleries at both ends, a movle of ar- ver, making them "as splendid as the day."
rangement capable of great variety and His palace at Nineveh, located on the Neb-
picflurcsquene.ss of effetfl, and of which I bi-Yunus mound, was said to have been
have little doubt that the builders availed built upon the site of a former palace of the
themselves to the fullest extent. Assyrian kings. The materials for its con-
The inner of the twc long parallel cham- struttion were procured from different coun-
POLITIC. 1 1. Ills n Vv' V. 83
tries; the Phoenician, Syrian and Cyprian C. 668, and was succeeded on his throne by
kings sending to Nineveh purpose for this his eldest .son. Asshur-bani-pal, whom he
great beams of cedar, cypress and ebony, had already associated in the goveriunent.
stone statues, and various works in different Asshur-bani-pal, upon his accession, ap-
kinds of metal. The size of this palace is pointed to the viceroyalty of Babylon his
said to have surpassed all the structures of younger brother, vSaiil-Mugina, called vSani-
former kings. beams of cedar wood
Car\-ed mughes by Polyhistor, and Sao.sduchinus by
were used in roofing this edifice, which was the Canon of Ptolemy.
partly supported by colunnis of cypress Upon his accession, Asshur-bani-pal found
wood, ornamented with rings of silver and himself involved in a war with Egypt.
strengthened with iron bands. Winged Eate in Esar-haddon's reign Tirhakah, the
man-headed bulls and lions guarded the por- Ethiopian king, de.scended the Nile, recov-
tals; and the gates were made of ebony and ered Thebes, Memphis and other Eg)'ptian
cypress ornamented with iron, silver and and expelled the princes and governors
cities,
ivor\- ; while the walls were adorned with appointed by Esar-haddon when he had con-
sculptured slabs and enameled bricks. quered the countrj'. Asshur-bani-pal, soon
The prejudice of the present Mohammedan after his accession, led an expedition through
inhabitants against disturbing their dead, Syria into Egypt, and defeated the Ethio-
and against violating the tomb of Jonah has pian and Egyptian army near the city of
thus far prevented satisfactory excavations Kar-banit. Tirhakah at once fled from
of the Nebbi-Yunus mound. Mr. Layard Memphis, .sailing up the Nile to Thebes;
stealthily made a slight excavation in this and being pursued by the A.ssyrians to the
mound, thus discovering a few fragments latter place, the Ethiopian king continued
bearing Esar-haddon's name. Turkish ex- his retreat up the Nile valley, leaving all
cavations soon afterwards uncovered a long Egypt north of Thebes in the possession of
line of wall ofone of Sennacherib's palaces, the Assyrian monarch. Asshur-bani-pal
and likewise a part of Esar-haddon's palace. restored the princes and rulers whom his
On the outside surface of the former were father had placed over Egypt, and whom
winged man-headed bulls in high relief, Tirhakah had expelled; and, after a short
.sculptured seemingly after the wall was rest at Thebes, returned in triumph by waj''
eredted, each bull covering ten or twelve of Syria to Nineveh.
distindl stone blocks. A slab-inscription No sooner had the Assyrian king left
obtained from this palace was published in Egypt than intrigues to restore the Ethio-
the British Museum Series. A bronze lion pian power commenced. Neko and other
with legend was obtained from Esar-had- Egyptian governors restored by Asshur-bani-
don's palace. pal deserted the Assyrian cause and sided
We know nothing of Esar-haddon's palace with the Ethiopians. The governors who
at Babjdon, which now lies buried beneath remained loyal to Assyria tried to suppress
the mounds at Hillah. Mr. Layard and Sir the revolt Neko and .several other rebel
;
Henrs' Rawlinson have carefully examined leaders were carried in chains to Assyria;
the Sherif-Khan palace, which was found to and Sais, Tanis, Mendes and other revolted
be very- much inferior to the ordinan,- Assyr- Egyptian cities were puni.shed. The revolt
ian royal residences, being oidy a dwelling was, however, successful, and Tirhakah
eredled by Esar-haddon for his eldest son, having reestablished himself at Thebes,
and it also is believed to have been unfin- threatened to again extend his sway over
ished when the king died. the entire Nile valley. But when Asshur-
After a reign of thirteen years, Esar- bani-pal forgave Neko and sent him back to
haddon, "King of Assyria, Balndonia, Egypt with a large Assyrian army, Tirha-
Egypt, Meroe and Ethiopia," as he calls kah again fled to Upper Egypt, where he
himself in his later inscriptions, died in B. died shortly afterwards. Tirhakah' s step-
— —
1 84 ANCIENT HIS TOR ) -.

A SS J 'RIA.
son and successor, Urdamane —believed to on a distridl of Babylonia, and aftêr taking
be the Rud-Amun of the hieroglyphics Kharbat, transported its inhabitants to
descended the Nile valley with an array, de- Egypt.
feated the Assyrians near Memphis, forced Asshur-bani-pal next invaded Minni, or
them to seek refuge within its walls, besieged Persannenia, the mountain region about
and took the city, and regained possession Lakes Van and Urumiyeh. Akhsheri, the
of Lower Egj'pt. Upon hearing of this, King of Minni, having lost his capital, Izirtu,
Asshur-bani-pal left Asshur, and leading an and several other cities, was murdered by
expedition personally against the new Ethi- his subjedls; and his son, Vahalli, was
opian monarch, drove him from Memphis forced to submit, and sent an embassy
to Thebes, and thence to the city of Kipkip, to Nineveh to do homage, with tribute,
far up the Nile. After entering Thebes in presents and hostages. As.shur-bani-pal
triumph and sacking the city, and again received the envoys gracioush', pardoned
placing governors over the Egyptian cities Vahalli and kept him on the throne of
and taking hostages to secure their loyalty, Minni, but compelled him to pay a heavy
Asshur-bani-pal returned to Nineveh with tribute. Asshur-bani-pal also conquered a
his plunder of gold, silver, ebony, ivory, region called Paddiri, which his predeces-
obelisks, precious stones, dj'ed garments, -sorshad separated from Minni, but which
monkeys and elephants of the Theban he annexed to his own dominion, placing
palace, male and female captives. an Assyrian governor over it.
Between his first and second expeditions Asshur-bani-pal next engaged in a strug-
into Egypt, Asshur-bani-pal attacked Tyre, gle of twelve j-ears with Elam, or Susiana.
whose king, Baal, had incurred his displeas- Certain tribes, pressed by famine, had passed
ure, and, reducing him to submission, ex- from Susiana into the Assyrian dominions,
adled from him which he
a large tribute, where they were permitted to settle; but
sent to Nineveh. About the same time As- when, after the famine had ceased, they
shur-bani-pal married a Cilician princess. wished to return to their former home,
Soon second expedition into Egypt,
after his Asshur-bani-pal would not agree to their
Asshur-bani-pal invaded Asia Minor, cross- removal. King of Susiana, resented
Urtaki,
ing the Taurus mountains and penetrating this by invading Babj'lonia, and was aided
a region never before entered by an Assyrian by Belu-bagar, King of the Gambulu, an
king; and, after reducing a number of towns, important Aramaean tribe. Saiil-Mugina,
he returned to Nineveh, where he received Asshur-bani-pal' s brother and viceroj' at
an embassy, of which he gives the following Babylon, greatly alarmed, sent to Nineveh
account: "Gyges, King of Lydia, a country for aid. Thereupon an Assyrian army drove
on the sea-coast, a ren>ote place, of which the Susianian monarch out of Babylonia,
the kings my ancestors had never even heard inflicfting upon him a severe defeat before
the name, had formerly learned in a dream he escaped and returned to Susa, where he
the fame of my empire, and had sent officers died within a year.
to my presence to perform homage on his A dynastic revolution in Susiana now
behalf." The Eydian king now sent a sec- proved of great advantage to the Assyrians.
ond time to As.shur-bani-pal and told him Urtaki had wrested the Susianian throne
that since his submission he defeated the from his elder brother, Umman-aldas. At
Cimmerians, who had formerly ravaged his his death, his younger brother, Temin-Um-
countrj% and he begged him to accept Cim- man, usurped the crown and the sons of Um-
;
merian chiefs whom he had taken captive man-aldas and those of Urtaki, who claimed
in battle, along with other presents, which the Susianian crown, only saved their lives by
the Assyrian monarch regarded as "tribute." fleeing to Nineveh with their relati\'es and
About the same time As.shur-bani-pal re- adherents, and putting themselves under the
pulsed an attack by the "King of Kharbat" protecflion of the Assyrian monarch. Thus
POLITICAL JUS TON V. 185
Asshur-b:iiii-pal, in the expedition which he revolt in vSusiana and seized the throne; and
now undertook, had a party which favored Tammarit, deserted by his army, was obliged
him in Susiana itself; but Teniin-Uninian to flee and .seek safety in concealment, while
strengthened himself by alliances with two the Susianian army returned home. While
descendants of Mcrodach-Baladan, who had Saiil-Mugina thus lost the most important
principalities upon the Persian Gulf coast, of his allies, A.sshur-bani-pal had overrun
with two sons of Belu-bagar, sheikh of the the northern Babylonian provinces and be-
Gambulu, with two mountain chiefs, one a sieged and took the Babylonian towns one
blood relation of the Assyrian king, and after another. Saiil-Mugina was taken pris-
with several inferior chieftains. Asshur- oner by Asshur-bani-pal, who punished his
bani-pal defeated the allies, took Temin-Um- rebel brother more than any of his
terribly
man prisoner, executed him, and exposed other captured enemies, burning him alive.
his head over one of the gates of Nineveh. A lull of some j-ears in acflual hostilities
He then divided Susiana between Urtaki's between Assyria and Susiana followed.
sons, Umman-ibi and Tammarit, establish- Inda-bibi having given refuge to Nebo-bel-
ing the former at Susa, and the latter at a sumi, and having repeatedly refu.sed to sur-
town called Khidal, in Eastern Susiana. A render the fugitive prince as demanded by
son of Temin-Uniman was executed with his the Assyrian king, was killed b}' the com-
father. Several of Merodach - Baladan's mander of his archers, a second Umman-
grandsons suffered mutilation. A Chaldaean aldas, who then usurped the Susianian
prince and a chieftain of the Gambulu had throne. At same time many pretenders
the
their tongues torn out by the roots. An- claimed the Susianian crown, and Asshur-
other Gambulu chief was beheaded. Two bani-pal again demanded the surrender of
of Temin-Umman's principal ofiScers were Nebo-bel-sumi, who would have been given
chained and flayed. Bj' these cruelties As- up had he not committed suicide. About
shur-bani-pal expected to strike terror into B. C. 645 Asshur-bani-pal invaded Susiann,
his enemies. took the strongl)--fortified town of Bit-Imbi
No sooner, however, had the Assyrians by siege, drove Umman-aldas into the
returned to Nineveh then fresh troubles mountain region of Susiana, took Susa,
broke out. Asshur-bani-pal's own brother, Badaca and twenty-four other cities, and
Saiil-Mugina, dissatisfied with his subordi- assigned the government of Western Susiana
nate position as viceroy of Babylon, rebelled, to Tammarit, who, after his flight from
and, declaring himself King of Babylon, Babylonia, had become a fugitive at the
obtained a number of important allies. court of Assyria. Umman-aldas was al-
These were Umman-ibi, who, though he lowed to retain the sovereignty of Eastern
had received his crown from Asshur-bani- Susiana.
pal, had been bribed by gift of treasure Tammarit, in order to cast off his vassal-
from the Babylonian temples; Vaiteha, a age to the Assyrian monarch, plotted to mas-
powerful Arabian prince; and Nebo-bel- sacre all the foreign garrisons in his domin-
sumi, a sur\4ving grandson of Merodach- ions, but was carried a prisoner to Nineveh,
Baladan. Saiil-Mugina's fair prospecfls and Western Susiana was put under military
of success were blighted b}- domestic rule. Umman-aldas, in his mountain fast-
troubles in Susiana, where
Umman-ibi was ness, colledled a new anny, and took pos-
defeated and slain in a civil war with session of Bit-Imbi the following spring;
his brother Tammarit, who thus became but unal )le to resist the Assyrian assaults, he
King of all Susiana. Tammarit, however, soon evacuated the town, and defended him-
entered into an alliance with Saiil-Mu- .self in his entire retreat to Su,sa, holding
gina; but while ab.sent with his army in the different strong towns and rivers in
Babylonia, a mountain chief from Luristan succession. But the Assyrians drove him
named Inda-bibi, or Inda-bigas, excited a from post to post, and finally took both Susa
1— 12.-U. II.
1 86 ANCIENT HISTORY.— ASSYRIA.
and Badaca, thus again placing Susiana at Thus ended the annals of A.sshur-bani-pal,
Asshur-bani-pal's mercy, all the towns mak- who was the most enterprising and the most
ing their submission, while Umman-aldas powerful of Assyrian warrior kings, and
was carried a prisoner to Nineveh. Inflamed who extended the Assj-rian Empire in e\-ery
with rage on account of the revolt, Asshur- beyond its previous limits.
diredtion In
bani-pal plundered the Susianian capital of Egypt he completed the task begun by his
its treasures, among which were eighteen father Esar-haddon, and established the As-
images of gods and goddesses, thirty-two syrian dominion for some years, not only at
statues of former Susianian kings, including Sais and Memphis, but likewise at Thebes.
those of Kudur-Nakhunta and Tammarit. In Asia Minor he subdued large sedlions
He also gave the other Susianan cities to be never before invaded by any Assyrian king,
pillaged by his soldiers for a period of almost and carried his renown to the western ex-
two months. He then annexed Susiana to tremity of the Asiatic continent. In the
the Assyrian Empire, thus closing this north he held, not only the Minni, but the
Susianian war, after it had lasted, with short Urarda, or true Armenians, among his trib-
intervals, for twelve years. utaries. On the south he formally annexed

While Asshur-bani-pal was thus engaged Susiana to the Assyrian Empire, and on the
in Susiana and Babylonia, Psammetichus west he signall)' chasti.sed the Arabs.
declared himself independent in Egypt and Thus in the middle part of A.sshur-bani-
began a war against the pettj- Egyptian pal's brilliant reign Assyria reached the cul-
princes who remained steadfast in their loy- minating point of her greatness the zenith—
ality to their Assyrian .suzerain. In Asia of her power and the widest extent of her
Minor, Gyges, King of Lydia, who had so —
dominion being at this time paramount
recently done homage to Assyria, sent aid to o\'er the portion of Western Asia from
the Egyptian rebel. Egypt cast off the As- the Mediterranean and the Hal>-s on the west
syrian yoke; but Gyges was slain in a terri- to the Caspian Sea and the Persian desert on
ble struggle with the Cimmerians, who had the ea.st, and from Arabia and the Persian
spread desolation throughout his dominions; Gulf on the south to the northern frontier
and Ard^-s, his successor on the L^dian of Armenia and the center of Cappadocia
throne, renewed the homage to the Assyrian on the north. In Africa the authorit}' of
king which his father had relinquished. Assyria was at this time acknowledged by
Asshur-bani-pal next engaged in an im- Egypt as far south as Thebes. Thus the
portant war with some Arab tribes of the Assyrian influence extended over Susiana,
desert who had aided Saiil-Mugina in his re- Chaldsea, Babylonia, Media, Matiene, or the
and suzerain. The
volt against his brother Zagros range, Mesopotamia; portions of Ar-
Arab war was Vaiteha, whose
leader in this menia, Cappadocia and Cilicia; Syria, Phoe-
allies were Natun, or Nathan, King of the nicia, Palestine, Idumsea, part of Arabia and
Nabathseans, and Annnu-ladin, King of Ke- nearly all The island of Cyprus
of Egypt.
dar. The whole border of Arabia from the may have been a dependency.
also But
Persian Gulf to S5'ria, and thence southward Persia proper, Bactria and Sogdiana, even
by Damascus to Petra, was the scene of mili- Hyrcania, were beyond the eastern limit of
tary' operations in this war. Petra, Moab, Assyrian power, which on the north did not
Edom, Zoar and several other cities fell on extend farther than about the
this side
into the hands of the Assyrians. The Arabs vicinity of Ka,svin, and towards the south
were defeated with great slaughter in the was confined within the Zagros mountain
Kliukhuruna, in the moun-
final Isattle at range; while on the west, Phrygia, Lydia,
tains near Damascus; and the two Arab Lj'cia, even Pamphylia, were independent,
chiefs who had aided vSaiil-Mugina were the arms of Assyria having never been, as
carried captives to Nineveh, and there pub- far as known, carried westward beyond Ci-
licly executed. licia or across the river Halys.

Asshur-bani-pal was also noted for his kinds of .scientific works. These treasures
love of hunting, especially lion-hunting. of learning were preserved in certain cham-
On the banks of streams, and in his pleas- bers of the palace of A.s.shur-bani-pal's
ure-galley in raid-stream, he roused the grandfather, Sennacherib, where they were
king of beasts from his lair by means of discovered by Mr. Layard. There are al.so
hounds and beaters, and slew him with his a large number of religious documents, pray-
arrows. In his own park of paradise large ers, invocations, etc., besides many juridical
and ferocious beasts, brought from distant treatises, the fines to be imposed for certain
quarters, were placed in traps about the social offenses; and lastly, there are all the
grounds, and when he approached they contents of the Registry office, such as deeds
were released from confinement, while he of sale and barter referring to land, houses,
drove among them in his chariot, letting and all kinds of property, contracfts, bonds
fly his arrows at each, seldom missing the for loans, benefactions and other different
marks at which they were direcfted. With kinds of legal instruments. Selections from
two or three attendants armed with spears, the tablets have been published in England,
he often encountered the terrific spring of being preparedfor that purjiose h\ vSir Henry
the bolder beasts, who rushed wild with Rawlinson and others. The clay tablets on
rage at the royal marksman to tear him which they were inscribed lay here in such
from the chariot. On some occasions he large numbers, sometimes whole, but gen-
left the chariot-board and engaged in a close erallj' in fragments, that they covered the
struggle single-handed with the brutes, chambers for more than a foot
floors of the
without the protection of armor, in his high. Layard truly says that "the
Mr.
usual dress, with only a fillet upon his head, documents thus discovered at Nineveh prob-
and would pierce them through the heart ably exceed all that has yet been afforded
with sword or spear. He often engaged in b}^ the monuments of Egypt.
'
' Among the
the chase of the wild ass, and hunted the interesting and valuable results which these
stag, the hind and the ibex, or w-ild goat. documents have recently yielded is the
His love of sport is also attested bj' the chronological scheme drawn from sev-en dif-
figures of his favorite hounds made inclay, ferent tablets, and known as
'
the Assyrian '
and painted and inscribed with their respec- Canon."

tive names. As a builder A.sshur-bani-pal fully rivaled,
Asshur-bani-pal was the only A.ssyrian if he did not surpass, the greatest of his
king who exhibited any taste for learning predecessors. His magnificent palace at
and literature. His predecessors only left to Nineveh, whose ruins are seen on the
their posterity some records of the events of Koyunjik mound, within a few hundred
their reigns, inscribed on cylinders, tab- jârds of his illustrious grandfather's splen-
lets, slabs, winged man-headed bulls and did royal edifice, was built on a plan differ-
lions, and a few dedicatory inscriptions, ent from those of former kings. The main
addresses to the deities whom they par- building consisted of three arms branching
ticularly worshiped. Asshur-bani-pal dis- from a common center, thus in its general
played far more varied and all-embracing form resembling the letter T. The central
literary tastes. He established a Royal Li- point was entered bj' a long ascending gal-
brar>-, consisting of claj' tablets, at Nineveh, lery- lined with sculptures, leading from a
from which the Briti.sh Museum has derived gateway, with rooms attached, at a comer
its most valuable coUedlion. Under the of the great court, first a distance of one
auspices of this monarch were prepared com- hundred and ninety feet in a direiftion par-
parative vocabularies, lists of deities and allel to the top bar of the T, and then a dis-
their epithets, chronological lists of kings tance of eighty feet in a diredtion at right
and eponyms, records of astronomical obser- angles to this, thus bringing it down pre-
vations, grammars, histories and various cisely to the central point from which the
arms extended. The whole stnicfture was In this part of the palace were likewise
thus shaped like a cross, having one arm illustrated the king's private life, the trees
extending from the top towards the left or and flowers of the palace garden, the royal
west. The principal apartments were in the galley with its two banks of oars, the liba-
lower limb of the cross, where a grand hall tion over four dead lions, the temple with
extended almost the entire length of the pillars resting on lions, and different bands
limb, no less than one hundred and forty- of musicians. A
part of the ascending pas-
five feet long by twenty-eight and a half sage was adorned with various .scenes, such
feet wide, opening towards the east on a as a long train, with game, nets and dogs
great court, paved principally with patterned returning from the chase. In combination
slabs, and communicating with a number of with all the sculptures just enumerated were
smaller rooms towards the west, and through many .scenes of sieges and battles, illustrat-
these smaller rooms with a second court, ing As.shur-bani-pal's wars. Reliefs resem-
facing towards the south-west and the south. bling these last were discovered by Mr. Lay-
The next largest apartment was in the right ard in certain chambers of Sennacherib's
or eastern arm of the cross, and was a hall palace which had been embellished by Ass-
one hundred and eight feet long by twenty- hur-bani-pal. These reliefs were distin-
four feet broad, divided by a wide doorway, guished for the large number and small size
in which were two pillar-bases, into a square of the figures, for the varietj' and .spirit of the
feet each way, and
ante-ghamber twentj'-four attitudes, and for the careful finish of all the
an inner apartment about eighty feet long. minute upon
details of the scenes illustrated
Neither arm of the cross was thoroughlj' ex- them. These give us a good representation
plored, and it is not known whether they of an Assyrian battle, showing us at one
reached to the extreme edge of the eastern view the battle, the flight and pursuit, the
and western courts, dividing each into two, capture and treatment of prisoners, the
or whether they only extended into the gathering of the spoil and the beheading of
courts a certain distance. Only one door- the slain. These reliefs are now in the
way has been discovered leading from the British Mu.seum.
rest of the palace to the western rooms. A.sshur-bani-pal, as already obser\'ed,
A.sshur-bani-pars great palace was especi- made additions to Sennacherib's great palace
ally remarkable for its beautiful and elabo- at ereefted some other build-
Nineveh, and
rate ornamentation. The courts were paved ings at thesame city, whose remains are
with large slabs covered with elegant pat- seen on the Nebbi-Yunus mound, where
terns. Some of the doorwa3-s had arched have been discovered slabs inscribed with
tops highly adorned with ro.settes, lotuses, his name and an account of his wars. He
etc. The chambers and passages were lined also built a temple to Ishtar at Nineveh,
throughout with alabaster slabs, which bore whose ruins are seen on the Koyunjik
reliefs designed with remarkable .spirit, and mound, and repaired a shrine of the same
executed with wonderful detail and fineness. goddess at Arbela. If he was the monarch
Here were represented interesting hunting called Sardanapalus by the Greeks, he was
scenes, such as the wild ass, the stag, the the founder of Tarsus, in Cilicia, and of the
hind, the dying wild ass, the lion about to neighboring city of Anchialus, on the au-
spring, the wounded wild ass seized by thority of some classical writers, though
hounds, the wounded lion, the lion biting a more reliable authors inform us that Tarsus
chariot-wheel, the king .shooting a lion with was founded by Sennacherib. It was be-
his arrow, the lion-hunt on a river, the king lieved generally by the Greeks that the tomb
killing lions, the lion let out of a trap, the of Sardanapalus was in this vicinity. They
hound held in leash, the wounded lioness, described this tomb as a monument of some
the hound chasing a wild ass, the hound height, having a statue of the king on the
chasing a doe, the stag taking the water, etc. top, representing him as snapping his fingers.
y
POL J TICA I. HIS TOR Y. 189
The stone base bore an inscription in As- of the Sardanapalus of Cte.sias. Asshur-
sj-rian which they interpreted
characters, bani-pal obtained for him.self a multitude of
as follows: "Sardanapalus, son of Anacyn- wives. Always upon the suppression of a
daraxes, built Tarsus and Anchialus in one revolt,he required the conquered va.ssal to
day. Do thou, O stranger, eat, drink, and send to Nineveh, along with his tribute, one
amuse thyself; for all the rest of human life or more of his daughters. These princesses
is not worth so much as this"
— "this" sig- became inmates of his harem, or seraglio.
nifying the sound supposed to be made by Asshur-bani-pal's glory was well known
the king with his fingers. Clearchus said to the Greeks. He was doubtless one of the
'
that the inscription was simply the following:

'
two kings called vSardanapalus, celebrated

' '
'
' son of Anacyndaraxes,

Sardanapalus, by Hellanicus; and he must have been "the
built Tarsus and Anchiale in one day yet — warlike Sardanapalus of Callisthenes. He-
'
'
now he is dead." Amyntas said that the rodotus alluded to his great wealth, and
tomb of Sardanapalus was at Nineveh, and Aristophanes employed his name as a by-
gave a very^ different inscription. Rawlin- word for magnificence. In his reign the
son thinks that the so-called tomb of Sar- Assj-rian Empire attained its greatest dimen-
danapalus was realh- the stele set up by sions, Assj-rian art reached its highest point,
Sennacherib on his conquest of Cilicia and and the Assj^rian dominion appeared likely
founding of Tarsus, as related by Polyhistor. to extend itself over the entire East. Then
The Greeks seem to have known more of Assyria most fully answered the forcible de-
this monarch than of any other Assyrian scription given her by the Jewish prophet
king. The account given by Ctesias of the Ezekiel in these words: "The A.ssyrian was
voluptuous Assyrian monarch whom he a cedar in Lebanon, with fair branches, and
called Sardanapalus, and repeated from him with a .shadowing shroud, and of high stat-
by subsequent authors, does not probably ure; and his top was among the thick
refer to Asshur-bani-pal, but rather alludes boughs. The waters made him great; the
to his successor, the last Assyrian king. deep set him up on high with her rivers
Asshur-bani-pal, the vanquisher of Tirha- running about his plants, and sent out her
kah, the conqueror of the tribes bejônd the little rivers unto all the trees of the field.
Taurus, the great warrior king whom the Therefore his height was exalted above all
wealthj' and prosperous Gyges, King of the trees of the field, and his boughs were
Lydia, sought to propitiate by means of multiplied, and his branches became long
rich presents, was so unlike the mere volup- because of the multitude of waters, when
tuary who never ventured outside the palace he shot forth. All the fowls of the heaven
gates, but confined himself exclusively to made their nests in his boughs, and under
the seraglio, performing woman's work and his branches did all the beasts of the field
often attired in female apparel. He was bring forth their young, and under his
one of the greatest of Assj-ria's kings. He shadow dwelt all great nations. Thus was
conquered Egypt and Susiana, held Baby- he fair in his greatness, in the length of his
lon in quiet subjecflion with the exception branches; for his root was by great waters.
of the short revolt of Saiil-Mugina, extended The cedars in the garden of God could not
his conquests Armenia, led his
far into hide him; the were not like his
fir-trees
armies beyond the Taurus, ana subjugated boughs: and the chestnut- trees were not like
the barbarous tribes of Asia Minor. During his branches; nor any tree in the garden of
the intervals of peace he employed him.self God teas like unto him in his beauty
in hunting the lion, and in the eredlion and With all their advance in civilization,
embellishment of palaces and temples. In their progress in art and the pradlical inven-
one re.specfl alone does A.sshur-bani-pal's tions, their ever-increasing literature, the
chara<5ler, as disclosed to us by the monu- As,syrians still retained the cruel and vin-
ments, exhibit the slightest likeness to that dicative spirit of the most barbarous ages and
I go ANCIENT HIS TOR Y.—ASS YRIA.
nations in conducfling their wars. Through throne from B. C. 647 to B. C. 626. Asshur-
the whole period of their history their treat- bani-pal distinclly asserts that when he sub-
ment of captured enemies continued to be dued Babylon and put his brother Saiil-Mu-
of the most barbarous brutality, which all gina to death he became King of Babylon
their advancing culture and their progi'ess himself; and many tablets remain, dated by
in- the arts of civilized life did not tend to his regnal years at Babj'lon, while the epo-
mitigate or soften. Sennacherib and E.sar- nyms which can be assigned to his reign are
haddon were more merciful than their pre- at least twenty-six or twenty-.seven. Poly-
decessors, frequently sparing their captives, histor distindlly saj's that the successor of
even when but As.shur-bani-pal re-
rebels; Sam-mughes, or Saiil-Mugina, on the Baby-
stored the old pradlice of executions, muti- lonian throne was his brother, and that he
lations and tortures, and was apparently reigned twentj'-one years. Thus modem
the most cruel of all the Assyrian kings. writers have identified Asshur-bani-pal with
On his bas-reliefs we see the unresisting Cinneladanus, and have concluded that he
enemy pierced through with the spear, the reigned in all forty-two years, from B. C.
tongue torn from the mouth of the captive 668 to B. C. 626. In this case Assyria's de-
accused of blasphemy, the rebel king be- cline commenced during the later years of
headed on the battle-field, and the prisoner Asshur-bani-pal' s reign, so that during this
led to execution with the head of a friend or period she was obliged to exchange her former
brother hung round his neck. We see the aggressive course toward other nations for a
scourgers preceding the king as his regular defensive attitude to maintain her own con-
attendants, with their whips pa.ssed through tinued existence against the fierce assaults
their girdles. We observe living and dead of the powerful neighboring kingdom of
men subjedled to the operation of flaying. Media and the destrucftive inroads of the
We behold scenes in which the executioner wild Scyths from the plains of Central A.sia.
is represented as first striking in the face The centralized monarchy established in
with his fist those about to be executed. Media C. 640 rapidly developed
about B.
Thus we have all the e\-idence of barbarous into a great military power. Setting aside
cruelty, such as had a brutalizing influence the old system of separate government and
on those who and also on those
inflicfted it, village autonomy, the Medes had united
who witnessed it. Nineveh was deservedly themselves into a single consolidated mon-
designated by the Jewish prophet Nahum archy, and about B. C. 634, when Asshur-
as "a bloody city," or "a city of bloods;" bani-pal had reigned over Assyria thirty-
and, in the language of the same prophet, four years, these people undertook an expe-
"the lion did tear in pieces enough for his dition against Nineveh, but failed in this
whelps, and strangled for his lionesses, and first attack. Phraortes, or the adlual leader
filled his holes with pre}?, and his dens with of this army of invasion, was thoroughly
ravin." Asshur-bani-pal gloried in his vin- defeated by the Assyrians, his host being
didliveand unsparing cruelties, transmitting cut to pieces, and himself being among the
the record of them to posterity by represent- slain. Nevertheless the facfl that the Medes
ing them in all their horrors upon his palace had assumed the offensive was a potent cause
walls. for alarm, as it illustrated a new state of
It has been generally supposed that As- affairs in Western Asia, fully demonstrating
shur-bani-pal died about B. C. 648 or 647, that Assyria was no longer the arbitress of
in which case his entire reign would have the destinies of nations. Cyaxares, the
been a brilliant and prosperous one; but next Median king, led an army against As-
recent discoveries render it probable that he syria about B. C. 632, defeated the Assyrians
livedand reigned until B. C. 626, and that in battle, and at once laid siege to Nineveh,
he was the Cinneladanus of the Canon of but was own
recalled to the defense of his
Ptolemy, who occupied the Babylonian country against a devastating barbarian tor-
:
poi.rncAi. Ills TOR j 191
rent which threatened tt> engulf the mon- gencies the supreme power was always vir-
archy whicli had so suddenly grown \\\> on tually vested in one man.
the eastern borders of Assyria. This new The Scythian religion embraced the wor-
danger was an irresistible inroad of the ship of the vSun and Moon, Fire, Air, Earth,
Scyths, or Scythians, from Central Asia, Water, and a deity resembling the Greek
who swept with destrudlive force over both Hercules; but the chief objetft of adoration
Media and Assyria, threatening the utter was the naked sword. The country was
annihilation of the civilized nations of divided into .sections, in each of whicli was
Western Asia. a vast pile of l)rushwood, .serving as a tem-
Herodotus and Hippocrates described the ple to the vicinity, and having planted at its
Scythians as coarse and gross in their habits, top an antique sword or cimeter. On a
with large fleshy bodies, loose joints, soft .specifiedday of each year solemn sacrifices
swollen bellies and .scanty hair. They of human beings and animals were offered
never washed themselves, only cleansing at these shrines, and the warm blood of the
their persons with a vapor bath, their women victims was poured upon the sword at the
applying to their bodies a paste which left top. The human vicftims for sacrifice, who
them glossy after it had been removed. were captives taken in war, were hewn to
They dwelt in wagons, or in rude tents con- pieces at the foot of the mound: their
sisting of woolen felts arranged around three limbs were wildly tossed into the air by the
bent sticks inclined towards each other. votaries,and the bloody fragments were left
They subsisted on mare's milk and cheese, where they had fallen. The Scythians had
adding at times boiled beef and horse-flesh no priest caste, but they believed in divina-
as a delicac}'. They drank the blood of tion, the diviners comprising a distincl class
theirenemies slain in battle. They cut off vested with important powers. When the
the heads of these dead foes, and showed king was ill he sent for these diviners, to in-
them to their kings to obtain each his re- form him of the cause of his illness, which
spedlive share of the spoil. They also strip- they generally ascribed to the circumstance
ped the scalps from the skulls and suspended that an individual, whom they named, had
them on their bridle-reins as trophies. Oc- .sworn falsely by the Royal Hearth. Those
casionally they flayed the right arms and accused of this offense, if found guilty by
hands of their .slain enemies, and u.sed the .several bodies of diviners, were beheaded in
skins as coverings for their quivers. The punishment, and their property was given
upper part of the skulls were usually con- to their original accusers.
verted into drinking-cups. They spent the Such were the chief charatfleristics of the
larger portion of each day on horseback, at- Scythians, as described by Herodotus, who
tending on the vast herds of cattle which the)- tellsus that they were the ruling race over
pastured. They used the bow, their favorite a great part of the steppe region extending
weapon, while riding, shooting their arrows from the river Ister (now Danube) and the
with unerring aim. They also each carried Carpathian mountains on the west to the
a short spear or javelin, and .sometimes also eastern limits of the region embraced by
a short sword or battle-ax. niodeni Turkestan on the east. Coarse and
The Scythian nation embraced many sepa- repulsive in appearance, ferocious in temper,
rate tribes. At the head of all was a royal .savage in habits,and powerful on account
tribe, corresponding to the "Golden Horde" of their vast numbers and a system of war-
of the Mongols, surpassing in numbers and fare not eas)- to withstand, and in which
bravery anj' of the others, and considering thev had become expert, they could well
them all as slaves. The kings ruled by he- strike consternation even into the strong
reditary right, and their families belonged to and warlike Median nation. Successive
the royal tribe. Several kings frequently hordes of Scyths swept through the passes
ruled at the same time, but in great emer- of the Caucasus, and spread ruin and devas-
tation over the rich plains to the south of the Syrian town known thereafter as Scyth-
them. Onward they pushed in swarms, opolis, a Greek name signifying City of the
overwhehning and irresistible, overrunning Scyths.
Iberia and Upper Media, reducing the rich Weakened by the severity of the Scythian
cultivated country to a howling wilderness. attack, Assyria rapidl}^ declined from this
They consumed the crops, carried off or de- time. The country^ had been ravaged and
stroyed the herds, burned the villages and depopulated, the provinces had been plun-
homesteads, massacred or enslaved such of dered, many had been
of the great towns
the inhabitants as did not escape to the lofty pillaged, the palaces of the kingshad been
mountain summits or other strongholds, burned, and much of the gold and silver had
sparing neither age nor sex, and converted been carried away. Assyria was but the
the whole countr>' into a scene of desolation. shadow of her former self when the Scyth-
The strongly-fortified towns which resisted ians retired from the country. Enfeebled
the invading Scyths, when not starved into and exhausted, she was ready to fall before
submission, escaped by consenting to pay a the arms of a conqueror. Babylonia and
tribute. Herodotus informs us that these the other provinces of the empire, from the
barbarians were masters of all Western Asia force of habit and because they too had been
from the Caucasus to the frontiers of Egj'pt exhausted by the barbarian inundation, con-
for a period of twenty-eight years; and their tinued loyal to Ass3-ria to the very last.
ravages spread over, not only Media, but Thus Asshur-bani-pal ruled over an extens-
Amienia, Assyria, Mesopotamia, Syria and ive empire to the end of his life.
Palestine. But Asshur-bani-pal died B. C. 626, after
The resistless tide of barbarian invasion a reign of forty-two years, and was succeeded
continued to roll on, sweeping from one re- by his son, Asshur-Emid-ilin, called Sara-
gion to another, plundering and ravaging cus by Abydenus. He was the last Assyr-
everywhere, settling nowhere. When the ian king, and reigned but one year. We
savage hordes had reached Southern Pales- have very few native records of this mon-
tine, the course of invasion was stayed by arch, and the only classical notices concern-
the Egyptian king, Psammetichus, who was ing him are the account given of him by
then engaged in the siege of Ashdod. Upon Ctesias,and a few sentences in the writings
hearing of the approach of the Scythian host of Abj'denus and Polj'histor. A few legends
to Ascalon, Psammetichus sent an embas.sy on bricks inform us that he began the erec-
to their leader and bribed him by means of tion of a palace at Calah, whose remains
valuable presents to abstain from an inva- arenow seen at the south-east part of the
sion of Egypt. Nimrud mound. The contrast between this
Thenceforth the power of the Scythian unfinished edifice and those grand royal
invaders declined, and the nations whose residences of former Assyrian kings clearly
armies they had beaten, whose lands they exhibited the waning glorj- of the mighty
had ravaged with fire and sword, began to monarchy which had swaj-ed the destinies
recover themselves. Cyaxares, King of of Western Asia for nearl}- seven centuries.
Media, and the sovereigns of other nations, Instead of the alabaster bas-reliefs which
drove them beyond their dominions, many embellished the palaces of the predecessors
of the barbarians returning across the Cau- of this last Assyrian monarch, his edifice
casus to their home-land, numbers
large was adonied with nothing better than coarse
being slain in battle or massacred, and limestone slabs without sculptures or inscrip-
the remainder submitting and entering the tions; and in place of the enameled bricks
.service of the native Asian monarchs. The of elegant patterns which ornamented the
only vestiges of this destru(5live Scythic magnificent structures of Sargon, vSenna-
inroad were the names of the Armenian cherib and Asshur-bani-pal, we find in this
province thenceforth called' Sacasene and building a simple plaster above the slabs.
POLITIC. 1 1. HIS TOR V. 193
A series of small chambers, none of which invasion, Saracus, the last of the great dy-
was over forU'-five feet long, nor more than nasty founded by Sargon, divided his forces,
twenty-five feet in its greatest width, was retaining a portion under his own command
sufficient for the last Assyrian sovereign, to oppose the Medes, while he assigned the
whose diminished court could not now have other part to his general, Nabopola.ssar,
filled the spacious halls of his predecessors. whom he ordered to Babylon to check the
The Nimrud palace of Asshur-emid-ilin, advance of the Su.sianians. But Nabopo-
or Saracus, appears to have occupied less lassar, .seeing his own opportunity in his
than half the space covered by any other sovereign's perilous dilemma, turned traitor,
palace upon the mound. The decline of and, instead of fighting loyally against the
taste is clearly demonstrated by its lack of foes of Assyria, he entered into .secret nego-
grand facades or magnificent gateways, its tiations with Cj'axares, agreeing to an alli-
small and inconvenient rooms, running in ance with him against the Assyrians, and ob-
suites which communicated with one another taining the daughter of the Median king as
without any entrances from courts or pas- a bride for his eldest son, Nebuchadnezzar.
sages, composed of sun-dried bricks faced Uniting their forces, Cyaxares and Nabopo-
with limestone and plaster, and roughl}^ lassar jointly attacked Nineveh; whereupon
paved with limestone flags. The mere facfl Saracus, or Asshur-emid-ilin, unable to de-
that Saracus should have entertained the fend his capital, and overcome by despair,
thought of making his residence in a struc- .set fire to his palace and perished in the
ture of so poor and mean a characfter is the flames. The once-proud city of Nineveh
most convincing evidence of Ass3'ria's de- was plundered and destroyed by the con-
cadence and degeneracy on the eve of her quering Medes and their allies.
overthrow. The rude condition of this The account of the downfall of As.syria
palace, and its entire want of elegant orna- as related by Ctesias is so fanciful that it is
mentation, is to be partially accounted for utterl}- discarded by the best modem histo-
by the circumstance that Saracus perished, rians. He says that the Medes were accompa-
along with his capital and his empire, before nied by the Persians, and the Babylonians
he had time to complete the edifice. by some Arab allies, and that the a.ssailing
While this building was undergoing erec- army numbered four hundred thousand men.
tion Saracus held his court at Nineveh, In the first engagement the Assyrians were
where he prepared to defend himself against victorious, and the attacking army was
the enemy who, taking advantage of his driven to the Zagros mountains. A second
powerless condition, lost no time in pressing and a third attack likewise failed. The tide
forward the conquest of his rapidly-decay- of battle turned in favor of the assailants
ing and declining empire. The Medes, fa- upon the arrival of a strong reenforcement
vored by nature in their land of rocky hills from Badlria, when a night attack upon the
and inaccessible mountain chains, did not Assyrian camp was crowned with complete
suffer as much from the ravages of the success. The Assyrian king sought refuge
Scyths as did the Assyrians in their defense- in his capital, leaving his army under the
less plains; and they were the first of the command of his brother-in-law, Sala;menes,
nations exposed to the barbarian inundation who was soon defeated and slain. The siege
to recover from its destrucftive effects. Hav- of Nine\-eh then began, and lasted over two
ing repulsed the Scyths and expelled them years without any result. An unusually
from his country, Cyaxares, the warlike wet sea.son in the third year of the siege
monarch who founded the great Median caused an extraordinary rise in the Tigris,
Empire, led a large anny into Ass>ria from more than two miles of the city
destroA'ing
the east; while his allies, the Susianians, en- wall; whereupon the king, who had been
tered the country in force from the south. told b)' an oracle to fear nothing luitil the
To defend his countrv against this double river became his enemy, yielding to despair,
194 ANCIENT HISTOR } '.—ASSYRIA.
made a funeral pile of all his richest furni- haddon and Asshur-bani-pal dwelt in lux-
ture, and burnt himself with his concubines ury- and splendor, after lying imbedded be-
and his eunuchs in his palace. The Medes neath the mounds and ruins of twenty-five'
and their allies thereupon entering the city on centuries, have in our day, thanks to the
the side laid open by the flood, phnidered enterprise and diligence of patient explorers
and destroyed it. This description of the like Layard and Botta, been brought out of
last siege of Nineveh, as related by Ctesias, their long concealment to the light of the
has been transmitted to posterity through the modern world; and many wonderful sculp-
tures from the great cities of ancient As-
syria now adorn the museums of London,
Paris and Berlin. The great cities of As-
shur, Calah, Dur-Sargina and Nineveh,
with their magnificent royal residences, their
busy shops and fadlories teeming with the
producfts of industry, their crowded thorough-
fares in which vidlorious warrior-kings were
greeted with the applause of their sub-
je<5tsand the triumphant .shouts of their
stalwart and invincible soldiery, now exist
only in the records and memory of their
WINGED MAN-HEADED BULI.. past glory and greatness, and in the ruins
Now in British Museum.
on the mounds of Kileh-Sherghat, Nimrud,
writings of Diodorus Siculus, and, like most Khorsabad and Koyunjik, only tenanted by
of his statements,is unworthy of credit. the wandering Kurds watching their herds
Thus fell mighty Assj'rian Empire,
the
not so much from any inherent weakness
as by an unfortunate combination of circum-
—
stances the invasion of the powerful and
warlike Medes when the empire had been
exhausted by the terrible inroad of the
Scyths, and the treason and perfid}' of its
leading general. With the destru(5lion of
the empire the A.ssyrian race sank into ob-
livion, and Assyrian history ceased forever.
Assyria upon its downfall was divided be-
tween its conquerors, the portion east of the WINGED MAN-HEADED LION.
Tigris falling to Media, and the part west Now in British Museum.
of the river being absorbed by Babylonia. and flocks, and resounding with the jackal's
By the successive changes in this part of howl after the sun in its daily course has
Asia, the countn,' has continually changed sunk to rest beneath the western horizon.
niasters, being successivelj- under the Medo- The independent kingdom of Assyria
Persian, Grseco-Macedonian, Syrian, Par- lasted about a thousand years, but the em-
thian, New Persian, Saracen, Seljuk, Mon- pire covered a little less than the last seven
gol, and for the last five centuries under centuries of this period, from B. C. 1300 to
the Ottoman Turkish, dominion. The B. C. 625, when it fell before the arms of
country now forms part of the Turkish the Medes, or more properly onl>- about five
province of Kurdistan, and the half-savage centuries, from B. C. 11 50. The power and.
modern Kurds are the diredl descendants extent of the empire culminated during the
of the renowned ancient Assyrians. The brilliant reign of Asshur-bani-pal, just be-
palaces in which Sargon, Sennacherib, Esar- fore its rapid decline and sudden fall.
THE DI'ATH OF SARACUS.
:
POL I TICAL HIS TOR } 195
KINGS OF ASSYRIA.
B. C. B. C. Bei,-sumii,i-kapi Called the foumler of the kingdom on a

genealogical tablet.
» * » » •
IRBA-VUI, Mentioned by Tiglath-Pileser I. as a former

king.A very archaic tablet in the British
Museum is ilated in his reign.
* » * « i
ASSHUR-IDDIN-AKHI Mentioned by Tiglath-Pileser I. as a former

king,
About 1440 to 1420. ASSHUR-BIL-NISI-Sl' . . . Mentioned on a synchronistic tablet, >
" 1420 to I4<KX BUZUR-ASSHUR (successor) . which connects them with the time
" 1400 to 13S0. AssHUR-UPALLiT (successor) of Purna-puriyas, the Chaldiean
king. .'isshur-upallit mentioned
on Kileh-Shcrghat bricks.
1380 to 1360. Bel-lush (his son) . . . . Names and succession found on i
1360 to 1340. PUD-IL(his son) Kileh-Sherghat bricks, vases, etc.

1340 to 1320. VuL-LUSH I. (his sou) . . . Shalmaneser I. mentioned also on
1320 to 1300. Shalmaneser I. (his son) a genealogical slab and in the
standard inscription of Nimrud.
1300 to 12S0. TiGLATHi-Nix I. (his son) Mentioned on a genealogical tablet.

Called "the conqueror of Babylon,"
and placed by Sennacherib 600
years before his own capture of
Babylonia in B. C. 703.
1230 to 12 ro. Bel-kudur-uzur Mentioned on the synchronistic tablet

as the predecessor of Nin-pala-zira.
1210 to 1 190. Nin-pala-zira (successor) . Names and relationship given in

1 190to 1 1 70 ASSHUR-DAYAN I. (his Son) . cylinder of Tiglath-Pileser I.
to 1 1 50
1 1 70 MuTAGGIL-Nebo (his son)
1 150to 1 130. ASSHUR-RIS-ILIM (hissou) \ Mentioned on the synchronistic tab-
1 130to 1 1 10. Tiglath-Pileser I. (his son) '
let above spoken of. Date of I
mo to 1090 ASSHUR-BIL-KALA his son)
I . 1 Tiglath-Pileser I. fixed by the f
1090 to 1070 Shamas-Vl'L I. (his brother) ) Bavian inscription. Dates of the I
other kings calculated from his at

twenty years to a generation.
ASSHUR-MAZUR Mentioned in an inscription of Shal- 2

>
maneser II.
w
930 to 911 Asshur-davan II The kings from .\sshur-dayan II. to s
VuL-LUSH II. (his son) Vul-lush are proved to have
a
911 to SS9 . . III.
889 to 88 ; TiGLATHi-NiN II. (his son) been in direcl; succession by the n
883 to 85S AssHUR-iziR-p.\L (his son) Kileh-Sherghat and Nimrud monu-
858 to 823 Sh.almaneser II. (his son) ments. The last nine reigns are
823 to 810 Sh.\mas-Vul II. (his son) given in the Assyrian Canon. The
8:0 to 781 VuL-LUSH III. (his son) . Canon the sole authority for the
is
781 to 771 Shalmaneser III. . . . last three. The dates of the whole
771 to 753 ASSHUR-D.\YAN III. . . . series are determined from the
753 to 745 ASSHUR-LUSH Canon of Ptolemy by calculating
back from B. C. 680, his date for
the accession of Esar-haddon
(Asaridanus). They might also be /
fixed from the year of the great /
eclipse.
745 to 727 . TiGLATH-PlLESER II. . The years of these kings, from Esar-
727 to 722 . Shalm.\neser IV. . .
haddon upwards, are taken from
722 to 705 . vS.VRGON the Assyrian Canon. The dates
705 to 681 . Senn-^cherib (his son accord strictly with the Canon of
681 to 668 . Es.\R-HADnoN (his son Ptolemy. The last year of Asshur-
668 to 626 . ASSHUR-B.AXI-PAL (his son) bani-pal is to some extent conjec-
626 to 625 . Asshur-emid-ilin (his son) tural.
'
SECTION IV.— ASSYRIAN CIVILIZATION.

llAYS Professor Rawlinson: an empire of the primitive type, like that of
"The nature of the dominion and these obligations, with the cor-
Assj'ria;
estabhshed by the great Meso- responding one on the part of the dominant
potamian monarch}' o\-er the power of the prote6lion of its dependents
countries inchided within the against foreign foes, appear to have consti-
limits above indicated, will perhaps be best tuted the sole links which joined together
understood if we compare it with the empire in one the heterogeneous materials of which
of Solomon. Solomon 'reigned over all the that empire consisted. * * *
kingdoms from the ri\-er (Euphrates) unto the "Such, in its broad and general outlines,
land of the Philistines and unto the border was the empire of the Assyrians. It em-
ofEgj'pt: they broiiglil presents and served bodied the earliest, simplest and most crude
Solomon all the days of his life. The first ' conception which the human mind forms of
and most striking feature of the earliest em- a widely extended dominion. It was a
pires is that they are a mere congeries of 'kingdom-empire,' like the empires of Solo-
kingdoms; the countries over which the mon, of Nebuchadnezzar, of Chedor-laomer,
dominant state acquires an influence, not and probabl)' of Cyaxares, and is the best
only retain their distindl individuality, as is specimen of its class, being the largest, the
the case in some modern empires, but re- longest in duration, and the best known of
main in all respe(5ls such as thej' were before, of all such governments that has existed.
with the simple addition of certain obliga- It exhibits in a marked way both the strength
tions contradled towards the paramount au- and weakness of this class of monarchies
thority. They keep their old laws, their — their strength in the extraordinary mag-
old religion, their line of kings, their law of nificence, grandeur, wealth, and refine-
succession, theirwhole internal organization ment of the capital their weakness in the
;
and machiner}'; they only acknowledge an impoverishment, the exhau.stion, and the
external suzerainty which binds them to the consequent dLsaffeetion of the subjecft states.
performance of certain duties towards the Ever falling to pieces, was perpetually re-
it
Head of the Empire. These duties, as un- constru(fled bj' the genius and prowess of a
derstood in the earliest times, may be long succession of warrior princes, seconded
summed up in the two words homage and
'
' by the skill and bravery of the people. For-
'tribute;' the subjecft kings 'serve' and tunate in having for a long time no very
'bring presents.' They are bound to acfts powerful neighbors, it found little difficult)'
of sulamission; must attend the court of their in extending itself throughout regions di-
suzerain when summoned, unless they have vided and subdivided among hundreds of
a reasonable excu.se; must there salute him petty chiefs, incapable of union, and singly
as a superior, and otherwise acknowledge quite unable to contend with the forces of a
his rank; abo\-e all, they must pay him reg- large and populous countn,'. Frequently
vilarl)' the fixed tribute which has been im- endangered by revolts, yet always triumph-
posed upon them at the time of their sub- ing over them, it maintained itself for five
mission or .subjecftion, the unauthorized with- centuries, gradually advancing its influence,
holding of which is open and avowed rebell- and was only overthrown after a fierce strug-
ion. Finally, the)' must allow his troops gle by a new kingdom formed upon its bor-
free passage through their dominions, and ders, which, taking advantage of a time of
must oppose any attempt at invasion by way exhaustion, and leagued with the most pow-
of their country on the part of his enemies. erful of the subjetl states, was enabled to
Such are the earliest and most es.sential obli- accomplish the destrucftion of the long-domi-
'
gations on the part of the subjecl states in nant people.

— —
CJ17L/ZA nOiV. 197
As in the case of the Chaldaeans, it was ians, as disclosed to us by their sculptures,

formerly a subjecl of dispute as to what also confirm this view. Their sculptured
branch of the Caucasian race the Assyrians effigies bear the most striking resemblance
belonged; but it has now been definitely de- to the Jewish physiognomy. The low and
termined b>- the evidence of language, as straight forehead, the full brow, the large
well as the testimony of the Hebrew ac- and almond-shaped eye, the aquiline nose a
counts, that the Chaldseans were mainly a little coar-se at the end and unduly depressed,
Hamitic, or Cushite race, fused slightly with the strong and firm mouth with over-thick
Semitic, Aryan and Turanian elements; while lips, the well-fomied chin —best observed in
the Assyrians are found to have been pure the representation of eunuchs — the thick
Semites, and therefore a kindred people with hair and heavy beard, both of black color
the Hebrews, or Israelites, the Arabs, the all these,as exhibited by the Assyrian
Syrians, or Aramaeans, and the Phcenicians. sculptures, display a remarkable likeness to
The Mosaic genealogies connedted Asshur the striking peculiarities of the Jewish head
with Aram, Eber and Joktan, the progeni- and face, and also bear somewhat of a re-
tors respedlively of the Aramaeans, or Syrians, semblance to the ph}-siognomy of the Arabs,
the Israelites, or Hebrews, and the Northern, and to all branches of the Semitic race.
or Joktanian, Arabs. The languages, pln^s- These traits are now common to the Jew,
ical types and moral characteristics of these the Arab and the Kurd, while in ancient
races were well known, as they all belonged times they characterized the Assyrians, Syr-
to a single family —
to what ethnologists and ians, Phoenicians, Hebrews and the minor
philologists call the Semitic family. The Semitic nations. The Egyptian sculptures
manners and customs, particularh' the re- of Amunoph III., as representing the Pa-
ligious customs, of the Assyrians were iden- tena, or people of Bashan; the Asuru, or As-
tical with tho.se of the Syrians and Phoe- syrians; and the Karukamishi, or people of
nicians. The modem Chaldaeans of Kur- Carchemish, show us the same type of physi-
distan, who consider themselves descendants ognom)-, which the Egyptians regarded as
of the ancient inhabitants of the neighbor- common to all the nations of Western Asia.
ing Assyria, still speak a Semitic dialect In shape the Assyrians are most truly repre-
a fadl discovered and reported bj' the elder sented by their descendants, the modern
Niebuhr, and confirmed by Mr. Ainsworth. Chaldaeans of Kurdistan. Like the modern
These three circumstances are sufficient Kurd, the Assyrian was robust and stalwart
evidence that the Assyrians were Semites, in bodily frame, with broad shoulders and
being closely allied in race with the Sj'rians, large limbs. The monuments of no other
the Later Babylonians, the Phoenicians, the people show us so strong a race in muscular
Israelites and the Northern Arabs ; and development as the ancient Assyrian. The
recent linguistic discoveries have fully con- large brawny limbs of this resolute and
firmed this view. We now have in the en- sturdy people, whom Rawlinson fitly calls
gra^•ed slabs, the clay tablets, the cylinders "the Romans of Asia, " indicate a physical
and the bricks, excavated from the ruins of power belonging to no other nation.
the great Assyrian cities, abundant docu- The mental and moral characteristics of
mentarj" testimony of the character of the the Jews and the Assyrians also bore the
Assyrian language, and of the ethnic char- clo.sest analogy. In each the religious sen-
adler of the people. All who have examined timent was peculiarly predominant. The
this evidence have arrived at the conclusion inscriptions of Assj-rian kings begin and end
that the language of these records is Semi- with praises, invocations and prayers to
tic, and that it is closely connected with the their chief deities. All the king's victories
Hebrew, the Syriac, the Later Babj'loniau and conquests, his successful feats in the
and the Arabic. chase of the lion and the wild bull, are as-
The physical characteristics of the Assyr- cribed to the protection and favor of the
gods. Thus Tiglath-Pileser 1. says in his The Hebrew Scriptures represent the As-
cyhnder: "Under the auspices of Ninip, my syrians as"a fierce people." Their per-
guardian deity, I killed four wild bulls sonal valor and courage, and their skill and
strong and and lender the auspices
fierce;
'
'
'
'
superiority over all other nations in the art
of Ninip, one hundred and twenty lions fell of war, gave them their vidlories over their
before me. " One of A.sshur-bani-pal's less-civilized neighbors and enemies. The
sculptured in.scriptions says: "I, Asshur- valor and courage of the Assyrians, like that
bani-pal, king of the nations, king of As- of the Romans, was kept up by constant
syria, in my great courage fighting on foot wars, and by the cultivation of their manly
with a lion, terrible for his size, seized him charadleristics, developed in the pursuit and
by the and in the name of Asshur and

ear, .slaying of ferocious beasts. The lion and
Ishtar, Goddess of War, with the spear that other fierce and dangerous animals infested
was in my hand I terminated his life." Assyria; and, unlike other Asiatics, who
Wherever the Assyrian monarch led his tremble with fear before the great beasts of
conquering hosts, he "set up the emblems prey and avoid an encounter with them by
of Asshur," or of "the great gods;" and flight if pos.sible, the ancient Assyrians
compelled the vanquished to render them hunted the strongest, and fiercest animals,
homage. The most precious of the spoils provoked them to a collision and engaged
of conquest were dedicated as thank-offerings with them in close combat. The spirit of
in the temples. The temples themselves Nimrod, "the mighty hunter before the
were adorned, repaired, beautified, enlarged Lord," which animated his own people, the
and multiplied numerically by most of the Chaldseans, inspired to even a greater extent
Assyrian sovereigns. The kings worshiped their northern neighliors, the A.s.syrians, ac-
in these temples in person and offered sacri- cording to the evidence afforded us by the
fices. They embelli.shed their palaces with monuments. The Ass^-rians, from the sov-
religious figures, such as emblems of chief ereign to the lowest subject, delighted es-
deities and illustrations of a(5ls of adoration, pecially in hunting the lion and the wild
as well as with representations of their vic- bull, noted and courage,
for their .strength
tories in war and their exploits in hunting. and to attack either of which was to incur
Their signets, and tho.se of the Assj-rians extreme peril.
generally, are religious in characfler. In The Assyrians were not only a brave and
every respecft religion occupies an important hardy people, but also verj- fierce and fero-
place amongthe Assyrians, who fight more cious in their nature. In the language of
for the honor of their gods than for their the Hebrew prophet Isaiah, the Assyrian
king, and aspire as nuich toward extending nation was "a mighty and a strong one,
their religion as their dominion. which, as a tempest of hail and a destroy-
As Jewish religion, we perceive in
in the ing storm, as a flood of mighty waters o\'er-
the Assyrian SN'stem a .sensuousness con- flowing, cast down to the earth with the
tending with a higher and purer element, hand." The Lsraelitish prophet Nahum
which in this case reigns uncontrolled, giv- could well describe Nineveh as "a bloody
ing a gross, material and voluptuous char- city," or "a city of bloods." In this fierce
adler to its religion. This pra(5lical people dispo.sition the Assyrians were not unlike
cared ver>- little for the spiritual and the other conquering races, few of which have
ideal, and, not being satisfied with symbols, been tender-hearted, or inclined to spare a
made idols, or images, of wood and stone vanquished foe. Carnage, ruin and desola-
to represent their gods; and their intricate lation marked the course of an Assyrian
mythological .system, with its priestly hie- army, and excited feelings of fear and ani-
rarchy, its magnificent ceremonial and las- mosity among their enemies. Assyrian
civious ceremonies, resembled that of Egj'pt, fierceness was, howe\-er, often tempered with
and thus differed from that of the Jews. clemency. The slain foe was nuitilated
CIVILIZATION, 199
not by way of insult, hut as a proof of the ally denounced in the Hebrew Scriptures,
slayer's prowess, perhaps to obtain a reward where it is expressly declared to have called
given for heads, as has frequently been the forth the Divine judgments upon the nation.
case with Orientals. Scribes are often rep- Says the pnii)het ICzekiel: "Because thou
resented on the sculptures taking an account hast lifted uji thyself in height, and he hath
of the heads cut ofif. Otherwise the Ass3-r- shot his to]) among the thick boughs, and
ians had no actually cruel customs. Thej' his heart is lifted up in his height; I have
readily gave quarter when asked for, and therefore delivered him into the hand of the
chose rather to take prisoners than to mas- mighty one of the heathen; he shall surely
sacre. They were ven' terrible foes to en- deal with him; I have driven him out for his
counter in battle and to withstand in an wickedness. '
' The prophets Isaiah, Ezekiel

attack, but in the hour of triumph they and Zephaniah alike denounce Assyrian
forgave and spared the fallen foe. The ex- pride. This characteristic everj^where per-
ceptions to this general clemency were in vades the Assyrian inscriptions. The As-
the cases of the .subjugation of rebellious syrians considered themselves greatly supe-
towns, wherein the most guilty of the rebell- rior to all other nations. They alone were
ion were impaled on stakes, and in several favored by the gods. They only were really
instances prisoners are represented on the wise or acftually brave. The armed hosts
sculptures as being led before the king by a of their foes were chased before thera like
rope fastened to a ring passing through the chaff before the wind. Their enemies were
under lip, while occasionally one appears as afraid to fight, or were
once defeated with
at
being flayed with a knife. But usually cap- ease. They carried their arms in triumph
tives were either released, or transferred, wherever they pleased, and never acknowl-
without unnecessar>- suffering, from their edged that they had experienced a reverse.
own country^ to another part of the Assj-rian The only merit that they admitted other
Empire; there being some exceptional cases, people to possess was some skill in the me-
where the captives were urged onwards by chanical and mimetic arts, and this ac-
blows, like tired cattle, and where they knowledgment was only tacitly made bj-
were heavily fettered. Captive women were employing foreign artists to ornament their
never manacled, but were treated with real edifices.
tenderness, being frequently permitted to The Greek accounts as gi\en by Ctesias,
ride on mules or in carts. and transmitted therefrom to the E.omans
The greatest \-ice of the Assyrians seems to and through them to the modems, repre-
have been their treachery. Saj-s the Hebrew sented luxurious living and sensuality as the
prophet Isaiah :
'
' Woe to thee that spoilest, predominant \-ice of Assyrian monarchs,

though thon wast not spoiled, and dealest from Ninyas to Sardanapalns, from the ori-
treacherously, though they dealt not treach- gin to the overthrow of the Assyrian Em-
erously with thee!" The prophet Nahum pire. The entire race of Assyrian sovereigns
declared Nineveh to be "full of lies and rob- are thus represented as voluptuaries, who car-
bery." Isaiah further declared, in alluding ried into practice the principle that human
to the Ass3'rian king: " He hath broken the happiness consisted in freedom from all cares
covenant, he hath despised the cities, he re- or troubles, and in unrestrained indulgence
gardeth no man." But the denunciations in every kind of sensual pleasure. This ac-
of the Assyrians for cruelty- or treachery by count is directly contradicted by the au-
Jewish prophets and writers would carry thentic records which the Assyrian monu-
more weight if the Hebrew hi.story did not ments and sculptures funiish us conceniing
alx)und with tales of barbarous cruelty, the warlike character and manly pursuits of
bloodshed, treachery and crime. so large a number of the monarchs. Never-
Another failing in the characfter of the theless in .so flourishing a monarchy as As-
Assyrians was their pride, which is especi- syria luxury did gradually advance; and
ANCIENT HIS TOR '.—ASS ) } 'RIA.
when the Empire fell before the combined and durability of her architecfture Egypt sur-
attack of two powerful neighboring king- passed Assyria. The Assj-rian palaces, with
doms, it had lost much of its old-time vigor. all their splendor, were inferior to the colos-
There is only one passage in the Old Testa- sal stru(ftures of Thebes. Neither Assyria,
ment ascribing luxury and sensuality as a Rome orany other nation, has rivaled
cause of the downfall of Assyria. The Egypt in the vastness and the solemn grand-
usual faults for which Jewish prophets gen- eur of its edifices. But with this solitary
erally denounced the Assyrians are their exception, the great kingdom of Africa was
violence, treachery and pride. When Nin- decidedly the inferior of her powerful Asia-
eveh repented in Jonah's time it was by each tic rival, which was truly described by the
man having turned from his e\'il way and
'
'
Hebrew prophet Ezekiel as "a cedar in Leb-
from the violence which was in their hands." anon, exalted above all the trees of the field
When Nahum announced the final over- — fair in his greatness, in the length of his
throw, it was "the bloody city, full of lies branches — so that all the trees of Eden, that
and robbery." In the figurative language were in the garden of God, envied him and —
of the prophet, the lion was selected as the not one was like unto him in his beauty."
s}-mbol of Assyria, even at the close of The material and phy.sical vigor of the
her histon,-. Thus Assyria is still repre- As-sj^rians outran their intellecflual pro-
sented as
'
' the lion that did tear in pieces gress and development. The elements of
enough for his whelps, and strangled for his their science and literature, their cuneiform
lionesses, and filled his holes with prey, and writing, their architedture and other arts,
his dens with ravin." The chosen national they brqught with them from their mother
emblem of Assyria is thus accepted as the country, Chaldaea. Even the Hamitic,
true type of her people ; and blood, ra\-in or Cushite, dialedt of the Chaldees became
and robbery are the Assyrian qualities in the the language of the Assyrian priests and
view of the Jewi.sh prophet. scholars, and in this dead language were
The Assyrians were among the foremost preser\'ed the records of the old Chal-
Asiatic nations in mental power. Though daean kingdom and the early history of the
they derived the elements of their civiliza- Assyrian monarchy. It was not until the
tion originally from their mother countrj-, culminating period of Assyrian greatness
Chaldcea, they excelled their instructors in and glor\-, during the brilliant reign of
many particulars, and rendered the old arts Asshur-bani-pal, just before the rapid decaj'
more valuable by continual improvements. and decline of Assyrian power, that the
Their language, arts and government attest works written in the Chaldee classic tongue
their native genius, and are advances upon were translated into the Assyrian vernacular.
what had previously prevailed in Mesopo- The Assyrian race manifested its greatness
tamia and in the world. The Assyrians in art and manufacflures, and not in science
were the superiors of the highly-lauded and literature.
Eg>'ptians in many essential particulars. As we have before noticed, the same sys-
The progressive characfter and .spirit of As- tem of cuneiform, or wedge-.shaped, charac-
syrian art contrasts most strongly with the ters used in Chaldisan writing was employed
stiff, lifeless and fixed conventionalism of in the written language of Assyria. The
the Egyptian. The Assyrian language and mounds of Assyria and Mesopotamia have
alphabet are an advance upon the Egyptian. yielded a mass of documents in the A.ssyr-
The A.s.syrian religion is more earnest and ian language. Some of these are .stone
less degraded than that of the Nile land. slabs bearing long historic in.scriptions
The courage and military genius of the As- with which the walls of palaces were
syrians were also superior to the same (_|uali- paneled, and which are wonderfully pre-
ties in the Egyptians, who were on the whole served to- this day. Other memorials are
an uu warlike nation. But in the grandeur the hollow cylinders, or, more properly,
. 1
civn.rzATiox. 20
hexagonal or octagonal prisms, made of ex- temples. These cylinders are from a half
tremely thin terra-colta, and which the As- yard to a yard high, and the inscriptions
syrian kings inscribed with the records of covering the outside face are arranged in
their acftions and with many religious invo- columns, one of which occupies each side,
cations, and deposited at the corners of reading from top to bottom. This writing
— was so wonderfully fine
c as
good
to often require
niagnifying-glass
a
to decipher it. The cyl-

inder of Tiglath-Pileser
I. contains thirty lines
in a space of six inches,
or five lines to an inch,
which is almost as close
I:
^Tii ^T ^^ a^ ^ y »--rf >£^
as the type of this book.
The cylinder of Asshur-
bani-pal has six lines to
the inch. The durabili-
ty of these cylinders is
attestedby the fact that

many of them still re-
main, and give us most
of our knowledge of the
annals of this great peo-
ple, as recorded by them-
selves twentj'-five and
thirt}' centuries ago.
Besides slabs and cj-1-
inders, the written rec-

ords of AssjTia were in-
scribed upon the stone
bulls and lions, stone
obelisks, engraved seals,
bricks and clay tablets.
Both the sun-dried and
kiln-burned bricks are
stamped with legends,
to preser\-e them from
the two great dangers
of flood and fire, to
which Assyria was sub-
ject:. Fire would only
harden the sun-dried
bricks, and water could
^^^T 1- >ni ^ |^^H ^1^ ^ T^ :=:i^ not affedl those burned

in kilns. The clay tab-
lets are numerous, and
of varying from
sizes
nine by six and a half
SLAB WITH CUNEIFORM INSCRIPTION. inches, to an inch and a
Now in British Museum.
-13.-U. H.
202 ANCIEXT HISrORY.— ASSYRIA.
half by an inch. In some cases they are ten clearly cut lines. It is one of the most
wholly co\-ered with writing, while in other important of the remaining Assyrian me-
instances a portion of their surface is morials, and contains a record of the vidlories
stamped with mythological emblems,
seals, won and the tribute brought to Shalmaneser
etc. Thousands of these talilets have been II., who set it up.
found, many being historical, many mytho- The many inscribed lions and bulls guard-
logical, some linguistic, .some geographic, ing the portals of palaces are raised in a
some astronomical. Such are the treasures bold relief on alabaster slabs; the inscrip-
of Assyrian literature. tions generally covering only the portion.^
The few stone obelisks are in a fragmen- of the slabs not occupied by the animal, and
tary condition, the only perfe<?t one being usualh' giving a detailed account of some
the one in black basalt, discovered by Mr. important campaign. Clay tablets were
Lavard at Nimrud, and which has now been used in ordinary business affairs, and for lit-
KXHUMl.NG A WINGKD M.\N HE.\Di;i) lll'LL yt NIMRUD.
for many years in the British Museum. This erary and .scientific writings; and, when
moiuiment is about .seven feet high, two feet wanted for instrudlion or evidence, were
broad at the base, tapering slightly towards carefully baked. That thej' exi.st to this
the top, which is crowned with three low da3^, in as legible a condition, with letters
steps, or gradines. The in.scriiition occupies as clear and .sharp, as any Greek or Roman
the upjKT and lower portions of each side, legend on marble or metal, proves
.stone,
and is carried along the spaces between the that the best clay, properly baked, is as
bas-reliefs, consisting of two hundred and durable as stone or metal.
—
Cn'II.JZATIOX. 203
Says Professor Rawlinson: "Of all the Assyrian mimetic art is in the form of
Assyrian works of art which have come statues, bas-reliefs, metal castings, ivory
down to us, by far the most important are car\-ings, clay statuettes, brick enamelings,
the bas-reliefs. It is here especially, if not and intaglios on stones and gems. Assyrian
solely, that we can trace progress in style; statues are rare and imperfedt. The best
and it is here alone that we see the real ar- specimens are two royal statues now in the
tistic genius of the people. What sculpture British Museum; also two statues of the god
in its full form, or in the slightly modified Nebo, one of the goddess Ishtar, and one of
form of ver>- high relief, was to the Greeks, —
Sargon all of \\hich are now also in the
what painting has been to modern European British Museum. The A.s.s^-rian claj- stat-
nations since the time of Ciniabue, that low uettes, mostU' images of deities, possess even
relief was to the Assyrians —the practical less artistic excellence than the statues.
mode in which artistic power found vent Small animal figures, mostly dogs and
among them. They used it for almost everj' ducks, in terra-cotta, have likewi.se been
pui-pose to which mimetic art is applicable ;
di.scovered.
to express their religious feelings and ideas, In painting, as well as in sculpture, the
to glorifj- their kings, to hand down to pos- Assyrians made great progress, and many
teritj' the nation's historj' and its deeds of of the drawings on the prominent sculptures
prowess, to depicft home scenes and domestic are elegant. Even,thing indicates a taste
occupations, to represent landscape and arch- for display. In architeiftural designs, and
itecture, to imitate animal and vegetable in the grouping of flowers and animals for
forms, even to illustrate the mechanical the purpo.ses of embellishment, great rich-
methods which the\- employed in the con- ness and variety of fancy are exhibited.
stru(ftion of those vast architedtural works The dresses of the kings display gorgeous
of which the reliefs were the principal orna- robes, elegantly' and profusely embroidered,
mentation. It is not too much to say that fringed and tasseled. Sandals made of
we know the Assyrians, not merely artisti- wood or leather were u.sed for the feet, while
cally, but historicalh- and ethnologically, caps and tiaras of silk were worn on the
chiefly through their bas-reliefs, which seem head. Many articles of furniture likewise
to represent to us almost the entire life of displayed great elegance . Tables constructed
the people." of wood ivorj' and
or metal, inlaid with
The were sculptured on stone
bas-reliefs having legs were in the
gracefully- canned,
slabs, which were set in the lower part of dwellings of the wealthy. Elegant baskets
the walls of the palaces which they adorned. seem to have been in use. Ornaments, such
These reliefs were of five different classes as tassels, fringes, necklaces, armlets, brace-
I. War scenes, such as battles, sieges, devas- lets, anklets, ear-rings of various forms and
tations of an enemy's country, naval expedi- elegant workmanship, clasps, etc., were worn
tions and triumphant returns from foreign in profusion. There were drinking-cups of
wars, with the trophies and fruits of vic- gold and E\'er>-where was manifested
sih-er.
torj'i 2. Religious scenes, mythical and real; a love of elaborate and gaudy decoration.
3. Processions, mosth' of tribute-bearers, The excavations within the last half cen-
carrying the products of their respecftive tury at Khonsabad, Koyunjik, Nimrud and
countries to the Assyrian king; 4. Hunting Kileh-Sherghat have revealed to us the fadl
and sporting scenes, such as the cha.se of fe- that truly did Assyria rank next to Egypt
rocious animals, and of animals hunted for in monumental grandeur. The remains of
food, the spreading of nets, the shooting of A.ssyrian art and architecture exhumed from
birds, etc.; 5. Scenes of even,-day life, such these mounds give a very considerable
as the transportation and erection of colos- knowledge of their stupendous palaces in
sal bulls, and landscapes, temples, interiors, the days of their splendor and glor\-. We
gardens, etc. can, by looking at the remains of the .sculp-
204 ANCIENT HISTORY.— ASS YRIA.
tared and painted walls of their vast edifices, emljlematic tree, also winged man-headed
read the records of Assyria — its battles, its bulls and lions, occupN-ing conspicuous places
sieges, its conquestsand its triumphs. We among the ornaments. At the upper end of
see around the colossal images of the As- the hall was a gigantic figure of the king,
sj-rian gods, by which, in monstrous yet
'
in adoration before Asshur, ' the Great
striking emblems, the Assyrians endeavored IvOrd," or receiving from his eunuch the
to express their conceptions of divinity. We holy cup. He was attended by warriors
are here introduced to the semblances of bearing his arms, and by the priests, or pre-
monarchs who flourished from twenty-five siding divinities. His robes and those of
to thirty centuries ago. We .see these in his followers were adorned with groups of
their costumes of state, in all the pomp and figures, animals and flowers, all painted with
circumstance of war, in the pursuit of the brilliant colors.
chase, and in the solemn ceremonials of re- The visitor trod upon alabaster slabs, each
ligion. We are also enabled from these bearing an inscription, recording the titles,
sculptures to inform ourselves "of many of the genealogy and the achievements of the
the domestic customs of the Assyrians, of Great King. Several doorways, guarded by
their household furniture, their mechanical gigantic winged man-headed lions and bulls,
tools and implements, their methods of agri- or by the figures of guardian deities, led
culture, the crops of the husbandman, and into other apartments, which likewise opened
in facft, the occupations and amusements of into more remote halls. In each of these
this renowned Asiatic people in the days of apartments and halls were sculptures. On
their preeminence. the walls of some were processions of colos-
lyayard and Botta, the fortunate discov- sal figures — armed men and eunuchs follow-
erers of the.se famous ruins, ha\-e given us ing the king, or warriors laden w-ith spoil,
glowing descriptions of the ma.s.sive dimen- conducfting captives or bearing presents and
.sions, the magnificence and grandeur, of the offerings to the gods. On the walls of others
Assyrian palaces, whose ruins they uncov- !
were portrayed the winged priests, or pre-
ered from the Khorsabad, Koyunjik and .siding divinities, standing before the sacred
Nimrud mounds. The stranger who visited trees.
these splendid palaces in the flourishing pe- The ceilings abo\-e the visitor were divided
riods of the Assyrian Kmpire was ushered into square compartments, painted with
in through the portal, guarded by colossal flowers or wdtli figures of animals. Some
winged man-headed lions and bulls of white were inlaid with ivor}-, each compartment
alabaster. In the first hall he saw all being surrounded with elegant liorders and
around him the sculptured records of the mouldings. The beams, as well as the sides
—
empire battles, sieges, triumphs, hunting of the chambers, may have been gilded, or
exploits, religious ceremonies — all portrayed even plated with gold and and the silver;
on the palace walls, sculptured in alabaster, most highly prized species of wood, promi-
and painted in gorgeous colors. Under each nent among which was the cedar, were used
picture he saw engraved, in characflers filled in the wood-work. The palaces were lighted
up with bright copper, in.scriptions descrip- from the roofs, which were of wood, the
tive of the .scenes thus illustrated. light being admitted through square open-
Above the sculptures he ob,ser\'ed paintings into the ceilings of the chambers. A
ings representing other events — the As.sj-rian pleasing light was thus cast over the sculp-
king, attended by his eunuchs and his war- tured walls, and gave a majestic expression
riors, receiving his captives, negotiating to the human features of the colossal figures
alliances with other monarchs, or perform- guarding the entrances. The azure hue of
ing some sacred duty; these representations the eastern sky was seen through these
being surrounded by colored Ijorders, of apertures, which were enclosed in frames,
elaborate and elegant designs. He saw the whereon were painted in vivid colors the
CIMI.IZATION. 205
winged circle, in the midst of elegant orna- for twenty-five centuries. Marble, alabaster
ments and the graceful figures of ideal and basalt were u.sed in the palaces. The
animals. ancient Ass>-rian edifices, like the palaces,
These vast edifices were the great Assyr- had no windows, but were lighted through
ian monuments, upon whose walls were their wooden roofs.
represented in sculpture, or inscribed in So thoroughly was Nineveh destroj'ed that
cuneiform characflers, the chronicles of the when Xenophon, about two hundred and
Assyrian Empire. The \-isitor who en- twentj'-five years afterward, passed over its
tered these splendid stru(5tures might here ruins the verj' name of the place was un-
read the annals and learn all about the known to the inhabitants; and in the time
glorj- and triumphs of this great people. of Alexander the Great, nearly a century
These memorials ser\'ed also to constantly later, the city was forgotten; so that for over
remind those who assembled within the two thousand years the ver\' site of the re-
palace on festive occasions, or for cele- nowned capital and metropolis of Assyria
brating religious ceremonies, of the deeds was unknown. But the wonderful discov-
and prowess of their ancestors, and the eries of Layard in recent times have identi-
power and majesty of the Assyrian gods. fied its localitj' as the ruins opposite the
The palaces seem to have been of one story, present town of Mosul, on the Tigris, con-
but of vast extent. Under the floor of each two principal mounds, known re-
.sisting of
room was a drain, consisting of a clay pipe. specftivelyby their present Arab names of
No traces of the dwellings of the common Nebbi-Yunus and Ko^-unjik. The Koyun-
people remain. The sculptures inform us jik mound is the larger of the two, and is
that the Assyrians used the arch in building. located about nine hundred yards, or a little
Assyrian pillars in the temples and palaces over half a mile, north-we.st of the Nebbi-
rested on circular or globular bases, or on Yunus. Its .shape is an irregular oval, elon-
animal figures. The temple towers, or zig- gated to a point towards the north-east, in
gurats, were eredted in the form of steps or the line of its greater axis. The surface is
stages around their four sides, thus gradu- almost flat, and the sides slope at a .steep
ally becoming narrower at the top. Such angle, being furrowed with many ravines,
were the royal residences of Assyria each — worn in the .soft material by the rains of
of which was at the same time a temple and twenty-five centuries. The mound rises to
a palace —the dwelling of him who was at its greatest height above the plain towards
once the sovereign, the priest and the prophet the south-eastern extremity, there overhang-
of his people. ing the small stream of the Khosr-su, where
The Assyrian ruins exhibit no tombs like the height is about ninety-five feet. The
those of Egypt, whose painted interiors, mound covers about a hundred acres. On
protedled from the ravages of the elements, this artificial mound the Assyrian palaces
have transmitted to succeeding ages the and temples, now buried beneath heaps of
thoughts, feelings and opinions of their earth and rubbish, were eredled in ancient
ancient builders. All that remains of As- times.
.syrian architecture are .scattered bricks, usu- The Nebbi-Yunus mound is almost tri-
ally marked with inscriptions and with angular at its base and covers about forty
sculptures and reliefs. The most interesting acres. It is more elevated, and its sides are
and valuable are the stone slabs facing the more precipitous than Koyunjik, particularly
inside walls of the temples. The Assyrian on the west, where it abutted upon the wall
strudlures were generally built of brick, of the city. The
surface is mostly flat, but
which was preferred as a building material, is an eastern and a western por-
di\-ided into
although stone was abundant in the country-. tion by a deep ravine running nearly from
The temples constructed of .stone have partly north to south. The supposed tomb of
remained, though buried in heaps of rubbish Jonah occupies a conspicuous place on the
2o6 ANCIENT HISTORY. — ASSYRIA.
CIMUZATION. 207
northern edge of the western portion of tlie impends over a deep ravine formed by a
mound, and the cottages of Kurds and Turko- winter torrent, thus running in a dire<5l line
mans are grouped about it. The eastern about a thousand yards, when it is joined
portion forms a general Mohammedan burial- with the eastern wall, with which it forms
ground surrounding country.
for the a slightly acute angle.
Palaces and temples were raised on these The eastern wall is the longest and the
two great mounds, both of which are in the most irregular of the four ramparts, and
same line and abutted on the western wall skirts the edge of a rocky ridge, there ri.sing
of the city. On this side Nineveh was thir- above the level of the plain and presenting
teen thousand six hundred feet, or over two a slightly convex course to the north-east.
and a half miles long, and in ancient times This wall is sixteen thousand feet, or over
overhung the Tigris, which is now a mile three miles long, and is divided a little north
farther to the west, leaving a plain of that of the middle into tw-o portions, by the
THE GREAT MOUND OF KOVUNJIK, ON THE SITE OF NINEVEH.
width between the river and the old rampart Khosr-su, which flows through the cit)'
of thecity. This rampart followed the nat- ruins, running across the low plains to the
ural course of the river bank. At its Tigris.
northern extremity the western wall ap- Thus the entire enceinte of Nineveh forms
proaches the present course of the Tigris, an irregular trapezium. Its greatest width,
and is there connecfted, at exactly right which is in its northern portion, is four-
angles, with the northern or north-western ninths of its length, thus giving the city an
rampart, which runs in a diredl line to the oblong shape, as Diodorus described it,
north-eastern angle of the city and measures though he greatly exaggerated its size. The
exactly seven thousand feet. At one third circuit of the walls is not quite eight miles,
of the distance from the north-west angle instead of being over fifty; and the area thus
this wall is broken by a road, and adjoining embraced is eighteen hundred English acres,
this is a remarkable mound, which covers and not one hundred and twelve thousand.
one of the principal gates of the city. At It has been estimated that populous Ori-
its other eiid the western wall forms an ental cities have a hundred inhabitants to
obtuse angle with the southern wall, which the acre, or one to fifty square yards, thus
—
20S ANCIENT HIS TOR J '. ASS ) 'RIA.
!i!|i)il«!|i|i!iii!i|Ni!||iiiiffli|ji)ii'i)'iii|imi!;|i;ii;i|i|lipi
'ii , „ :.': i ! 1 Ti*. V '.: ;.. \: '

Ii
ii I Ii
.iMiji
liili! I I
.;mt
!!l;!ll!i!i!iii|l!lîto:».'
m
i;!lliiiliiiHi!;i:'!i'
1
,|
pl;i,i;,l:!';,1l,K,i,l'.|:il,l:.!:i,
IL
CIl'ILIZATION. 209
giving ancient Nineveh one luindred and chambers and the passages contained so
seventy-five thousand souls, a population nuich charcoal as to give rise to the belief
exceeding that of any city of Western Asia that they were constructed of bronze. The
at the present time. ground within the gateway was paved with
Diodorus described the wall with which large limestone slabs, which still bear the
Ninus surrounded his capital as being one marks of chariot-wheels.
hundred feet high, and so wide that three Besides its Nineveh was pro-
ramparts,
chariots could be driven abreast along the top. tected on all sides by water barriers, the
Xenophon, who passed near the ruins while west and south being defended by natural
conducfliug the Retreat of the Ten Thou- streams, and the north and east by artificial
sand, says that the walls were one hundred canals beginning at the Khosr-su. vSkirting
and fifty feet high and fifty feet broad. The the northern and eastern walls was a deep
greatest height at present appears to be moat, into which the waters of the Khosr-su
forty-six feet; but the great amount of rub- were turned by occupjiug its natural channel
bish at the foot of the walls, and their ruined with a strong dam, carried across it in the
condition, have led Mr. Layardtosay: "The line of the eastern wall, and at the point
remains still existing of these fortifications where the stream uow flows into the en-
almost confirm the statement of Diodorus closure. On coming in contadt with this
Siculus, that the walls were a hundred feet which some vestiges j-et re-
obstrucftion, of
high." The walls in their present condition main, the waters separated into two parts,
are from one hundred to two hundred feet one flowing to the south-east into the Tigris
broad. by the ravine immediately to the south of
Xenophon says that the walls up to fifty the cit}-, which is a natural water-course,
feet were construAed of a fossiliferous lime- and the other turning at an acute angle to
stone, smoothed and polished on the outside, the north-west, washing the remainder of
and that above that height sun-dried bricks the eastern and the entire northern wall,
were used. The stone masonrj-, in Mr. Lay- and emptying into the Tigris at the north-
ard's opinion, was ornamented along its top west angle of the city, where a .second dam
by a continuous series of battlements, or kept it at a sufiicieut height. On the eastern
gradines, of the .same material, and it is side, which seems to have been the weakest
probable that a like ornamentation crowned and the most exposed, a .series of outer de-
the upper brick structure. The wall was fenses were construcfted for the further pro-
pierced at irregular intervals by gates, above tection of the citJ^ North of the Khosr-su,
which rose high towers; and lower towers between the city wall and that stream,
occurred in the parts of the wall between which there flows parallel to the wall and
the different gates. A gate in the north- forms a second or outer moat, are the re-
western rampart, cleared by excavation, mains of a detached fort which, from its
seems have consisted of three gateways,
to size, evidently added considerable strength
the inner and outer being ornamented with to the city's defenses in that quarter. The
colossal winged man-headed bulls and other works are yet more elaljorate to the south
figures, while the middle one was only pan- and south-east of the Khosr-su. From a
eled with alabaster slabs. Between the gate- point where the stream leaves the hills and
ways were two large chambers, seventy feet reaches low ground, a deep ditch, two hun-
long by twenty-three feet wide, being thus dred feet wide, was extended lor two miles,
capable of holding a considerable body of until it connected with the ravine forming
soldiers. The chambers and gateways are cit>- on the .south.
the natural defen.se of the
believed to have been arched over, similar On each side of the ditch, which could be
to the castles' gates on the bas-reliefs. The easily filled with water from the Khosr-su
gates themselves have entirely ceased to ex- at its northern c.xtrcmity, was erected a
ist, but the rubbish which filled both the high and wide wall; the eastern one forming
'
2IO ANCIENT HIS TOR } '.—ASS ) 'RIA.

the outermost defense, and rising even yet a Egyptians, the early Greeks, the Canaanites,
hundred feet abo\-e the bottom of the ditch the Syrians, the Jews and Israelites, the
on which it adjoins. Between this outer Philistines, the Hittites, the Lydians, the
barrier and the city moat was a kind of Elamites, or Susianians, the Medes and Per-
demi-lune, defended by a double wall and a sians, the Hindoos, the Gauls, the Britons,
broad ditch, and joined by a covered way and other peoples of antiquity, the Assjt-
with the city itself. Thus Nineveh was ians looked upon the chariot as most hon-
protected on its most vulnerable side, to- orable. Their king invariably went to war
wards the centre, by five walls and three and battle riding in a chariot, only dis-
broad and deep moats towards the north by
; mounting and shooting his arrows on foot
a wall, a moat, the Khosr-su and a strong while besieging a town. The leading officers
outpost; towards the south bj' two moats of state, and other dignitaries of high rank,
and three lines of rampart. The entire for- followed the same custom. The cavalry and
tification on the eastern side is two thousand infantrj' were composed of persons of the
two hundred feet, or nearl)- a half mile wide. lower classes.
The accounts of Ctesias and Diodorus re- The Jewish prophet Isaiah, in warning
specting the immense size of Nineveh are his countrj'men of the miseries in store for
highlj- exaggerated, and it is known that them, described the Assyrians as a people
these writers regarded the ruins of Nimrud, "whose arrows were sharp, and all their
Keremles, Khorsabad and Koyunjik as all bows bent, whose horses' hoofs should be
being the remains of that renowned Assyr- counted like flint, and their -a'hcels like a
ian capital. The Book of Jonah also bears whirlwind." The same prophet, in after-
testimony to the immense size of this great wards announcing Jehovah's displeasure
city. Unlike Ctesias, who onh- saw the ruins with Sennacherib on account of his pride,
of Nineveh, Jonah saw the city itself in its speaks of tbat king's reliance upon "the
splendor. This Hebrew prophet tells us multitude of his chariots." The prophet
that Nineveh was "an exceeding great city, Nahum, announcing the coming over-
in
of three days' journey," and also that in it throw of the haughty nation, declares that
Jehovah is against her, and will bum her
'
were more than sixscore thousand persons
'
'
'
that could not discern between their right chariots in the smoke." In the fabulous
hand and their left." Though these pas- Assyrian history by Ctesias the war-chariots
sages are very vague, they yet convey some of the mythical king Ninus are represented
idea of the vastness of the city. It has been as amounting to nearly eleven thousand,
supposed that the one hundred and twenty and those of his wife and successor, Semira-
thousand persons "that could not discern mis, are estimated at the extravagant num-
between their right hand and their left '
ber of one hundred thousand.
were children, which would thus indicate a The Assyrian war-chariot is believed to
population of about six hundred thousand. have been made of wood. Like that of the
It has also been believed that the phrase Greeks and Egyptians, it seems to have been
".six score thousand persons that could not mounted from behind, being there complete-
discern between their right hand and their ly open, or only closed hy means of a shield,
which could be hung across the aperture.
'
left ' alluded to the dense ignorance of the

inhabitants, in which case the number here It was richly ornamented, and completely
mentioned included the entire population of paneled at the sides. The, two wheels were
the city. placed at the extreme hind end of the
The sculptures of the Assyrians furnish body, as in the Egj-ptian war-chariot. The
us with very complete representations of chariot- wheels of the early period had six
their system of warfare. The Assyrians, spokes; those of the middle and later periods
like other ancient nations, fought in char- had eight. The felloes of the wheels usual-
iots, on horseback and on foot. Like the ly consisted of three distinct circles, the
o
w
>
z
'T.
w
o
-1-
0",
<
cnn.izATioN. 211
middle one being the thinnest, and the outer persons occupying the chariot. The lx)w
one the tliickcst of the three. vSonictiines was the usual weapon of the chariot warrior,
there was a fourth circle. These circles as well as of the cavalrj' and infantry sol-
were fastened together with bands of iron. diers. The chariot warrior was sometimes
The wheels were attached to an axle-tree dressed in a long tunic confined at the waist
fastened to the body without any springs by a girdle, and sometimes in a coat of mail,
between them. They were furnished with like the Egj'ptian chariot warrior. Some-
bows, quivers of arrows, spears, or javelins, times he descended from the chariot to shoot
hatchets, battle-axes and shields. off his arrows on foot.
The A.ssyrian cavalry

rank in importance almost
equally with the war-char-
iots. Ctesias made the
number of hor.semen in
Assj-rian armies alwaj-s
greater than the chariots.
The writer of the Apoch-
ryphal Book of Judith as-
signs Holofernes twelve
thousand hor.se-archers,
and the prophet Ezekiel
alludes apparentl}- to all
the "desirable 5-oung men"
as "horsemen riding upon
horses." The Assyrian
sculptures represent the
cavalry as far exceeding in
number the chariots. In
the early period of Ass>-r-
ASSYRIAN WAR-CHARIOT. cavalry- was
ian history-
The chariots weredrawn bj- two or three but little used, but in the times of Sargon
horses, two being yoked together in front, and Sennacherib the cavalry came to be
while the third was hitched before the others prominent in all battle scenes, the chariot
by means of a rope, and was designed as a being only used by the king and high
suppl}' in case of loss. The harness and dignitaries.
trappings of the horses were extremelj' rich The Assyrian cavalrj' were divided, ac-
and elegant ribbons, tassels, fringes and
; cording to their weapons, into mounted arch-
rosettes, of gay colors, profusely decorating ers, or bowmen, and mounted speannen. In
the head, neck and sides. The bits and the early period each cavalrj' archer was ac-
ornaments of the bridles were of gold and companied by an unarmed attendant, who
silver. Embroidered robes were sometimes managed his steed, while the archer dis-
thrown over the backs of the ;hariot-horses. charged his arrows.
The chariots contained two persons at Assyrian armies, like others, consisted
least, the driver, or charioteer, and the war- mainly of iufantrj-. Ninus
Ctesias gives
rior. Sometimes they contained in addi- 1,700,000 footmen, 210,000 horsemen and
tion an attendant who protecfled the warrior 10,600 chariots. Xenophon showed the wide
with a .shield while he discharged his arrows contrast between the immense host of infan-
at the foe. In rare instances there was a sec- trj' and the scanty numbers of the cavaljy
ond attendant with a shield to prote(5l and the chariots. Herodotus says that the As-
the archer from behind, thus making four syrians in the great army of Xerxes were all
212 ANCIENT HIS TOR Y.—A SS } 'RIA.
footmen. The Book of Judith assigns to with their axes. In Sargon's time the foot
Holofemes ten times as many footmen as soldiers consisted of those of the light equip-
horsemen. The Assyrian monuments show ment, those of the intermediate equipment,
thesame proportion of infantrj- to cavalrv', and those of the heavy equipment. Senna-
and represent a hundred footmen to each cherib's foot archers embraced four classes,
chariot soldier. For their military successes two heavy-anned and two light-armed.
the Assyrians were chiefly indebted to the The offensive weapons were the bow and
BATTI.E PIECE ;
I'ROM NINKVISH.
valor, discipline, .solidity

and equipment of '
arrow, the spear, pike, or javelin, the sword,

their infantry, which mainly of
consi.sted the mace, the battle-ax and the .sling.
foot archers, or t)owmen, and foot spearmen. The defensive armor consisted of a shield
Besides these the foot soldiers embraced of metal or wicker-work a crested or pointed
;
swordsmen, mace-bearers, ax-bearers, and helmet of metal; and a coat of mail, con-
from .Sennacherib's time, .slingers. Pioneers of successive rows of iron scales in
si.sting
accompanied the army to clear away trees the early period and reaching to the feet or
CIMI.IZATION. 2'3
knees, and in later times composed of larger stones, or meeting their assailants .spear to
metal plates and bauds fastened together spear and .shield to shield.
and reaching only as low as the waist. If the escalade failed, or was impracli-
The warriors were variously costumed, cable, the battering-ram,an engine mounted
those of the lighter equipment onlj- wearing on four or six wheels, and having cither a
a short tunic reaching from the waist to pointed or blunt head, was driven with force
half-way down the thigh, the rest of the per- agaiust the walls to effect a breach. In con-
son being bare ; those of the intermediate nection with the battering-ram a movable
equipment wearing a coat of mail to the tower containing .soldiers was sometimes
waist and a tunic thence to half-way down employed, the besiegers being thus enabled
the thigh; and those of the heavy equipment to meet the besieged oia a level and protect
wearing a coat of mail above the waist, and a the engine from attacks. The besieged often
robe thence down to the feet. Both these lat- tried to fire the battering-ram by casting
ter classes wore helmets over the head, and upon it torches, burning tow or other in-
sandals on the feet. The anns were bare. flammable substances. To thwart these at-
When not covered by the robe the legs were tempts the soldiers in the battering-ram
also sometimes bare, and sometimes covered were furnished with a supply of water
by close-fitting trousers and short greaves, which they diredled through leather or
or boots. The hilts of swords and daggers metal pipes against the combustibles. Some-
were ornamented with gold chasings of ele- times they suspended a curtain of cloth or
gant forms, and the points of sheaths with leather from a pole in front of the battering-
the beaks of birds. The bow was the chief ram to protedl themselves. Sometimes the
weapon of war, alike among chariot, cav- besieged attempted to catch the point of the
alry and infantrj' soldiers, and was richl)^ battering-ram by means of a chain sus-
mounted. pended from the walls, but the besiegers in
The barbarous custom of rewarding those turn tried to catch the chain by means of
who carried back to camp the heads of foe- strong metal hooks. The Assyrians in their
men, caused the heads of the dead, and even sieges also used a catapult, a large engine
of the wounded, the disarmed and the unre- designed for throwing stones against forti-
sisting, of the enemj-, to be carried back to fied walls, the besiegers worsting the engine
camp, in proof of the slayer's prowess. Quar- from a mound or inclined plane, and the
ter was generally only given to generals and besieged endeavoring to destroy it b}- fire.
dignitaries of rank whom it was desirable to The besiegers also endeavored to mine the
spare. Scribes were always present to take foundations of the walls by means of crow-
an account of the spoil at the close of the bars and pickaxes, protecling themselves by
battle. The usual praAice upon taking a holding their shields above them. Some-
city or town was to plunder it of ever\'thing times the besiegers would try to break open
of value. the gates with axes, or them with tht?
fire
The strongly-fortified towns of an enemy torch. WTien a cit}- was taken it

or town
were besieged and assailed iu three principal was fired, its walls demolished and its trea-
ways. The attack bj- escalade was hy sures carried off.
means of ladders placed against the citj^ The Assyrians had three modes of exe-
walls. These ladders were mounted by the cuting captives — impaling them on stakes
spearmen, followed by the archers, while the in the ground, beating in their skulls with
bowmen and slingers kept up a constant a mace, and beheading them. Several bas-
discharge of arrows and stones. The as- reliefs them flaying prisoners with
represent
sailants protecfled themselves with their a knife. This may have been after death,
shields. The besieged endeavored to dis- as was the custom of the Persians and the
lodge and break the ladders, and defended barbarous Scythians. Sometimes prisoners
themselves by discharging their arrows and were punished by mutilation instead of
^
o
,—
H
-<
a
ai
Ci
A
PS
CIMl.lZATIOX. 215
death. Cutting off the ears, blinding the such as oxen, sheep, goats, horses, asses,
eyes with hot irons, cutting off the nose, and mules and camels. Sennacherib, in his in-
tearing out the tongue by the roots, have -scriptions, says that in one foray he carried
always been favorite Asiatic punishments. away from the tribes on the Huphrales
Asshur-izir-pal saj^s in his great inscription "7,200 horses and mares, 5,230 camels, 11,-
that he frefiuently cut off the noses and ears 000 mules, 20,000 oxen and Stx), 000 sheep."
1
of captives; and a slab of Asshur-bani-pal Other Assj-rian monarchs mention the cap-
represents a captive in the hands of torturers, tured animals as "too numerous to be
one holditig the prisoner's head, and another counted," or "countless as the stars of
thrusting his hand into his mouth to tear heaven." Precious metals were often among
out the tongue. The captives consisted of the spoils carried off.
men, women and children. The men were As in all other Asiatic monarchies from
driven in bands under the condu(5l of brutal time immemorial, the severest form of des-
c.\i'Tivi:,s ui-' war; from .A.ssiii r-bani-i'ai.'s palace.
officers, who hurried them on bj- blows to potism existed in Assj-ria. The .sovereign's
the Assyrian capital, where the kings em- willwas law, and no code was in existence
ployed them in labor. The .skilled work- to restrict his judgments, even the ancient
men were required to aid in ornamenting customs and usages being set a.side at his
palaces and shrines. The great mass of the pleasure. The king was the head of the
unskilled laborers were set to work, under church, as well as of the state, and claimed
brutal taskmasters, in quarrj'ing and trans- divine worship. His palace was filled with
porting stone, in raising mounds, making as many wives and concubines as he chose
bricks, etc. Sometimes the captives were to colledt, and these were placed under the
only colonized innew regions, to prevent guardianship of eunuchs, an unfortunate
own native lands, and to
rebellion in their class, first brought into use in Assyria.
keep down malcontents in their new abodes. The portion of the royal palace assigned to
Besides captives, the Assyrians carried the king's w'omen was his harem, or seraglio.
off great numbers of domesticated animals. A rigid etiquette separated the king from
2l6 ANCIENT HISTORY.— ASSYRIA.
his subjedls, no one being allowed access to nity in everj'thing, and was verj' seldom the
him except through the proper court ofhcials, effeminate voluptuary that the Greeks sup-
who always accompanied him. No one but posed him to be. The Assyrian court cere-
the vizier and the chief eunuch were per- monial w'as most elaborate and imposing.
mitted to begin conversation with the king, The monarch's dress in peace and war was
who was seated on his throne when he re- of the most exceeding magnificence, and
ceived them, they standing before him. As while engaged in the religious ceremonies
a rule, the Assyrian kings led hardy and ac- prescribed for him he was clothed in a special
tive lives. In times of peace they superiu- dress.

The musical instruments of the Assjt-
ians were the harp, the lyre, the guitar,
the pipe, the tambourine, the cj-mbal,
the drum, the dulcimer and the trumpet.
Bands of musicians are represented in
some of the bas-reliefs, showing their
employment on the occasions of public
ceremonials.
The usual apparel of the common
people was a plain tunic, reaching from
the neck almost down to the knee, and
held to the waist by a wide belt or girdle.
The sleeves were very short. The head
and feet were entirely bare. The king
and his great officers wore head-dresses
and shoes. Laborers above the lowest
grade wore sandals. The better class
of laborers wore close-fitting trousers and
leather boots. The lower classes wore
no ornaments; armlets and bracelets be-
ing worn only by persons of rank, and
ear-rings by soldiers and musicians.
Men of rank wore long fringed robes
extending almost down to the feet, the
sleeves being short and barely covering
the shoulders. This robe fitted closely
down to the waist, where it was con-
fined to the l)ody with a belt or girdle,
being loose below the waist. The jew-
elry of the higher classes consisted of
fillets, ear-rings, annlets and bracelets.
Women of the upper ranks were dressed

ASSYRIAN KING FROM NIMRUD. gowns, looser than
;
in long fringed
tended the public works, administered jus- those of the men, the sleeves being long.
tice, and found recreation in the dangerous Over this dress they frequently wore a short
pastime of hunting the lion and the wild cloak of a similar pattern, open in front and
bull. In war the king generally rode in his falling over the arms, which they covered
chariot, though he occasionally marched on as far down as the elbows. Their hair was
foot, going into battle in the same manner. arranged in short crisp curls, or carried back
The sovereign showed himself freeh' to his in waves to the ears, from which it was iu
subjedls, but maintained his haughty dig- part twisted into long pendant ringlets, and
(717/. //AT/ON. 217
in part curled, like that of tin.- men, in three also represented in the later sculptures.
or four rows at the back of the neck. A The Assyrian ships seem to have been
first
fillet frequently encircled the head. They round, with ribs of willow boughs covered
also wore girdles around the waist. Their with skins. They had neither .stem nor
feet were either bare or protetfled by sandals. stern. Thej- were used chiefl}- on rivers,
Women of the lower wore only a
clas.ses though large and strong enough to transport
gown extending down and a
to the ankles, cattle.
hood to cover the head. The ornaments The genius and greatness of the Assyrian
and toilet articles of the upper ranks of As- people are di.splayed in their art and nianu-
MUSIC.\L PROCESSION, NINEVliH.
Syrian women exhibited the high degree of facflures, and not in the field of literature and
luxury in their manner of living. science. The works of their sculptors,
The Assyrians excelled in the arts of and the produdls of their shops and facflories,
weaving and dyeing. They decorated their bear testimony to the patience, diligence and
stuffs by introducing colored threads and care which thej- exhibited in every field of
tissues of gold in the woof. They had in- material and pracftical acflivity. The char-
digo, cotton and silk in abundance. The adleristics of their sculptures, and their
chief dignitaries wore richly-figured robes. manifest appreciation of works of general
The men seem to have prized their beards, utilit}-, .show their preference for the pradlical
which they dressed in long artificial curls. over the theoretical, for the useful over the
A.ssyrian plows have been found. Irriga- ideal, for the real over the imaginar\'.
tion was common. Sesame, millet and corn Architedlure, the only one of the fine arts
were the chief articles of food. acflually useful, constitutes their greatest
The Assyrians were fond of entertain- glory. Unlike the Egyptians, whose chief
ments, and these were condudled with great works were their temples and tombs, the in-
pomp and luxury. Drinking scenes are terest attaching to which is spiritual and
represented on the sculptures. They had ideal, the Assyrians bestowed most attention
vessels of gold and silver. Wine flowed on their palaces and dwellings, the more
freely ; while delicious fruits, rich viands, u.seful stru(5tures. Assyrian sculptures
honey, incense, conserves of dates, etc., aimed to illustrate the real, the historically
were among the delicacies of the repast. true; the only departure from this rule being
Women, even wives, danced naked before the representations of dragons fighting, and
the guests; while the music of stringed in- the colossal winged man-headed bulls and
struments heightened the festivity of the lions guarding the entrances and passages
occasion. of palaces, which are the symbols of strengh
The Assyrians carried on an extensive combined with intelligence. With the
commerce, principally by land and by means exception of the few emblematic figures
of caravans. At a later period their mari- relating to the Assyrian religion, the A.ssyr-
time was likewise considerable. They
traffic ian bas-reliefs are closely copied from nature.
imitated the Phanician ships, which are The imitation is always laborious but iu
1-14.-U. H.
—';
2l8 ANCIENT HISTORY.— ASSYRIA.

most cases very accurate. Eveu where the sculpture and here all conventionality is ut-
;
laws of representation are apparently terly discarded. Fresh scenes, new group-
departed from, it is always done to im- ings, bold and strange attitudes, are contin-
press corredl ideas upon the beholder. ually seen and the animal representations
;
Thus the gigantic stone bulls and lions particularly exhibit an unceasing advance
have five legs, so that they may appear with the progress of time, gradually becom-
from every point of view as having four. ing more and more spirited, more varied, more
The ladders are set edgeways against true to nature, though proportionately losing
the walls of besieged cities, to show that in the qualities of grandeur and majesty.
they are really ladders. The dispropor- This disposition to depidl things in their re-
tionate smallness of citj^ walls, as represent- ality continues to develop in perfection; and
ed in these sculptures, is designed to convey the progress in grace and delicacy of execu-
a full and correct idea of the real fadl. The tion fully testify to the progressive charadter
spirit of faithfulness and honesty pervading of Assyrian art, which only culminated in
these sculptures is fully illustrated b^' the the closing j-ears of the empire, during the
pains-taking finish, the minute detail, the brilliant reign of Asshur-bani-pal. The art
elaboration of every hair in a beard, and of Assyria was thoroughly national, and de-
every stitch in the embroidery of a dress. veloped by the inherent genius of the race.
The Assj^rian sculptures have a grandeur In manufadlures and the useful arts the
and a and a
dignity, a boldness, a strength, Assyrians displayed a preeminence o\-er all
life-like appearance, which render them in- other ancient Oriental nations. The native
trinsically valuable as works of art, and industrial skill of this great people produced
which excite our wonder and admiration in abundance what was required for their
though in conception, in grace, and in free- comfort and happiness; while the multitudes
workmen brought
of skilled
to Nineveh from the con-
quered nations hy every
war, in accordance with the
policy of the Assyrian mon-
archs, led to the introduc-
tion of foreign fabrics and
manufadlures in the great
Assyrian cities, and thus
contributed to the industrial
development of this adlive
ASSVRIAN LION Hl'NT.
and practical race. The
dom and perfection of outline, they are sur- plunder, tribute and commerce of the sub-
passed by the wonderful produdlions of the je<fl states united to enrich Assyria with the
Greek sculptors. Egyptian was confined
art produ(fls of all civilized lands. The vases,
to a lifeless religious conventionalism which jars, bronzes, glass bottles, carved ornaments
checked progress Assyrian art aimed to
; of ivory and mother-of-pearl, engraved gems,
represent vividly the highest scenes of hu- bells, di.shes, ear-rings, arms, working im-
man acftivity. All phases of war — the march plements, musical instruments, etc., found
of the army, the battle-field, the pursuit of in recent years atKoyunjik, Nimrud and
the flying foe, the siege of cities, the passage Khorsabad, were the produdts of Assyrian
of riversand marshes, the submission and skill and industry. Most of the weapons
treatment of captives, and the mimic war' of warfare, ofiensive and defensive, used by
'
'
of hunting — the chase of the lion, the stag, the stalwart warriors of Assyria, were forged
the antelope, the wild bull and the wild ass in abundance in the armories of this great
constitute the chief subjecfts of Assyrian militar>' nation.
— :
CIVILIZATION. 219
Most of the ornaments, utensils, etc., are of the jnilley, the lever and the roller; and
of elegant forms, and display much knowl- constantly used the inclined plane in attack-
edge of metallurgy and other arts, as well ing fortified towns. They understood the
as a refined taste: and some of these antici- arts of inlaying,enameling and overlaying
pate inventions supposed until recently to with metals; and they cut and engraved
have been modem. One of these was trans- gems with a degree of skill and fini.sh not
parent glass, and glass-blowing was one of excelled by the French in our own day.
the industries of Assyria, as it had been of Assyrian civilization did not fall far behind
ancient Egypt. A lens discovered at Nim- the boasted achievements of the modems.
rud, together with the fadl that many of the Says Rawlin.son conceming the civiliza-
Assyrian inscriptions are so minute that tion of this wonderful ancient people
they can not be read without the use of
'
' With much was barbaric .still attach-
that
magnifying-glasses, proves that they must ing to them, with a rude and inartificial
have used such glasses in making these in- govemment, savage passions, a debasing
scriptions. religion, and a general tendency to materi-
The ornamental metallurgy of the Assjt- alism, they were, towards the close of their
rians di.splayed wonderful skill ; and con- empire, in all the ordinary arts and appli-
sisted of entire figures or parts of figures ances of life, on a par with our-
^•ery nearly
cast solid, castings in low relief, and em- and thus their history furnishes a
selves;
bossed work wrought principally with the —
waming which the records of nations con-
hammer "but finished by a .sparing u.se of stantly repeat — that the greatest material
the graving tool." The solid figures, most prosperity may co-exist with the decline
of which were small, comprised animal and herald the downfall —of a kingdom."
forms, chiefly lions. Castings in low relief Thus it will be seen that the inherent
were principally used in the oniamentation genius of the Assj'rian people displayed it-
of thrones and chariots, and embraced ani- self in centuries of continued conquest and
mal and human figures, winged deities, in material greatness. The glory of their
griffins, etc. The embossed work was curi- arms and the grandeur of their art gave
ous and elegant, as displayed in weapons, them the ascendency over the nations of
ornaments for the person, household imple- Western Asia for almost seven hundred
ments and numerous other objedls. The years. Their almost uninterrupted course
ornamental metallurgy of the Assyrians was of conquests poured wealth into their great
mostly in bronze, consisting of one part of capitals, developed luxurj-, and made them
tin to ten parts of copper, which is yet re- haughty and domineering. The mingled
garded as the best proportion. civilization and barbarism exhibited in the
The Assyrians also understood other case of this mighty ancient Asiatic people
pradtical arts. Their buildings show that has ever been the distinguishing charadter-
they were acquainted with the princi- istic of all the great Oriental empires which
ple of the arch. They construcfled tunnels, have successively risen, flourished, decayed,
aqueducts and drains. They knew the u.se and crumbled to pieces.
vSECTlON v.— ASSYRIAN RELIGION.

^„HE Assyrian religion was al- fought their battles and carried ruin and de-
^ most identical with the Chal- structionamong their enemies. When they
daean, the only essential point conquered a country they "set up the em-
of difference being that the blems of Asshur, '
' and spread a knowledge

supreme national deity of As- of his laws and his worship.
syria, Asshur, "the Great Lord," was un- The Asshur over Assyria is
tutelage of
known in Chaldtea, where II was the chief by the identity of his
significantly indicated
god. With this solitarj' exception, the gods name with that of their countrj-. The god
of Chaldasa were also the gods of Assyria. Asshur, the country Asshur, and the city
The minor points of difference were that A,sshur, and "an Assyrian" are all repre-
certain deities prominent in the Chaldaean sented by the same term, which is written
pantheon occupied a stibordinate position in both Ashur and Asshur. This tutelage is
the pantheon of Assyria, and vice versa. likewise shown by the circumstance that
Each pantheon began with the preeminence Asshur had no famous temple or shrine in
of a single god followed by the same groupings an}' particular Assyrian city like the other
of identically the same divinities, and, after deities, and that his worship was general
that, by a multitude of local deities. Each throughout Assyria. The earl}' A.ss)'rian
country had almost the same worship tem- — capital was named after this supreme national
ples, altars and ceremonies of a similar char- deity; and all the local temples and shrines
acfler —
the same religious emblems the — in the land were open to his worship, in ad-
same religious ideas. But Assyria furnishes dition to that of the divinities to whom they
us with a clearer knowledge of the material were dedicated. The in.scriptions contin-
aspe<fts of the religious system so nearly ually describe the Assyrians as "the ser-
common to the two nations. vants of As.shur," and allude to their foes
Asshur, the head of the Assyrian pan- as
'
' the enemies of Asshur.

'
' No phrases
theon, is usually called "the Great Lord," of a like characfler have been employed in re-
'
' King of all the Gods, " " He who rules
the ferring to any other deity of the Assyrian
supreme over the Gods." He is also called pantheon.
"the Father of the Gods," though that title It is therefore certain that the ancestor
is more properl}' assigned to Bel. Asshur and founder of the Assyrian nation, Asshur,
alwaj's has the first place in invocations. the son of Shem, had been deified after his
The testimony of the Assyrian inscriptions death, as Nimrod had been; and that he
shows that Asshur was considered the special was thenceforth "the Great Lord" of the
tutelary deity of the Assyrian monarchs and —
Ass5-rians the supreme ruler over heaven
of the nation. He put kings on the throne, and earth — the chief objedl of Assyrian
firmly established them in authority, pro- adoration.
longed their reigns, maintained their power, The favorite emblem of Asshur was the
protecfted their fortre.sses and armies, made winged circle or globe, from which is fre-
their names famous, and the like. They quently seen issuing a figure in a horned
turned to him for vidlory in war, to give cap, sometimes holding a bow only, some-
them all they desire, and to pennit their times discharging arrows from a bow against
thrones to be occupied by their dynasty to the enemies of Assyria. It has been con-
the latest posterity. They usually spoke of jecftured that the circle symbolizes eternity,
him as "Asshur, my Lord." They repre- that the wings signify omnipotence, and
sented themselves as devoting their lives that the human figure typifies wisdom or
to his service. They pro.secuted their wars intelligence. There are numerous varieties
to extend his worsbij). In his name they of this emblem. Sometimes the human
'
Ri:i.ii,io.\\ 221
figure has no bow, and only extends the lar is elongated, with a capital in the mid-
right hand. vSonietimes both hands arc ex- dle as well as one at the top; the blo.s.som
tended, and a ring or chaplet is held in the above the upper capital, and usually the
left. In one instance there is no full human -Stem also, throwing out many smaller blos-
figure, but a pair of hands are seen issuing soms of the same kind, or fir-cones, or pome-
from behind the winged disk, the right hand granates. Sometimes there is likewise an
showing the palm, and the left holding a intricate network of branches forming an
bow. In man)' cases the winged circle ap- arch surrounding the tree. This Assj-rian
pears alone, with the disk either plain or sacred tree has been compared with the
ornamented. Sennacherib's signet-cylinder Scriptural "tree of life."
bears an emblem of Aeshur having three In early times the A.s.syrians ranked Anu
human heads, that on the entire human and \'ul next to As.shur; but later they ac-
figure, and one on each side of it, resting on corded this honor to Bel, Sin, Shamas, Vul,
the feathers of the wing. Nin and Nergal. Gula, Ishtar and Beltis
The sculptures represent the winged circle were fa^'orite goddesses. Hoa, Nebo and
in close connecflion with the king, who has Merodach were less worshiped in Assj'ria
it embroidered upon engraved
his robes, than in Chaldaea, or Babylonia, though they
upon head
his cylinder, represented over his were more esteemed in the later period of
in the rock tablets on which his image is Assyrian histor3^ As the charadleristics of
carved; and who stands or kneels in adora- these deities have been described in our ac-
tion before it, fights under its shadow, recount of the religion of Chaldcea, we will
turns in triumph under its protection, and here simply refer to-their worship in Assyria,
assigns it a prominent place in the scenes in and to the temples dedicated to them.
which he himself is represented on his obe- The worship of Anu was introduced into
lisks. It is when
the king is engaged in Assj^ria from Babylonia during the period
battle that Asshur is represented as drawing of Chaldaean supremacy before Assyria had
the bow and aiming the arrow towards the become an independent kingdom. Shamas-
king's enemies. It is when he is returning \'ul, the son of Ismi-Dagon, King of Chal-
in triumph from the field of conquest that daea, eretled a temple to Anu and Vul at
As.shur is represented as only carrs'ing the Asshur, the early As.syrian capital, about
bow in his left hand, and holding out his B. C. 1820. The In.scription of Tiglath-
right. In peaceful .scenes Asshur is repre- Pileser I. says that this temple lasted six
sented without a bow. In representations hundred* and twenty-one )-ears, when, on
of the king at worship Asshur extends his account of its decayed condition, it was torn
hand in aid. Where the monarch is re- down by Asshur-dayan I., the great-grand-
presented as engaged in secular matters father of Tiglath-Pileser I. Its site re-
Asshur 's presence is indicated by the winged mained vacant for sixty years, after which
circle without the human figure. Tiglath-Pileser I. rebuilt the temple more
The sacred tree is an embleiu frequently splendidly than before, and thenceforth it
seen, under various forms, in connedlion was one of the principal shrines of Assyria.
with the symbol of Asshur. The simplest A tradition relating to this ancient temple
form consists of a short pillar springing was the source from which the site of the
from a solitar>' pair of ram's honis, upon city of A.s.shur in later times derived the
which is mounted a capital consisting of two name of Telane, or "the Mound of Asshur, '
pairs of rams' horns, with one, two or three a title it bears in Stephen.
horizontal bands between them; while above Ann's name is no element in the names of
this capital is a scroll like that usually sur- monarchs or of other prominent characfters,
mounting the winged circle, and above the and is not found in many solemn invocations;
scroll is a flower like the Greek "honey- but where his name occurs it is always
suckle ornaments." In some cases the pil- placed next to that of Asshur, and Tiglath-
"
222 ANCIENT HISTORY— ASS )

'RIA.
Pileser I. mentions him in his great Inscrip- with his wife, Beltis, one of the gates of his
tion, as his lord and protecflor, in the place city. In this dedication Bel is called "the
next to Asshur. Asshur-izir-pal calls himself establisher of the foundations of his city;"
"him who honors Ann," or "him who hon- and in many passages Sargon attributes his
ors Ann and Dagon." Asshur-izir-pal's son royal authority to the favor of Bel and
and successor, Shalmaneser II., gives Ann Merodach.
the second place in the invocation of thirteen It is believed that the horned cap, the
gods with which he begins his record. The general emblem
of divinity, was the special
monarchs of the New or Lower Assyrian symbol of Bel. Esar-haddon says that he
Empire did not usually esteem Anu verj- set up over "the image of his majesty the
highly, with the exception of Sargon, who emblems of Asshur, the Sun, Bel, Nin and
glorified him, coupled him with Asshur, and Ishtar." The other kings invariably men-
made him the tutelarj- god of one of the gates tion Bel as one of the chief objec5ls of their
of his new city, Dur-Sargina (now Khorsa- worship.
bad), uniting him in this capacity with the Hoa was not prominenth- worshiped in
goddess Ishtar. Anu did not have many Assyria. Asshur-izir-pal says that Hoa alot-
temples in A.ssyria, having none at Nineveh ted the senses of hearing, seeing and under-
or Calah, the only important one being at standing to the four thousand deities of
Asshur. heaven and earth; and then, mentioning that

Bel, or Bel-Nimrod, according to the tes- the four thousand deities had transfer-
timony of the Assyrian monuments, was red these senses to himself, he assimies
worshiped as extensively in Assyria as in Hoa's titles and identifies himself with this
Chaldaea, or Babylonia. From the time of god. Asshur-izir-pal's son and successor,
Tiglath- Pileser I. Assyrian
to the fall of the Shalmaneser II., the Black Obelisk king, in
Empire, the Assyrians, as a nation, were his opening in\ocation, assigned Hoa his
;
proper place, between Bel and Sin. Sargon

'
specificalh- denominated the people of Bel '
and a certain part of Nineveh was desig- placed one of the gates of his new city
nated "the city of Bel." The word Bel was under Hoa's prote(5tion, in conjundlion with
an element in the names of three Assyrian Bilat-Ili, "the Mistress of the Gods," be-
kings. In the invocation of the gods Bel's lieved to be Gula, the Sun-goddess. Sen-
place is next to Asshur's when Anu's name nacherib, after his successful expedition
is omitted; but when Anu occupies his proper across the Persian Gulf, offered sacrifice to
place next to Asshur, Bel ranks third. In Hoa on the .sea-shore, presenting him with a
several places, however, where Anu is golden boat, a golden fish and a golden
omitted, Shamas, the Sun-god, is second, coffer. Hoa's emblem, the serpent, was
and Bel ranks third. found on the black stones on which were
Bel was worshiped in early Assyrian recorded benefadtions, and on the Babylon-
times, as indicated by the royal names of ian cylinder-seals, but was not adopted by
Bel-.sumili-kapi and Bel-lush, as borne by the Assyrian monarchs among the divine
two of the earliest Assyrian monarchs. Bel symbols worn by them, nor among those
had a temple at Asshur in connection with in.scribed by them above their efiigies.
II, and its antiquity is proven by the facft Hoa's name .seldom occurs among the royal
that as early as the time of Tiglath- invocations. His only two known temples
Pileser I., B. C. 1130, it had fallen into de- in Assyria were the one at Asshur (now
cay and was rebuilt by that famous king. Kileh-Sherghat) and the one at Calah (now
Bel had also a temple at Calah, and four Nimrud). The Assyrian devotion to Nin,
"arks" or "tabernacles," whose sites are the tutelary god of the Assyrian monarchs
not identified. Sargon accorded high honor and of their capital, caused Nin's worship
to Bel, coupling him with Anu in his royal gradually to sujier.sede that of Hoa.
titles, and dedicating to him, in conjuncflion Beltis, "the Great Mother," the wife of
RELIGION. 223
Bel, ranked in Assyria next to the triad was a vestige of the old connecflion of Assyria
embracing Ann, Rcl and Iloa. She is with Chakkta, who.se jirimitive capital, IJr,
usiiall)' mentioned in the Ass\-rian inscri])- was under the sjiecial protecflion of the
tions in close relation with her hnsband. Moon-god, and where the mo.st ancient tem-
The Assyrians particularly considered Beltis ple was dedicated to his worshii). The only
"the Queen of fertility," thus resembling two temjiles known to lunx* been eredled to
the Greek Demeter, the Roman Ceres, who were the one dedicated to him,
vSin in Assj-ria
was also known as "the Great Mother." along with Shamas, by Sargon at his new
Sargon put one of the gates of his new city city, and the other to Sin alone at Calah.
under the jMoteelion of Bellis, along with Shamas, the Sun-god, ranked next below
her husband, Hel; and Sargon's great-grand- Sin, but was more popular and far more
son, Asshur-bani-pal, repaired and re-dedi- generally worshiped in Assyria. Many
cated to this goddess a temple at Nineveh, passages would seem to indicate that the
originally erected by Asshur-izir-pal. She A.ssj'rian kings esteemed him next to Asshur,
also had a temple at Asshur: and at Calah as they really ranked him above Bel in some
was a temple dedicated either to Beltis or to of their li.sts. The emblem of the Sun-god,
Ishtar, the epithets used applying to either the four-raj'ed orb, was worn upon the neck
goddess. The goddess, though known in of the Assj^rian king, and is seeii more gen-
Assyria as Beltis, was called Mylitta in erally than most others upon the cylinder-
Babylonia. .seals. In some cases the emblem of Shamas
Sin, the Moon-god, occupied the next is even united with Asshur's emblem, the
place to Beltis in the Assyrian pantheon, central circle of which is marked by the
the sixth place among the gods where Beltis fourfold raj's of Shamas.
was inserted, and the place wherever
fifth The worship of Shamas in Assyria ex-
her name His worship in the
did not occur. tended to a vers- remote antiquity. Tiglath-
early period of the A.s.syrian Empire is indi- Pileser I. mentions him in his invocation,
cated by the invocation of Tiglath-Pileser I., and represents himself as ruling specially
where he is mentioned in the third place under his auspices. Asshur-izir-pal names
among the gods, between Bel and Shamas. Asshur and Shamas as the tutelar}' gods
Sin's emblem, the crescent, was woni by As- under whose influence he condudled his
shur-izir-pal, and is always .seen among the wars. Asshur-izir-pal's son and .successor,
divine symljols which the Ass3'rian monarchs Shalmaneser 11. the Black Obelisk king,
,
inscribed oA-er their effigies. Sin was one gives Shamas his proper place among the
of the most highly esteemed of the Assyrian gods whom he invokes at the beginning of
deities, and his sign is found as often as any his long Inscription.The kings of the New
other among both Assyrian and Babylonian or Lower Assyrian Empire rendered him
cylinder-seals. His name is sometimes seen more devotion than their predecessors. Sar-
in the appellation of kings and princes; as gon dedicated the north gate of his new city
in that of Sennacherib, signifj-ing "Sin to Shamas, along with \'ul, the Air-god;
multiplies brethren." >Sargon was particu- and erecfted a temple to both Shamas and
larly' devoted to the worship of Sin, after Sin at the same city, assigning the Sun-god
whom he named one of his sons, and to the third place among the tutelary gods of
whom, in conne(5tion with vShamas, the Sun- the new city. Seimacherib and Esar-had-
god, he erected a temple at his new city, as- don named Sham;is next to Asshur in pas-
signing to him the second place among the sages when mentioning the gods whom they
tutelary deities of the city. considered their chief protectors.
The Assyrians seem to have regarded Sin The only special temple dedicated to the
as a very ancient god, and when they desired worship of Shamas was the one assigned to
to mark a very old period they would say: him and »Sin jointly at Sargon's new cit}';
"From the origin of the god Sin." This but his images are frequently seen among
the lists of idols, so that he may have been tablets,on the stones on which benefadtions
worshiped in temples consecrated to other are recorded, and on the cylinder-seals.But
deities. His emblem is usually seen united her name is not often found in the inscrip-
with that of the Moon-god, either beside or tions, and, where it does occur, it is seen
above it. low down in the lists. Gula is the next to

Vul, the Air-god, was known in Assyria the last among the thirteen deities named
from the earliest times; a temple having in the Black Obelisk invocation. The only
been eredled at Asshur, during the period other places where she is mentioned is in in-
of Assyria's subjection to Chaldsea, by scriptions of a distiudtly-religious nature.

Shamas-Vul, the son of Ismi-Dagon, King At Asshur was a temple dedicated to Gula,
of Chaldasa; as well as the temple which Ishtar and ten inferior deities. Gula's other
the same king dedicated to both Anu and Assj-rian templewas at Calah, where her
Vul. As these edifices had fallen to ruin husband likewise had a temple. Gula has
by the time of Tiglath-Pileser I., that mon- been identified with Bilat-Ili, "the Mistress
arch rebuilt them from their base; and A'ul, of the Gods," to whom, together with Hoa,
being regarded as one of the special "guard- Sargon dedicated one of the gates of his
ian deities," was worshiped in both tem- new city.
ples. Black Obelisk

In Shalmeneser II. 's Nin was one of the most devotedly wor-
invocation the intermediate place between shiped in Assyria among the .second order
Sin and Shamas is assigned to Vul, and on of gods. The oldest traditions mention Nin
that obelisk is recorded the fadl that Shal- as the founder of the Assyrian royal race,
maneser II. held a festival in honor of both and the might}' city which finally became
Asshur and Vul. Sargon gave Vul the so famous as the capital and metropolis of
fourth place among the tutelary deities of his the Assyrian Empire derived its name from
new and dedicated to him the north
cit}', this god. As far back as the thirteenth
gate in connedtion with Shamas, the Sun- century before Christ, Nin became an ele-
god. Sennacherib spoke of hurling thun- ment in ro}-al names. The Ninus of the
der on his enemies like Vul, and other As- Greek writers has been regarded b>- modems
sj-rian monarchs say they "rush on the as the Nin of the Assyrian inscriptions. He-
enemy like the whirlwind of Vul," or rodotus and Ctesias both considered Ninus
"sweep a country as with the whirlwind of as the founder of the Assyrian dynasty.
Vul. The Tiglath-Pileser Inscription men-
'
' Tiglath-Pileser I., the first Assyrian king
tions "he who causes the tempest to
Vul as who has left us an historical inscription, and
rage over hostile lands." The name Vul who considered himself under Nin's guard-
often occurred as an element in the names ianship, is "the illustrious prince
called
of kings and other personages, as in Vul- whom Asshur and Nin have exalted to the
lush, Shamas-Vul, etc. The symbol of utmost wishes of his heart. This monarch
'
'
Vul, the double or triple bolt, is often seen mentions Nin sometimes alone, and some-
'
among emblems worn by the Assj'rian
the times along with Asshur, as his guardian '
monarchs, and engraved above their heads deity." Nin and Nergal are .spoken of as
on the rock tablets. Besides his two temples .sharpening weapons for Tiglath-Pile.ser, and
at Asshur, Vul had a temple at Calah dedi- it is further said that under the auspices of
cated to him and his ^\^fe, the goddess Nin the most ferocious animals fall beneath
Shala. these weapons. Asshur-izir-pal eredted a
Gula, the vSun-godde.ss, the wife of Sha- splendid temple to Nin at Calah. Asshur-
mas, was not very highly ranked among the izir-pal' s grandson, Shamas-Vul I., dedi-
Assyrian deities. It is true, her emblem, cated to Nin the obelisk which he set up at
the eight-rayed disk, was borne by the As- Calah to commemorate his vidtories. Sar-
syrian kings, along with her husband's gon put the new city -which he founded under
symbol, and is often inscribed on the rock Nin's protedlion, and invoked this god .spe-
REI.IC.IOX. 225
cially to guard his gorgeous palace. Sar- one place that "the
Obeli.sk king, .says in
gon's veneration for Niii was strikingly in- fear ofAsshur and Merodach fell upon his
dicated by the ornamentation of that magni- enemies." Hut Merodach was not a popu-
ficent and Nin's emblem, the
structure; lar deity in Assyria until the later times
winged man-headed bull, stood guard at all of the empire, \"ul-lush III. being the first
its principal gateways. The figure stran- monarch who a.ssigned him a prominent
gling a lion, occupying so prominent a place place in the Assyrian pantheon. vSargon
on the harem portal facing the great court, and his successors continued the worship of
represented this god. Sargon attributed his Merodach. Sargon constantly ascribed his
viclories in war to the favor of Nin, and for power to the united favor of Asshur and
this reason he placed Nin's emblems on the Merodach, and Esar-haddon sculptured the
sculptures representing his military expedi- emblems of these two gods over the images
tions. Sennacherib, Sargon's son and succes- of foreign gods presented to him by a sup-
sor,had the same reverence for Nin, as he also pliant prince. But Merodach had no temple
placed the winged man-headed bull at most in Assyria.
of the doorways of his magnificent palace at Nergal was a god highh' reverenced, be-
Nineveh, and assigned the figure strangling ing regarded by the Assyrian monarchs as
the lion a prominent place on the grand fa- their divine ancestor, Sargon having traced
cade of the same splendid edifice. Esar-had- the line of descent through three hundred
don states that he continued in the worship and fift}' generations. Nergal's symbol was
of Nin, and that he set up the emblem of that the winged man-headed lion, or the national
god over his own royal effigy, in conne(5lion lion, whose figure enters largely into Ass^t-
with the symbols of Asshur, Shamas, Bel ian architecture. The confident reliance of
and Ishtar. the Assyrians on Nergal's protedlion is
Nin's name entered as an element into the proven by the conspicuous place his em-
names of three Assyrian kings Nin-pala- — blems even'where occupied in their palaces.
zira and the two Tiglathi-Nins. The prin- Nin and Nergal, as the gods of war and
cipal temples dedicated to Nin were at Calah. hunting, in which occupations the A.ssyriau
The vast edifice at the north-western corner kings spent their lives, were tutelary gods
of the great Nimrud mound, including the of these monarchs; and these two deities are
pyramidal elevation constituting the most found equally a.ssociated in the royal inscrip-
conspicuous feature of the ruins, was a tem- tions and sculptures. Sennacherib dedi-
ple dedicated to Nin by Asshur-izir-pal, who cated a temple to Nergal at Tarbisi (now
erecfted the north-west palace. It has been Sherif-Khan); and he may have had one at
supposed that this edifice was the bu.sta '
' Calah, as a smaller temple with the lion en-

Nini" of the Greek writers, where Ninus, tranceis found in the ruins on the north-
whom the Greeks considered the hero- west comer of the Nimrud mound, and as
'
founder of the Assyrian nation, was interred he was mentioned as one of the resident '
and specially' worshiped. This great tem- gods" of Calah.

ple was named Bit-zira, or Beth-zira, and Ishtar was a favorite goddess of the As-
from its fane Nin had the title Pal-zira, syrian kings, who styled her "their lady,"
"the .son of Zira." Nin's other temple at and sometimes coupled her with Asshur,
Calah was named Bit-kura, or Beth-kura, "the Great Lord," in their invocations. Ish-
from the fane of which Nin was called Pal- tar had a very old temple at Asshur, the
kioa, "the .son of Kura." primitive Assyrian capital, and this temple
Merodach was a god mentioned by most of Tiglath-Pileser I. repaired aud beautified.
the early Assyrian kings in their opening in- Asshur-izir-pal erected a second temple to
vocations, and an allusion in their inscrip- her at Nineveh, and she had a third at Ar-
tions indicates that he was regarded as a very bela, which Asshur-bani-pal says he restored.
powerful god. Shalmaneser II., the Black Sargon put the western gate of his new
—
226 ANCIENT HIS TOR }

'.
— . / 55 } 'RIA.
city under the united protection of Ishtar banit, the wife of Merodach; Laz, the wife
and Anu. Sargon's son and successor, of Nergal; and Warmita, usually called the
Sennacherib, spoke of Asshur and Ishtar as wife of Nebo, did not occupy a place in the
about to "call the kings his sons to their Assyrian pantheon at all in comparison with
sovereignty over Assyria," and implored the dignity and rank of their hu.sbauds.
Asshur and Ishtar to "hear their prayers." Nin, the Assyrian Hercules, and Sin, the
Sennacherib's grandson, Asshur-bani-pal, the Moon-god, had wives also; but their proper
royal hunter, was de\-oted to Ishtar, whom names known, Nin's wife being
are not
he considered the special patron of his fa\-or- called "the Queen of the Land," and vSin's
ite pastime, the chase of the lion and the wife "the Great Lady."
wild bull. Ishtar appears as one goddess Thus the Assj-rians usually combined in
divided into many; as the Ishtar of Nin- the same temple the worship of the male
eveh, the Ishtar of Arbela, and the Ishtar of and the female principle; the female deities
Babylon are all distinguished from each with the exception of Beltis, the wife of Bel;
other, a separate address being made to each Gula, the wife of Shamas; and Ishtar, either
of them in the .same iuvocation, as in that as an independent goddess or as the wife of
of Sennacherib and in that of Esar-haddon. Nebo, who are as strong and distinct as their
Thus though Ishtar was a general objecft —
husbands are in most cases only the reflec-
of wonship throughout Assyria, she had a tion of their husbands, thus having an un-
dLstiuclly local charaifter in the various As- substantial charaifter, and occupj-ing a very
syrian and Babylonian cities. insignificant position in the pantheon. Some
Nebo was one of the most ancient of As- minor goddesses, among whom was Telita,
syrian gods, and his name enters as an ele- the goddess of the great marshes near Baby-
ment into a king's name in the twelfth cen- lon, stood alone, unassociated with any male
tury before Christ, namely that of Mutaggil- deity. Most of the minor male divinities
Nebo. But he was not extensively worshiped likewise had no female companions, the
had given him a promi-
until V'ul-lush III. notable exceptions to this rule being Martu,
nent place in the A.s.syrian pantheon after whose wife was called the Lady of Tig- '
'
leading an expedition into Babylonia, where ganna," and Idak, God of the Tigris, whose
Nebo had always been highlj' honored. wife was Belat-Muk.
"\'ul-lush III. .set up two statues to Nebo at Prominent among the minor male divini-
Calah, and perhaps ereifled to him the tem- tieswere Martu, called a son of Anu and "the
ple there called Bit-Saggil, or Beth-Saggil, Minister of the deep, and corresponding to'
'
from which Nebo derived his name of Pal the Greek Erebus; Sargana, also ranked as
Bit-Saggil Sennacherib and Esar-haddon a son of Anu, and from whom Sargon is
held this god in high veneration, the latter supposed to have derived his name; Idak,
putting him above Merodach in au important God of the Tigris; Supulat, Lord of the
invocation. A.sshur-bani-pal also paid Nebo Euphrates; and II, who, though the Baby-
much reverence, alluding to him and his lonian chief god, occupied an humble position
wife, 'W(''armita, as the deities uuder whose in the A.ssyrian pantheon. Tiglath-Pileser
auspices he engaged in .some literarj' work. I. repaired a temple to II at Asshur about
After these chief deities, the Assyrians B. C. 1150. Besides these just mentioned,
recognized and adored a multitude of inferior there were a nuiltitude of minor Assyrian
divinities. Beltis, the wife of Bel; and Gula, divinities, of whom but ven,- little is yet
the wife of Sharaas; also Ishtar, who is known.
sometimes alluded to as the wife of Nebo, The A.ssyrians are supposed to have be-
were goddesses of exalted rank and im-
all lieved in the existence of genii, .some of
portance. But Sheruba, the wife of .Asshur; whom they considered powers of good,
Anata, or Anuta, the wife of Anu; Davkina, others powers of evil. The winged figure
the wife of Hoa; Shala, the wife of \'ul; Zir- wearing the horned caj), usually represented
:
RliLICION. 227
as waiting upon the kiiis^ when he is en- and maces, and struggling with each other.
gaged in any sacred capacity, is heHeved to —
This sculpture found in the ruins of As-
be his tutehiry genius, the spirit carefully shur-bani-pal's great palace at Nineveh, and
watching o\'er him and proteiflinghim from now in the Briti.sh Museum — is believed to
the s])irits of darkness. This figure gener- be a symbolical illustration of the tendency
all>' carries a pomegranate or a pine-cone of evil to turniqion itself and waste its
in the right hand, and sometimes holds a strength by internal contention and tur-
plaited bag or basket in the left, while at moil. Instances are abundant in which a
other times this hand is free. The pine- human figure with the head of a hawk or
cone, when carried, is always pointed an eagle threatens a winged man-headed
towards the king, as if signifying the means lion, the emblem of Nergal, with a strap or
of communication between the protedtor a mace; thus typifying the spirit of evil at-
and the protected, the instrument conveying tacking a god, or the hawk-headed genius
grace and strength from the genius to the driving Nergal out of Assyria — an emble-
human being whom he had taken under his matic representation of war.
care. The sacred basket is often very ele- The Assyrian religion had a strongly-
ganth- and elaborately ornamented, some- idolatrous character in its mode of worship.
times with winged figures in adoration be- The images of the same deity came
different
fore the sacred tree, and the^- themselves to be regarded as separate objects of worship
holding baskets. The hawk-headed figure, in their different temples; and thus we find
also found attending upon the king and the Ishtar of Arbela, the Ishtar of Nineveh,
watching his acflions, is likewise believed to and the Ishtar of Bab}-lon invoked by the
cepresent a good genius. same monarch in the same inscription as
separate divinities. The identifica-
tion of the god with the image is ex-
emplified in the great Inscription of
Tiglath-Pileser where the king
I.,
\ Ijoasts that Ann and Vul in

he set up
their places, and where he constantly
identifies the images which he car-
ries O0" from foreign lands with their
gods. In the same spirit Sennach-
erib inquires, through Rabshakeh
" Where are the gods of Hamath and
of Arpad ? Where are the gods of
-Ni.iKocn lii-.i-oui': TiiH sv-MLui.ic Tkhi;. vSepharvaim, Hena and Ivah ? The '
'
As Seen in Sargou's Great Palace. meaning of these interrogatory- ex-

Few representations of evil genii have pressions is that the gods of those foreign
been discovered. Among these is the mon- lands had been carried captive to Assyria
ster — half lion, half eagle, driven into re- when their idols were conveyed there.
treat bj- Vul's thunderbolts —found among When Hezekiah, King of Judah, had de-
the sculptures at Nimrud, the ancient Ca- stroyedall the images throughout his do-
lah. Certain grotesque statuettes found at minions Sennacherib thought that monarch
Khorsabad, representing a human figure had deprived his subjeifls of all divine pro-
having a lion's head with the ears of an ass, tedlion. The usual Assyrian custom of
have likewise been classed with these evil carrying off" the idols of foreign countries
genii. In one case we see two monsters was designed to weaken the enemies of As-
with heads like the one ju.st described, syria by depriving them of their divine pro-
placed on human bodies whose legs end in tedlors. The.se idols were not removed in
eagle's claws, both armed with daggers an irreverent or sacrilegious manner, and
' .
228 A NCIEN T HIS TOR Y.—A SS ) 'RIA
were deposited in the chief Assyrian tem- method by which they propitiated the favor
ples, so that these gods wonld thereafter be of the national deities.
among the celestial guardians of the As- The bas-reliefs give us scant information
syrians. concerning the manner of the Assyrian sac-
Assyrian idols were made from stone, rifices, but they show that the animal spe-
baked clay or metal. Some images of Nebo cially sacrificed was the bull. The inscrip-
and of Ishtar have been found among the tions inform us that sheep and goats were
ruins. Those of Nebo are standing figures likewise used for sacrifice, and there is a
somewhat larger than the human size. They representation of a ram or wild goat being
show the marks of the ravages of time, and, led to the altar. On Lord Aberdeen's Black
like many of the winged man-headed lions Stone, a monument of Esar-haddon's reign,
and bulls, are disfigured by several lines of a bull is represented as brought up to a
cuneiform inscriptions, stating the fadl that temple by the king. On a nuitilated obe-
the statues represent Nebo, and relating the li.sk of Asshur-bani-pal's time, now in the
circumstances of their dedication. British Museum, the whole sacrificial scene
The few clay idols found are usually of is presented to our view. The king and
good material and of different sizes, smaller six priests, one of whom carries a cup, while
than the full human stature, but are com- the other five are employed about the sacri-
monly mere statuettes less than a foot high. ficial animal, advance in procession towards
These statuettes are believed to have been the front of the temple, where the god with
mostly intended for private use among the the honied cap on his head occupies a
people in general, while the stone idols were throne, while a beardless attendant priest is
designed for public worship in the shrines paying adoration to him. The king pours
and temples. Idols in metal have not been a libation over a large bowl, fixed in a stand,
found among the Assyrian remains, but a just in front of a tall fire-altar, from which
passage from the Hebrew prophet Nahum flames arise. The behind
priest stands close
indicates that the A.ssyrians had images with a cup in his hand. The bull's advance
made of that material in their temples. In is stayed by a bearded priest just in front of
alluding to Nineveh, Nahum "And
.says: the animal. Two priests walk behind the
the L,ord hath given a commandment con- bull and hold him with a rope fastened to
cerning thee, that no more of thy name be one of his front legs near the hoof. These
sown out of the house of thy gods will I cut
;
two priests and two others behind them ap-
graven image and the molten image.
off the '
pear, from the position of their heads and

The Assyrian method of worship consisted arms, to be engaged in a solemn chant. The
mainly of sacrifices and offerings. Tiglath- flame on the altar indicates that the sacrifice
Pileser I. states in his long Inscription that is to be burned upon that altar, which is only
he offered sacrifices to Ann and Vul when he large enough to buni a part of the animal
had finished repairing their temple.
Asshur- at a time.
he sacrificed to the gods
izir-pal states that Assyrian altars differed in fonn and size.
after having embarked on the Mediterra- Some were square and not high, with the
nean. VuMush III. sacrificed to Merodach, top ornamented with gradines, below which
Nebo and Nergal in their respedtive tem- the sides were plain or fluted. Others about
ples at Babylon, Borsippa and Cutha. Sen- the same height were triangular, with a
nacherib offered sacrifices to Hoa on the sea- round top consisting of a plain flat stone,
shore after his expedition in the Persian sometimes inscribed round the edge. An
Gulf against Susiana. Esar-haddon "slew altar of this form was di.scovered by M.
great and costly sacrifices" at Nineveh when Botta at Khorsabad. Another of almost
•
he had fini.shed his great palace in that city. the same shape was found by Mr. Layard at
The Assyrian monarchs in general consid- Nimrud, and is now in the British Museum.
ered sacrifice a duty, and this was the usual A third kind of altar resembled a portable
RELIGION. 229
stand, narrow hnt rcacliinj; up to a man's the halls and other apartments. The As-
head. These kinds of altars the Assyrians syrian religion also embraced fasting, as at-
carried al)out in their expeditions, and in tested exclusively by the Book of Jonah.
the entrenched camps priests are sometimes When a fast was proclaimed, the king, the
seen officiating at them in their sacerdotal nobles and the people attired themselves in
costume. sackcloth, sprinkled ashes upon their heads,
The Assyrian kings deposited in the tem- and abstained from eating and drinking
ples of their gods, as thank-offerings, many
precious produces from the countries which
they invaded with their annies. \'arious
kinds of stones or marbles, rare metals and
images of foreign deities, are specially named
in the Tiglath-Pileser Inscription as among
such offerings. —
Sih'er and gold so largely
employed in the adonunent of temples that
the)- were .said to have been sometimes "as
—
splendid as the sun " were thus dedicated
to the gods.
The sculptures, mostly monuments erected
by the kings, represent their own religious
performances, but not those of the people.
The Assyrian kings thus exercised priestly
funcflions, and in the religious scenes which
illustrate their a(fts ofworship no priest is
repre.sented as inter\-ening between the king
and the god, but all priests occupj' a very un-
important position. The king himself stands
and worships near the holy tree, pours out li-
bations with his own hands, and may himself
have slain victims for sacrifice. As the Baby-
lonians and all other Oriental nations had
their priesthoods, it is likewise probable that
the religious affairs of the Assyrian people
were conducted under the auspices of their
priests, whom the cylinders represent as in-
troducing worshipers to the gods, and who
are attired in long robes and wearing mitres
upon their heads. The worshiper is usually
represented as carr\-ing an antelope or a
young goat, intended to propitiate the deity.
The Assyrian sculptures generally represent
the priests without beards.
At the Assyrian festivals great multitudes,
particular!}' men, assembled;
of the chief until the fast was ended. The animals
many sacrifices were and the festivi-
offered, within the walls of the cit>- where the fast
ties continued several days. Manj- of the was ordered were also robed in sackcloth,
worshipers were afforded accommodations and were likewise denied food and drink.
in the royal palace, to which the temple was Business was su.spended, and the entire pop-
commonly only an addition, and were fed at ulace iniited in prayer to A.sshur, "the Great
the monarch's expense and given lodging in Lord, "thus imploring his pardon and seek-
23° ANCIENT HISTORY.— ASSYRIA.
ing to propitiate his favor. These were not and purposes concerning their numerous .sol-
simply formal ceremonies. On the occasion emn addresses and invocations, as read in
alluded to in the Book of Jonah, the repent- their public and private documents. The
ance of the Ninevites appears to have been devotion of the learned to religious subjetfts
sincere. Says this authority: "God saw isshown by the many mythological tablets;
their works, that the>- turned from their evil and the pietj- of the masses is indicated by
way and God repented of the evil that he
;
the general chara(5ter of their names, and by
said he would do unto them; and he did it the almost universal custom of inscribing
not." sacred figures and symbols upon their signets
Altogether the Assyrians were a strongly- The sensuous nature of the religion con-
religious people, although not as intensely sequently led to an ostentatious ceremonial,
.so as the Egyptians. Their temples, however, a taste for pompous processions, and the use
were subordinated to their palaces, and the of gorgeous vestments ; the last being very
most imposing emblems of their gods, such elaborately represented in the Nimrud sculp-
as the winged man-headed bulls and lions, tures. The costume of the priests was mag-
symbolizing respecftively Nin and Nergal, nificent, their robes being elegantly em-
were degraded to mere architeeflural orna- broidered, mostly with religious figures and
ments. Their religion was very^ gross and emblems, .such as the winged circle, the
sensuous in its nature, and its intensely-mate- pine-cone, the pomegranate, the .sacred tree,
by the pradlice
rialistic chara(fter is attested the winged man-headed lion, etc. The of-
of image-worship. The Assyrians worshiped ficiating priests wore armlets, bracelets,

more by means of sacrifices and offerings necklaces and ear-rings; and their heads
than b}' prayer, though in times of distress were encircled with an elegantly-adorned
and misfortune they could offer prayers of fillet, or covered with a mitre or a showy cap.
the deepest sincerit)', which goes to prove In the religious processions the musicians
that tliev were adluated h\ honest motives performed an imposing part.
CHIEF DEITIES OF THE ASSYRIANS.
GODS.
'
CHAPTER IV.
THE MEDIAN EMPIRE.

SECTION I.— GEOGRAPHY OF MEDIA.
i]EDIA occupied an extensive re- owing to the rigor of its climate, from hos-
gion south and south-west of tile invasion for more than half the year, it
the Caspian Sea, east of Ar- has defied all attempts to effect its perma-
menia and A.ssj'ria, north of nent subjugation, whether made by the As-
Persia proper, and west of the sj-rians, Persians, Greeks, Parthians, or
great salt desert and Parthia. It was about Turks, and remains to this da)- as indepen-
six hundred miles in extent from north to dent of the great powers in its neighborhood,
south, and about two hundred and fifty as it was when the Assyrian armies first
miles from east to west; thus ha\-ing an area penetrated its recesses. Nature seems to
of nearly one hundred and fifty thousand have construcfted it to be a nursery of hardy
.square miles, a greater extent than Assyria and vigorous men, a stumbling-block to
and Clialdaea combined. It occupied a tracl conquerors, a thorn in the side of everj'
in one solid mass, "with no straggling or powerful empire which arises in this part of
outh'ing portions ; and it is stronglj- de- the great Eastern continent."
fended on almost everj- side by natural bar- The northem part of the mountain region
riers offering great difficulties to an invader.
'
is called Elburz, and contains the lofty,
The Median territory comprises two re- snow-covered peak of Demavend, which
—
gions the northern and western portion overlooks Teheran, the present capital of
being a mountain distridl embracing a series Persia, and is the highest portion of Asia
of lofty ridges; and the southern and east- west of the great Himalaya mountain chain.
em section forming a part of the great pla- The Elburz region is not as well watered
teau of Iran, extending southward to the i
as the Zagros district, its streams being
Indian Ocean, embracing all of ancient Per- small, frequently dr\- in summer, and ab-
sia and Carmania, the latter being the mod- sorbed by the Caspian Sea, which bounds the
em Kerman, while eastward this extensive region on the north.
table-land is bounded by the modem Af- The elevated plateau which stretches
'
'
i
ghanistan. The average elevation of the from the foot of these two mountain regions
territory occupied by ancient Media is about to the south and east, is for the most part a
three thousand feet above the le\el of the [
flat, sandj- desert, incapable of sustaining
sea. I
more than a sparse and scantj' population.
The western part of the moinitain re- The northem and western portions are, how-
gion of Media was ancienth- called the Za- ever, less arid than the east and south, be-
gros, and is part of the modem Kurdistan ing watered for some distance by the streams
and Luristan. It is thus spoken of: "Full that descend fr-om Zagros and Elburz, aud
of torrents, of deep ravines, of rocky sum- deriving fertility also from the spring rains.
mits, abrupt and almost inaccessible con- ;

|
Some of the rivers which flow from Zagros
taining but few pas.ses, and those narrow on this side are large and strong. One, the
and easily defensible: secure, moreover, i Kizil-Uzen, reaches the Caspian. Another,
( 23 I) •
—
232 ANCIENT HIST'ORY.— MEDIA.

the Zenderud, fertilizes a large districft near known as Media Atropatene. The capital
Isfahan. A third, the Bendamir, flows by and metropolis of each of these divisions was
Persepolis and terminates in a sheet of water a city called Ecbatana. Next to the two
of some size —
Lake Bakhtigan. A tra(5t Ecbatanas were Rhages, Bagistan, Adrapan,
thus intervenes between the mountain re- Aspadan and a few other cities.
gions and the desert, which, though it can- The southern Ecbatana, or Agbatana
not be called fertile, is fairly produdlive, and the capital and metropolis of Media Magna
can support a large settled population. This was called Hagmatan by the Medes and
forms the chief portion of the region which Persians themselves; and, according to
the ancients called Media." Polyhistor and Diodorus, was situated on a

Media was mainly a sterile country, and plain at the foot of Mount Orontes, a little
had an attra<5live appearance only in spring. west of the Zagros range. The notices of
In the mountain region the climate is severe. these writers and those of Eratosthenes, Isi-
On the plateau it is more temperate, but the dore, Pliny, Arrian and others, would imply
thermometer does not often reach ninety de- that the site of this famous city was that of
grees in the shade. All in all, the climate the modern town of Hamadan, the name of
is considered healthy. With the aid of irri- which is a slight corruption of the ancient
gation the great table-land yields
'
' good name as known by the Medes and Persians.

crops of grain, rice, wheat, barle}'. Indian Mount Orontes has been identified as the
corn, doiira, millet and sesame. It will like- modern Ellwend, or Erwend, a long and lofty
wise produce cotton, tobacco, saffron, rhu- mountain connedled with the Zagros range,
barb, madder, poppies which give a good and surrounded with fertile plains famed for
opium, senna and asafoetida. Its garden their rich and abundant vegetation and their
vegetables are excellent, and include pota- dense gjoves of forest trees with their luxu-
toes, cabbages, lentils, kidney-beans, peas, riant foliage. Hamadan lies at the foot of
turnips, carrots, spinnach, beet-root and cu- this mountain.
cumbers." Ecbatana was mainly renowned for its
Media produced various valuable minerals. magnificent royal palace, which Diodorus
Many different kinds of stone are yet found a.scribed to Semiramis. Polybius assigned
throughout the countr>-, chief of which is the edifice a circumference of seven stadia,
the beautiful Tabriz marble. Iron, copper or 1420 yards, a little over four-fifths of an
and native steel are still mined. Gold and English mile. The latter writer also spoke
silver were found in the mountains in ancient of two classes of pillars, those of the main
times. Sulphur, alum and gypsum are buildings and those which skirted the courts,
found in different portions of the country, thus implying that the courts were sur-
and salt likewise exists in abundant quan- rounded with colonnades. These wooden
tities. pillars, either of cedar or cypress, supported
The wild animals of Media were the lion, beams of the same wood crossing each other
the tiger, the leopard, the bear, the beaver, at right angles, leaving square spaces be-
the jackal, the wolf, the wild ass, the ibex, tween, which were then filled in with wood-
or wild goat, the wild sheep, the stag, the work. Above was a roof sloping
the whole
antelope, the wild boar, the fox, the hare, at an angle and composed of silver plates in
the rabbit, the ferret, the rat, the jerboa, the the shape of tiles. The pillars, beams and
porcupine, the mole and the mannot. The the other wood-work were also lined with a
domestic animals were the camel, the horse, thin coating of gold and other precious
the mule, the ass, the cow, the goat, the metals. Herodotus described an edifice
sheep, the buffalo, the dog and the cat. which he called "the palace of Deioces,"
The .southern part of Media, or Media but this is believed to apply to the northern
proper, was called Media Magna ; while the Ecbatana. Polybius saj^s that Ecbatana
northern, or mountainous, portion was was an unwalled city in his time, which was
GEOCRAI'IIY. 233
ill the second century before Christ. The to be the site of the ancient northern Ec-
Medes and Persians did not generally sur- batana, though only one wall can now be
round their cities with walls, l)einji satisfied traced.
with establishing in each town a fortified Rhages, the Median city next in impor-
citadel or stronghold, around which the tance to the two Ecbatanas, was .situated
houses were clustered. Ecbatana therefore near the Ca.spian Gates, near the eastern ex-
never withstood a siege, and alwaj-s sub- tremity of the Median territory. It is men-
mitted to a conquering foe without resistance. tioned in the Zend-Avesta among the primi-
The description in the Apocryphal Book of tive An,an settlements, and in the Rooks of
Judith — which, contradicted by eêr>^ other Tobit and Judith. In the Behistun In.scrip-
evidence, is purely mythical — represents tion, Darius Hysta.spes, the great Persian
Ecbatana as having walls of hewn stone king, mentioned it as the .scene of the clos-
nine feet long and four and a half feet wide; ing struggle of the great Median revolt.
the walls being one hundred and five feet Darius Codomannus, the last Persian king,
high and seventy-five feet wide, the gates sent thither his heavy baggage and the ladies
of the same altitude, and the towers over of his court when he determined to leave
the gates one hundred and fifty feet high. Ecbatana and flee eastward after his final
The chief city of Media Atropatene was the defeat by Alexander the Great. The site
northern Ecbatana, which the Greeks some- of this ancient city has sometimes been
times mistook for the southern metropolis identified with the ruins of a town called
and the real capital of Media, and which in Rhei, or Rhey, though this is uncertain.
later times was known as Gaza, Gazaca, In the same vicinity, perhaps on the site
Canzaca, or Vera. The description of Ec- of the present ruins known as Uewanukif,
batana accords with the remains of a cit)- was the Median city of Charax. The cities
in Azerbijan, and not with the local fea- of Bagistan, Adrapan, Concobar and Aspa-
tures of the site of Hamadan; and a city in dan, were in the western part of Media.
this region was called by Moses of Chorene Bagistan is de.scribed hy Isidore as "a city
"the second Ecbatana, the seven-walled situated on a hill, where there was a pillar
This cit}- was located on and about
'
town. ' and a statue of Semiramis. '
Diodorus gives
'
a conical hill sloping gently down from its an account of the arrival of Semiramis at
summit to its base, interposed bj- seven cir- the place of a royal park being establi.shed
;
cuits of wall between the plain and the crest by her in the plain below the mountain,
of the hill. The royal palace and the treas- \\hich was watered by an abundant spring;
uries were at the top of the hill, within the of the face of the rock of the lofty precipice
innermost circle of the defenses; while the on the side of the mountain, and of her
fortifications were on the sides, and the car\ing her own effigy on the surface of this
dwellings and other edifices of the city were rock with an Assyrian cuneiform inscription.
at the base of the hill, outside the circuit of This ancient city has been identified with
the outermost wall. Herodotus states that the celebrated Behistun, where the plain,
the battlements crowning the walls were the fountain, the precipitous rock and the
differently colored ; those of the outer being scraped surface are yet to be seen; though
white, the next black, the third scarlet, the the suppo.sed figure of Semiramis, her pillar
fourth blue, the fifth orange, the sixth sil- and her inscription are not visible. The
ver, and the seventh gold. This gave the Assyrian, Persian and Parthian monarchs
citadel towering above the town seven dis- made this rock renowned by giving it the
tindl rows of colors. The city thus de- sculptures and inscriptions which showed
scribed by Herodotus coincides with the them to have been the successive lords of
ruins at the modeni town of Takht-i-Sulei- Western Asia during a period of a thousand
man, in the upper vallej- of the Saruk, a years. The great inscription of Darius
tributary of the Jaghetu; and this is believed Hj-staspes at this place has already been al-
1— 15.-U. H.
—
234 ANCIENT HISTORY.— MEDIA.

luded to. The Parthian Gotarzes inscribed the heat of the noonda}' sun. The climate,
on this famous rock a record of his viclorj- the gardens, and the manifold bles.sings of
over his rival Meherdates. the place are proverbial throughout Persia,
Adrapan was mentioned by Isidore as be- and naturally caused the choice of the site
ing situated between Bagistan and Ecbatana, for a retired palace, to which the court of
at the distance of twelve schoeni — thirty- Ecbatana might adjourn when either the
six Roman, or thirty-four Engli.sh miles summer heat and dust, or the winter cold,
from the latter cit}-. He described it as the made residence iu the capital irksome."
site of an ancient city destroyed by Tigranes Concobar was in the vicinity of Adrapan,
the Armenian. This place has been iden- on the road leading to Bagistan, and is be-
tified with the modern village of Arteman, lieved to be the modern Kungawar. It is
on the southern face of Elwend, near its base. also supposed to be the place called Chavon
Sir Henn,- Rawlinson sa3^s of this place that by Diodonis, where he says that Semiramis
during the .se\'erest winter, when Hamadan built a palace and laid out a paradi.se.
'
' Isi-
and the surrounding country are buried in dore says that a famous temple to Artemis
snow, a warm and sunny climate is to be was at this place. Colossal ruins crown the
found; whilst in the summer a thousand sinnmit of the acclivitj- on which Kungawar
rills descending from Elwend diffuse around is situated.
fertility and fragrance." Professor George The Median townof Aspadan mentioned —
Rawlinson, in describing the same place, —
by Ptolemy has been identified as the
says: '
'Groves of trees grow up in rich luxu- famous modern Persian city of Isfahan, the
riance from the well-irrigated soil, whose great capital of the Suffee Kings of Persia
thick foliage affords a welcome shelter from several centuries ago.
SECTION II.— POLITICAL HISTORY.

|HE origin of the Medes is in- torily shown that 'Ci\& Arba Lisini, or "Four
A'olved in impenetrable ob- Tongues," of ancient Chaldaea, so frequently
scurity. They were of Aryan mentioned on the ancient monuments, in-
||k^^^^^1^ descent, and were a kindred cluded an Arj-an formation, thus confirming
I
people with their southern Berosus' s account of an Ar>-an conquest of
neighbors, the Persians, from whom they Chaldsea B. C. 2286. There are other evi-
differed but little in race, language, institu- dences of the early spread of the Median
tions and religion. From the little that we race, thus implying that tliey were a great
know of their primitive historj- it appears that nation in Western Asia long prior to the
they were an important tribe in verj' early date of the Ar>-an, or Iranic, movements in
times. The Book of Genesis mentions them Bacftria and adjacent regions. Scattered
under the name of Madai, and Berosus remnants of a great migratory host, which
States that they furni.shed a dynasty to issued from the mountains east of the Tigris
Babylon at a period anterior to B. C. 2000. and dispersed itself over the regions to the
These circtnustances would seem to show north and north-west in prehistoric times,
that the Medes were a powerful j)rime\-al are plainly visible in such races as the Mat-
race, and adlually constituted a ruling power ieni of Zagros and Cappadocia, the Sauro-
in We.stern Asia as early as the twenty-third matae (or Northern Medes) of the country
century before Christ long before — Abraham between the Palus Maeotis and the Caspian
migrated from Ur to Harran. Sea, the Maetteor Masotse of the tracft about
Recent linguistic research has satisfac- the mouth of the Don, and the Maedi of
' — : s
Pi. V. / //( . / r. HIS Ti Vv' )

235
Thrace. ^V Iribe mentioned 1)>- Herodotus discoveries of the native Assyrian records
the Sigynna.' in the region between the showed the untrustworthiness of his chro-
Danube and the Adriatic — claimed to be of nology.
Median descent, and this chiim was sub- The Assyrian king, Shamas-V'ul H., the
stantiated by the resemblance of their na- son and successor of Shalmaneser II., al.so
tional dress to that of the Medes. Hero- invaded Media and devastated the country
dotus, in relating these facts, remarks that with fire and sword. Shamas-X'ul's .son and
'
' nothing is impossible in the long lapse of successor, Vul-lush III., reduced the Medes
'
ages. to tribute. Towards the end of the ninth

Two Greek legends designated the Medes centur>' before Christ the Medes agreed to
under the two eponyms of Media and Andro- pay an annual tribute to exempt their coun-
meda, and refer to a period anterior to the try from ravage.
—
age of Homer no later than B. C. 1000. A century later, about B. C. 710, the great
The.se legends connecfl the Medes with Syria Assyrian king, Sargon, invaded Media with
—
and Colchis two countries remote from each a large army, overran the countrj-, seized
—
other thus showing that the fame of the several towns and
'
annexed them to As-

'
Medes was great in that part of Asia known syria, " and also established a number of
to the Greeks. From the.se obsen'ations it fortified posts in portions of the countrj-.
would seem that the Medes must have been A standing army was stationed in these
as great and powerful a people in primitive posts to overawe the inhabitants and to pre-
times as they became in the period of the vent them from making an effectual resist-
decline and fall of Assyria. We po.ssess no ance to the arms of the Assyrians. With
distindl historical knowledge of the first the same end view wholesale deportations
in
period of Median greatness, the only traces were resorted to, many of the Medes being
of early Median preponderance being found colonized in other portions of the Assyrian
in ethnological names and mythological Empire, while Samaritan captives were set-
speculations. Recent discoveries show that tled in the Median cities. Bj- waj- of tribute
the Median dynasty which governed Chal- the Medes were required to furnish annually
dsea from B. C. 2286 to B. C. 2052 was a a number of horses to the Assyrian rojal
Susianian, or Elamite, race of kings. stud.
The histor}' of the Medes as a nation be- As Ctesias' s account of the Median revolt
gins in the latter half of the ninth century under Arbaces and the conquest of Nineveh
before Christ. The Assyrian monarch, synchronizes almost with the first known
Shalmaneser H., the Black Obelisk king, A.ssj'rian ravages in Media, so Herodotus'
states that in the twenty-fourth year of his account of the revolt of the Medes under
reign, B. C. 835, after conquering the Zimri Deioces corresponds with the date assigned
of the Zagros mountain region and reduc- by the Assyrian records for the complete
ing the Persians to tribute, he invaded Media Assyrian subjugation of Media.
Magna, which he plundered after ravaging After Sargon' s conquest of Media Magna
the country with fire and sword. The the Medes of that region quietly submit-
Medes were then divided into many tribes ted to Assyrian domination for almost
ruled b)' petty chieftains, and were thus a three-fourths of aDuring this
centun,-.
weak and insignificant people. period the Ass>'rian supremacy was extended
The time of this first As.syrian attack on over the more remote Median tribes, particu-
Media, when Assyria was in her prime, and larly those of Azerbijan. Sennacherib
Media was only emerging from weakness boasted that in the beginning of his reign
and obscurity, was tlie period which Ctesias (B. C. 702)he received an embassj- from the
assigned to the fall of As.sj-ria and the ri.se more distant portions of Media "parts of —
of Media. The account of Ctesias regard- which the kings his fathers had not even
ing this fadt was accepted until the recent —
heard" which brought him presents in
236 ANCIEjVT history. — MEDIA.
token of submission, and willingly accepted tioned in the contemporary annals of As-
his yoke. Sennacherib's son, Esar-haddon, syria, according to which the Medes were
stated that about his tenth year (B. C. 671) still and divided peo-
a w-eak, disorganized
he invaded Bikni, or Bikan, a remote Median ple. Even Esar-haddon

as late as B. C. 671
province— "whereof the kings his fathers is said to have subdued the more distant
had never heard the name
" —
and compelled Medes, whom he still found inider the gov-
-the cities of this region to acknowledge his ernment of many petty chiefs. According
dominion. The numerous petty indepen- to the e\-idence furnished us by modem in-
dent chiefs who

ruled the cities of this terri- vestigation and discovery', a consolidated
tory, according to Esar-haddon's account, monarchy could not have been organized in
submitted to his arms and agreed to pay Media before B. C. 660, almost a half cen-
tribute, after he had carried two of them tur\- sub.sequent to the time a.ssigned by
captive to Assyria, and Assyrian officers Herodotus.

were admitted into their cities. The sudden development of national
The Median kings according to Cte.sias, power and the rise of a centralized monarchy
beginning with Arbaces, are regarded by in Media were owing to the recent Aryan
modem writers as fidlitious personages, as is migrations from the regions east and south-
also the Deioces at the head of the list ac- east of the Caspian sea. Cvaxares, who
cording to Herodotus. The following is a about B. C. 632 conducfted a Median expe-
table of the Median kings according to these dition against Nineveh, was known to the
two Greek writers: Aryan tribes of the North-east, and in the

reign of the great Persian king, Darius
MEDIAN KINGS ACCORDING TO CTESIAS. Hystaspes, a Sagartian headed a revolt in
Arbaces .
28 years. that region, claiming the Sagartian throne
"
Maudaces 50
" as a descendant from Cyaxares. It is sup-
sosarmus . 30
'
Artycas . 50
"
posed that Cyaxares and his father, the
Arbianes 22
.
40
' Phraortes of Herodotus, condu(5led fresh
Art.€us . .
"
Artynes .
22
"
Aryan migrations from Batlria and Sagartia
Astibaras 40
to Media, thus augmenting the strength
MEDIAN KINGS ACCORDING TO of the Aryan race in the region just east
HERODOTUS. of the Zagros range, and laying the founda-
Interregnum tions of a powerful consolidated kingdom in
Deioces . . 53 years.
Accepted by the Aryan
.
Interregnum that mountain land.

Deioces . . . 53 Medes as their chief, Cyaxares reduced the
Phraortes 22
who
. .
Cvaxares . . 40 scattered Scythic tribes occupied the

Phraortes . .
22 high mountain region, and subdued the
Cyax.\res . 40
Hupuska and
.
Zimri, the Minni, the other
As the time assigned by Herodotus to the small nations occupying the territory between
reign of Deioces, whom he represents as the Media Magna and Assyria.
founder of a centralized monarchy in Media, Thus Cyaxares is generally regarded as
is the very period during which Sargon of the founder of the great Median Empire; and
Assyria was establishing fortified posts in Phraortes, whom Herodotus represents as
the country and .settling his Israelite cap- the second King of Media and as the father
tives in the "cities of the Medes" —and as of Cyaxares, is believed to be a fabulous
the alleged reign of Deioces according to personage. ^sclnlus

The testimony of
Herodotus .synchronizes with the brilliant and the Behistun Inscription both make
A.ssyrian reigns of Sargon, Sennacherib, Cyaxares the founder of the Median mon-
Esar-haddon and Asshur-bani-pal it is evi- — archy.
dent that the whole story of Deioces is No .sooner did Cyaxares find hini.self at
purely mythical, as bis name is not men- the head of a powerful centralized monarchy,
POLITICA I. HIS T( Vv' ) 237
and free from all danger of Assyrian cou- Caucasus mountains, the Caspian sea. and
(juesl, than he meditated the bold enterprise the Jaxartes, or vSihon river. Their charac-
of attacking the colossal power wliich had teristics have been described in our account
for almost seven centuries swayed the desti- of their invasion of Assyria. After pouring
nies of Western Asia. The last great As- over the Caucasus, the Scyths attacked the
syrian king, Asshur-bani-pal, was now in Medes under Cyaxares as they were return-
his old and his declining vigor and
age, ing from the siege of Nineveh to defend
energy afforded encouragement to the am- their own country from the barbarous hordes
bitious designs of the warlike Median mon- of the North. The Medes and the Scyths
arch. Therefore about B. C. 634, when were fully matched, each being hardy, war-
Cyaxares had reigned thiry-four years, the like, adlive and energetic, and each having
Medes suddenly issued from the passes of the cavalry as its chief arm and the bow as its
the Zagros and overran the fertile plains of chief weapon. The Medes were doubtless
Assyria at the base of the mountains. The the better disciplined. They had more of a
Assyrian monarch, in great alarm, placed variety of weapons and soldiers, and were
himself at the head of his troops and took personally the more powerful. But the
the field against the invaders. The Medes Scythians were by far the more numerous,
were thoronghlj' defeated in a great battle, besides being recklessly brave and masters
their army being entirely cut to pieces, and of tactics which made them well-nigh irre-
the father of Cyaxares being among the sistible. The Scyths had overrun Western
slain. Asia to plunder and ravage. Madyes, the
Thus the Median attack on Asssyria
first Scythian leader, defeated Cj-axares and
ended in The Medes had
complete disaster. forced him to accept the suzerainty of the
overrated their militarj- strength. Although Scyths and to pa)- an annual tribute. The
they had already proven themselves a match Scythian invaders continued to levy contri-
for the Assyrians while acting on the defeu- butions upon the conquered people and op-
si\-e in their mountain fastnesses, thej- could pressed them with repeated exadlions.
not withstand their enemy in the open plain Spreading over all Western Asia the Scythic
while assuming the aggressive. Cyaxares invaders carried plunder, devastation and
abandoned the struggle until his troops could massacre wherever they went.
be properly disciplined to prevail against the The brave and patriotic Medes, with the
armed hosts of A.ssyria. He at once .set about love of independence so characteristic of
organizing his army into several distinct mountaineers, and inspired with pride by
corps, consisting respedlively of infantn,' and their sudden and their great success in
rise
cavalry, of archers, slingers and lancers. Assyria, took advantage of the gradual
Feeling himself able to cope with the As- weakening of the barbarians, who were con-
syrians, Cyaxares renewed the war and led stantly dispersing their hosts over Assyria,
a large anny into Assj-ria, signally defeating Mesopotamia, Sjria, Palestine, Armenia and
the troops of Asshur-bani-pal and forcing Cappadocia, plundering and marauding
them behind the defenses of
to seek refuge ever>-where and settling nowhere, conduct-
Nineveh. The Median king pur-
victorious ing sieges and fighting battles, while their
sued the fleeing Assyrian hosts to the very numbers were by degrees reduced b>- the
walls of their capital, which he at once be- sword, by sickness and excesses. Still fear-
sieged, but he was soon recalled to the de- ing to encounter the Scyths in open battle,
fense of his own land by the terrible Scythian the Median king and his court invited the
inundation which .swept ruin and devastation Scythian chiefs to a grand banquet, and,
over both Assyria and Media. after making them helplessly intoxicated,
The Scythians, as we have noticed in the remorselesslj' massacred them.
history of Assyria, occupied the vast plains The Medes at once flew to anns and at-
north of the Euxine (now Black Sea), the tacked their Scythian oppressors with a fury
238 ANCIENT HIS TOR '.—MEDIA. )
intensified by years of repression. Nothing tlie base, crowned with a gigantic figure of
is of the duration and circumstances
known the queen construcfted from solid gold. This
of the war which ensued, and the stories of strudture is represented as being the prin-
Ctesias concerning it are utterly without cipal architedtural monument of Zarina's
credit. He says that the Parthians united capital.
with their Scythian kinsmen, and that the But, casting aside these fabulous stories
war continued many years, numerous battles by Ctesias, we only know that the war
being fought with heavy losses on both sides, ended in the utter discomfiture of the Scyth-
and the struggle ending without any de- ians, who were driven from Media and the
cisive result. This fanciful writer also states neighboring coinitries across the Caucasus
that the Sc}-ths were led by a queen of great into their own homeland. The only ves-
beauty and Ijraver)' named Zarina, or Zari- tiges which they left behind were the names
naea, who won the hearts of her foes when of the Palestinian citj' of Scythopolis and the
unable to withstand their arms. Annenian province of Sacassene.
A
singularly-romantic love storj' is related Herodotus assigned the duration of the
concerning this beautiful Amazon. She Scythian supremacy over Western Asia a
was said to be the wife of Marmareus, the period of twenty-eight 5'ears from their de-
Scythian king, and to have gone with him to feat of Cyaxares to his treacherous massacre
the field, participating in all his battles. Being of their chiefs. But the chronolog\' of He-
atone time wounded she was in danger of rodotus is disputed by modern writers,
being taken prisoner by Stryangaeus, son-in- many of whom give the jêar B. C. 625 as
law of the Median king, and only escaped the date of the fall of Nineveh. Accord-
by earnestly imploring Str\'ang£eus to permit ing to Herodotus that event would have
her to go. When Strj'angseus was shortly occurred B. C. 602. The belief that 625 is
afterwards made prisoner by Marmareus and the proper date rests upon the statement of
threatened with death by his captor, Zarina Abydenus and Polyhistor, who conne(5t the
interceded for him, and when her entreaties fall Nineveh with the accession of Nabo-
of
failed she murdered her husband in order to polassar at Bab\lon, which event the Canon
save her preserver's life. By this time Strj'- of Ptolemy fixes at B. C. 625. Besides, the
angaeus and Zarina were in lo\-e with each Lydian war of Cyaxares, which took place
other; and peace having been arranged be- between B. C. 615 and 610, must have oc-
tween the Scythsand the Medes, Str>-angseus curred after the fall of Nineveh. Eusebius
and was received
visited Zarina at her court gives B. C. 618 as the year of the destru<5lion
with hospitality; but when he revealed the of Nineveh, and assigns a much shorter
secret of his love Zarina repulsed him, re- period to the Scythian domination over
minding him of his wife, Rhastaea, who was Western Asia than twenty-eight years; and
famed as being more laeautiful than herself, his view is to be preferred to that of Herod-
and entreating him to exhibit sufficient man- otus. It is more likely that the twenty-
hood by conquering an improper passion. eight years covered the entire period from
Thereupon Stryangseus retired to his cham- the time of this first Scythian attack on
ber and conunitted suicide, after having Media to the final expulsion of the Scyths
written to reproach Zarina with being the from Western Asia. The weakness of As-
cause of his death. syria and the exhaustion of her resources
Ctesias mentions Zarina's capital as a after the Scythian inroad encouraged Cyax-
town named Roxanace, which is unknown ares to renew his attack on Nineveh, which
to any other historian or geographer. The lay apparently at the mercy of any bold
same writer mentions Zarina as having enemy ready to assail her. The gigantic
founded other towns. He says that the tomb power which had so long dominated Western
of Zarina was a triangular pyramid, six hun- Asia had thus fallen into decay; her prestige
dred feet high and more than a mile around was gone, her glory had departed, her army
'
)
POL I TICA L HIS ri ) A'
239
had and organization, her de-

lost its spirit world two powerful monarchies stood beside
fenses had been weakened, her haughty each other in peace, and without jealousy
spirit had been broken. or hatred. Media and Babylonia were con-
While Cyaxares and his Medes were tent with sharing the dominion of Western
marching against Nineveh from the east, Asia between them, and, considering the
the Susianians rose in revolt and advanced world large enough for both, they remained
against Assj-ria from the south. The last fast friends and allies for more than half a
Assyrian king, Asshur-emid-iliu, or Saracus, centurj".

with a portion of his army prepared to de- The overthrow of Assyria did not bring
fend his capital against the Medes, and .sent repose to the Median king. Roving bands
another portion under his general, Nabo- of Scyths ravaged Western Asia; while
still
polassar, to check advance of the

the the vassal states of Assyria, released from
Susianians from the south. But Nabopo- her yoke by her downfall, made use of the
lassar, as already related, betrayed his mas- occasion to assert their independence; but
ter and led a revolt of the Babylonians they were soon reminded that a new master,
against the A.ssyrian king. He at once sent as powerful and aggressive as the one from
an embassy Median king, and the re-
to the which they had been freed, had arisen to
sult was the close alliance between Cyaxares claim as her inheritance the suzerainty' of
and Nabopolassar, cemented b)- the marriage the vassal states of the fallen Assyrian Em-
of the daughter of Cyaxares with Nabopo- pire. Cyaxares, encouraged by his succes.ses,
lassar' s son Nebuchadnezzar, as also before was stimulated to fresh conquests. Herod-
noted. The united annies of the Medes and otus briefly tells us that Cyaxares
"sub-
the Babylonians besieged Nineveh, which dued Asia above the Halys. "
to him.self all
they finally took and destroyed. The fabu- This would imply the conquest of the coun-
lous account of this siege as narrated by tries between Media and Assyria on the east
Ctesias has been given in our account of and the river Halys on the west, which
Assyria, to which the reader is referred for would include Armenia and Cappadocia.
its details. Ctesias called the Assyrian For centuries had Armenia, strong in its
king Sardanapalus, the Median commander lofty mountains, its deep gorges and its
Arbaces, and the Babylonian Belesis. The many rapid rivers —the sources of the Ti-
self-immolation of the last Assyrian king, gris, the Euphrates, the Kur and the Aras
as related by Ctesias, is, however, confirmed —withstood all efforts at conquest by the
by Abydenus and Berosus; and the story of Assyrian kings, and had only agreed to a
Saracus peri.shing in his palace in a funeral nominal dependence upon Assyria during
pyre lighted with his own hand maj- there- the reign of the last great Assyrian king.
fore be accepted without question. Cappadocia had not even been subjecfl to
The conquerors divided the Assyrian Em- Assyria in name, and had not thus far come
pire between them, Cyaxares obtaining As- into collision with any great Asiatic power.
syria proper and all the provinces to the Other tribes of this region neighbors of —
north and north-west, while Nabopolassar the Armenians and Cappadocians, but more
obtained Babylonia, Susiana, Upper Meso- —
remote from Media were the Iberians, the
potamia, Syria, Phoenicia and Palestine. Colchians, the Moschians, the Tibarenians,
Thus two great empires —the Median and the the Mares, the Macrones and the Mosynce-
Babylonian — arose out of the ashes of the cians ;and were, according to Herodotus,
Assyrian. The.se empires were founded by conquered by Cyaxares, who thus extended
mutual consent, and were united in friend- his dominions to the Caucasus and the Eu.x-
ship and alliance by treaties and by a royal ine, or Black Sea, upon the north, and to the
intermarriage.In all emergencies they were Halys river upon the west. But it is likely
ready to give each other important aid. that the terrible Scythian ravages in Arme-
Thus once in the historj- of the ancient nia and Cappadocia had made the inhabi-
240 ANCIENT HISrORY. — MEDIA.
tants of those countries willing to accept tinued six years it was brought to an end by
the suzerainty of the powerful and civilized a remarkable circumstance. On a certain
Medes, as the various tribes and nations of occasion, as theMedian and Lydian armies
Asia Minor accepted the yoke of the power- were engaged in battle, a sudden darkness
ful Kings of Lydia. enveloped the combatants and filled them
Contemporaneously with the great Aryan with superstitious awe. The sun was
migration from the East under Cyaxares, or eclipsed, and the two armies, ceasing from
his father, Phraortes, an Aryan wave swept the struggle, gazed with dread upon the
over Armenia and Cappadocia, which had celestial phenomenon. Amid the general
previously been under the supremacy of alarm, we are told, a desire for peace seized
Turanian tribes. In Armenia the present both armies. Two chiefs, the foremost allies
Aryan language supplanted the former Tu- on their respedlive improved the occa-
sides,
ranian in the seventh centur>- before Christ, sion to induce the warring monarchs Cyax- —
as shown by the cuneiform inscriptions of ares of Media and Alyattes of Lydia to —
Van and its ^-icinity. In Cappadocia the sheathe their swords. Herodotus says that
Moschians and Tibarenians were forced to Syennesis, King of Cilicia, as the ally of
yield their habitations to a Medo-Persian the Lj'dian king, and Labynetus of Baby-
tribe called Katapatuka. This spread of lon, probably either Nabopolassar or Nebu-
Ar\an nations into the region between the chadnezzar, as the ally of the Median mon-
Caspian Sea and the Halys prepared the arch, came to propose an immediate suspen-
waj^ for Media's supremacy over this part ,sion of hostilities; and when this propo.sal
of Western Asia, as Cyaxares was welcomed was accepted a treat}^ of peace was arranged,
by the Aryan immigrants, who joined his B. C. 610. Both parties retained the terri-
standard in the wars against the barbarous tories they had respedlively held before the
Scyths and the old Turanian aborigines of war, so that the treaty left ever>'thing in
these countries. Theremnants of the
last status quo. The Kings of Media and Lydia
Scyths were expelled; and within less than agreed to .swear a friendship, and to cement
ten years from the overthrow of Assyria, the alliance Alyattes agreed to give his
Cyaxares enlarged the Median Empire with daughter in marriage to Astyages, the son
the of the fertile and valuable
addition of Cyaxares. In accordance with the bar-
tradls of Armenia and Cappadocia coun- — barous customs of the time and place, the
tries never really subjecl to Assyria and— two kings, having met and repeated the words
also the entire region between Armenia and of the formula, puniflured their own arms,
the Caucasus, and between the Caspian and and then by each suck-
.sealed their contracft
Euxine seas. ing a part of the blood from the other's

The advance of the Median Empire west- wound.
ward to the Halys, involving the absorp- By this peace the three great Asiatic em-
tion of Cappadocia, brought the Medes in pires of the time —
Media, Lydia and Baby-
collision with Lydia, a new power in Asia —
lonia became fast friends and allies, and
Minor, which, like Media, had suddenly risen stood side b\- side in peace for fifty years,
to greatness. Lydia headed a confederacy until each was in turn ab.sorbed in the great
of all the nations of Asia Minor west of the Medo-Persian Empire, which for several cen-
Halys to resist the further progress of the turies heldsway o\-er all Western Asia and
Median power westward. Cyaxares ob- Egypt. The crown-princes of Media, Lydia
tained as.sistance from his old allj', Nabo- and Babylonia were placed on terms of blood
polassar ofBabylon, against the Lydians. relationship,and "had become brothers."
With army the Median king invaded
a large Thus Western A.sia, from the shores of
all
Asia Minor, and, according to Herodotus, the ^gean on the west to the Persian Gulf
fought many battles with the Lydians with on the east, was now ruled by dynasties
various success. After the war had con- united by intermarriages, bound to respecl
and animated by a spirit

otlier's rights
some, cautious, and of an ea.sy and generous
each
mutual friendliness and genuine attach- temper; but the anecdotes of his manner
of
After more than five centuries of of living at Ecbatana, as related by He-
ment.
rodotus, Xenophon and Nicolas of Da-
perpetual war and ravage, after fifty years
mascus, are mainly legendary and therefore
of strife and bloodshed, during which the
unreliable as material for history. vStill the
venerable monarch\- of Assyria, which for
united testimony of these three writers
seven centuries had ruled Western Asia at
us some idea of the court of Asty-
her had gone to pieces, and the new
will,
gi\-es
Median and Bab>lonian Empires had taken ages,which resembled that of the Assyrian
her place, that quarter of the globe entered
kings in its main features. The Median
upon a period of repose which contrasted monarch led a secluded life, and could
strongly with the previous long period of only be seen by those who asked and ob-
almost constant struggle. Media, Lydia tained an audience. He was surrounded

and allies, by guards and eunuchs, the latter holding
and Babylonia, as fast friends
without <[uar- most of the offices about the royal person.
pursued their separate courses
The court of Ecbatana was celebrated for the
relor collision, thus allowing the naticms
magnificence of its apparel, for its banquets
under their respective dominions a repose
which they greatly needed and desired. and for the number and organization of its
According to Herodotus, Cyaxares, the attendants. The courtiers wore long flow-
founder of the great Median Empire, died ing robes of various colors, red and purple
predominating, and adorned their necks
B. C. 593, after a reign of forty years, and
with gold chains or collars, and their wrists
was succeeded by his son, AsTVAGES, who,
as we have ob,served, had received as a bride with bracelets of the same costly material.
the daughter of Alyattes, King of Lydia. Their horses frequently had golden bits to
Cyaxares, as a great warrior and the founder One royal officer was called
their bridles.
of an empire, was a conqueror after the "the King's Eye;" another was assigned
Asiatic model. He possessed ability, per- the privilege of introducing strangers to the
severance, energ\', ambition, and force of sovereign ;a third was his cupbearer a ;
fourth his messenger. Guards, torch-bear-

character, and these qualities made him a
successful leader. He was faithful to his serving-men, ushers and sweepers were
ers,
friends, but considered treachery permissible among the lower attendants. "The king's
to his foes. He did not, however, possess table-companions" were a privileged class
of courtiers of the highest rank. Hunting
the ability- to organize the empire his con-
quests had built up; and his establishment was the chief pastime in which the court in-
of Magianism as the state religion was the dulged. This usually took place in a park,
only one of his institutions that appeared to or "paradise," near the capital; but some-
be laid on deep and stable foundations. The times the king and court went out on a
empire which he founded was the shortest- grand hunt in the open countni', where lions,
leopards, bears, wild boars, wild as.ses, an-
lived of all the great ancient Oriental mon-
archies, having risen and fallen within the telopes, stags and wild sheep abounded, and
short space of threescore years and ten the — when the beaters had driven the beasts into
period allotted by the Psalmist as the natural a confined space, the hunting parties dis-
lifetime of an individual. patched them with arrows and spears.
Astj'ages lacked his father's ability and Herodotus tells us that the priestly caste
energy-. Boni to the inheritance of a great of the Magi, who were held in the highest
empire, and bred in the luxur\- of a mag- esteem by both king and people, were in con-
nificent Oriental court, he was apparently stant attendance at the Median court, ready
content with the lot which fortune seemed to expound dreams and omens, and to give
advice on all matters of state policy. They

to have assigned him, and had no further
ambition. He was said to have been hand- had charge of the religious ceremonial, and
' — '

often held high offices of state. They were and the empire of Media. The Persians
the only class who possessed auj' real influ- the Aryan kinsmen of the Medes had be- —
ence over the monarch. come settled in the region south and south-
The long reign of Astyages was mainly east of Media, between the 32nd parallel
peaceful until near its close. Eusebius con- and the Persian Gulf, and had acknowledged
Herodotus by saying that Astyages,
tradicfts the suzerainty of the Median kings during
and not Cyaxares, conducfted the great war the period of their greatness. But dwelling
with Alyattes of Lydia; and Moses of in their rugged mountains and high upland
Chorene alone states that Astyages carried plains, the Persians had retained the primi-
on a long struggle with Tigranes, an Arme- tive simplicity of their manners, and had
—
nian king neither of which statements de- intermingled but slightly with the Medes,
serve any credit. The Greeks evidently re- being governed direcftly by their own native
garded Astjâges as an unwarlike king. On kings of the Achsemenian dynasty, whose
the north-eastern frontier of his empire, Asty- founder was said to have been the legend-
ages extended his dominion by the acquisi- ary Achsemenes. These princes were re-
tion of the low country' now called Talish lated bj' marriage with theCappadocian
and Ghilan, where the powerful tribe of the kings, and their royal house was considered
Cadusians had thus far maintained its inde- one of the noblest in Western Asia. Herod-
pendence. Diodorus alone states that they otus regarded Persia as absorbed into Me-
were able to bring two hundred thousand dia at this time, and the Achsemenidse as
men into the field — a statement unsupported simply a noble Persian family. Nicolas of
by any other writer and unworthy of credit. Damascus considered Persia a Median sa-
At this time the Cadusian king, Aphenies, trapy, Atradates, the father of Cyrus, being
or Ornaphemes, uncertain of his position, satrap. Xenophon and Moses of Chorene
surrendered his sovereignty to Astyages by gave the Achsemenidse their royal rank, and
a secret treaty, and the Cadusians peacefully considered Persia as completely independent
passed under the sway of the Median king. of Media, while they regarded Cyrus as a
Astyages was unhappy in his domestic great and powerful sovereign during the
'
relations. His mariage de convenance
'
'
reign of Astyages; and this view is sustained
with the Lydian princess, Aryenis, brought by the native Persian records. In the Be-
him no son, and the want of an heir led him histun Inscription, Darius declares: "There
to contract those marriages mentioned by are eight of my race who
been kings
hav-e
Moses of Chorene in his History of Armenia before me. I am In an in-
the ninth."
—one with Anusia, and another with the .scription found on a brick brought from
beautiful Tigrania, sister of the Armenian Senkereh, Cyrus the Great calls himself
'
king, Tigranes. Still he had no male off-
'
the son of Canibyses, the powerful king.
'
spring. Herodotus and Xenophon assigned The residence of Cyrus at the Median court
him a daughternamed Mandane, whom they at Ecbatana —
which is asserted in almost
considered the mother of Cyrus the Great; life before he became
every narrative of his
but Ctesias denied this, and gave him a king — would imply at least an ac-
seem to
daughter named Amytis, whom he regarded knowledgment of nominal Median suprem-
as the wife, first of Spitaces the Mede, and acy over Persia.
afterwards of Cyrus the Persian. These During his residence at the Median court
designed to gratify the vanity of the
stories, Cyrus obser\'ed the unwarlike disposition of
Persians and to flatter the Medes, are entitled that generation of Medes, who had not seen
to no credit. It is therefore doubtful if the any acflual military- ser\'ice. He had a con-
second and last Median king had any child tempt for the personal characfter of Astyages,
at all. who mainly at Ec-
.spent his life in luxury-,
In his old age, B. C. 558, occurred the batana, amid euiuichs, concubines and dan-
event which ended the reign of Astyages cing-girls. The Persian crown-prince re-
POLITICAL HISTOR Y. 243
solved to raise the standard of rebellion, to defeated with great loss and driven into re-
free his country from Median supremacy, treat; and Cyrus escaped into Persia.
and pure Zoroastrian relig-
to vindicate the Upon hearing of the escape of the Persian
ion, which the Achoemenians championed, crown-prince, Astyages was greatly cha-
and which the Magi, aided and upheld by grined, and, .smiting his thigh, he ex-
the Median monarchs, had corrupted. claimed: "Ah! fool, thou knewest well that
Cyrus asked pennission from Astyages to it boots not to heap favors on the vile; yet
visit his father, who was in poor health, but didst thou suffer thy.self to be gulled by
this request was refused by the Median smooth words; and so thou hast brought
king on the plea that he was too much at- upon thy.self this mischief. But even now
tached to the Persian crown-prince to miss his he shall not get off scotfree. " Instantly the
presence for a single daj\ But on the appli- Median king, in his rage, sent for his gen-
cation of a favorite eunuch, C3'rus was al- erals, who, in pursuance of the royal orders,
lowed a leave of absence for five months, soon colledled an army of three thousand
and with several attendants he left Ecbatana chariots, two hundred thousand horse, and
by night, taking the road leading to his a million footmen, to reduce Persia to obe-
native Persia. dience. With this immense host Astjâges
The next evening, enjoying himself over invaded the revolted province, and engaged
his wine as usual, in the company of his the army which Cyrus and his father, Cam-
concubines, singing-girls and dancing-girls, byses, had assembled for defense. The
Astyages asked one of them to sing. The Persian army consisted of a hundred char-
girl took her lyre and sang as follows: iots, fifty thousand horsemen, and three
"The lion had the wild-boar in his power, bundled thousand light-armed foot, who
but let him depart to his own lair; in his were drawn up in front of a fortified town
lair he will wax in strength, and will cause near the frontier. The first day's battle was
the lion a world of toil : till at length, sanguinary but indecisive; but on the second
although the weaker, he will o\'ercome the day Astyages, by a skillful use of his supe-
stronger." The words of this song caused rior numbers, won a decided vidlorj-.
the king extreme anxiety, as he had already After detaching one hundred thousand
learned of a Chaldaean prophecy designat- men with orders to make a circuit and get
ing Cyrus as a future king of the Persians. into the rear of the town, the Median king
Astyages at once ordered an officer with a renewed the attack; and when the Persians
body of horsemen to pursue the Persian had their whole attention diredled to the
crown-prince and bring him back dead or battle in their front, the detached Median
alive. The officer overtook Cyrus and an- troops fell on the city and took it, before
nounced his errand, whereupon Cyrus ex- the garrison was aware. Cambyses, who
pressed his willingness to return to the Me- commanded the garrison, was mortally
dian court, but propo.sed that, as it was late, wounded and taken prisoner. The Persian
they should rest for the night. The Medes army in the open field, finding itself attacked
agreed to this; and Cyrus, feasting them, in front and rear, broke and fled towards
made them all into.xicated, after which he the interior, to defend Pasargadae, the Per-
mounted his horse and rode off at full speed sian capital. After giving Cambyses an
with his attendants, until he arrived at a honorable burial, Astyages hotly pursued
Persian outpost, where he had arranged the fleeing Persian ho.st.
with his father to meet a body of Persian Between the battle-field and Pasargadae
troops. After having slept off their drunk- was a barrier of lofty and precipitous hills,
enness and di.scovering that their prisoners penetrated onl)- by a single narrow pass,
had fled, the Medes pursued, and again guarded by ten thousand Persians. Seeing
overtaking Cyrus, who was backed by an that the pass could not be forced, Astyages
armed force, they attacked him, but were sent a detachment along the foot of the
244 ANCIENT HIS TOR ) '.—MEDIA.
range till found a place where they
tlie>- who, forcing him to an engagement, again
could ascend mountain, when they
the defeated him and took him prisoner.
climbed the rugged declivity and seized the The Median Empire had now recei\ed its
heights directly above the defile. Thereupon death-blow. Media and all its dependencies
the Persians were obliged to evacuate their at once submitted to Cyrus, who thus lie-
strong position and to fall back to a lower came the founder of the great Medo-Persian
range of hills near Pasargadae, where an- Empire, which for two centuries swayed the
other conflict of two days occurred. On the destinies of all Western Asia and North-
first day the Medes failed in all their efforts eastern Africa, after the conquest and al)-
to ascend the low but steep hills, the Per- sorption of the great Oriental empires con-
sians hurling hea\'y masses of stone upon temporary with Media — namely, Lydia, Ba-
their ascending colunnis. On the second bylonia and Egypt. Thus the supremacy of
day Astyages had placed a body of troops the Aryan race in Asia was transferred from
at the foot of the hills below his attacking the Medes to their near kinsmen, the Per-
columns, with orders to kill all who refused sians; and pure Zoroastrianism was restored
to a.scend, or who, after ascending, endeav- on the ruins of the corrupt Magian system
ored to descend the heights. Thus forced which the Median kings had allowed to
to advance, the Medes fought with despera- take the place of the primitive faith of the
tion, driving the Persians before them up the BaCtrian prophet. The law of the new em-
slopes of the hill to its summit, where the pire was "the law of the Medes and
.still
Persian women and children had been placed

'
Persians. Official employments were open

'
for safety. The courage of the Persians was to the people of both the.se kindred Arj-an
aroused by the taunts and reproaches of nations.
their mothers and wi\'es, and, by a sudden The Median Empire, in its extent and
furious charge, they overbore the astonished fertility of territorN',was not inferior to the
Medes, driving them in headlong flight A.ssyrian. It reached from Rhagas and the
down the declivity in such confusion that Carmanian desert on the east to the river
the Persians slew sixty thousand of them. Halys on the west a distance of about —
Astyages still persevered, but was deci- thirteen hundred miles. From its northern
sively defeated by Cyrus in a fifth battle near confines along the Euxine ( now Black Sea),
Pasargadas, his anny being routed and his the Caucasus and the Ca.spian, to its south-
camp taken. All the Median royal insignia ern limits along the Euphrates and the
fell into the hands of the vicftorious Persian Persian Gulf, its width was about fi\-e hun-
king, who assumed them amid the enthusi- dred and forty miles in its eastern portion
astic shouts of his troops, who saluted him and about two hundred and forty miles in
as "King of Media and Persia." Astj'ages its western portion. It thus had an area of
sought safety in flight, his army dispersed, about half a million .square miles; being as
and most of his followers deserted him. He large as Great Britain, France, Spain and
was hotly pursued Ijy his triumphant foe, Portugal combined.
CIVILI/.AI'ION. 245
SECTION 111.— MEDIAN CIVILIZATION.

jjLL sacred and profane history were remarkable for their stature and beauty.
classes the Medes and Persians Plutarch, Anunianus Marcellinus and others
as kindred nations —a fa(fl sus- say the .same of the Persian women. The
tained by recent linguistic re- ancient Aryan nations appear to have treated
search, which proves them to women with a s])irit of chivalry, allowing
have been a people similar in race ami lan- them the full de^'elojiment of their physical
guage, as well as in institutions and religion. powers, and rendering them specially at-
This fact, along with the express statements tractive to their own husbands and to men
of Herodotus and Strabo, shows that the of other nations.
Medes and Persians, the leading Iranic na- Says Rawlin.son: "The modern Persian
tions, belonged Aryan, or Indo-
to the great is a very degenerate representative of the
European branch of the Caucasian race. In ancient Aryan stock. Slight and supple in
ancient times all the leading tribes and na- person, with quick, glancing eyes, delicate
tions of the great plateau of Iran and even features and a vivacious manner, he lacks
bej'ond it in a northerh* direcftion to the the dignity and strength, the calm repose
Jaxartes (now Sihon ) river, and eastward and simple grace of the race from which he
to the Hyphasis (now Sutlej) Medes, Per- — is sprung. Fourteen centuries of subjet^tion
sians, Sagartians, Chorasmians, Badlrians, to despotic sway have left their stamp upon
Sogdians, Hyrcanians, Rarangians, Ganda- his countenance and his frame, which,
rians and Sanskritic, or Brahmanic Indians though still retaining some traces of the
— all belonged to a single stock, united by original type, have been sadly weakened
the tie of a common language, common and lowered by so long a term of subser-
manners and customs, and mainly a com- vience. Probably the wild Kurd or Lur of
mon religious faith. The Medes and Per- the present daj- more nearly corresponds in
—
sians the two leading Ar},-an nations of physique to the ancient Mede than do the
Asia — were scarcely distinguishable from softer inhabitants of the great plateau."
each other in an}' ethnic features. The ancient Medes were noted for their
The sculptures of the Achtemenian Kings braverj'. Originally equal, and perhaps su-
of Persia represent the Medes and Persians as perior to their Persian kinsmen, they were
a noble variety of the human species with — during the entire period of Persian suprem-
a tall, graceful and stately physical form; a acy only second to them in courage and war-
handsome and physiognomy, fre-
attracftive like characteristics. When allowed to take
quentlj' bearing some resemblance to the his choice out of the vast ho.st of Xerxes
Greek; a high and straight forehead; the during the war with Greece, Mardonius se-
no.se nearly in the same line, long and well- lected the Median troops next to the Per-
formed, sometimes markedly aquiline; the sians. When the battle opened he kept the
upper lip short, usually shaded by a mus- Medes near him.self, assigning them their
tache; the chin rounded and commonlj' cov- place in the line near that of the Persian
ered with a curly beard. The race was contingent. Diodorus states that the Medes
proud of their hair, which grew plentifully. were chosen to make the first attack upon
On the top of the head the hair was worn the Greek position at Thermopylse, where
smooth, but was drawn back from the fore- they showed their Aalor, though unsuccess-
head and twisted into a row or two of crisp ful. In the earlier periods of their histoni",
curls, being also arranged into a large ma.ss before they had been corrupted by wealth
of similar small close ringlets at the back of and luxun.', their courage and military
the head over the ears. prowess fully earned them the titles ajiplied
Xenophon tells us that the Median women to them by the Hebrew jirophet Ezekiel:
246 ANCIENT HISTOR ) '.—MEDIA.
"the might J- one of the heathen — the ter- "They were brave, energetic, enterprising,
rible of the nations." fond of display, capable of appreciating to
Median valor was utterlj- merciless. Me- some extent the advantages of civilized life;
dian armies, we are told, did "dash to pieces" but they had little genius, and the world is
the fighting-men of other nations, giving scarcely indebted to them for a single im-
them no quarter; and inflicfled indignities portant addition to the general stock of its
and cruelties upon the women and children ideas."

of their enemies. The worst atrocities which Herodotus says that in the army of
lust and hate inspired accompanied the Me- Xerxes the Medes were armed exac5lly like
dian conquests, neither the virtue of women the Persians, and that thej- wore a soft felt
nor the innocence of children being any cap on the head, a sleeved tunic on tlie
protecflion to them. The infant was slain body, and trou.sers on the legs. He tells
before its parents' eyes, and the sancftity of us that their offensive arms were the
the domestic hearth was invaded. Insult spear, the bow and the dagger. They
and vengeance were allowed full scope, and had large wicker .shields, and carried their
the brutal Median soldierj- freely indulged quivers suspended at their backs. The tunic
their tiger-like thirst for the blood of their was sometimes made into a coat of mail
foes. by adding to it on the outside a number of
The habits of the Medes were at first sim- small iron plates arranged so as to overlap
ple and manly ; but, as with all conquering each other like the scales of a fish. They
Oriental nations, success was at once fol- .ser\-ed alike on horseback and on foot, with
lowed by degeneracy, and the Medes in due like equipments in both cases. Strabo and
time became corrupted and enervated by the Xenophon, as well as Isaiah and Jeremiah,
luxuries of conquest. After their conquests describe the Median armies as originally
they relaxed the stringency of their former simpler in charadler. The primitive Medes
habits and indulged in the pleasures of soft were a nation of horse-archers. Trained
and luxurious living. Xenophon contrasted from early boyhood to a ^•ariety of eques-
in vivid colors the primitive simplicity trian exercises, and skillful in the use of the
of Persia proper, where the old Aryan bow, they dashed upon their enemies with
habits, once common to both nations, .swarms of horse, like the Scythians, and
were still maintained in all their original won their vicflories mainly bj' the skillful
stringency, with the luxurj- and magnifi- discharge of their arrows as they advanced,
cence prevailing at Ecbatana. Herodotus retreated, or manoeuvred about their foe.
and vStrabo alluded to the luxury of the The prophet Jeremiah spoke of the sword
Median dress. Thus it appears that the and the .spear being used by the Medes and
Medes in the later days of their empire were Persians.
a luxurious people, displaying a pomp and The sculptures of Persepolis represent the
magnificence unknown to their ancestors, bow u.sed by the Medes and Persians as
affecting splendor in their dre,ss, grandeur short, and cur\'ed like that of the As.syrians.
and elegant ornamentation in their build- It was generally carried in a bow-case,

ings, variety in their banquets, and reaching either suspended at the back or from the
a degree of civilization almo.st equal to that girdle. The arrows, carried in a quiver sus-
of the Assyrians, though vastly inferior to pended behind the right shoulder, were not
them in taste and refinement. Their orna- over three feet long. The quiver was round,
mentation displayed a barbaric magnifi- covered at the top and fastened by means of
cence, distinguished by richness of material. a flap and strap, the last passed over a but-
Literature and letters received little atten- ton. The Median spear, or lance, was six
tion. A and a new style of
stately dress or seven feet long. The sword was short,
architedlure are the onlj' Median inventions. and was suspended at the right thigh by
Professor Rawlinson says of the Medes: means of a belt encircling the waist, and
CIMI.I/.ATION. 247
was also held h\- a strap fastened to the bot- ate with the hand, as Orientals still do, and
tom of the sheath and passing; around the used napkins. Each guest had his own
right leg just above the knee. Median dishes. Wine was dnnik at the meal and
shields were either round or oval. afterwards, and the feast often ended in
The sculptures show us the favorite dress tnrmoil and confu.sion. At court the king
of the Medes in peace. The Persian bas- received his wine at the hands of the cup-
reliefs represent the long flowing robe, with bearer, who first tasted it, .so that the king
its graceful folds, as the garb of the kings, might be certain that it was not poisoned,
the chief nobles and the chief officers of the and then handed it to his master with much
court. This dress is also seen upon the pomp and ceremony.
darics and the gems, and is believed to be the The court ceremonial was imposing. He-
celebrated " Median garment" mentioned by rodotus tells us that the monarch was ordina-
Herodotus, Xenophon and Strabo. This rily kept secluded, and that no person could
garment fitted closely to the chest and be admitted to his presence without formally
shoulders, but hung over the arms in two requesting an audience and without being
large loose sleeves open at the bottom. It led before the sovereign by the proper offi-
was fastened at the waist b)- a cincflure. cer. Strabo says that when he was admit-
Below it drooped in two clusters of perpen- ted he prostrated him.self with the same
dicular folds at both sides, and hung between signs of adoration as when he entered a
these in festoons like a curtain. It reached to temple. The king, surrounded by his at-
the ankles. The Median robes were of tendants, eunuchs and others, maintained a
many colors, some being purple, .some scar- haughty resen'e, and the visitor only saw
let, and others a dark gray or a deep crimson. him from a distance. Business was mainly
Procopius .says that they were made of silk. transacfled by writing. The monarch .sel-
Xenophon .says that the Medes wore under- dom left his palace, and was informed of
garments, such as a sleeved shirt, or tunic, the state of his empire through the reports
of a purple color, and embroidered trousers. of his officers.
The feet were co\'ered with high shoes or The chief court amusement was hunting,
low boots, opening in front and fastened with but the king himself seldom participated in
buttons. The Medes wore felt caps like the this pastime. Beasts of the chase were
Persians, or high-crowned hats, made of felt always abundant in Media; and the Median
or cloth, and dyed in different hues. nobles are mentioned by Xenophon as hunt-
Xenophon tells us that the Medes u.sed cos- ing lions, bears, leopards, wild boars, stags,
metics, rubbing them into the skin to im- gazelles, wild sheep and wild asses. The
prove the complexion. They also used false first four of these were considered dangerous,
hair in abundance. Like other Oriental na- the others harmless. These animals were
tions, ancientand modern, they used djes to usually pursued on horseback, and aimed at
improve the brilliancy of the eyes and make with the bow or the spear.
them appear larger and softer. They also The Median monarch, like other Oriental
wore golden ornaments, such as chains or sovereigns, maintained a seraglio, or harem,
collars around the neck, bracelets around the of wives and concubines; and polj'gamy was
wrists, and ear-rings fastened into the ears. a common cu.stom among the wealth},-.
The bits and other parts of the harness of Strabo tells us of a peculiar law among
their horses were also frequently of gold. some Median tribes which required everj'
Xenophon also tells us that the Medes man to have at least five wives. The
were extremely luxurious at their ban- eunuchs, who .swarmed at court, were
quets. Not only plain meat and various mostly foreigners purcha.sed in their infancy.
kinds of game, with bread and wine, but This despised class were all-powerful with
manj' side-dishes and different kinds of their royal master near the close of the
sauces, were set before their guests. They Median Empire.
—
248 ANCIENT HIS TOR ) '.—MEDIA.

Thus corruption gradually sapped the tions of A.ssyrian types, such as the carving
vitality of the empire; and both the court of winged genii, of colossal figures of bulls
and people had abandoned the hardy and and lions, of grotesque monsters, and of
simple customs of their ancestors, and had clumsy representations of acftual life, in imi-
become enervated through luxury when the tation from Assyrian bas-reliefs. The only
revolt of the Persians inider Cyrus brought remnant of sculpture remaining that can be
the Median Empire to a speedy end. assigned to the Medes is a portion of a colos'
Median architecture was characterized by sal stone lion yet to be seen at Hamadan,
a barbaric magnificence. It is Ijelieved that greatly injured by time, and consisting of
the Medes had learned sculpture from the the head and liody of the lion, measuring
Assyrians and that they taught it to the about twelve feet, the tail and the forelegs
Persians; as everswhere among the remains being broken off. Its posture indicates some
of the Achsemeuian kings are seen modifica- originality in Median art.
SECTION IV.— ZOROASTRIANISM AND MAOISM.

OHE great Iranic religion — the Plato mentioned Zoroaster about four cen-
fiTofyr^l] faith of theBaCtrians, and of turies before Christ. In speaking of the
--^ '
the Medes and Persians for education of a Persian prince, Plato says
—
many centuries was founded that "one teacher instructs him in the magic
by the ancient BaCtrian sage of Zoroaster, the son (or priest) of Ormazd
and prophet, Zoroaster, or Zarathustra and ; (or Oramazes), in which is comprehended all
its sacred book was the Zend-Avesta. Zoro- the worship of the gods." Zoroaster is also
a,ster claimed divine inspiration and professed spoken of by Diodorus, Plutarch, the elder
to have occa,sional revelations from the Su- Pliny, and many writers of the first centuries
preme Being, delivering them to his people after Christ. The worship of the Magi, the
in a mythical form and .securing their accept- Median and Persian priesthood, is described
ance as divine bj- the Bacftrian people, after by Herodotus before Plato. Herodotus
which his religion gradually spread among gives full accounts of the ritual, the priests,
the other Iranic nations. It was the reli- the sacrifices, the purifications, and the
gio!i of the Persians until driven out by the mode of burial empUned b>- the Magi in his
intolerance Mohammedanism in the
of day, about four and a half centuries before
seventh century after Christ. It now exists Christ; and his account closely corresponds
in Guzerat and Bombay in Hindoo.stan, as with the pracflices of the Parsees, or fire-
the creed of the Parsees, descendants of Per- worshipers, yet remaining in a few places in
who sought refuge there after the Mo-
sians Persia and India. He says: " The Persians
hammedan conquest of Persia. The Median have no altars, no temples nor images; they
and Persian kings, as servants of Ormazd, worship on the tops of the mountains. They
worshiped the fire and the sun .symbols of — adore the heavens, and sacrifice to the sun,
the god; and resisted the impure grifBn moon, earth, fire, water and winds." "They
the creature of Ahriman. The Zend-Avesta do not erecfl altars, nor u.se libations, fillets
teaches that every created being has its or cakes. One of the Magi sings an ode
Fereuer, or Fravashis, its ideal essence, first concerning the origin of the gods, over the
created by the thought of Ormazd. Ormazd which is laid on a bed of tender
sacrifice,
himself has his F'ravashis, and the angelic gra.ss." "They pay great reverence to all
e.s.sences are objecfls of adoration e\'er)-where rivers, and must do nothing to defile them;
to the disciples of Zoroaster. in burj-ing they never put the body in the
—
ZOROA STRIA NfSM AND MAOISM. 249
ground till it has been toni by sotne bird or Arimanius likewise made the like number
dog; they cover the body with wax, and of contrary operations to confront them.
then put it in the ground." "The Magi After this, Oromazes, having first trebled
think thej- do a meritorious acft when the}- his own magnitude, mounted up aloft, so far
kill ants, snakes, reptiles." above the sun as the sun it.self above the
Plutarch gives the following account of earth, and .so bespangled the heavens with
Zoroaster and his precepts: stars. But one star (called Sirius or the
"Some Gods
believe that there are two Dog) he set as a kind of .sentinel or scout
as it were, workmen; the one
two rival before all the rest. And after he had made
whereof they make to be the maker of good four-and-twenty gods more, he placed them
things, and the other bad. And some call all in an egg-shell. But those that were
the better of these God, and the other Dae- made by Arimanius being them,selves
( also
mon ; as doth Zoroastres, the Magee, whom of the like number) breaking a hole in this
they report to be five thousand j-ears elder beauteous and glazed egg-shell, bad things
than the Trojan times. This Zoroastres came b}' this means to be intermixed with
therefore called the one of these Oromazes, good. But the fatal time is now approach-
and the other Arimanius; and afiBrmed, ing, in which Arimanius, who by means of
moreover, that the one of them did, of any- this brings plagues and famines upon the
thing sensible, the most resemble light, and earth, must of necessity be him.self utterly
the other darkness and ignorance; but that extinguished and destroyed; at which time,
Mithras was in the middle betwixt them. the earth, being made plain and level, there
For which cause, the Persians called Mith- will be one life, and one society of mankind,
ras the mediator. And they tell us that he made all happj-, and one speech. But Theo-
first taught mankind to make vows and pompus saith, that, according to the opin-
offerings of thanksgiving to the one, and to ion of the Magees, each of these gods sub-
offer averting and feral sacrifice to the other. dues, and is subdued by turns, for the spaca
For they beat a certain plant called hom- of three thousand years apiece, and that for
omy in a mortar, and call upon Pluto and three thousand years more the)- quarrel and
the dark; and then mix it with the blood of fight and destroy each other's works; but
a sacrificed wolf, and convey it to a certain that at last Pluto shall fail, and mankind
place where the sun never shines, and there shall be happy, and neither need food, nor
cast it awa>-. For of plants they believe, yield a .shadow. And that the god who
that some pertain to the good God, and projects these things doth, for some time,
others again to the evil Daemon; and like- take his repose and rest; but j-et this time
wise thej' think that such animals as dogs, is not so much to him although it seems so
fowls, and urchins belong to the good; but to man, whose sleep is but short. Such,
water animals to the bad, for which reason then, is the mythology of the Magees."
they account him happy that kills most of This description of the ancient Median
them. These men, moreover, tell us a great and Pensian religion, by Plutarch, corres-
many romantic things about these gods, ponds with the religion of the modern Par-
whereof theê are some: They say that sees, as it was developed out of the primitive
Oromazes, springing from purest light, and docflrine taught by Zoroaster.
Arimanius, on the other hand, from pitchy A little over a centurj- ago an enterprising,
darkness, these two are therefore at war energetic and enthusiastic young French-
with one another. And that Oromazes made —
man, Anquetil du Perron who had learned
six gods, whereof the first was the author the Zend language, in which the Zend-
of benevolence, the second of truth, the Avesta was written, from the Pansees at
and the rest, one of wisdom,
third of justice, —
Surat, in India brought one hundred and
one of wealth, and a third of that pleasure eighty manu.scripts of that sacred book to
which accrues from good a(flions; and that Europe and published them in French in
1-16.-U. H.
250 ANCIENT HISTOR ) '.—MEDIA.
'iTJ'i, thus giving us a new and clear idea Xanthus of Sardis, a Greek writer of the
of the religious system and faith of the an- sixth century before Christ, and by Cepha-
cient Medes and Persians. For the last lion in the second centun,- after Christ.
half centurj' eminent Orientalists — the The place where Zoroaster lived, and the
Frenchman Germans
Burnouf, and the events of his life, are not known with cer-
Westergaard, Brockhaus, Spiegel, Haug, tainty. Most writers think that he lived in
Windischmann, Hiibschmann have ana- — Bacftria. Haug holds that the language of
lyzed the Zend-Avesta, and have found the Zend-Avesta is Badlrian. A highly
that its different parts belong to different fabulous and mythical life of Zoroaster,
dates. The Gathas, or rhythmical hymns, translated by Auquetil du Perron, called the
are found to be very ancient. Zartusht-Namah, represents him as going
Modern Orientalists and antiquarians dif- to Iran in his thirtieth year, passing twenty
fer widely as to the age of the books of the years in the desert, performing miracles
Zend-Avesta, and as to the period at which during ten years, and teaching philosophical
Zoroaster lived. Plato spoke of " the magic lessons in Babjlon, Pythagoras being one
(or religious docftrines) of Zoroaster the of his pupils; but this account is proven to
Ormazdian." Plato spoke of his religion as be Says Professor Max Miiller:

false. The '
'
Magism, or the Median system, in Western language of the Avesta is so much more
Iran; while the Zend-Avesta originated in primitive than the inscriptions of Darius,
Bacftria, or Eastern Iran, at least no later that many centuries must have passed be-
than the sixth or seventh century before tween the two periods represented by these
Christ. When the Zend-Avesta was written two strata of language." The Behistun
Bacftria was an independent kingdom, and Inscriptions of Darius are in the Achseme-
Zoroaster is represented as teaching under nian dialeifl, a later linguistic development
King Vistagpa. Bunsen says that "the of the Zend.
date of Zoroaster, as fixed by Aristotle, can- Though nothing is known of the events
not be said to be verj' irrational. He and of his life, Zoroaster, by his essentially moral
Eudoxus, according to Pliny, place him six religion, influenced various Arjân races
thousand years before the death of Plato; over wide regions for many centuries. His
Hermippus, five thousand j'ears before the religion was in the interest of morality, hu-
Trojan war," which would be about B. C. man freedom, and the progress of mankind.
6300, or B. C. 6350. Bunsen, however, Zoroaster based his law on the eternal dis-
further says: "At the present stage of the tincflionbetween right and wrong. His law
inquiry the question whether this date is set was therefore the law of justice, according
too high cannot be answered either in the to which the supreme good consists in truth,
negative or affirmative." Spiegel regards duty and right. Zoroaster taught provi-
Zoroaster as a neighbor and contemporary dence, aimed at holiness, and emphasized
of Abraham, and thus living about B. C. creation. He maintained that salvation was
2000. DoUinger believes that he may have only wrought out by an eternal battle be-
flourished somewhat later than Moses, per-
'
' tween good and evil.

haps about B. C. 1300;" but says that "it The whole religion of the Zend-Avesta
is impossible to fix precisely" when he did revolves around the person of Zoroaster, or
live. Rawlinson alludes only to the facft Zarathustra. In the Gathas of the Ya^na,
that Berosus placed him anterior to B. C. the oldest of the second books, he is desig-
2234. Haug believes the Gathas, the oldest nated "the pure Zarathustra, good in
songs of the Zend-Avesta, to have been thought, speech and work." Zarathustra
composed as early as the time of Moses. only is said to know the precepts of Ahura-
Duncker and Rapp think Zoroaster lived Mazda (Ormazd\ and that he shall be made
about B. C. 1200 or 1300; and their view skillful in speech. In one of the Gathas he
agrees with the period assigned to him by asserts his wish to bring knowledge to the
'
ZORO.lSTK/.LyfSM AND 3fAG/SM. 251
pure, in the power ol' ()rnia/.d, to give them around falls ileep snow. There is the worst
happiness, as Spiegel translates it. Haug of evils." Spiegel and Haug both consider
translates the same passage thus: " I will this pas.sage an interpolation, but it doubt-
swear hostility to the liars, but be a strong less referred to a great climatic change, by
help to the truthful." He prays for truth, which the primeval home of the Aryans,
declaring himself the most faithful ,sen-ant Aryana-Vaejo, became suddenly very much
in the world of Ormazd the Wise One, and colder than it had hitherto l)een. Such
for this reason implores for a knowledge of a change may have induced the migra-
what is most desirable to do. SaN-s Zoroas- tion of the Aryans from Aryana-Vaejo
ter, according to Spiegel: "When it came (Old Iran) to Media and Persia (New
to me through thought that
j'our pra3-er, I Iran). Bunsen and Haug believed such
the spreading abroad of your law through a history of migration to be related in the
men was something difficult. '
firstFargard (chapter) of the Vendidad.

Zoroaster was oppressed with the sight of This would carr>' us back to the oldest part
evil. —
Spiritual evil the evil having its of the Veda, and show the movement of the
origin in a depraved heart and a will turned Arjan stream southward from its primitive
from goodness — tormented him most. His home in Central Asia, until it divided into
meditations convinced him that all the W'oe two branches, one spreading over Media and
of the world had its origin in sin, and that Persia, and the other over India. The first
the root of sin was in the demonic world. verse of this old document represents Or-
He maintained that the principles of good mazd as declaring that he had created new
struggle with the principles of evil, rulers regions, desirable as homes; thus preventing
of darkness, spirits of wickedness in the su- Aryana-Vaejo becoming over -populated.
pernatural world. Finnly believing that a Thus the very first verse of the Vendidad
great conflictwas perpetually in progress contains the pleasant remembrance of the
between the powers of Light and Darkness, migratory races from their Central Asian
he urged all good men to take part in the fatherland, and the Zoroastrian faith in a
war, and battle for Ahura-Mazda, (Ormazd), creative and prote(5live Providence. The
the good God, against Angra-Mainyus (Ahri- terrible convulsion which changed their
man), the dark and evil tempter. summer climate into the pre.sent Siberian
Great natural misfortunes intensified Zoro- winter of ten months was a portion of the
aster's convicflion. In his time some geo- divine arrangement. The previous attradl-
logical convulsion changed the climate of iveness of Old Iran would have over-crowded
Northern Asia, and .suddenly caused bitter that Eden with the whole human race.
cold where there had previously been a Thus the evil Ahriman was allowed to
tropical heat. Both .Spiegel and Haug have enter it, as "a new serpent of destrudtion,"
in recent years translated the first Fargard changing its seven months of summer and
of the Vendidad, which commences by de- five of winter into ten of winter and two of
scribing good country, Aryana-Vaejo,
a summer. Says the first Fargard of the
which Ahura-Mazda had created as a region Vendidad: "Therefore Angra-Mainyus, the
of delight. Thereupon the "evil being, death-dealing, created a mighty serpent and
Angra-Mainyus, full of death, created a snow." The .serpent entering the Iranic
might}- serpent, and winter, the work of the Eden is one of the curious coincidences of
Daevas. Ten months of winter are there, the Iranic and Hebrew traditions. Bunsen
two months of .summer." It is next .stated and Haugbeheve Arj'ana-Vaejo, or Old Iran
in the original document: "Seven months — the original .seat of the great Aryan, or
of summer are (were) there; five months of —
Indo-European race to have been located
winter were there. The latter are cold as to on the elevated plains north-east of Samar-
water, cold as to earth, cold as to trees. cand, between the thirty-seventh and for-
There is the heart of winter; there all tieth parallels of north latitude, and between
'

the eighty-sixth and ninetieth meridians of Says Zarathustra: "I worship and adore
east longitude. This region has precisely the the Creator of all things, Ahura-Mazda (Or-
climate described —ten months of winter and mazd), worship the Amgsha-
full of light ! I
two of sinnmer. The same is the case with Spentas (Amshaspands, the seven arch-
Western Thibet and the greater portion of angels, or protedling spirits)! I worship
Central Siberia. Malte-Brun says: " The the body of the primal Bull, the soul of the
winter is nine or ten months long through Bull! I invoke thee, O Fire, thou .son of
almost the whole of Siberia." The only Ormazd, most rapid of the Immortals! I
months free from snow are June aild July. invoke Mithra, the lofty, the immortal, the
'
Sir Charles L,yell says that ' great oscil- pure, the sun, the ruler, the quick Horse,
lations of climate have occurred in times the eye of Ormazd! I invoke the holy Sra-
immediately antecedent to the peopling of osha, gifted with holiness, and Ragnu (spirit
the earth by man." During the present of justice), and Arstat (spirit of truth)! I
century frozen elephants, or mammoths, invoke the Fravashi of good men, the Fra-
have been found in Siberia, in vast numbers vashi of Ormazd, the Fravashi of my own
and in a perfecfl condition. For this reason soul! I praise the good men and women of
Lyell considers it "reasonable to believe the whole world of purity! I praise the
that a large region in Central Asia, includ- Haoma, health-bringing, golden, with moist
ing perhaps the southern half of Siberia, stalks! I praise Sraosha, whom four horses
enjoyed at no very remote period in the carry, spotless, bright-shining, swifter than
earth's history a temperate climate, suffi- the storms, who, without sleeping, protedls
ciently mild to afford food for numerous the world in darkness!"
herds of elephants and rhinoceroses." The Zend-Avesta, as a holy book, was to
In the midst of these awful convulsions be read in private by the laity, or to be re-
of nature —these antagonistic forces of excited in public by the priests. This sacred
ternal good and evil — Zoroaster evolved his book of the ancient Medes and Persians con-
belief in the dualism of all things. He be- sists of the Vendidad, of which twentj'-two
lieved that the Supreme Being had set all Fargards, or chapters, have been presented:
things in opposition to each other, two and the Vispered, in twenty-seven; the Yagna,
two. He did not believe that, "whatever in seventy; and the Khordah-Avesta, or
is, is right." Some things appeared woe- Little- Avesta, containing the Yashts, the
fully wrong. The world was a scene of war Patets, and other prayers for the use of the
and turmoil, not one of peace and quiet. laity. Spiegel regards the Gathas of the
Ivife was battle to the good man, not sleep. Yagna as the oldest of these, the Vendidad
He believed that the good God watching next, and lastly the first part of the Yagna
over all was constantly opposed by a power- and the Khordah-Avesta.
ful evil spirit, with whom we are to battle The Bundehesch is a book later than those
constantly and to whom we are never to just mentioned, but, in its contents, it goes
yield. In the remote future he perceived back to primitive times. Windischmann,

the triumph of good; but that triumph could who, in 1863, made a new translation of this
only be attained by fighting the good fight book, says: " In regard to the Bundehesch,
now, not, however, with carnal weapons. I am confident that closer study of this re-
The whole dut)- of man was to ha\e '
' pure markable book, and a more exadl compar-

thoughts '
' entering into '

' true words
'
' and ison of it with the original texts, will change

ending in right acflions.
'
'
'
the unfavorable opinion hitherto held con-
The Zend-Avesta is a liturgy a colle{5lion — cerning it into one of great confidence. I
of hymns, prayers, invocations and thanks- am justified in believing that its author has
givings. It contains prayers to numerous given us mainly only the ancient docflrine,
deities, the supreme one of whom is Onuazd, taken by him from original texts, most of
the others being onlv his servants. which are now lost. The more thoroughly
/.OROASTRI.\NIS}[ AND I\IA(,IS.U. 253
it is examined tlie more trustworthy it will ern Elburz, which soared upward through
be found to be." all the spheres of the heaven, till it reached
Only the germs of the Parsee system are the primal light, and Ormazd established his
found in the elder books of the Zend-Avesta. abode on this summit. From this summit
It has been doubted if the doelrinc of Zer- the bridge Chiuevat extends to the vault of
ina-Akerana, or the Monad behind the heaven and to Gorodman, which is the
Duad, is to be found in the Zend-Avesta, opening in the vault above Albordj. Gorod-
though important texts in the Vendidad man is the abode of P'rava-shis and of the
seem to impl\- a Supreme and Infinite Being, bles.sed, and the bridge leading to it is di-
who created both Ormazd and Ahriman. recflly above the aby.ss Duzahk, the awful
The following is an outline of the Parsee gulf beneath the earth, the dwelling-place
system, as derived from the Hundehesch and of Ahriman.
the later Parsee writings; Ormazd, knowing that his battle with
In the beginning the Eternal or Absolute Ahriman would commence after his first
Being (Zerana-Akerana) produced two other period, armed him.self, and for his aid cre-
great divine beings. The first of these, ated the shining heavenly host the sini, —
called Ahura-Mazda, or Ormazd, remained —
the moon and the stars the mighty beings
true to him and was the King of Light. of light which were entirely subserx'ient to
The other, called Angra-Mainyus, or Ahri- him. He first created "the heroic nmner,
man, was the King of Darkness. Ormazd who never dies, the sun," and made him
being in a world of light and Ahriman in a king and ruler of the material world. From
world of darkness, the two became antago- Albordj he starts on his course in the morn-
nists. The Infinite Being (Zerana-Akerana) ing, circling the earth in the highest spheres
thereupon resolved to create the visible by of the heaven, and returns at evening. Or-
Ormazd, for the purpose of exterminating mazd next created the moon, which "has
the evil which Ahriman had cau.sed; fixing its own light," which, leaving Albordj, cir-
its duration at twelve thousand years, which cles the earth in a lower sphere and returns.
he divided into four periods of three thou- He then created the five planets then
sand years each. Onnazd was to rule alone known; also the entire host of fixed stars, in
during the first period. Ahriman was to be- the lowest circle of the heavens. The space
gin his operations during the second period, between the earth and the firm vault of the
still, however, occupying a subordinate posi- heavens is consequenth' divided into three
tion. Both were to rule together during the —
spheres that of the sun, that of the moon,
third period. Ahriman was to have the as- and that of the stars.
cendency during the fourth period. The host of stars were common soldiers in
Ormazd produced the Fereuers, or Frava- the war with Ahriman, and were divided
shi, thus beginning the creation. Every- into four troops, each having its appointed
thing, either already created or to be created, leader. Twelve companies were arranged
has its Fravashi, containing the reason and in the twelve signs of the Zodiac. These
basis of its existence. Onnazd himself has were all grouped into four great di\-isions,
his Fravashi relating to Zerana-Akerana, the in the east, west, north and south; the
Infinite. A spiritual, invisible world there- planet Tistr>'a (Jupiter) presiding over the
fore existed before this visible world of eastern division and named "Prince of the
matter. Stars," Sitavisa (Saturn) watching over the
In the creation of the material world, western division, Vanant (Mercur}') over
which was simply an incorporation of the the .southern, and Hapto-iringa (IMars) over
spiritual world of Fravashis, Ormazd first the northern. The great star Mesch, or
made the firm \ault of heaven and the earth Meschgah (Venus), is in the middle of the
on which that vault rests. On the earth he firmament, and leads the heavenly host of
created the lofty mountain Albordj the mod- , stars in the struggle against Ahriman.
The dog Sinus (Sura) is also a watch- hescht. King of Fire; Schariver, King of the
man of the heavens, but is fixed to one Metals; Sapandomad, Queen of the Earth;
place, at the bridge Chinevat, standing Amerdad, King of the \'egetables; and
guard over the abyss out of which Ahri- Khordad, King of Water.
man comes. Thus ended the second period of three
After these preparations in the heavens thousand years; during which Ormazd had
had been finished by Ormazd, the first of the likewi.se produced the great primitive Bull,
four periods of three thousand years each which, being the representative of the ani-
reached its end, and Ahrinian saw from his mal world, contained the seeds of all living
gloomy abode what Ornia/.d had done. To creatures.
antagonize Ormazd, Ahriman created a While Ormazd was thus finishing his cre-
world of Darkness, a terrible host, as nu- ation of Eight, Ahriman, in his gloomy
merous and powerful as the beings of Light. abyss, was ending his antagonistic creation
Ormazd, knowing all the misery and woe —
of Darkness making a corresponding evil
that Ahriman would produce, yet knowing being for every good being that Ormazd
that he himself would triumph in the strug- created. These spirits of Darkness stood in
gle, offered Ahriman peace; but Ahriman their ranks and orders, with their seven pre-
chose war. But, blinded by the majesty of siding evil spirits, or Daevas, corresponding
Onnazd, and terror-stricken at the sight of to the seven Amshaspands of the world of
the pure Fravashis of holy men, Ahriman Light.
was conquered by the strong word of Or- The vast preparations for the great war
mazd, and fell back into the aby.ss of Dark- between Ormazd and Ahriman being fin-
ness, lying fettered thereduring the three ished, and the end of the second period of
thousand years of the second period. three thousand years now approaching,
Ormazd now finished his creation upon Ahriman was urged by one of his Daevas
the earth. Sapandomad was guardian spirit to commence the struggle. Having counted
of the earth. The earth, as Hethra, was his host, and found nothing therein to op-
mother of the living. Khordad was chief pose to the Fravashis of good men, he fell
of the seasons, years, months and days, as back dejecfted. When the second period
well as protedlor of the water, which flowed ended, Ahriman sprang aloft fearlessly,
from the fountain Anduisur, from Albordj. knowing that his time had arrived. He
The planet Tistrya was appointed to raise was followed by his host, but he only
the water in vapor, gather it in clouds, and reached the heavens, his troops remaining
let it fall in rain, with the aid of the planet behind. Seized with a shudder, he .sprang
'
These were from heaven upon the earth in the form of a

'
Sitavisa. cloud-compellers
' '
regarded with the highest reverence. Amer- serpent, penetrating to the earth's center,
dad was the god of vegetation, but the and entering into everything which he found
great Mithra was the lord of frudlification upon the earth. Passing into the primal
and reproducflion in the entire organic world, Bull, and even into fire, the visible symbol
his duty being to lead the Fravashis to the of Ormazd, he defiled it with smoke and
bodies which they were to occup)^ vapor. He then assailed the heavens; and
Everything earthly in Ormazd's world of a portion of the stars were already in his
Light had its protecfling divinity, or guard- power, and enveloped in smoke and mist,
ian .spirit. The.se spirits were divided into when he was attacked by Ormazd, aided by
series and groups, and had their captains the Fravashis of holy men. After ninety
and their associated assistants. The seven days and ninet>' nights he was thoroughly
Amshaspands (in Zend, AmSsha-Spentas) defeated, and driven back with his troops
were the principal ones of these series, of into the abyss of Duzahk.
whom Ormazd was the first. The other six He did not, however, stay there. He
were Bahman, King of Heaven; Ardibe- made a way for himself and his companion.^
ZOROASTRIANISM AND MAGTSM. 255
through the iniddk- of the earth, and is now they nuist thus be able to increa.se the power
livingon the earth with Ornia/.d, in accord- of Darkness. He was only able to resist
ance with the decree ut the Inhnite. these temptations, to which his first parents
He had procUiced terrible destruction in Ormazd had taken
,\ielded, hecau.se pity on
the world; but the more e\il he attempted him and given him a revelation of his will
to do, the more he unknowingly fulfilled the in the law of Zoroaster. If he obeys these
counsels of the Infinite, and hastened the precepts he beyond harm from the Daevas,
is
development of good. He thus entered the being diredlly protedled by Ormazd. The
Bull, the original animal, and so injured essence of the law is the command: "Think
him that he died. But then Kaiomarts, the jHirely, speak purely, act purely." From
first man, came out of his right shoulder, Ormazd comes all that is pure; from Ahri-
and from his left shoulder proceeded Gosh- man all that is impure. Bodily purity is no
urun, the soul of the Bull, who now became lessworthy than moral purity. This is the
the guardian spirit of the animal creation. reason for the man}- minute precepts regard-
The entire realm of clean animals and plants ing bodily cleanliness. The entire liturgic
came from the Bull's body. Ovenvhelmed worship hinges vastly on this point.
with rage and fury, Ahriman now created The Fravashis of men originally created
the unclean animals — for every clean beast by Ormazd are preserved in heaven, in Or-
an unclean one. Ormazd having created mazd's world of Light. But they must
the dog,Ahriman produced the wolf. Or- come from hea\-en, to be joined to a human
mazd having made all useful animals, Ahri- body, and to enter upon a path of probation
man made all noxious ones; and likewise of in this world, called' the "Way of the Two
plants. Destinies." At death the souls of those
Having nothing to oppose to Kaiomarts, who have chosen the good in this world
Ahriman resolved to kill
the original man, are receivedby the good spirits, and guided,
him. Kaiomarts was both man and woman, under the protei5tion of the dog Sura, to the
and after his death a tree grew from his bridge of Chinevat, where the narrow road
body, bearing ten pair of men and women, conducts to heaven, or paradise. The souls
Meschia and Meschiane being the first. of the wicked are dragged to the bridge bj'
They were at first pure and innocent and the Daevas. Ormazd here holds a tribu-
made for heaven, worshiping Ormazd as nal and decides the fate of the human
their creator; but Ahriman tempting them, souls. The righteous safely pass the bridge
they drank milk from a goat, thus injuring into the abode of the blessed, being there
themselves; and by eating the fruit which welcomed with rejoicing bj' the Amshas-
Ahriman brought them, they lost a hundred pands. The pious soul is aided in crossing
parts of their happiness, only one part re- the bridge by the angel Serosh, "the
maining. The woman was the first that happj', well-formed, swift, tall Serosh," who
sacrificed to the Daevas. After fifty j-ears greets the new comer happy journey
in his
they had two children, Siamak and \'e.schak. to the abode of the blessed, where he is
They died at the age of one hundred j-ears. greeted by the angel \'ohu-mano, who,
They remain in hell until the resurreclion, rising from his throne, exclaims: "How
in piuiishment for their sins. happy art thou, who hast come here to us,
Thus the human race became mortal by exchanging mortality for immortality!"
the sin of its first parents. Man stands be- The good soul then proceeds to the golden
tween the worlds of Light and Darkness, throne in paradise. The wicked fall over
left to his own free will. Being a creature the bridge of Chinevat, into the abyss of
of Ormazd he is able to and should honor Duzahk, where they find themselves in the
him, and aid him in the war with Ahriman; realm of Angra-Mainyus, the world of Dark-
but Ahriman and his Daevas surround him ness,where thej- are forced to remain in
night and day, trying to mislead, so that misery and woe, tormented by the Daevas.
—

Ormazd fixes the duration of the punish- ne.ss will be banished. A more beautiful
ment, and some are redeemed sooner by earth, pure and perfect, and destined to be
means of the prayers and intercessions of eternal, will come from the extincft fire.
their friends, but many must stay until the Ahura-Mazda (Ormazd) was the "all
resurrection of the dead. bountiful, the all-wise, being" or
living
Ahriman himself consumma-
eiiecfts this
'
' spirit
'
' who was at the head of all that was

tion, after having exercised great power good and lovely, of all that was beautiful
over men during the last period of three and delightful. Angra-Mainyus (Ahriman)
thousand 5'ears. He made seven comets to was the "dark and gloomy intelligence,"
autagonize the seven great luminaries that had ever been Ahura-Mazda's enemy,
created b>' Ormazd —the sun, moon
and five and was resolved on foiling and tormenting
planets then known. These comets went him. Ahura-Mazda was "the creator of
on their destructive course through the life, the earthly and the spiritual." He had
heavens, filling everv'thing with danger made "the celestial bodies," "earth, water,
and every human being with terror. But and trees," "all good creatures," and "all
Onnazd put them under the control of his good things." He was "good," "holy, "
planets to restrain them. The planets will "pure," "true," "the holy god," "the
exercise this power until, b}- the decree of holiest," "the essence of truth," "the
the Infinite at the close of the last period, father of truth," "the best being of all,"
one of the comets will break away from his
'
the master of purity.

' He was supremely'
'
watchman, the moon, and dash upon the happy and possessed e^•ery blessing
earth, causing a general conflagration. Be- " health, wealth, virtue, wisdom, immortal-
fore however, Ormazd will send his

this, ity." From Ahura-Mazda proceeded all
Prophet, Sosiofh, and cause the conversion good to mankind. He rewarded the good
of mankind, to be followed by the general by granting them everlasting happine.ss, and
resurre(5tion. punished the bad.
Ormazd will clothe the bones of men with Angra-Mainyus was the author of all that
new flesh, and friends and relatives will was evil, and had been engaged in constant
again recognize each other. Then comes warfare with Ahura-Mazda. He corrupted
the great division of the just from the and ruined the good things created by
wicked. Ahura-Mazda. He was the di.spen.ser of
When Ahriman causes the comet to fall moral and phy.sical evils. He blasted the
upon the earth to gratify- his destructive in- earth with barrenness, made it produce
clinations he will be really .serving the Infi- thorns, thistles and poisonous plants. He
nite Being against his own will; as the consent the earthquake, the tempest, the hail,
comet will change
flagration caused Ijy this the thunder-bolt. He caused disease and
the whole earth into a stream like melted death, famine and pestilence, wars and tu-
iron, which will pour down with fury into mults. He was the inventor of witchraft,
the abode of Ahriman. All beings must murder, unbelief, cannibalism, etc. He cre-
now pass through this stream. It will feel ated ferocious wild beasts, serpents, toads,
like warm milk to the righteous, who will mice, hornets, mo.squitoes, etc. He coutin-
pass through to the realm of the just; but ludU- incited the bad against the good, and
the sinners shall be carried along by the sought by every device to give vice the vic-
stream into the aby.ss of Duzahk, where they tory over virtue. Ahura-Mazda could not
will burn three days and nights, after which, always defeat or baffle him.
being pxu-ified, they will invoke Ormazd and was strictly free from
Zoroaster's religion
be received into heaven. idolatr>-. The only emblems were a winged
Ahriman himself and all in the abyss of circle with a human figure, robed and wear-
Duzahk shall afteuwards be purified by this —
ing a tiara a symbol of Ahura-Mazda; and a
fire; all evil will be consumed and all dark- four-winged figure at Murgab, the ancient
ZOROASTRIANISM AND A/A(;/SM. 257
Pasargadae, the early capital of Persia, repre- impure words and impure thoughts were to
senting Sraosha, orSerosh — "the good, tall, be abstained from. Ahura-Mazda, "the
fair Serosh ' '
— who in the Zoroastrian system pure, the master of purity," would not tol-
corresponds with the Archangel Michael in erate impurity in his votaries. Man was
the Christian. The great Persian king, placed on earth to preserve Ahura-Mazda's
Darius Hystaspes, placed the emblems of "good creation," which could only be done
Ahura-Mazda and Mitlira in prominent by carefully tilling the soil, eradicating the
places on the sculptured tablet abo\'e his thorns and weeds sent by Angra-Mainyus,
tomb, as did all the later monarchs of his and reclaiming the tracts which that Evil
race whose sepulchers are yet to be seen. Being had cursed with barrenness. The
Artaxerxes Mnemon put the image of cultivation of the soil was thus a religious
Mithra in the temple attached to the royal duty, and all were required to perform agri-
palace at Susa, and in his inscriptions unites cultural labors; and either as proprietor,
Mithra and Ahura-Mazda, prajing for their farmer or laborer, each Zoroastrian was
joint protection. Artaxerxes Ochus does obliged to "further the works of life" by
the same a little later. The jiortions of the tillage of the soil.
Zend-Avesta composed at this period ob- Truth was another duty inculcated earn-
ser\-ed the same pradlice. Ahura-Mazda estly by the Zoroastrian creed. Herodotus
the Persian youth are taught
'
and Mithra are called "the two great ones," tells us that '
"the two great, imperishable and pure." three things only; to ride the horse, to draw
Man was in duty bound to implicitly obey the bow, and to speak the truth." Ahura-
his creator, the Good Being, Ahura-Mazda, Mazda was the "true spirit," and the chief
and to battle earnestly against Angra- of the AmSsha-Spentas was Asha-vahista,
Mainyus and his evil creatures. He was to "the best truths The Zend-Avesta and
be pious, pure, truthful and industrious. the Persian cuneifonn inscriptions hold up
He was to acknowledge Ahura-Mazda as Druj, "falsehood," to detestation, "as the
the One True God, and to reverence the basest, the most contemptible and the most
Amesha-Spentas and the Izeds, or lower pernicious of vices."
angels. He was to worship by prayers, After a time the early Iranian religion be-
praises, thanksgivings, singing of hymns, came corrupted by the admixture of foreign
sacrifices of animals, and the occasional superstitions. The followers of Zoroaster,
ceremony of the Haoma, or Horaa. This spreading themselves from their primeval
was the extradlion of the juice of the Homa seat on the Oxus over the regions to the
plant by the priests while reciting prayers, .south and south-west of the Caspian Sea,
the formal presentation of the liquid ex- came into contact with a religious system
tracted to the sacrificial fire, the consump- vastly different from that which they had
tion of a small part of it bj- the officiating previously professed, yet capable of being
priests, and the division of the most of it easily fused with it. This was Magism, or
among the worshipers. The horse was con- the worship of the elements. The primitive
sidered the best sacrificial victim, but oxen, inhabitants of Armenia, Cappadocia and the
sheep and goats were also ofiFered. The Zagros mountain-rauge, had, under circum-
animal being brought before an altar on unknown, developed this sj'S-
stances to us
which the sacred fire was burning, believed tem of religion, associating with its tenets a
to have been originally kindled from heaven, priest-caste claiming prophetic powers and a
was there killed by a priest, who showed highly sacerdotal character. The essentials
some of the flesh to the sacrificial fire, after of Magism were the four elements of Fire,
which the \'i(5lim was cooked and eaten by Air, Earth and Water, which were regarded
the priests and worshipers at a solemn meal. as the only proper objects of human adora-
Outward purity was enforced by numer- tion. Personal gods, temples, shrines and
ous external observances. All impure adls, images were rejedled. The worshipers rev-
— "
258 ANCIENT HIS TOR } '. MEDIA.

erenced not the powers presiding over the of ceremonial splendor. Attired in white
elements of nature, but the elements them- robes, and wearing upon their heads tall
selves. Fire, the great ethereal principle felt caps, with long lappets at the sides,
and the most powerful agent, was specially which are said to have hidden the jaw and
regarded and on the Magian fire-altars the
;
the lips, the Magi, with a barsom in their
sacred flame, usually considered to have hands, marched in procession to the fire-
been kindled from heaven, was kept con- altars, around which they performed their
stantly burning year in and year out by magical incantations for an hour at a time.
bands of priests, whose special duty it was The credulous masses, impressed by such
to see that the sacred spark was never per- scenes and imposed upon by the claims of
mitted to die out. It was a capital offense the Magi to supernatural powers, paid the
to defile the altar by blowing the fire with priest-caste homage.
willing The kings
one's breath, and it was just as odious to and chiefs consulted them; and when the
burn a corpse. Only a small part of the Iranians, in their westward migrations, came
fat of the vidlims for sacrifice was consumed into contacft with the nations professing Ma-
in the flames. Water was reverenced next gism, they found the Magian priesthood all-
to fire. Sacrifice was offered to rivers, lakes powerful among most of the Western Asian
and fountains, the vidtim being brought races.
near to them and then killed, the greatest The followers of Zoroaster had at first
care being taken that not a drop of blood been intolerant and exclusive, and regarded
should touch the water and pollute it. No the faith of their Aryan kinsmen, the Sans-
refuse was permitted to be thrown into a kritic Hindoos, with aversion and contempt.
river, nor was it wash one's hands

lawful to They had fiercely opposed idolatry, and
in one. Thewas reverenced by means
earth hated with deep animosity every religion
of sacrifice, and by abstaining from the but their own. But in the course of ages
common manner of burying the dead. He- these feelings had become lax, and the early
rodotus and Strabo are our main authorities religious fen'or gradually died away; and in
for this account of Magism. "an impre.ssible and imitative spirit
its .stead
The Magian prie.st-caste held a high rank. had developed it.self.

A priest always mediated between the Thus Zoroastrianism, in its contadl with
Deity and the worshiper, and inten'ened in Magism, was impres.sed favorably, and the
every rite of religion. The Magus prepared result was the development of a new system
the sacrificial vicftim and .slew it, chanted by the fusion of the two. The chief tenets
the mystic strain giving the sacrifice all its of the two sj-stems harmonized and were
force, poured the propitiatory libation of thoroughly compatible. Thus the Iranians,
oil, milk and honey on the ground, and held though holding fast to their original creed,
the bundle of thin tamarisk twigs, the bar- adopted the main points of the Magian faith
som {barcsma) of the later books of the and all the more remarkable practices and
Zend-Avesta, the u.se of which was neces- customs of Magism. This fusion of Zoro-
sary to all sacrificial ceremonies. "Claim- astrianism and Magism occurred in Media.
ing supernatural powers, they explained The Magi became a Median tribe and the
omens, expounded dreams, and by means of priest-caste of the Medes. Worship of the
a certain mysterions manipulation of the elements, divination by means of the bar-
barsom, 'or bundle of tamarisk twigs, ar- som, expounding of dreams, incantations at
rived at a knowledge of future events, fire-altars, sacrifices at which a Magus offi-
which they would sometimes condescend ciated, were made a part of the Zoroastrian
to communicate to the pious inquirer." creed. Thus a mixed religious system was
With all these pretensions, it is not sur- developed, which finally triumphed over
prising that the Magi assumed a lofty de- pure Zoroastrianism after a long struggle.
meanor, a stately dress, and surroundings The Persians, sometime after their conquest
'
ZOROASTRIANISM AND MAC, ISM. 259
of the Medes, adopted the new faith, ac- the principles of Asiatic despotism. Magism
cepted the Magian priesthood, and attended furnished a hierarchy to support the throne
the ceremonies at the fire-altars. and add splendor and dignity to the court,
The introduction of the Magian creed by while it overawed the subjecft class by its
the Zoroastrians led to a singular pradtice supposed possession of supernatural powers

regarding the disposition of the dead. It and of the right of mediating between man
became unlawful to bum dead bodies, be- and God. It supplied a picturesque wor-
cause that would pollute fire; or to bury .ship, which at once gratified the senses and
them, as that would pollute the earth; or to excited the fancy. It gave .scope to man's
cast them into a river, as that would pollute passion for the niar\-elous by its incanta-
water; or to place them in a tomb, or in a tions, its divining-rods, its omen-reading,
sarcophagus, as that would pollute the air. and its dream-expoiniding. It gratified the
The dead were therefore removed to a soli- religious scrupulosity which finds a pleasure
tary place to be devoured by beasts and in making to itself difficulties, by the dis-
birds of pre)- — wolves, jackals, foxes, crows, allowance of a thou.sand natural acts, and
ravens and vultures. This, as the orthodox the imposition of numberless rules for ex-
was employed by the Magi in the
pratftice, ternal purity. At the same time it gave no
disposal of their own dead, and was ur- offense to the anti-idolatrous spirit in which
gently recommended to others. Those who the Iranians had alwaj-s gloried, but upheld
would not adopt this custom were allowed and encouraged the iconoclasm which they
to coat the dead bodies of their friends with had previously practiced. It thus blended
wax and then bury them, thus avoiding the easily with the previous creed of the Iran-
pollution of the earth by preventing direcfl ian people, and produced an amalgam that
conta(ft between it and the corpse. has shown a surprising vitalitj', having lasted
Saj'S Rawlinson, concerning the fusion of above two thousand \-ears from the time —
Zoroastrianism with Magism: of Xerxes, the son of Darius Hystaspes (B.
"The mixed religion thus constituted, C. 485-465) to the present day."
though less elevated and less pure than the The follow-ing passages are from the oldest
original Zoroastrian creed, must be pro- part of the Avesta, the Gathas:
nounced to have possessed a certain lofti- "Good is the thought, good the speech,
'
ness and picfluresqueness which suited it to good the work of the pure Zarathustra.
become the religion of a great and splendid "I desire by my prayer with uplifted
monarch)-. The my.sterious fire-altars upon hands this joy the pure works of the Holy—
the mountain-tops, with their prestige of a Spirit, Mazda ... a disposition to perform
remote antiquity —the
ever-buming flame good adlions and pure gifts for both
. . .
believed to have been kindled from on high worlds, the bodily and spiritual."
— the worship in the open air under the blue I have intrusted my soul to Heaven
'
'
—
canopy of heaven the long troops of Ma- . and I will teach what is pure so long
. .
gians in their white robes, with their as I can."

strange caps, and their mystic wands — the "I keep forever purity and good-minded-
frequent prayers, the abundant sacrifices, the ness. Teach thou me, Ahura-Mazda, out
—
low incantations the suppo.sed prophetic of thyself; from heaven; by lh>- mouth,
—
powers of the priest-caste all this together whereby the world first aro.se."
constituted an imposing whole at once to the "Thee have I thought, O Mazda, as the
eye and to the mind, and was calculated to first, to prai.se with the soul . . . active
give additional grandeur to the civil system Creator . . . Lord of the worlds . . . Lord
that should be allied with it. Pure Zoroas- of good things . . . the first fashioner. . .
trianism was too spiritual to coalesce readily who made the pure creation . . . who up-
with Oriental luxury and magnificence, or holds the best soul with his understanding."
to lend strength to a government based on "I praise Ahura-Mazda, who has created
' : '
26o ANCIENT HISTORY.—MEDIA.

cattle, created the water and good trees, the completer of good works, who made men
splendor of light, the earth and all good. greater than all earthly beings, and through
We praise the Fravashis of the pure men the gift of speech created them to rule the
and women —whatever is fairest, purest, creatures as warriors against the Daevas.
immortal." "Prai.se the omniscience of God, who
"We
honor the good spirit, the good hath sent through the holy Zarathustra
kingdom, the good law all that is good." — peace for the creatures, the wisdom of the
Here we praise the soul and body of the
'
' —
law the enlightening derived from the
Bull, then our own souls, the souls of the heavenly understanding, and heard with
cattlewhich desire to maintain us in life the ears — wisdom
and guidance for all be-
. the good men and women
. . the . . . ings who and will be, (and) the
are, were,
abode of the water the meeting and . . . wisdom of wisdoms; which effedls freedom
parting of the wa\-s the mountains . . . from hell for the soul at the bridge, and
which make the waters flow the strong . . . leads it over to that Paradise, the brilliant,
wind created b}- Ahura-Mazda the . . . sweet-.smelling of the pure.
Haoma, giver of increase, far from death." "All good do I accept at thy command,
" Now give ear to me, and hear! the Wise O God, and think, speak, and do it. I be-
Ones have created all. Evil docftrine shall lieve in the pure law; by every good work
not again destroy the world." seek I forgiveness for all sins. I keep pure
for m3'.self the ser\-iceable work and absti-

'
' In the beginning, the two heavenly

Ones spoke — the Good to the Evil — thus: nence from the unprofitable. I keep pure
'
Our souls, doctrines, words, works, do not —
the six powers thought, speech, work,
"
unite together.' memory, mind, and understanding. Accord-
"How shall I satisfy thee, O Mazda, I, ing to thy will am I able to accomplish, O
who have little wealth, few men? How accomplisher of good, th}- honor, with good
may I exalt thee according to \\\\ wish! thoughts, good words, good works.
... I will be contented with your desires; "I enter on the shining way to Paradi.se;
this is the decision of my understanding may the fearful terror of hell not o\'ercome
and of my soul.
'
me! May I step over the bridge Chinevat,

The following is from the Khordah- Avesta may I attain Paradise, with much perfume,
In the name of God, the gi\"er, forgiver,
'
' and all enjoyments, and all brightness.

rich in love, prai.se be to the name of Or- "Prai.se to the 0\'erseer, the Lord, who
mazd, the God with the name, Who always '
rewards those who accomplish good deeds
was, always is, and alwaj's will be '
; the according to his own wi.sh, purifies at last
heavenly amongst the heavenly, with the the oI)edient, and at last purifies even the
name 'From whom alone is derived rule.' wicked one of hell. All prai.se be to the
Ormazd is the greatest ruler, mighty, wise, creator, Ormazd, the all-wise, mighty, rich
creator, supporter,refuge, defender, com- in might; to the seven Amshaspands; to
pleter of good works, overseer, pure, good, Ized Bahrani, the victorious annihilator of
'
and just. foes.
"With all strength (bring I) thanks; to The following is a Confession or Patet:

the great among who created and
beings, "I repent of all sins. All wicked thoughts,
destroyed, and through his own determina- words, and works which I have meditated
tion of time, strength, wisdom, is higher in the world, corporeal, spiritual, earthly,
than the six Amshaspands, the circumfer- and heavenly, I repent of, in your presence,
ence of heaven, the .shining sun, the bril- }-e believers. O Lord, pardon through the
liant moon, the wind, the water, the fire, three words.
the earth, the trees, the cattle, the metals, "I confess mj^self a Mazdayagnian, a Zar-
mankind. athustrian, an opponent of the Daevas, de-
"Offering atid praise to that Lord, the voted to belief in Ahura, for praise, adora-
ZOROASTRIANISM AND AfAG/SM. 261
lion, satisfaction, and laud. As it is tlie will same town, against servants, every un-
of God, let the Za6ta say to me, Thus an- righteousness through which I have been
nounces the Lord, the Pure out of Holiness, amongst sinners — of these sins repent I with
let the wise speak. thoughts, words, and works, corporeal as
"I good thoughts, words, and
praise all spiritual, earthly as heavenly, with the
works, through thought, word, and deed. I three words: pardon, O Lord, I repent of
curse all evil thoughts, words, and works sins.
away from thought, word, and deed. I lay "The defilement with dirt and corpses,
hold on all good thoughts, words, and works, the bringing of dirt and corpses to the water
with thoughts, words, and works, /. c, I and fire, or the bringing of fire and water to
perform good actions, I dismiss all evil dirt and corpses; the omission of reciting the
thoughts, words, and works, from thoughts, Avesta in mind, of strewing about hair,
words, and works, i. c, I commit no sins. nails and toothpicks, of not washing the
" I give to you, ye who are Amshaspands, hands, all the rest which belongs to the
offering and praise, with the heart, with the category of dirt and corpses, if I have there-
body, with my own vital powers, body and by come among the sinners, so repent I of
soul. The whole powers which I possess, I all these sins with thoughts, words, and
possess in dependence on the Yazatas. To works, corporeal as spiritual, earthly as

possess in dependence upon the Yazatas heavenly, with the three words: pardon, O
means (as much as) this: if anj-thing happen Lord, I repent of sin.
so that it behoves to give the body for the

'
That which was the wish of Ormazd the

'
sake of the soul, I give it to them. Creator, and I ought to have thought, and
I praise the best purity, I hunt away
'
' have not thought, what I ought to have

the Devs, I am thankful for the good of the spoken and have not spoken, what I ought
Creator Ormazd, with the opposition and to have done and have not done; of these
unrighteousness which come from Gana- sins repent I with thoughts, words, and
mainyo, am I contented and agreed in the works," etc.
hope of the resurrection. The Zarathustrian "That which was the wi.sh of Ahriman,
law created by Ormazd I take as a plummet. and I ought not to have thought and yet
For the sake of this way I repent of all sins. have thought, what I ought not to have
"I repent of the sins which can lay hold spoken and yet have spoken, what I ought
of the character of men, or which have laid not to have done and yet have done; of these
hold of my character, small and great which sins I repent," etc.
are committed amongst men, the meanest "Of all which I
and every kind of sin
sins as much as is (andj can be, yet more committed against the creatures of Ormazd,
than this, namely, all evil thoughts, words, as stars, moon, sun, and the red burning
and works which (I have committed) for the fire, the dog, the birds, the five kinds of
sake of others, or others for my sake, or if animals, the other good creatures which are
the hard sin has seized the charadter of the property of Ormazd, between earth and
an evil-doer on my account such sins, — heaven, if I have become a sinner against
thoughts, words, and works, corporeal, men- any of these, I repent," etc.
tal, earthly, heavenly, I repent of with the "Of pride, haughtiness, covetousness,
three words: pardon, O Lord, I repent of the slandering the dead, anger, envy, the evil
sins with Patet. eye, shamelessness, looking at with evil in-
"The sins against father, mother, sister, tent, looking at with evil concupiscence,
brother, wife, child, again.st .spouses, against stiff- neckedness, discontent with the godly
the superiors, against \\\y own relations, arrangements, self-willedness, sloth, despis-
against those living with me. against those ing others, mixing in strange matters, unbe-
who possess equal property, against the lief,opposing the Divine powers, false wit-
neighbors, against the inhabitants of the ness, false judgment, idol-wor.ship, running
'

naked, running with one shoe, the breaking arrow, worthy of honor among those worthy
of the low (midday) prayer, the omission of of honor, who comes from the damp moun-
the (raiddaj-) prayer, theft, robbery, whore- tain to the shining mountain."
dom, witchcraft, worshiping with sorcerers, The following is a hymn to Mithra:
unchastity, tearing the hair, as well as all " Mithra, whoselong arms grasp for-
other kinds of sin which are enumerated in wards here with Mithra strength; that which
this Patet, or not enumerated, which I am is in Eastern India and that which
he seizes,
aware of, or not aware of which are appointed [is] in and what is on
the western he smites,
or not appointed, which I should have be- the steppes of Rauha, and what is at the
wailed with obedience before the Lord, and ends of this earth.
—
have not bewailed of these sins repent I "Thou, O Mithra, dost .seize the.se, reach-
with thoughts, words, and works, corporeal ing out thy arms. The unrighteous de-
as spiritual, earthly as heavenly. O Lord, stroj-ed through the just is gloomj- in soul.
pardon, I repent with the three words, with Thus thinks the unrighteous: Mithra, the
Patet. artless, does not see all these evil deeds, all
" If have taken on myself the Patet for
I these lies.
any one and have not performed it, and mis- " But I think in my soul: No earthly man
fortune has thereby come upon his soul or with a hundred-fold strength thinks so much
his descendants, I repent of the sin for every evil as Mithra with heavenly strength thinks
one with thoughts," etc. good. No man with a hundred-
earthly
"With all good deeds am I in agreement, fold strength speaks so much evil as Mithra
with all sins am I not in agreement, for the with heavenly .strength speaks good. No
good am I thankful, with iniquity am I con- earthly man with a hundred-fold strength
tented. With the punishment at the bridge, does .so much evil as Mithra with heavenl}'
with the bonds and tormentings and chas- strength does good.
tisements of the mighty of the law, with the "With no earthly man is the hundred-
puni.shment of the three nights (after) the fold greater heavenly understanding allied
fifty-seven jêars am I contented and sat- as the heavenly understanding allies it.self
isfied." to the heavenly Mithra, the heavenly. No

The following is a hymn to a star: earthly man with a hundred- fold strength
"The starTistrya praise we, the shining, hears with the ears as the heavenly Mithra,
majestic, with pleasant good dwelling, light, who pos.sesses a hundred strengths, sees
shining conspicuous, going around, health- even,' liar. Mightily goes forward Mithra,
ful, bestowing joy, great, going round about powerful in rule marches he onwards; fair
from afar, with shining beams, the pure, and visual power, shining from afar, gives he to
the water which makes broad .seas, good, far-
'
the eyes.
famed, the name of the bull created by The following are inscriptions at Persepo-
Mazda, the strong kingly majesty, and the lis, the Persian capital;
F'ravashi of the holy pure, Zarathustra. "Darius, the King, King of Kings, .son
"For his brightness, for his majesty, will of Hystaspes, successor of the Ruler of the
I praise him, the star Tistrya, with audible World, Djemchid."
prai.se. We prai.se the star Tistrya, the brill- "Ahura-Mazda (Ormazd) is a mighty
iant, majestic, with offerings, with Haoma God; who has created the earth, the heaven,
bound with flesh, with Mauthra which gives and men; who has given glory to men; who
wisdom to the tongue, with word and deed, has made Xerxes king, the ruler of man>'.
with offerings with right-spoken speech." I, Xerxes, King of Kings, king of the earth
" The star Tistrya, the brilliant, majestic, near and far, son of Darius, an Achsemenid.
we praise, who glides .so softly to the .sea What I have done here, and what I have
like an arrow, who follows the heavenly will, done elsewhere, I have done by the grace
who is a terrible pliant arrow, a \'ery pliant of Ahura-Mazda."
: ! ! ; ; — — : ; ; ;
ZOROASTRIANISM AND AfAC/SAf. 263
The following is one of the Grulias, and is l)y some assigned to Zoroaster himself:
"Now will I speak anil ])!oclaini to all who have come to listen
Thy praise, Aluira-Ma/.da, anil thine, O Vohn-mano.
Asha ! I ask thai thy grace ni.-iy appear in the lij^hts of heaven.
Hear with yonr ears what is best, perceive with your niiuil what is purest,
So that each man for himself may, before the great doom comcth.
Choose the creed he prefers. May the wise ones be on our side.
These two spirits are twins they made known in times that are bygone
;
That good and evil, in thought, and word, and aftion.

Rightly decided between them the good not so the evil. ;
When these Two came together, first of all they created

and death, that at last there might be for such as are
L,ifc evil
Wretchedness, but for the good a happy blest existence.
Of these Two the One who was evil chose what was evil
He who was kind and good, whose robe was the changeless Heaven,
Chose what was right ; those, too, whose works pleased Ahura-Mazda.
They could not rightly discern who erred and worshipped the Devas
They the Bad Spirit chose, and, having held counsel together.
Turned to Rapine, that so they might make man's life an afHiClion.
But to the good came might ; and with might came wisdom and virtue
Armaiti herself, the eternal, gave to their bodies
Vigor; e'eu thou wert enriched by the gifts she scattered, O Mazda.
Mazda, the time will come when the crimes of the bad shall be punished
Then shall thy power be displayed in fitly rewarding the righteous
Them that have bound and delivered up falsehood to Asha the Truth-God.
Let us then be of those who advance this world and improve it,
O Ahura-Mazda, O Truth-God bliss conferring

Let our minds be ever there where wisdom abideth !
Then indeed shall be seen the fall of pernicious falsehood

But in the house where dwell Vohu-mano Mazda, and Asha
—
Beautiful house shall be gathered forever such as are worthy.
O men, you but cling to the precepts Mazda has given.

if
Precepts, which to the bad are a torment, but joy to the righteous,
Then shall you one day find yourselves vidlorious through them."
Another specimen Yagna, " or " Book on

'
is from the '
' Sacrifice, ' and is probably some

centuries later than the great bulk of the Gathas
"We worship .A.hura-Mazda, the pure, the master of purity :
We worship the Amesha-Spentas, possessors and givers of blessings
We worship the whole creation of Him who is True, the heavenly,

With the terrestrial, all that supports the good creation,
.Ml that favors the spread of the good Mazd-Va^na religion.
We praise whatever is good in thought, in word, or in atflion.

Past or future ; we also keep clean whatever is excellent.
O Ahura-Mazda, thou true and happy being

We strive both to think, and to speak, and to do whatever is fittest
Both our lives to preserve, aud bring them both to perfeiflion.
Holy spirit of earth, for our best works' sake, we entreat thee.
Grant us beautiful fertile fields aye, grant them to all men. —
Believers and unbelievers, the wealthy and those that have nothing."
CHAPTER V.
THE BABYLONIAN EMPIRE.

SECTION I.— EXTENT AND PRODUCTIONS.
ABYLONIA proper being al- bia and part of Egypt. There was a great
most identical in its situation variety of climate and produ(5tions in this
and territorial extent with the vast domain. The climate, produdts and
old kingdom of Chaldsea, it animals of Babylonia have been mentioned
need not be described here. It and described in our account of Chaldaea.
was located wholly west of the Tigris, and The exceeding fertility of its soil, which
consisted of two "vast plains, or flats, one so richly rewarded the labors of the husband-
situated between the two rivers (the Tigris man, have there been noted. The testimony
and the Euphrates), and thus forming the of Herodotus in that particular was sustained
lower portion of the Mesopotamia of the by Theophrastus, Strabo and Pliny, and also
—
Greeks and Romans the other interposed by Berosus, who said: "The land of the
between the Euphrates and Arabia, a long Babylonians produces wheat as an indig-
but narrow strip along the right bank of enous plant, and has also barley, and
that abounding river." In area it was lentils, and vetches, and .sesame; the banks
smaller than Scotland or Ireland. The of the streams and the marshes supply edible
country east of the Tigris constituted no roots, called gongce, which have the taste of
portion of Babj-lonia proper, but was Ci-s.sia, barley cakes. Palms, too, grow in the
or Susiana— a .separate country' called Elam country-, and apples, and fruit-trees of vari-
by the Jews — and was occupied an Ars'an
b^- ous kinds." The chief article of food for
people. The cities of Babylonia have been the great mass of the people in Babylonia,
mentioned in connedtion with Chaldaea. as in Egypt, was the date-palm, which
The small kingdom of Babylonia sud- flourished in luxuriant abundance.
denly became the mistress of an extensive The produ(5ts of Susiana were mainly the
empire in the latter half of the .seventh cen- same as those of Babylonia proper; the date-
tury before Christ. When Media and Ba- palm, wheat and barley growing in abun-
bylonia overthrew Assyria in B. C. 625, dance. The palm-tree also furnished building
they divided the Assj'rian Empire between timber. The modem Khusistan, the ancient
them, as already related. Babylonia ob- Susiana, produces all the fruits which thrive
tained all that part of the Assyrian domin- in Persia. In Northern Mesopotamia are
ions west of the Tigris and south of Ar- found the walnut, the vine and pistachio-nut,
menia, along with Elam, or Susiana, east of while good crops of grain, oranges, pome-
the Lower Tigris. Thus the countries in- granates, and the ordinary fruits are grown.
cluded within the Eater Babylonian Empire, In Northern S>-ria all kinds of trees and
besides Babylonia proper, the heart of the shrubs grow in luxuriance, while the pasture
empire, were Elam (Elymais), or Susiana is excellent, and nuich of the land is adapted
(Cissia), Mesopotamia proper, Cilicia, Syria, to the growth of cotton. Here the Assyrian
Phoenicia, Palestine, Edom, Northern Ara- kings frequently obtained timber for build-
C264)
EXTENT AND PRODUCTIONS. 265
iug purposes, and here are yet found dense lake near Tadmor, or Palmyra. The Dead
forests of oak, pine, ilex, walnuts, willows, Sea perhaps also furnished sulphur and
poplars, ash-trees, birches, larches and locust- nitre. The hills of Palestine yielded copper
trees. Such wild shrubs as the oleander, and iron. Silver was prol)ably found in
the myrtle, the bay, the arbutus, the clema- Anti-Lebanon. Gems and precious stones
tis,the juniper, and the honeysuckle abound; were most probably procured from Susiana,
and such cultivated fruit-trees as the orange, and from Syria and Phoenicia. Among
the pomegranate, the pistachio-nut, the vine, these precious stones were agates from Su.si-
the olive and the mulberry also thrive. The ana, amethysts from Petra, alabaster from
adis, an excellent pea, and the Lycopcrdon, near Damascus, cyanus from Phcenicia, and
or wild potato, grow in the vicinty of gems found in the cylinder-seals, such as
Aleppo. The castor-oil plant is cultivated cornelian, rock-crystal, chalcedony, onyx,
in the plain of Edib. Melons, cucumbers jasper, quartz, serpentine, syenite, ha.'matite,
and most of the common vegetables flourish green felspar, pyrites, loadstone and ama-
in abundance all over Syria. zon-stone, from the various provinces.
In Southern Syria and Palestine most of Building stone did not exist in Babylonia
the same vegetable producftions occur. The and the alluvial districfls of Susiana; but
date-palm flourishes in Syria as far as Bey- abounded in other parts of the empire, be-
and formerly thrived in Palestine. The
reut, ing plentiful in the Euphrates valley above
banana is also found on the Syrian coast. Hit, in the mountain regions of Susiana, and
The fig-mulberry, or true sycamore, also in S)'ria, Palestine and Phoenicia. Near to
thrives in Southern Syria, as do the jujube, Babylonia was limestone. In the vicinity
the tamarisk, the wild olive, the gum-styrax of Haddisah, on the Euphrates, was a sili-
plant, the egg-plant, the Egyptian papyrus, cious rock alternating with iron-stone, and
the sugar-cane, the scarlet mistletoe, the in the Arabian desert were sandstone and
liquorice plant, the yellow-flowered acacia, granite. The stone used in the Babylonian
and the solanum that produces the Dead cities was conveyed down the Euphrates, or
'
'
Sea apple." Here aLso flourishes the cele- transported by canals from the neighboring
brated cedar of Lebanon, several oaks and distridls of Arabia. But the inexhaustible
junipers, the maple, the mulberry, the ber- supply of clay furni.shed by their own conn-
berry, the jessamine, the ivy, the butcher's try caused the Babylonians to prefer brick
broom, a rhododendron, and the gum-traga- almost exclusively for building purposes.
canth plant. The same fruits flourish in The principal wild animals of the Baby-
Southern Syria that thrive in the North, lonian Empire were the lion, the panther,
with the addition of dates, lemons, almonds, or large leopard, the hunting leopard, the
shaddocks and limes. bear, the hyena, the wild ox, the buffalo,
The principal mineral produ(5ls of the the wild ass, the stag, the antelope, the
Babylonian Empire were bitumen, with its ibex, or wild goat, the wild sheep, the wild
concomitants, naphtha and petroleum, salt, boar, the wolf, the jackal, the fox, the hare
sulpher, nitre, copper, iron, perhaps silver, and the rabbit. Other wild animals were
and several kinds of precious stones. The the lynx, the wild cat, the ratel, the sable,
springs of Hit, or Is, were famous in the the genet, the badger, the otter, the beaver,
time of Herodotus for their great abun- the polecat, the jerboa, the rat, the mouse,
dance of bitumen, which was likewise pro- •
the mannot, the porcupine, the squirrel and
cured from Ardericca (now Kir-Ab), and the alligator. Great varieties of birds, in-
probably from Ram Ormuz, in Susiana, and cluding eagles, vultures, falcons, owls,
also from the Dead Sea, in Palestine. Salt hawks, crows, and many kinds of small
was procured from the various lakes without birds, abounded. Reptiles of many varieties
outlets, especially from the Sabakhah, the prevailed. Fi.sh abounded in the Chaldrcan
Bahr-el-Melak, the Dead Sea, and a small marshes and in most of the fresh-water lakes
1— 17.-U. H.
266 ANCIENT HIS TOR > \—BAB\ IXINIA.
and rivers. The domestic animals were the Babylonian Empire; although the region as
camel, the horse, the mule, the ass, the a whole was the hottest and dryest outside
cow, the ox, the goat, the sheep and the the tropics, because of the close proximity
dog. of the great Arabian desert, the smallness
The summer heat in Babylonia proper, or of the neighboring seas, the absence of
Chaldcea. in Susiana, or Elam, in Philistia mountains, and the scarcity of timber.
and in Edom was intense, but the winters On the east and north the Babylonian
here were short and mild. In Susiana the cool Empire was bounded by the territories of
breezes from the Zagros mountains somewhat the great Median Empire, including Persia
modified the heat ; while in Babylonia the and Media on the east, and Armenia and
sirocco, or hot wind,from the Arabian desert Cappadocia on the north. On the south lay
was at times oppressive. In Central Meso- the desert land of Arabia, and on the we.st
potamia, in the Euphrates valley, in Syria, was the Mediterranean .sea.
Palestine and Phoenicia, the winters were The great cities of the empire outside of
longer and colder, but the summer heat was Babylonia itself were Jerusalem and Sama-
less oppressive. In the northern portion of ria in Palestine; Tyre and Sidon iii Phoe-
the empire, along the flanks of the Masius, nicia; Damascus and Tadmor in Syria; Car-
the Taurus and the Amanus, the climate chemish, in the land of the Hittites, on the
was like that of Media, the summers being Euphrates; Ashdod, Ascalon, Ekron and
milder, but the winters intensely severe. Gaza in Philistia; and Susa in Susiana, or
Thus a variety of climate existed in the Elam.
SECTION II.— POLITICAL HISTORY.

HE history of the Babylonian eveh; first by way of the Diyaleh and the
Emjiire begins with Nabopo- outlying Zagros hills, the route of the great
lassar, who ascended the throne Persian military road in subsequent times;
of Babj'lon in B. C. 625. We and secondly by crossing direcftly the Mes-
have observed in the history of opotamian plain. The Assyrian records sa>-
As.syria, that from the time of Tiglathi-Nin's' that both these attacks were repulsed, and
conquest of Chaldsea, in B. C. 1300, that that after his .second failure the Babylonian
country sunk into a state of comparative in- king retreated hastily back into his own
significance, and remained, during the whole dominions. Tiglath-Pileser I., King of As-
period of Assj-rian ascendency in Western syria, the son and successor of A.sshus-ris-
Asia, subjedl to Assyria, or occupied a ilini, an expedition into Babylonia, then
led
secondary po.sition among the Oriental na- ruled by MEROD.'VCH-iDniN-AKHi, the succes-
tions. The Assyrians at first governed Chal- of Nebuchadnezzar I. After a struggle of
,sor
daea from their own capital, but they .soon two years, and taking Kurri-galzu (now
placed the country under an A.ssyrian Akkerknf), the two vSipparas, Opis, and even
dynasty, over which they claimed and exer- Babylon itself, Tiglath-Pileser returned to
cised a sort of suzerainty, but which was Assyria, harassed on his retreat hy the
pra(?tically independent and ruled its king- Babj'lonian monarch, who captured the As-
dom without interference. syrian baggage, along with certain A,ssyrian
The first monarch of the Assyrian dynasty idols, which were carried as trophies to-
in Chakkxa was Nkbtichadnezzar I., a con- Babylon. Babylonia and A.ssyria continued
temporary of Asshur-ris-ilim, King of As- atwar during the following reigns of Mkro-
sxria. Xehuchadnezzar twice attacked Nin- DACH-SHAPiK-ziKi in the former country
'
POLITICA I. I IIS n Vv' )

.
267
and A.ssluir-l)il-kala in the latter, without of -Mount Zagros, the Aranueans of the Eu-
any important result. phrates, and the Chaldseans of the South.
The period of these Assyro-Babylonian Bal)ylon remained under Assyrian suprem-
wars synchronizes with the epoch of the acy until the middle of the eighth century
Judges in Israel, and was succeeded by an before Christ, when it is supposed that Pui,,
interval of obscurity in the history of both seeing his opportunity in Assyria's weak-
Assyria and Babylonia. Assyria had sunk ness under Asshur-dayan III., about B. C.
into a declining condition; while Babylonia 770, shook off the hated yoke of Assyria and
was prosperous, and according to the testi- extended the Babylonian dominion over the
mony of A.ssliur-izir-pal, the great Assyr- Euphrates valle\- and Western Mesopotamia,
ian monarch of the ninth centur\- before whence he proceeded to extend his conquests
Christ, conquered some of the Assyrian ter- into Syria and Palestine. But such obscur-
ritories, and according to Macrobius held ity rests upon Pnl that it is not positively
comnumication with Egypt. known whether he was a Babylonian king.
But after remaining for two centuries in a The Jewish Scriptures call him "king of
state of comparative weakne.ss and unim- Assyria," and Berosus represents him as
' '
portance, Assyria entered upon another pe- Chaldaeorum rex.

'
riod of prosf)erity and greatness, and made Soon after regaining its independence.
Babylonia feel the effedls of her vengeance. Babylonia was disintegrated into a numl:)er
The A.SS3 rian king, Asshur-izir-pal, invaded of independent sovereignties Nabonassar —
Babylonia about B. C. 880, and recovered governing Babylon; Yakiu, the father of
the territories which the Babylonians had Merodach-Baladan, ruling the Chaldsean
held during the period of Assyria's depres- coast region; and Nadina, Zakiru and other
sion. A.ssbur-izir-pal's son and successor, princes holding sway in pettj- districts in
Shalmaneser II., the Black Obelisk king, Northern Babylonia. Nabonassar, who be-
led an expedition into Baloylonia while that came King of Babylon in B. C. 747, is re-
country- was distradled bj^ a civil war be- garded as the restorer of Babylonian inde-
tween its legitimate sovereig^n, Merodach- pendence; and the j'ear of his accession,
SUM-ADIN, and his jôunger brother. Shal- known as the Era of Nabonassar, was
'
'
'
'
maneser took a number of Babylonian towns, the point from which the Babjdonians there-
and was allowed to enter Babylon itself after after reckoned dates of events. According
defeating and slaj-ing the pretender to the to Berosus, Nabonassar sought to obliterate
Babylonian throne; after which he overran the memory of the previous epoch of Baby-
Chaldaea, or the district upon the coast, lonian subjection to Assyria by having "de-
which seems to have been then independent stro3'ed the acts of the kings who had pre-
of Babylon and governed by a number of ceded him."
petty kings. The Chaldaean chiefs were Nabonassar lived at peace with the coii-
forced to pay tribute; and, having "struck temporarj' King of Assyria, Tiglath-Pileser
terror as far as the .sea,
'
the Assyrian king

' II., who early in his reign invaded the other
returned to his capital. Thus all of Babj-- portions of Babylonia and Chaldsea, forcing
lonia and Chaldaea was again under Assyr- Merodach-Baladan, the son and successor
ian influence; and Babylonia was once more of Yakin, to become his tributary-. Nabo-
a .secondary power, dependent on Assyria. nassar reigned over Babylon fourteen years,
About B. C. 821 the As.syrian king, from B. C. 747 to B. C. 733. It has been
Shamas-Vul II., the son and successor of generall}- believed that the time of Nabo-
Shalmaneser II., invaded Babj-lonia, de- nassar's reign was the .same as that assigned
feated its king, Merodach-bel.\tzu-ikbi, by Herodotus to the reign of Semiraniis,
in two pitched battles, and forced him to sub- who, as the wife or as the mother of Nabo-
mit to Ass3'rian suzerainty; though in the nassar, governed Babylon on behalf of her
last battle he had been aided bv the Zimri husband or her son. But this is a mere con-
.
268 ANCIENT HIS TOR Y. — BAB YL ONIA

je<5lure,contradicted by the native records. an army into Babylonia, defeated Merodach-
We have observed in the historj' of Assyria Baladan and his Arama;an and Susianian
that Semiramis was a Babylonian princess allies in a great battle, and took Bit-Yakin,
married to the Assyrian king, Vul-lush III., making Merodach-Baladan prisoner and
who reigned from B. C. 8io to B. C. 781. gaining possession of all his treasures;
Nobonassar was followed on the Babylonian whereupon Babylonia submitted to Sargon,
throne by Nadius, who reigned only two who carried Merodach-Baladan captive to
years, from B. C. 733 to B. C. 731. Na- Assyria, and himself assumed the title of
dius is supposed to have been one of the
" King of Babylon."
independent Babylonian princes reduced to But when Sargon died, B. C. 704, the
subjedlion by Tiglath-Pileser I. in his ex- Babylonians ca.st off the Assyrian yoke. A
pedition into Babylonia. Nadius was suc- number of pretenders claimed the Babylon-
ceeded by Chinzinus and PoRUS, who jointly ian crown. A son of Sargon and a brother
reigned from B. C. 731 to B. C. 726. Their of Sennacherib restored Assyrian supremacy
successor was ElulÊUs, identified with the for a short time, but the Babylonians again
prince of that name called King of Tyre by revolted. Hagisa reigned over Babylon
Menander — the Luliya of the cuneiform in- about a month. Merodach-Baladan, escap-
scriptions ; but Rawlinson considers this ing from his Assyrian captivity, murdered
theory a mere conjedlure and highly im- Hagisa and seized the Babj'lonian throne,
probable. of which he had been deprived seven years
Merodach-Baladan — the successor of before. But Sennacherib, King of Assyria,
Elulseus, and the son of Yakin, the prince Sargon's son and successor, led an army into
who established himself in authority over Babylonia in B. C. 703, defeated Merodach-
Southern Babylonia, the ancient Chaldsea, Baladan and drove him into exile, after a
and founded a capital city, naming it after reign of six months, and annexed Babylonia
himself Beth-Yakin, or Bit- Yakin inher- — to the Assyrian kingdom. Thenceforth, for
ited the dominion of Yakin upon the death seventy-eight years, until the revolt of Nabo-
of the latter. Being forced to become polassar, B. C. 625, Babylonia, with a few
tributary to the Assyrian king, Tiglath- short intervals, remained an Assyrian de-
Pileser II., he remained in comparative pendency. During this period the Assyrian
obscurity and quiet during the reigns of monarchs governed Babylonia by means of
Tiglath-Pile.ser II. and Shalmaneser IV. in viceroj's, such as Belibus, Regibelus, Meses-
Assyria; but when Sargon usurped the As- imordachus, and Saos-duchinus, or diredtly
syrian throne, B. C. 721, Merodach-Baladan and personally, as by Esar-haddon and by
establishedhis sway over Babylonia, of A.sshur-bani-pal in his later years. During
which he was recognized as king. It was Sennacherib's reign there were two Baljy-
some time during his twelve years' reign lonian revolts against Assyria, one headed
over Babylon that Merodach-Baladan .sent by Merodach-Baladan in Chaldaea, and the
ambassadors to Hezekiah at Jerusalem to other by Susub at Babylon. These were
ascertain the particulars of the strange as- soon suppressed by Sennacherib, as related
tronomical marvel, or miracle, accompany- in the Ass5'rian histor>'. While A.sshur-
ing the sickness and recovery of that king. bani-pal was King of Assyria, his brother,
Hezekiah exhibited all his treasures to these Saiil-Mugina, also called Sammughes, or
ambassadors. A coalition appears to have Saos-duchinus, attempted to make himself
been formed against A.ssyria by Babylon, independent, but was subdued and burned
Susiana, the Aramaean tribes, Judah and alive, as also stated in the history of As.syria.
Egypt. In B. C. 711 Sargon, King of As- Thus ended the second period of Chaldsean,
syria, invaded Egypt and compelled its or Babylonian history — the period of Baby-
Ethiopian king, Sabaco, to .sue for peace. lonian and Chaldsean subjedtion to Assyria,
In the following year, B. C. 710, Sargon led from Tiglathi-Nin's conquest in B. C. 1300
to Nabopolassar's successful revolt in B. C. to be formidable. Egypt, though ho.stile

625. and powerful, was ruled by a .sovereign
We will now proceed to the historj' of the whom misfortune and age prevented engag-
Babylonian Ivinpire, first relating the cir- ing in any distant military enterprise; so
cumstances of its foundation. When the that as long as Psammetichus was living
Medes under their valiant king, Cyaxares, Babylon had comparatively nothing to fear
a second time crossed the Zagros range and from any quarter, and, in the language of
attacked Nineveh from the east, the Susian- the Jewish prophet Isaiah, could "give
ians menaced the great capital from the herself to pleasure and dwell carelessly."
south. In this extremity the last Assyrian It was only as the ally of Media that Ba-
king, Assshur-emid-ilin, or Saracus, divided bylon was obliged to exert herself during
his forces, retaining a portion under his own the first eighteen 3'ears of her empire, being
command for the defense of his capital bound by treaty to aid Cyaxares in his
against the Medes, and sending a portion wars and conquests after the capture and
under his general, Nabopolassar, or Nabu- destrucftion of Nineveh, the Babylonian con-
pal-uzur, to Babylon to oppose the advance tingents on these occasions being led either
of the Susianians from the south. Taking by Nabopolassar or by his son, the crown-
advantage of the perilous straits of his sov- prince Nebuchadnezzar. In a war betwêen
ereign, Nabopolassar resolved to betray him Media and Lydia, as the armies of these
in order to obtain for himself an independent two hostile nations were about to engage in
kingdom. He therefore negotiated an alli- battle, an eclipse of the sun excited the
ance with Cyaxares, the Median king, and superstitious fears of both, so that they
obtained that king's daughter as a bride for were disposed to reconciliation. Thereupon
his own .son, Nebuchadnezzar. The united the Babylonian monarch acfted as peace-
Median and Babylonian annies then be- maker. Having discovered that Syennesis
sieged Nineveh, which was finally taken of Cilicia, the leading man of the Lydian
and destroyed, B. C. 625, as already related side, was disposed to second his friendly
in the histories of Assyria and Media. In offices, Nabopolassar proposed the holding
the division of the Assyrian Empire, which of a peace conference. The result was that
followed the fall of Nineveh, Cyaxares ob- a treaty of peace and friendship, cemented
tained Assj'ria proyyer and all Assyria's de- by a royal intermarriage, was concluded be-
pendencies towards the north and north-west; tween Media and Lydia; thus giving West-
while the traitor Nabopolassar received Ba- em Asia almost half a century of peace,
bylonia, Chaldaea, Susiana, Upper Mesopo- after almost perpetual warfare and devasta-
tamia, Syria and Palestine. Thus arose the tion.
Babylonian Empire. After this successful attempt at mediation,
We know very little about the reign of Nabopolassar returned to Babylon. He was
Nabopolassar. The Canon of Ptolemy in- prevented from ending his last years in
forms us that he dated his accession from peace by the warlike attitude of Neko, King
the 3'ear B. C. 625, and that his reign of Egypt, the son and successor of Psammet-
lasted twenty-one years, ending in B. C. ichus, who sought to wrest Syria and Pal-
604. During most of this time Babylon- estine from the Babylonian Empire. In B.
ian history is a blank. Babylon had no C. 608 the Eg3'ptian king led an army into
inclination to jeopardize her position at Palestine, where the Jewish king Josiah, in
the head of an empire by aggression, and fulfillment of his duty as va.ssal monarch to
her peaceful attitude of course provoked no the King of Babylon, had assembled an
hostility from her neighbors. Media, bound anuy at Megiddo to oppose his further ad-
by dj'uastic interests and by formal treaty, vance in the territories of Nabopola.ssar.
could be depended upon as a finn friend. Thereupon Neko .sent an embassy to per-
Persia was too feeble, and Lydia too distant. suade Josiah that he had no hostile feelings
.
270 ANCIENT HIS TOR — BA B )

'. } 7. ONIA
toward the Jews, and claiming divine ap- stru(ftive enterprise which was its essen-
proval of his enterprise. But Josiah, loyal tial charadleristic. To Nebuchadnezzar the
to his suzerain, remained firm in his opposi- prominent place of the Babylonians in his-
tion to the advance of the invaders; where- tory is almost whollj- due. Besides being
upon he was attacked and defeated at Me- an able general, Nebuchadnezzar was one
giddo, and fled mortally wounded to Jeru- of the greatest builders of antiquity.
salem, where he died. Neko followed up Our knowledge of Nebuchadnezzar's wars
his vicftory by advancing through Syria to is almost entirely derived from the Old Tes-
the Euphrates, and extended his authority tament. Therefore we are only infonned of
over the whole region from Egypt on the his wars in Palestine and its immediate
south-west to the "Great River" on the vicinity, as related by the Jewish writers.
north-east. Returning three months later, We only possess a full account of his wars
Neko dethroned Jehoahaz, a younger son of with the Jews, and some knowledge of his
Josiah, whom the Jewish people had made campaigns against Egypt and Phoenicia,
king, and bestowed the Jewish crown on though Berosus sa^-s he warred against the
Jehoiakim, his elder brother. During this Arabs and conquered a part of their countrj'.
time Neko besieged and took the Philistine A few years after Nebuchadnezzar's vic-
city of Gaza. tory over Neko, King of Egy'pt, troubles
Three years later, in Nabopo-
B. C. 605, once more distracfted Syria. Tyre headed a
lassar, now venerable for his age, sent an rebellion in Phoenicia, while Jehoiakim, the
army under his son, the crown-prince Nebu- Jewish king, relying upon the promised aid
chadnezzar, against the conquering hosts of of the Egyptian monarch, renounced his
the Egyptian king. The Hittite city of allegiance to his Babylonian suzerain.
Carchemish, on the right bank of the Eu- Thereupon Nebuchadnezzar, in his seventh
phrates, was then the key of Syria; and at year, B. C. 598, led into Palestine an expe-
this place Nebuchadnezzar thoroughly de- dition, consisting of his andown subjedts
feated and routed the Egyptians, who fled his Median allies. Polyhistor says this
in disma}'. Nebuchadnezzar rapidly rees- army numbered 10,000 chariots, 120,000
tablished the Babjdonian sway over Syria cavalry, and 180,000 infantry. Having
and Palestine, received the submission of invested Tj're and found that city too
Jehoiakim, King of Judah, restored the strong to assail with success, Nebuchadnez-
and according to Berosus in-
frontier line, zar left a part to continue the siege, while
vaded Eg^'pt itself But upon receiving he himself marched against Jeru.salem. On
news from Babylon of his father's death, the approach of the Babylonian king, Jehoi-
Nebuchadnezzar hastily concluded a peace akim submitted, as he was not supported
with Neko, and speedilj' returned to his by his Egyptian allies; but Nebuchadnez-
capital, in fear of a disputed succession. zar put him punishment for his
to death, in
Nebuchadnezzar had no cause for his rebellion, and treated his body with indig-
fears, as the priests had assumed control of nity. Says the prophet Jeremiah: "He
affairs in his absence, and the Chief Priest, shall be buried with the burial of an ass,
or Head of the Order, had kept the throne drawn and cast forth beyond the gates of
vacant for him until his return, while no pre- Jerusalem," and again, "His dead body
tender disputed his claims. Nebuchadnezzar shall be cast out in the day to the heat and
was the great monarch of the Babylonian in the night to the frost."
Empire, which continued but eighty-seven Nebuchadnezzar first placed Jehoiachin,
years, from B. C. 625 to B. C. 538, and the son of the unfortunate Jehoiakim, upon
which for almost half that period was ruled the Jewish throne. The new Jewish king, a
by him. The military glorj' of this empire mere youth, was depo.sed three months
is mostly attributable to this renowned king, later by the suspicious Nebuchadnezzar,
whose charadler and genius gave it the con- and carried a captive to Babylon; while his.
/'( V. / TIL WL JUS T( )R )
'. 271
uncle, Zedekiah, a brother of Jehoiakiniand Nebuchadnezzar invaded Egj'pt, put its
Jehoahaz, was placed upon the Jewish throne. king, Uaphris, the friend and ally of Zede-
The island citj' of Tyre, in the meantime, kiah, to death, and bestowed the Egj'ptian
withstood a siege of thirteen 3'ears against crown upon a creature of his own, B. C. 581.
the forces of Nebuchadnezzar; during which Herodotus, however, says that Uaphris was
Jerusalem perished in a final effort for inde- put to death by a rebellious subje(5l, and he
]>endeiice. is known to have reigned as late as B. C.
Zedekiah, King of Judah, remained a 569. But Nebuchadnezzar's second inva-

faithful vassal of the Babylonian king for sion of Egypt, B. C. 570, ended in the de-
eight years, after which he sought an alli- position of Uaphris, who.se succcs.sor, A ma-
ance with Uaphris, King of Egypt, — the sis, was a mere vassal of the Babylonian
Apries of Herodotus — in order to strike for king.

independence. Says the prophet Ezekiel, in Thus Nebuchadnezzar defeated Neko, re-
speaking of Zedekiah on this occasion: co\'ered Syria, suppressed the revolt of Ju-
"He rebelled against him in sending his dah, reduced Tyre and humbled Egypt.
ambassadors into Egypt, that they might Megasthenes says that he conquered North
give him horses and much people." The Africa, from which he invaded Spain and
Egyptian king looked with favor upon subdued the Iberians, colonizing his Iberian
the overture of Zedekiah, who at once captives on the shores of the Euxine sea in
revolted from Babylon, and prepared to the region between Armenia and the Cau-
defend himself with vigor. As this was casus. Nebuchadnezzar was thus repre-
the fourth time the feeble Jewi.sh kingdom sented as reigning over an empire extending
revolted against him, Nebuchadnezzar re- from the Atlantic ocean on the west to the
solved to crush it b)' a decisi\'e blow.
'
' He Caspian sea on the east, and from the Cau-

and all his host
'
' came against Jerusalem, ca.sus on the north-east to the great Sahara
and, after conquering and pillaging the open on the south-west.
country, "built forts" and laid siege to the Nebuchadnezzar's militar>' successes gave
city. Uaphris led an army from Egypt to him that great command of naked human '
'
the relief of his beleaguered ally, whereupon strength by which he was enabled to pros-
'
'
the Babylonian army raised the siege and ecute his great proje(5ls for beautifying and
took the field against this new foe. Jose- benefiting his kingdom without unnecessa-
phus says that the Egyptians were defeated rily oppressing his own people. From the
but according to the prophet Jere-
in battle, start he carried out the Assyrian system of
miah they avoided an engagement by re- forcible deportation of the entire populations
treating to their own land. In either case of conquered lands, and colonized them in
the attempted relief of the Jewish capital remote portions of his dominions. Multi-
failed. After a short inter\-al the siege was tudes of captives taken in his wars —^Jews,
renewed, the city was completely blockaded, Egyptians, Phoenicians, Syrians, Ammon-
and after a siege and investment of eighteen ites, —
Moabites and others were settled in
months Jerusalem was taken by the Baby- different parts of Mesopotamia, principally
lonians, B. C. 586. Before the city fell, about Babylon. By the forced labor of these
Nebuchadnezzar withdrew in person to press capti\'es the great works of Nebuchadnezzar,
the siege of Tyre, which, if it fell after its which were the chief glory of the Babylon-
thirteen years' siege, nuist ha\-e fallen the ian Empire, were erecfted.
year after the capture of Jerusalem, B. C. Abydenus and Eusebius say that Nebu-
585. chadnezzar built the great wall of Babylon.
By the capture of Jerusalem and Tyre, the se\enty-five feet high, and thirty-two feet
Babylonian king secured the quiet posses- wide, with a circumference of three hundred
sion of Palestine and Phoenicia. Four years and sixty-five stadia. This wall was of solid
after the fall of Tyre, according to Josephus, brick masonn-, the Baby-Ionian bricks being
272 ANCIENT HISTORY— BABYLONIA.
about a foot square and from three to four close to the Arabian frontier, to the head of
inches thick. Nebuchadnezzar, in the the Bubian creek, about twenty miles west
Standard Inscription, only claims to have of the Shat-el-Arab. Traces of this canal
repaired the old wall of the city. He eredled j'etremaining attest the magnitude of this
a splendid new palace in the vicinity of the great work. The Pallacopas, or canal of
old royal residence. He construcfted the Opa, (Palga Opa), which flowed from the
famous Hanging Gardens to delight his
'
'
'
' Euphrates at Sippara (now Mosaib) to a
Median wife, Amyitis, the daughter of Cyax- great lake in the vicinity of Borsippa, whence
ares. He repaired and beautified the great the neighboring lands were irrigated, is also
temple of Bel at Babylon; and all the in- believed to have been construcfled by this
scribed bricks thus far discovered in the great monarch. Itwas an old canal, out
Babilmound bear Nebuchadnezzar's legend. of repair, in the time of Alexander the
He dug the immense reservoir at Sippara, Great; and is called the Nahr Abba by the
which was said to have been one hundred Arabs, who consider it the oldest canal in
and forty miles in circumference, and one the country.
hundred and eighty feet deep, providing it The Old Testament gives us some knowl-
with flood-gates, through which its waters edge of Nebuchadnezzar's private life and
might be drawn off for purposes of irrigation. personal charadler. The Book of Daniel rep-
He constructed many canals, among which resents the great monarch at the head of a
was the Nahr Makha, or "Royal River," a most magnificent court; surrounded with
wide and deep channel connedling the Eu- " princes, governors, captains, judges, treas-
phrates and the Tigris. He built quays urers, councilors, and sheriffs;" waited upon
and breakwaters along the shores of the by carefully-chosen eunuchs, "well-favored"
Persian Gulf, and founded the city of Diri- and educated with care; attended, at his de-
'
dotis, or Teredon, near that gulf. sire, by a host of astrologers and other wise '
According to Nebuchadnezzar's own in- men, who

'
' sought to reveal to him the di-
scriptions, or to existing remains, this re- vine will. He was an absolute monarch,
nowned Babylonian monarch erecfled the having the lives and properties of his sub-
Birs-i-Nimrud, or great temple of Nebo, at jedls, from the highest to the lowest, at his
Borsippa; constru(5led a vast reservoir in disposal; and dispensing all offices at his
Babylon itself, called the Yapur-Shapu, and pleasure. He could elevate a foreigner to a
a brick embankment along the course of the second place in the kingdom, and even place
Tigris, near Bagdad, the bricks of which him over the whole priesthood. His im-
bear his name and have remained undis- mense wealth is proven by the fadl that he
turbed; and built many temples, walls and made an image or obelisk of pure gold,
other public buildings at Cutha, Sippara, ninety high and nine feet wide. He
feet
Borsippa, Babylon, Chilmad, Bit-Digla and wavered in his religion, sometimes acknowl-
other places. This indefatigable king either edging the Jehovah of the Jews as the only
rebuilt or repaired nearly all the Babylonian real deity, sometimes relapsing into the
cities and temples. No less than a hundred idolatrous Babylonian polytheism, and for-
sites in the vicinity of Babylon testify, by cing his subjedls to do the same. But his
inscribed bricks bearing his legend, to his polytheism was characfterized by a special
wonderful acflivity and energy. ,
devotion to a particular deity, whom he
designates emphatically as " his god. Neb- '
Nebuchadnezzar is have
also believed to '
construdled the canal called by the Arabs uchadnezzar' s inscriptions clearly show that
the Kerck Sa'ideh, or canal of Saideh, and as- his favorite god was Merodach.
cribed by them to a wife of Nebuchadnez- Nebuchadnezzar was hasty and violent in
zar. This canal, four hundred miles long, temper, but not obstinate. His fierce re-
extended from Hit, on the Euphrates, along solves were taken suddenly and repented
the extreme western edge of the alluvium of quickly. He could occasionally give
POIJTICAL HISTORY. 273
way to outbursts of gratitude and devotion. vi(5tim to a strange and rare kind of madness.
He was as vainglorious as Orientals gener- A vi(5lim to this malady, called Lycanthropy,
ally, but could bow in humiliation before imagines himself a beast, does not talk, re-
the divine castigation. He often showed a jedls the usual human and sometimes
food,
spirit of sincere piety, self-condemnation loses the erecft attitude and walks on hands
and self-abasement, as the following from the and feet. Within a year of the warning,
Book of Daniel clearly proves: "I blessed Nebuchadnezzar was stricken in the very
the Most High, and I praised and honored hour in which he had exclaimed in his pride:
Him that liveth forever, Whose dominion is "Is not this great Babylon, that I have built
an everlasting dominion, and His kingdom for the house of the kingdom by the might
is from generation to generation; and all the of my power, and for the honor of my ma-
inhabitants of the earth are reputed as noth- jesty !" The great monarch became a help-
ing, and He
doeth according to His will in less and wretched madman. He lived in
the anny of heaven, and among the inhab- the open air day and night, "and did eat
itants of the earth; and none can stay His grass as oxen," and went naked "till his
hand, or say unto Him, What doest Thou ? hairs v/ere grown like eagles' feathers, and
Now I, Nebuchadnezzar, praise and extol his nails like birds' claws.
'
' After suffering

and honor the King of heaven. Whose works thus for seven years, Nebuchadnezzar re-
are truth, and His ways judgment; and gained his reason, and his recovery was
those that walk in pride He is able to abase." hailed with rejoicing by his court. His
Another Jewish prophet, Jeremiah, gives councilors and lords greeted his presence.
a darker shade to the character of the illus- He again resumed the government of his
trious Babylonian monarch. This writer empire, i.ssued his proclamations, and dis-
tells us that Nebuchadnezzar executed charged all his royal duties. He had now
Jehoiakim and treated his body with indig-
'
reached old age, ' but '

the glory of his
nit)', murdered Zedekiah's sons before his kingdom,' his 'honor and brightness' re-
eyes, put out the eyes of Zedekiah himself, turned;" " his last days were as brilliant as
and kept Zedekiah and Jehoiachin in pro- his first; his sun set in an unclouded sky,
longed imprisonment. These acts of bar- shorn of none of the rays that had given
barous cruelty imply in the great Babylonian splendor to its noonday." Nebuchadnezzar
king a disposition as ferocious as that of died in B. C. 561, in the forty-fourth year
Sargon or Asshur-bani-pal. of his reign, when almost eighty years old.
Berosus infonns us that Nebuchadnezzar Nebuchadnezzar was succeeded by his
was devotedly attached to his Median wife, .sonEvil-Merodach, of whose short reign
Amyitis, whom his father had seledled for of two years but very little is known. He
him for reasons of state. Solely to please seemed disposed to favor the Jews. Upon
he eredled the celebrated Hanging his accession, he released Jehoiachin from
'
her, '
Gardens" at Babylon. The rocks and trees his thirty-five years' imprisonment, and
of this delightful artificial Paradise, where treated him with kindness and respedl, rec-
art strove to rival nature, were designed to ognizing his royal rank and giving him pre-
imitate the beautiful mountain scenery of cedence over all the captive kings residing-
Media. at Babylon.Josephus says that he adlually
In his later days Nebuchadnezzar dreamed accepted Jehoiachin as one of his most inti-
a strange dream, the meaning of which was mate friends. After Evil-Merodach had oc-
interpreted to him by the Jewish prophet cupied the Babylonian throne but two years
Daniel, who, though carried into the Baby- he was accused of lawlessness and intemper-
lonian captivity with his nation, had arrived ance, a con.spiracy was formed against him,
at high honors under the Babylonian king. his own brother-in-law, Neriglis.sar, heading
Daniel told the king that his dream por- the malcontents; and Evil-Merodach lost
tended that he would fof seven years be a both crown and life, B. C. 559.
.
274 ANCIENT HIS TOR Y.—BAB YL ONIA

Neriglissar was at once recognized as the son of Nabu- * * -dirba, the Rag-
King of Babjlon. His real name, as seen Mag." To secure his usurped throne, Na-
on his bricks, was Nergal-sar-uzur; and he bonadius married a princess of the royal
is believed to have been the
'
' Nergal-shar- house of Nabopolassar.

ezer, Rag-Mag," mentioned bj' the Jewish Soon after his accession, in B. C. 555,
prophet Jeremiah, and who held an import- Nabonadius received an embassy from the
ant office among the Babylonian nobles left remote North-west. Three years before, in
to press the siege of Jerusalem when Nebu- B. C. 558 —
during the reign of Neriglissar
chadnezzar retired to Riblah. It is known at —
Babylon Cyrus the Great founded the
that the king bore the office of Rag-Mag, Medo- Persian Empire by deposing the
and that title is also upon his bricks. Ne- Median king Astyages and transferring the
riglissar styled himself the son of Bel-sum- supremacy of the Aryan race from the
iskun, "king of Babylon" —a sovereign Medes to the Persians. Cyrus at once en-
whose name is not mentioned by the Canon tered upon a career of conquest which event-
of Ptolemy, but who was perhaps a chief- ually brought all of Western Asia under the
tain who took the royal title during the Medo- Persian dominion.
troubles preceding the fall of the Assj-rian Fearing the rising power of Persia in the
Empire. Neriglissar reigned only three East, Lydian ambassadors were sent to
years and four months, and was engaged Babylon in B. C. 555, the very year in which
chiefly in the eredtion of the Western Palace Nabonadius ascended the Babylonian throne,
at Babylon, an immense edifice at one comer proposing an alliance against the new power
of the fortified enclosure, diredlly opposite which threatened the existence of the other
the old palace, and abutting on the Euphra- Oriental monarchies of the time. Nabona-
tes. Diodorus described this strucfture as dius decided to unite in the proposed offen-
most magnificent, being elaborately orna- sive and defensive alliance with Lydia and
mented with painting and sculpture in the Eg>'pt to check the growing power of his
best style of Babylonian art, though it may new eastern neighbor.
have been smaller than the ancient ro3âl Aware that he thus provoked the hostil-
residence on the opposite side of the river. ity' of a powerful foe by this decisive course,
Neriglissar died B. C. 556, after the short and not knowing how soon he might be
reign mentioned, and was succeeded by his obliged to defend his kingdom against the
.son, Laborosoarchod, so called by Be- whole Nabonadius at once
force of Persia,
rosus and the Canon of Ptolemy. This began to strengthen Babylon. Herodotus
THonarch, a mere youth, onlj' wore the Baby- ascribed these defensive works to Nitocris, a
lonian crown a few months, when he was queen whom he calls the mother of Nabona-
accused of showing many signs of a bad dius; but Berosus says that they were eredted
disposition, and was deposed and put to hy Nabonadius himself. These works con-
death, B. C. 555; and with him ended the sisted partly of defenses within the city,
dynasty of Nabopolassar, which had occu- intended to secure it against an enemy
pied the Babylonian throne seventy j'ears, who .should enter it by the river, partly of
from B. C. 625 to B. C. 555. hydraulic works designed to obstru<5t the
Nabonadius, so called by the Canon of advance of an anny b}' the usual route.
Ptolemy, and whom the conspirators chose The river had thus far flowed in its natural
from among their own number to succeed channel through the middle of the city;
Eaborosoarchod, was not related to his prede- but Nabonadius confined the stream by a
cessor. He was called Nabonnedus by Bero- brick embankment extended the whole way
sus. Thus Nabonadius, like Neriglissar, along both banks, after which he eredled on
was a usurper; and, like his father, held the the top of the embankment a high wall,
important office of Rag-Mag, as on his bricks pierced at inten'als by gateways, in which
and cylinders he styled himself " Nabonidus, were set gates of bronze. He also con-
X :
/'( )A / y icA L HIS 1 )

A' }
275
276 ANCIENT HIS TOR Y.—BAB YL ONIA.
strudted cuttings, reservoirsand sluices at fled for safety into the important city of
some distance from Babylon towards the Borsippa, a short distance south-west from
north, designed to obstrudl the march of a Babylon.
hostile army. Xenophon likewise spoke of In the meantime, the Babylonian crown-
a rampart — known as the "Median Wall" prince, Belshazzar, or Bel-shar-uzur, the son
— extending across the tracft between the of Nabonadius, and the grandson of the
—
two rivers a vast barrier a hundred feet illustrious Nebuchadnezzar —supported by
—
high and twenty feet thick intended to be the counsels of his mother and the officers,
insurmountable by an unskillful enemy, but of the court — for a time successfully re-
this is doubted by modem writers. sisted all the Persian assaults, so that Cyrus,
Nabonadius was permitted to complete almost reduced to despair, resorted to a stra-
his fortification of Babylon unmolested; but tagem whose failure might have cost him
his rash ally, Croesus, the wealthy King of dear. Leaving a corps of observation be-
Lydia, rushed impetuously into a war with hind him, Cyrus, with the bulk of his army,
Persia without asking the assistance of the marched up the course of the Euphrates for
Babylonian monarch. Cjtus promptly at- some distance, and dug a. new channel, or
tacked Croesus by invading Lydia, defeated channels, from the river, by means of which
him in the battle of Pteria, and besieged and a part of its water could be drawn off.
captured Sardis, the Lydian capital, before Cyrus awaited the arrival of a certain festi-
Nabonadius could render his impulsive ally val at Babylon, when the entire Babylonian
any aid. For fourteen years Babylon re- population would be engaged in drinking
mained unmenaced by the Persian king. and revelry. The festival on this occasion
Finally, in B. C. 559, Nabonadius re- was held with more than usual pomp and
ceived tidings that Cyrus the Great was magnificence, and Belshazzar gave himself
marching from Ecbatana, the Median cap- up entirely to the delights of the season, en-
ital, in the diredlion of Babylon; but as his tertaining a thousand dignitaries in his pal-
defenses were completed and the city amply ace. The rest of the population was occu-
provisioned, the Babylonian monarch felt pied in feasting and dancing; and in the-
perfe(5lly secure behind the walls of his midst of drunken riotand mad excitement
capital. Herodotus says that the Persian the siege of the city was wholly forgotten,
invader paused half-way between Ecbatana and the usual precautions were negledted.
and Babylon, because one of the sacred The Babylonians abandoned themselves for
white horses which drew the chariot of the night to orgies charadlerized by a strange
Orraazd had been drowned in crossing a mingling of religious frenzy and drunkeiL
river. Declaring that he would punish the excess.
insolent stream, Cyrus employed his sol- While this was going on inside the city
diers during the whole summer and autumn during this eventful night, the Persians
of B. C. 539 in dispersing the waters of were silently watching outside at the two-
the stream into three hundred and sixty points where the Euphrates entered and left
channels. the walls. They anxiously and cautiously
Cyrus renewed his march upon Babylon watched the gradual sinking of the river-
in the spring of B. C. 538, crossing the bed, to discover if their silent movements-
Tigris without opposition and soon appear- would be observed and cause alann. Had
ing before Babylon.The Babylonian army they entered the river channel to find the
under Nabonadius himself was here drawn river-walls manned and the river-gates-
up oppose him. In the battle which en-
to locked fast they would have been caught in
sued the Babylonian king was thoroughly a trap. Flanked on both sides by an enemy
defeated, the greater part of his army seek- they could neither see nor reach they would
ing refuge inside the walls of the capital, have been caught at a terrible disadvantage.
while he himself with a small body of troops In such a case they would have been entirely
cut to pieces without being able to make of Herodotus and Xenophon, of Daniel and
any effectual resistance, or to escape from Jeremiah. Says the Book of Daniel: "In
their perilous position. But as they ob- that night was Belshazzar slain." The
served no signs of alarm, but only the triumphant Persians destroyed right and
shouts of riotous revelry, on the part of the left with fire and sword. The dawn found
unsuspeifting jiopukice, the Persians grew Cyrus undisputed master of the mighty
bolder, and, when the revelry was at its Babylon.
height, emerged from the deep river- After ordering the fortifications of Babylon
bed and seized the two undefended gate- to be dismantled, Cyrus marched against
ways. The frightened Babylonians at Nabonadius at Borsippa; but, seeing the
once raised a war-shout and spread the folly of resistance, the unfortunate Nabona-
alarm. Swift ruimers hurried off to dius surrendered himself upon the approach
".show the King of Babylon that his city of his triumphant foe. Cyrus kindly treated
was taken at one end " so says the ;
the captive king, sparing his life, and, ac-
Book of Jeremiah. In the darkness and cording Abydenus, conferring on him the
to
confusion of the night a frightful massacre govennnent of the important province of
occurred, says Xenophon. The drunken Carmania.
revelers were unable to resist. Belshazzar, Thus fell the mighty Babylonian Empire,
completely surprised and utterly helpless after an existence of eighty-seven years,
"at the awful handwriting upon the wall," from B. C. 625 to B. C. 538. For half a
which appeared at this time, was warned of century did Babylon, along with Media and
his danger when too late, and could offer no Lydia, control the destines of Western Asia.
check to the progress of the assailants, who The Babylonian dominions then became a
had the paralyzed populace completely at part of the great Medo- Persian Empire, and
their mercy. A
baud of Persians forced the great city which had plaj-ed so import-
their way and slew the
into the roj'al palace ant a part in Oriental history for centuries
astonished Belshazzar on the scene of his became the winter capital of the Medo-
sacrilegious revelry. Such is the testimony Persian kings.
THE K.\SR, KAIIVI.ON.

27S ANCIENT HIS TON ) '.—BAB YL ONIA.
KINGS OF BABYLON.
B. C.
—
aVILlZA TION. 279
SECTION III.— BABYLONIAN CIVILIZATION.

AYS Professor Rawlinson: "In was, her architecture, the main ideas of
its general characfler the Baby- her mimetic art, her religious notions, her
lonian Empire wa.s little more legal forms, and a vast number of her cus-
than a reproducflion of the As- toms and usages. But Babylonia herself,
syrian. The same loose or- so far as we know, drew her stores from no
ganization of the provinces nnder native foreign country. Hers was apparently the
kings rather than satraps almost universally genius which excogitated an alphabet
prevailed, with the same duties on the part worked out the simpler problems of arithme-
of suzerain and subjects, and the same re- tic —
invented implements for measuring the
sults of ever-recurring revolt and re-con- lap.se of time — conceived the idea of raising
quest. Similar means were employed under enormous structures with the poorest of all
both empires to check and discourage rebell- materials, clay —discovered the art of pol-
—
ion mutilations and executions of chiefs, i.shing, boring, and engraving gem.s — repro-
pillage of the rebellious region, and whole- duced with truthfulness the outlines of
sale deportation of its population. Baby- human and animal forms—attained high to
lon, equally with Assyria, failed to win the —
perfedtion in textile fabrics studied with
affedtions of the subject nations, and, as a success the motions of the heavenly bodies
natural result, received no help from them —conceived of grammar as a science —elab-
in her hour of need. Her system was to —saw the \-alue of
orated a system of law
exhaust and oppress the conquered races for an exadt chronology — in almost every
the supposed benefit of the conquerors, and branch of science made a beginning, thus
to impoverish the provinces for the adorn- rendering it comparatively easy for other
ment and enrichment of the capital. The nations to proceed with the superstrudture.
wisest of her monarchs thought it enough To Babylonia, far more than to Egypt, we
to construct works of public utility in Baby- owe the art and learning of the Greeks. It
lonia proper, leaving the dependent coun- was from the East, not from Egypt, that
tries to themselves, and doing nothing to Greece derived her architedture, her sculp-
develop their resources. This selfish .sj-stem ture, her .science, her philosophy, her mathe-
was, like most selfishness, short-sighted; it matical knowledge — in a word, her intelledl-
alienated those whom it would have been ual life. And Babylon was the .source to
true policy to conciliate and win. When which the entire stream of Eastern civiliza-
the time of peril came, the subjecfl nations tion may be traced. It is .scarcely too much
were no source of strength menaced
to the to say that, but for Babylon, real civilization
empire. On the contrary, it would seem might not even yet have dawned upon the
that some even turned against her and made earth. Mankind might never have advanced
common cause with the assailants. beyond that spurious and false form of it
"Babylonian civilization differed in many which in Egy'pt, India, China, Japan, Mex-
respedts from Assyrian, to which however ico, and Peru, contented the aspirations of
it approached more nearly than to any other the .species."

known type. Its advantages over As.syr- Thelater Babylonians were a mixed race,
ian were in its greater originality, its su- as were the early ChaJdceans, from whom
perior literary charadler, and its com- they were mainly descended. The Chaldae-
parative width and flexibility. Babylonia ans of the First Empire were chiefly a mixed
seems to have been the source from which Hamitic, or Cushite, and Turanian race, with
Assyria drew her learning, such as it a slight intenningling of Semitic and Aryan
'
28o ANCIENT HISTORY.—BABYLONIA.

elements. But the Babylonians of the later sentation of a Babylonian king, believed to
period —called Chaldaeans by the Hebrew be Merodach-iddin-ahki, on a black stone in
prophets — were still more of a composite the British Museum ; also representations of
race, on account of the colonization of for- the warrior and the priest in the tablet from
eigners in Babylonia in accordance with the Sir-Pal-i-Zohab, theman accompanying the
policy of the Assyrian kings, and because Babylonian hound, and some imperfedl fig-
of the influence exerted upon them by their ures on a frieze. A few Assyrian bas-reliefs
Assyrian conquerors. The conquest of represent Assyrian campaigns in Babylonia.
Chaldsea by the Arabian dynasty B. C. 1546, The Babylonian cylinders represent the
and the Assyrian conquest of the same coun- Babylonians as of far slighter and sparer
try B. C. 1300, establishing an Assyrian physical frames than the Assyrians; but the
Toyal race upon the Chaldsean throne, tended Assyrian sculptures .show the Babylonians
to the fusion of new Semitic elements with as having bodily forms as brawny and mas-
the old Chaldaean population, as both the sive as their northern neighbors, while the
Arabs and the Assyrians were prominent features of the two peoples were very nearly
branches of the Semitic race. alike. The Assyrian sculptures represent
Semitic dynasties reigning in Chaldsea the physiognomy of the Babylonians as dis-
would naturally tend to the introducftion of tinguished by a low and straight but some-
new Semitic blood into that old land, and what depressed forehead, full lips, and a well-
bring along Semitic customs and ideas, and marked, rounded chin. The few remaining
causing the old Turano-Cushite language of Babylonian sculptures sustain the corre<5t-
ancient Chaldasa to give way to a Semitic ness of the Assyrian, but represent the eye
tongue. The original Chaldaean population as larger and less almond-shaped, the nose
gradually became intermingled with the as shorter and more depressed, and the gen-
new Semitic settlers, thus tending to the eral expression of the countenance as more
produdtion of a nation composed about common-place. These differences are to be
equally of Semitic, Turanian and Cushite, ascribed to the influence exerted upon the
or Hamitic elements. The colonizations of phj'sicial form of the race by the primitive
the Sargonid dynasty brought, in addition, Cushite Chaldaean element. Herodotus
small proportions of other foreign elements, states that the Babylonians wore their hair
so that the later Babylonians could more long,and this statement is sustained by the
appropriately be called a mingled people
'
'
'
Babylonian sculptures. These sculptures

than any other ancient nation of Western commonly represent the hair as forming a
Asia. By the time of the Later Empire the single stiff and heavy back of the
curl at the
Babylonians had become thoroughly Semi- head, but sometimes they give the form
it
tized, as the vitality and energy of the Se- of long flowing locks depending over the
mitic elements fused in the population pre- back, or over the back and shoulders, extend-
dominated over the original Cushite and ing almost to the waist. Sometimes we
Turanian elements; so that the later Baby- find types closely resembling the Assyrian,
lonians were scarcely distinguishable from the hair forming a round mass behind the
their northern neighbors, the Assyrians. head, on which there appears to have been
The Greek writers seem to have regarded sometimes a slight wave. The style men-
the Assyrians and Babylonians as one and tioned by Herodotus was the national
the same race of people, and as having a fashion, and is represented by the three
common civilization. usual modes. The round mass was an As-
The Babylonian cylinders and three or syrian style, aped by the Babj'lonians during
four representations by Babylonian artists their subje<5lion to AssjT-ia. The Assyrian
give us some scant idea of the physical sculptures represent the hair of the Baby-
charatfleristics of this renowned ancient peo- lonians as reaching below the shoulders, and
ple. Among these remains is the repre- as worn smooth on the top of the head and
CI VI 1. 1ZA TION. 281
depending from the ears to the shoulders in her princes, and iijwn her wise men."
many large, smooth, heavy curls. Daniel alludes to "the learning and the
The Babylonians are likewise often repre- tongue of the Chalda;ans." Herodotus
sented with a large beard, usually longer mentions their useful inventions, and Aris-
than the Assyrian, and reaching almost totle was indebted to them for .scientific data.
down to the waist. Sometimes it curls They were celebrated for their observations
crisply upon the face, but below the chin it of astronomical phenomena, and their care-
depends over the breast in long straight ful records of these observations. They
locks, while in other ca.ses it droops perpen- were also famed as mathematicians. But
dicularly from the cheeks and the lower lip; unfortunately their astronomy w'as corrupted
but here the Assyrian sculptures represent by astrology; and they professed to cast na-
the Babylonian beard as little longer than tivities, interpret dreams, and foretell future
the Assyrian, Often there is no beard, as occurrences by means of the stars, thus
in the case of the priests. tinging their astronomy with a mystic and
The Assyrian sculptures also represent unscientific element; though there were al-
the Babylonian women as tall and large- ways some who confined them.selves to pure
limbed, with the Assyrian physiognomy, science and repudiated all astrological pre-
and with not very^ abundant hair; but the tensions.
Babylonian cylinders make the hair appear The Babj'lonians wêre al.so a ên,' enter-
long and prominent, while the physical prising people. Their adlive spirit led them
fonns are as spare and meagre as those of to engage extensively in manufadlures and
the male sex. connnerce by sea and land. The same com-
It is evident that altogether the physical mercial spirit which so distinguished the
types of the A.ssyrians and Bab3-lonians ancient Phcenicians, and which has made
were very nearly alike, though the Baby- the modern Jews such successful merchants,
lonians had a somewhat sparer form, longer charadlerized the Semitized Babylonians,
and more flowing hair, less strong and stern whose land the Jewish prophet Ezekiel
features, and a darker complexion. The called
'
a land of traffic,
' and whose chief
'
'
last characteristic is to be attributed partly city Isaiah described as "a cit}' of mer-
to the infusion of Ethiopian elements in the chants. " The trading spirit of the Baby-
population, and partly to their more tropi- lonians developed in them the opposite vices
cal location. Babylonia being four degrees of avarice and fondness for luxury. They
farther south than A.ssyria. The Cha'ab "coveted with an evil covetousness," as we
Arabs, who now occupy the southern parts are informed by the Jewish writers Habak-
of the ancient Babylonia, are almost black; kuk and Jeremiah. The "shameful cus-
while the ".black Syrians," mentioned hy tom" which Herodotus relates, requiring of
Strabo, were probably the Babylonians. every Babylonian woman, rich or poor,
The Babylonians were distinguished for high-bom or humble, prostitution as a relig-
their intelledlual ability. They inherited ious duty in the great temple of Beltis at
the scientific lore of their predecessors, the Babjlon once in her life, w-as probably dic-
early Chaldseans, whose astronomical and tatedby this spirit of greed, for the purpose
mathematical knowledge they not only re- of attacling strangers to the capital; as was
tained, but advanced and enlarged by their also thecustom of selling the marriageable
exertions. The fame of their wisdom and '
' virgins at public aucftion, which Herod-

learning" is recorded by the Jewish proph- otus also mentions. Ouintus Curtius, the
ets. In alluding to them, I.saiah said: "Thy Roman writer, also says tliat the avarice of
wisdom and thy knowledge, it hath per- husbands and parents induced them to .sell
verted thee." Says Jeremiah: "A sword the virtue of their wives and daughters to
is upon the Chald£can,s, saitli the I/)rd, and strangers.
iipon the inhabitants of Babylon, and upon Both sacred and profane writers continu-
1— 18,-U. H.
'
'
282 ANCIENT HISTOR Y.—BAB YLONIA.

ally dwell upon the luxury of the Babylo- in war with useless violence and with the
nians. We are informed by Isaiah that the usual Oriental outrages. The Assyrian
"daughter of the Chaldeans" was "tender policy' of wholesale deportation of conquered
and delicate," "given to pleasures," dis- nations was pratfticed by them, regardless
posed to "dwell carelessly." Ezekiel tells of the sufferings which resulted in conse-
us that her young men made them.selves "as quence. Such needless and inexcusable ac-
—
princes to look at exceeding in dyed attire trocities as the mutilation of captives, the
upon their heads." Nicolas of Dama,scus long imprisonments, the massacre of non-
relates that these young men painted their combatants, the execution of children before
faces,wore ear-rings, and dressed in robes of the eyes of their fathers, disgraced the mili-
rich and soft material. Polygamy prevailed tary annals of the Babylonians, and exas-
extensively. The pleasures of the table perated more than they terrified the subju-
were indulged and drunkenness
in to excess, gated nations, thus weakening instead of
was a general Rich unguents, so cele-
vice. strengthening the empire. These barbarous
brated by Posidonius, were likewise in- punishments indicate the general Asiatic
vented. The tables were loaded with gold —
temper a temper inhuman and savage.
and silver plate, according to Nicolas of The tiger-like thirst for blood which charac-
Damascus. In short, the Babylonians ut- terized the Babylonians led them to sacrifice
terly abandoned themselves to self-indul- their national self-interest and the peace of
gence and luxurious living. the empire to the promptings of a spirit of
They ne^'ertheless were always brave and vengeance.
skillful in war, and in the height of their The Babylonian nobles stood in danger
glory they were one of the most formidable of losing their own heads if by the most
of the Oriental nations. The Jewish prophet trifling fault they aroused the sovereign's
Habakkuk speaks them as " the Chal- The venerable Chaldaeaus,
' '
of displeasure. '
daeans, that bitter and hasty nation," and so famed for their
'
wisdom and learning,

'
'
also as
'
' terrible and dreadful — their horses' were at one time threatened with extermi-
hoofs swifter than the leopard's, and more nation because they failed to interpret a
fierce than the evening wolves." Isaiah dream forgotten by the king. If a monarch
says that they "smote the people in wrath incurred the displeasure of his court, and
with a continual stroke," and that they was considered as showing a bad disposition,
'
made the earth to tremble, and did shake
' he was put to death by torture. Such pun-
kingdoms." In their great enterprises they ishments as cutting to pieces and casting
swept everything before them with irresisti- into a fiery furnace prevailed, as related by
ble force, in spite of all opposition, and un- the prophet Daniel, who also informs us
moved by the calls of mere}'. Centuries of that the houses of offenders were torn down
warfare with the well-armed and well-disci- and turned into dung-hills. These harsh
plined Assyrians made the Babylonians the practices indicate the height of Eastern cru-
worthy successors of the nation which had elty. When the prophet Habakkuk de-
so long held them in subje(5lion, so far as nounced the final judgment against Baby-
the warlike virtues of energy, valor and mil- lon, it was announced as being inflidted
iary skill are concerned. They extended "because of men's blood, and for the vio-
their conquests from the Persian Gulf on the —
lence of the land of the city, and all that
east to the Nile on the west. Their invinci- dwelt therein."
ble hosts of sturdy warriors speedily crushed Pride was another fault of the Baby-
all resistance and rapidly established the lonians, as has ever been the accompani-
it
Babylonian dominion, fully deserving the ment of military success in a nation. The
title of "the hammer of the whole earth," sudden transfer of supremacy in the Meso-
given them by the prophet Jeremiah. potamian region from Assyria to Babylonia
The Babylonians stained their triumphs awakened a haughty spirit in the hitherto-
'
CIVILIZATION. 283
snhje(!^ kingdom. The Babylonians in the acfter. Even in banquets and entertainments,
zenith of their power and glory quite natur- while drinking, they uttered praises of the
ally regarded themselves as the greatest deities. Says the prophet Daniel: "They
was distin(5lly
nation on earth; and this spirit drank wine, and praised the gods of gold,
nianifcsted by Nebuchadnezzar, who, when and of silver, of brass, of iron, of wood and
walking in his palace and viewing the splen- of stone."
did edifices which he had erected on all sides Nicolas of Damascus tells us that the
from the plunder of his conquests, and by Babylonians specially cultivated the virtues
tbe forced labor of his captives, exclaimed: of honesty and calmness. The facft that
"Is not this great Babylon, that have built I their trade was flourishing, that their pro-
for the house of the kingdom by the might dudls were everywhere in demand, suffici-
of my power, and for the honor of ray ma- ently proves their commercial honest}-.
jesty 1" The arrogance of the Babylonians Babylon was perhaps the largest and
was as intense and as deep-seated as that of most splendid city of the ancient Eastern
the Assyrians, if not so offensive. Truly did world. On its site great masses of ruins
Isaiah say, in alluding to this people: "Thou cover a space much larger than those of
that art given to pleasure, that dwellest Nineveh. Beyond this space in all direc-
carelessly, that sayest in thine heart, I am, tions are seen detached mounds, showing
and none that there existed in past times vast edifices,
'
else besides me.

The Babylonians, in spite of their pride, while spaces between the mounds indicate
cruelt}% covetousness, and fondness for that there also were buildings in fonner
luxury, were a ver\- religious people. In ages. Modern investigation and exploration
Babylonia the temple held nearly the same give us no definite idea of the size of
preeminence over other edifices which it pos- Babylon.
sessed in Egypt. The immense ruins of the Herodotus says that the enceinte of Baby-
Birs-i-Nimrud show the degree of labor ex- lon was a square, one hundred and twenty
pended in the construdlion of sacred build- stadia (about fourteen miles) each waj-, so
ings, and the costly oniamentation of these that the whole circuit of the walls was fifty-
strudlures is more wonderful than their vast six miles, and the area enclosed within
dimensions. Immense sums were expended them less than two hundred square miles.
on the idols, and the entire appendages of Ctesias, who, like Herodotus, saw? the city
worship displayed indescribable pomp and itself,gave the circuit of the walls an extent
magnificence. The kings devoutlj^ wor- of three hundred and sixty stadia, or forty-
.shiped the various deities, and devoted con- one miles, thus representing the area as little
.siderable attention to building and repairing more than one hundred square miles. Cli-
temples, erecfling images of the gods, etc. tarchus gave the circumference as three
The names given their children showed hundred and sixty-five stadia; Quintus Cur-
their religious feeling and their a<5lual faith tius as three hundred and .sixty-eight stadia;
in the power of the gods to protetft their Strabo as three hundred and eighty-five
devotees. Thus Nabu-kuduri-izzir means stadia. Quintus Curtius tells us that there
" Nebo is the protecftor of landmarks;'" was a clear space of a quarter of a mile be-
Bel-shar-izzir means " Bel protedts the king;" tween the city and the wall. The walls of
and Evil-Merodacli implies " Merodach is a the cit)' were pierced with a hundred gates,
god." The people in general used names and the streets or roads led direcflly to these
of the same kind, containing in nearly every portals. The houses were usually three or
case the name of a god as an element, such four stories high, and arc said to have had
as Belibus, Belesis, Nergal-shar-ezer, vSham- vaulted roofs, improte(5ted on the outside
gar-nebo, Nebu-zar-adan, Nabonidus, etc. with an>- tiling, because the dryness of the
The .seals and signets worn by each man climate rendered such protecT:ion unneces-
were almost universally of a religious char- sary. The beams of the houses were of
284 ANCIENT HIS TOR }'.— /?. //.' ) 'L ( WIA.
palm-wood, the only plentiful timber in the carried round the four sides of the strucflnre,
countrj-. The pillars were posts of palm- and leading to the top in this way. Strabo
wood with twisted wisps of rushes around says that the tower was a stadium (six hun-
them, covered with plaster and colored. dred and six feet and nine inches) high, but
The Euphrates flowed through the city, this is evidently an exaggeration. About
dividing it into two almost equal parts. Its midwa}' up there was a resting-place pro-
banks were lined all the way with quays of vided with seats. The shrine on the sum-
brick, laid in bitumen, and were also guarded mit of the stru(5lure was large and elegant.
by two brick walls skirting them along their It had no image in the time of Herodotus,
entire extent. Each of these walls had but onl}' a golden table and a large couch,
twenty-five gates, corresponding to the num- covered with an elegant draperj'; but Dio-
ber of streets extending upon the river. dorus says that before the Persian conquest
Outside each gate there was an inclined of Babylon the shrine contained gigantic
landing-place, by which the water's edge golden images of Bel, Beltis and Ishtar re-
could be reached. Boats kept at these land- spedlively. Two
golden lions were in front
ing-places conveyed 'passengers across the of the images of Beltis, and near these were
river. The river was also crossed by a two colossal .serpents of silver, each weigh-
bridge consisting of a number of stone piers ing thirty talents. The golden table was
ere<5ted in the channel, firmly held together forty feet long and fifteen feet wide, and was
with fastenings of iron and lead, and con- in front of the statues. Two immense
necfted only during the day by wooden draw- drinking-cups, as heavy as the serpents,
bridges, onwhich people passed over, and were upon the golden table. The shrine
which were removed at night to prevent the likewise had two vast censors and three gold-
use of the bridge in the dark. Diodorus en bowls for the three deities respedtively.
gives this bridge a length of five stadia There was a second shrine, or chapel, at
(about one thousand yards) and a width of the base of the tower. In the time of He-
thirty feet. He also says that there was a rodotus this shrine contained a sitting image
tunnel under the river, connedting two
its of Bel, consisting of gold. There was a
sides, and that it was fifteen feet broad and golden table before the image, and a golden
twelve feet high to the spring of its arched stand for the image itself The Babylonian
roof. priests informed Herodotus that the gold of
The most remarkable edifices of Babylon the image, table and stand together weighed
were two palaces, one on each side of the
its eight hundred talents. Before the Persian
river, and the great temple of Bel. Herod- conquest this second shrine had a human
otus describes the great temple as sur- figure of solid gold tweh'e cubits high. The
rounded by a square enclosure, two stadia shrine was also well supplied with private
(almost a quarter of a mile) long, and as offerings. Within the sacred enclosure out-
wide. Its main feature was the ziggurat, or side the stru(5ture were two altars, the
tower, a gigantic solid mass of brick-work, smaller one of gold on which to offer suck-
built in the same manner as all other Baby- lings, and the larger one of stone on which
lonian temple-towers, in stages, with square full-grown victims were sacrificed, and
upon square, thus forming a rude pyramid, whereon a thousand talents' weight of frank-
with a shrine of the god at the top. The incense was offered yearly at the festi\-al of
basement platfomi of this temple-tower, the god.
Herodotus says, was a stadium, or a little The great palace was larger than the
over two hundred yards, each waj'. This great temple. Diodorus says that it was
tower had eight stages, and the ascent to located within a triple enclosure, and that
the highest, which contained the shrine of the innermost wall was twenty stadia, the
the god, was on the outside, and consisted middle forty stadia, and the outermost sixty
of a series of steps, or of an inclined plane. stadia (almost seven miles) in circumference.
.
286 ANCIENT HIS TOR :~BAB YL ONIA

)
The outer wall was entirely built of plain gradual decay by the moisture penetrating
baked brick. The other two walls were built the brick-work. The garden was reached
of the same kind of brick fronted with enam- by steps. Stately apartments were among
eled bricks representing hunting scenes. the arches on which rested the strudlure, on
Quintus Curtius only knew of one enclosure, the ascent to the garden. The machinery
and this corresponded to the inner wall of which raised the water was in a chamber
Diodorus, having a circuit of twenty stadia. within the stru(5ture. The objecft of the
Curtius represented this wall as eighty feet strucfture was to produce an artificial moun-
high, and its foundations as lying thirty tain.
feet below the surface of the ground. Dio- The smaller palace, on the side of the
dorus says that the figures in the hunting river oppo,site the larger one, was also sur-
scenes were larger than and that
life-size, rounded by a triple enclosure, the whole
they embraced a large variety of animal circuit, according to Diodorus, measuring
forms, and likewi.se of human forms, one of thirty stadia. This palace contained some
a man thrusting his spear through a lion, bronze statues, believed by the Greeks to
and another of a woman on hor.seback aim- represent the god Bel and the legendary
ing a javelin at a leopard. These last the king and queen, Ninus and Semiramis,
later Greeks supposed to represent the myth- along with their officers. Painted and
ical Ninus and Semiramis. The palace enameled bricks representing war and hunt-
was said to have had three gates, two of ing scenes covered the walls.
bronze, which had to be opened and closed The walls of Babylon, in connection with
by a machine. the "Hanging Gardens," were among the
The "Hanging Gardens" regarded by— "Seven Wonders of the World." Herodo-
the Greeks as one of the "Seven Wonders tus says that they were fifty royal cubits
of the World" —
were the chief glory of the (alx)ut eighty-five English feet) wide.
great palace, and constituted its pleasure- Strabo and Quintus Curtius gave the width
ground. This remarkable construcflion was as thirty-two feet. Herodotus assigned the
a square, each side measuring four hundred walls a height of two hundred royal cubits,
Greek feet, according to Diodorus. It rested or three hundred royal feet (about three
upon open arches, built one
.several tiers of hundred and thirty-five English feet). Cte-
over the other, and bearing at each stage, or sias gave the height as fifty fathoms, or
story, a solid platfortn, from which arose the three hundred ordinary Greek feet. Pliny
next tier of arches. The strucfture was and Solinus made the altitude two hundred
seventy-five feet high, and at the top it was and thirty-five feet. Philostratus and Quin-
covered with a vast ma.ss of earth, in which tus Curtius assigned the walls a height of
were grown flowers and shrubs, and even one hundred and fifty feet. Clitarchus, ac-
the largest trees. Quintus Curtius says that cording to Diodorus Siculus, and Strabo
the trunks of some of these trees were gave the height as .seventy-five feet.
twelve feet in diameter, and Strabo states The walls were made of bricks cemented
that some of the piers were hollowed and with bitumen, with occasional layers of reeds
filled with earth to afford nourishment for between the courses. Outside the walls
the roots of the trees. Water, conveyed were protedted bj' a wide and deep moat.
from the Euphrates through pipes, was said Low towers, two hundred and fifty in num-
by Strabo to have been raised by a screw ber according to Diodorus vSiculus, and ris-
working on the principle of Archimedes. ing about ten or fifteen feet above the walls
There was a layer of reeds mixed with bitu- according to Quintus Curtius and Strabo,
men, next a double layer of burnt brick served as guard-rooms for the defenders.
cemented with gypsum, and then a coating Herodotus says the space between the tow-
of sheet- lead, between the bricks and the ers was wide "enough for a four-horse char-
mass of soil, to protecft the building against iot to turn in." The height and thickness
CIVILIZATION. 287
of the walls gave them their strength and flat on the top. The southern side of
rendered scaling and inining^ utterly hope- the ruin is the most perfed,
and extends
less. about two hundred yards direcflly east and
Such was the mighty Babylon iu the day west. At its eastern end it forms a right
of its glory — a great city, irregularly built, angle with the eastern side, which extends
surrounded by populous suburbs interspersed almost due north in a diredl line for about
among fields and gardens, the whole in- one hundred and eighty yards. The west-
cluded within a large square strongly-forti- ern and northern sides appear to be much
fied enceinte, or wall of brick. There are at worn away, and here are the principal
present few vestiges of this vast and magni- ravines. The Babil mound, whose great-
ficent metropolis of the ancient Oriental est height is about one hundred and
world. As Jeremiah foretold, "the broad thirtj- or one hundred and forty feet, con-
walls of Babylon" are "utterly broken." sists chiefly of sun-dried bricks, but ap-
As Isaiah predicted, "the golden city pears to have been faced with fire-bumed
ceased;" truly is "it a possession for the bricks skillfully cemented with an excellent
bitteni,and pools of walls;" it has been white mortar. Nebuchadnezzar's name and
swept "with the besom of destnidlion and ; '
' titles areon the bricks of this outer facing.

"Babylon, the glory of kingdoms, the The little of the building uncovered shows
beauty of the Chaldees' excellency," has that the lines of the structure were perpen-
become "as when God overthrew Sodom dicular, and that the side walls were sup-
and Gomorrah." As Jeremiah prophesied, ported by buttresses at inter\'als.
Babylon has "become heaps," "an aston- This great structure was situated within a
ishment," and "without an inhabitant." square enclosure, the northern and southern
There are great "heaps" of shapeless and sides of which are yet clearly marked. A
formless mounds scattered at intervals over low line of rampart extends four hundred
the whole region where ancient Babylon \'ards parallel to the eastern side of the build-
was located, and the soil between the ing, about one hundred and twenty or one
"heaps" is iu many instances composed of hundred and thirty yards distant from it,
remnants of broken pottery and bricks, and and a line of mound a little longer runs par-
deeply impregnated with nitre, which indis- allel to the northern side, but more distant
putably proves that the site was at one time from it. A third line on the western side
occupied by an immense mass of buildings. traced early in the present century is now
On going southward from Bagdad these re- obliterated. On the western and .southern
mains gradually increase, and between Mo- sides are the remains of an ancient canal.
hawil and the Euphrates they are continuous, The Babil mound stands isolated from the
forming a region of immense mounds. other ruins, and below it are two mounds,
These mounds connnence about five miles the more northern of which the Arabs call
above the modem town of Hillah, extend- El Kasr, meaning "the Palace," and the
ing more than three miles along the river more southeni "the mound of Amran,"
from north to south, and are located chiefly from the tomb of a prophet called Amran-
on the eastern bank. On the eastern side ibn-Ali, crowning its summit. The Kasr
the ruins consist mainly of three vast mound is an oblong .square, about seven
masses of ruined buildings. The modern hundred j-ards from north to south, and
Arabs call the most northern of these mounds about six hundred yards from east to
Babil, which was the real native name of west, the sides facing the cardinal points
the great ancient city,meaning " the Gate of the compass. The height of this
of II," or "the Gate of God." The Babil mound above the plain is seventy feet.
mound is an immense heap of brick-work The rubbi.sh uncovered by exploration is
shajjed like an irregular quadrilateral, hav- composed of loose bricks, tiles, and frag-
ing precipitous sides with ravines, and being meuts of stone. An underground passage,
.

seven feet with floor and walls of
liigli, on all sides, extending almost to its center,
baked brick, and arched at the top with while the surface is altogether undulating.
huge sandstone blocks, has been discovered, Sculpture or masonrv' can nowhere be seen,
and is believed to have been an immense but only a mass of rubbish; no clear out-
drain. The
Kasr, or "palace" proper, is lines of buildings being thus far discovered.
another important relic, and from it the Bricks bearing the names and titles of some
mound has its name.
received This consists of the earlier Babylonian kings are sometimes
of excellent brick masonry, remarkably pre- found, but not the slightest vestige of a wall
served, in the form of walls, piers and but- has been brought to light.
tresses, and in certain places ornamented Among other remarkable remains are
with pilasters. The bricks are of a pale some long lines of rampart on both sides of
yellow color and of excellent quality, and the Euphrates, outside of the other ruins,
every one is stamped with the name and enclosing all of them, excepting the Babil
titles of Nebuchadnezzar. The mortar in mound. On the east bank of the river are
which they are laid appears like a fine lime traces of a double line of wall, or rampart,
cement, which so closely adheres to the running almost diredlly north and south,
bricks that it is not easy to get a specimen and situated about a thousand yards east of
whole. Many fragments of brick, painted, the Kasr and Amran mounds. Beyond this
and covered with a thick glaze or enamel, rampart is a single line of wall to the north-
are seen in the dust at the foot of the walls. east, which can be traced for about two
Here, also, have been discovered a few frag- miles, running in a direcftion almost from
ments of sculptured stone, among which is north-west to south-east, and a double line
the frieze discovered by Layard; and slabs of rampart to the south-east, which can be
giving an account of the ere(5tion of Nebu- traced for a mile and a half, extending in a
chadnezzar's palace have likewise been direction from north-east to south-west.
found. Near the northern edge of the The two rampart are be-
lines of this last
mound, and half-way in its width, is a gi- tween six hundred and seven hundred yards
gantic figure of a lion, rudely carved in apart, and diverge from each other as they
black basalt, standing over the prostrate extend out to the north-east. The inner
figure of a man with extended arms. A line connecfls with the north-eastern rampart
solitary tree has grown out of the great ruin, almost at a right angle, and is a part of the
which the Arabs say is of a species not found same work.
elsewhere, and which they consider a rem- A low line of mounds can be traced be-
nant of the hanging, garden of Bokht-i- tween the western side of the Amran and
nazar. This tree is a tamarisk, with a Kasr mounds and the present eastern bank
strange growth and foliage, on account of of the Euphrates, enclosing a narrow val-
its great age andexposed situation.
its ley, in which the main stream, or a branch
The mound Amran,

or Jumjuma, about
of of it, appears to have flowed in ancient
eight hundred yards south of the Kasr times.
mound, has an irregular and ill-defined tri- On the west bank of the river are ruins of
angular shape, with its three sides re.specft- the same kind. A
rampart twenty feet high
ively a little east of north, a little south of extends for almost a mile parallel with the
east, and a little south of west. The south- general line of the Amran mound, about a
western which runs almost parallel
side, thousand yards from the ancient course of
with the Euphrates, appears to have been at the stream. Each end of the line of ram-
one time washed by the river, and is over a part turns at a right angle, extending down
thousand yards long; while the south-east- towards the river, and can be traced towards
ern sideis about eight hundred yards long, the north for four hundred yards and to-
and the north-western about seven hundred wards the south for fifty or sixty. There
yards. Countless ravines traverse the mound are evidences that before the Euphrates
'
CIVILIZATION. 289
flowed in its present channel there was a Thus Babylon vastly exceeded Nineveh
redlangular enclosure, a mile long and a in its dimensions. The Kasr mound indi-
thousand yards wide, opposite to the Amran cates that it was the site of the great palace
mound; and at the south-east angle of this of Nebuchadnezzar. Tradition has given
enclosure appears to have been an import- the name of Kasr, or "Palace," to this
ant edifice, the bricks here bearing the name mound, and this is confirmed by the in.scrip-
of Neriglissar. tions upon slabs found here, in which Nebu-
There are likewise many scattered and ir- chadnezzar calls the stru<5ture his "Grand
regular heaps, or hillocks, on both banks of Palace;" while all the bricks of that portion
the Euphrates; most of them on the east of the ruin remaining uncovered bear that
bank, among which is the mound called by great king's name. Diodorus says that the
the Arabs El Homeira, "the Red." This walls were ornamented with sculptured rep-
mound is located about eight hundred yards resentations of hunting scenes; and modern
due east of the Kasr mound, and is about exploration has brought to light from the
three hundred yards long and one hundred soil of the mound vast masses of fragments
wide, and sixty or seventy feet high. It of enameled bricks with various hues and
consists of baked bricks of a bright red containing portions of human and animal
color, which are inscribed along their edges, forms, such as portions of a lion, of a horse,
and not, as the others, on their lower face. and of a human face.
The remains of a brick embankment are The Amran mound is believed to be the
bank of the river be-
also traceable on the east site of the old palace to which Nebuchad-
tween the Babil and Kasr mounds, extending nezzar's structure was an addition. Berosus
about a thousand yards in a slightly-curved says that Nebuchadnezzar's edifice adjoined
line and a general direcSlion of south by upon the old palace. On the Amran mound
south-west. The bricks of this embank- monuments of the times previous to Nebu-
ment are verj' hard, of a bright red color, chadnezzar's day have been found; and as
and are wholly laid in bitumen. They bear the early Babjdonian kings only left memo-
a legend showing that the quay was con- rials in the old palace, it is reasonable to in-
strucfled b\- Nabonidus. fer that this mound is the site of the ancient
All the ruins of Babylon now traceable royal residence. The oblong-square enclos-
are found in a space not much over three ure with an important building at its south-
miles long and a mile and three-fourths east angle is believed to have been the sec-
wide. These remains are surrounded on all ond or smaller palace of Ctesias.
sidesby nitrous soil and low mounds which The ruin now known as the Birs-i-Nim-
have not been excavated, but which are be- rud, about eleven or twelve miles from the
lieved to mark the locations of smaller tem- Babil mound, has been supposed by some to
ples and other public edifices of the re- be the site of the old temple of Bel; but the
nowned ancient city. Such masses are most cylinders found by Sir Henry Rawlinson in
general to the north and east, and often ex- the Birs-i-Nimrud call the stru(flure "the
tend for miles. The mass of Babjdonian wonder of Borsippa," and all the ancient
ruins reaching from Babil to Amran covers authorities say that Borsippa was a city by
an area about as large as the Koyunjik itself — a town wholly distindt from Babylon.
mound on the sight of Nineveh. These It has also been believed that the Babil
Babylonian ruins appear to have been the '
' mound itself is the site of the old temple of
heart of the city," "the royal quarter." Bel —the spot on which was l)uilt the Tower
Says Layard: "Southward of Babil for the of Babel. The great difficulty in identify-
distance of three miles there is almost an ing this site with the old temple is the state-
uninterrupted line of mounds, the ruins of ment of Herodotus expres.sly asserting that
vast edifices, collected together as in the the temple of Bel and the great palace were
heart of a great city.
'
upon opposite sides of the river, whereas

.

the Babil and Kasr mounds are both on the also as observatories. There was a second
eastern side of the Euphrates. shrine or chapel at the base of the tower, in
The Babylonians were among the most which the images and furniture were of gold
ingenious of all ancient nations, and made and silver. In the vicinity of this lower
great progress in the arts and sciences. The shrine was a golden altar, on which were
classical writers usually rank them with the sacrificed various kinds of vi(ftims.
Egyptians in this respeCl. The Babylonians The most remarkable of Babylonian ruins
especially excelled in archite(5ture and as- is that of the Birs-i-Nimrud, or ancient
tronomy. The primitive Chaldseans, the temple of Nebo at Borsippa. Upon a crude
ancestors of the later Babylonians, first ap- brick platform, a few feet above the level of
pear in history as great builders; and Nebu- the alluvial plain, was ere<5led the basement
chadnezzar, the great king of the Later stage of the vast studlure, an exadl square,
Babylonian Empire, specially prided himself two hundred and seventy-two feet each way,
upon his architedlural works. Herodotus, and twenty-six feet high. The second stage
upon visiting Babylon, was mainly im- was just as high, and a square of only two
pressed with its wonderful edifices; and the hundred and thirty feet, twelve feet from
glowing descriptions of these strucftures by the south-western edge of the first stage,
the Greek writers have mainly given to the and thirty feet from the north-eastern edge.
Babylonians their fame and their high rank The third stage was placed the same way
among the great nations of ancient Asia. upon the second, and was also twenty-six
Their architecfture appears to have culmin- feet high, and a square of one hundred and
ated in the temple. The temple in Baby- eighty-eight feet. The fourth stage was
lonia occupied the same rank which it held fifteen feet high, and was a square of one
in Egypt and in Greece, and unlike in As- hundred and forty-six feet, and was placed
syria, where the temple was a mere append- upon the third in the same way as the
age of the palace. The temple was the others had been upon those below them.
great edifice of a city, or a portion of a city, The fifth stage was a square of one hundred
being higher and more conspicuous than any and four feet, the sixth a square of sixty-two
other building. It rivaled the palace in feet, and the seventh a square of twenty
every respedl, being magnificently adorned, feet. These stages were each fifteen feet
and having offerings of enormous value de- high. The shrine or tabernacle was on the
posited in it. It inspired awe by its religious seventh and highest stage, which was fifteen
associations, and was not only a place of feet high and square. The entire stru(fture
worship, but a refuge to many on perilous was thus one hundred and fifty-six feet
occasions. high.
The Babylonian temple was usually sur- This temple was chiefly ornamented by
rounded by a walled enclosure, a square of means of color. The seven stages repre-
two stadia each way, or an area of thirty sented the Seven Spheres in which the seven
acres. The temple commonly consisted of planets were believed to move. Each planet
two parts.The siggurat, or tower, was was given a special hue or tint. The sun
either square or redlangular, and built in was golden, the moon silver, the planet Sa-
stages, ashigh as seven, or as low as two, turn black, Jupiter orange, Mars red, Venus
in number. A shrine or chapel containing a pale yellow. Mercury a deep blue. The
altars and images was at the top of the basement stage, assigned to Satuni, wa.s
tower. The towers were ascended on the blackened with bitumen. The second stage,
outside by means of winding steps or an in- that of Jupiter, was faced with burned bricks
clined plane. Either the sides or the angles of an orange hue. The third stage, that of
of the tower faced the cardinal points of the Mars, was made red with burned bricks of
compass. Diodonis Siculus said that the a bright red clay. The fourth stage, that
towers were used not only for worship, but of the sun, was covered with plates of gold.
'
CIVILIZATION. 291
The fifth stage, that of Venus, was faced I

of Babylon have already lêen described.
with bricks of a pale yellow tint. The sixth The Babylonian domestic architecture was
stage, that of Mercury, was given an azure of a poor and coarse style, and displayed
tint by vitrifa(5lion, the entire stage having little taste. The houses were three or four
been subje<5led to a great heat after it was stories high, but were of a rude construcftion;
erecfled,which gave the bricks a blue color. the pillars were palm posts surrounded with
The seventh stage, that of the moon, was wisps of rushes, and then pla.stered and
coated with silver plates. The basement painted.
stage had a number of square recesses. The The only Babylonian building material
third stage was supported by a number of was brick, two kinds, sun-
consisting of
low buttresses. The shrine was of brick, dried and kiln-burned, as was the case in
and is believed to have been richly orna- ancient Chaldsea and in Assyria. The Baby-
mented. The tower is believed to have lonians, however, only applied the sun-dried
fronted to the north-east, on which side was bricks to the platforms, and to the interior of
the ascent, believed to have been a broad palace mounds and of very thick walls, and
staircase extending along the entire front of never made that kind the only building ma-
the strudlure. The side platforms, towards terial. In all cases there was at least a
the south-east and north-west, were occupied rcv^tcmcnt of kiln-dried brick, while the
by a series of chambers abutting upon the more .splendid edifices were entirely built of
perpendicular wall. The side chambers that kind. The baked bricks were of sev-
communicated with vaulted apartments eral kinds and .sizes. The finest kind were
within the solid mass of the edifice. 3'ellow, another kind were blackish-blue,
The Babylonian palace stood upon a high while the ordinary and coarser kind were
mound or platform, like the Assyrian and pink or red. The bricks were always
the Susianian palace. The palace mound shaped square, and were twelve or fourteen
was usuallj' square, elevated about fifty or inches long and wide, and from three to
sixty feet. was built chieflj^ of sun-dried
It four inches thick. Half-bricks were used
bricks, enclo.sed on the outside bj' burnt in alternate rows at the comers of buildings.
bricks, and also on the inside. The whole They were always made with a mold, and
was carefully drained, and the waters were were usually stamped on one face with an
conveyed through underground channels to inscription. They were commonly laid hor-
the level of the plain at the base of the izontally, though sometimes vertically, sep-
mound. The Babylonian palaces are so arated from one another by single horizontal
completely ruined that no full description laj'ers.
of them can be given with certainty. The The Babylonians used three kinds of ce-
lines of the edificewere straight, the walls ment in their buildings. One kind was a
arose to a considerable height without win- crude clay, or mud, mixed with chopped
dows, and numbers of pilasters and but- straw. A better material was bitumen; but
tresses broke the flatness of the straight line. the niost common kind was mortar, or lime
The palace was often ornamented with cement.
sculptured stone slabs, on which were care- There are few remaining specimens of
fully-wrought figures of a small size. Dio- Babylonian mimetic art, and these are
dorus states that the general ornamentation mainly fragmentarj', and worn by time and
consisted of colored representations of war- exposure. Besides the quaint and grotesque
scenes and hunting-scenes on brick. Many intaglioson seals and gems, there are less
such representations have been found on than a half-dozen .specimens of their mimetic
the Kasr mound. They are alternated with art remaining. There is a sculpture of
cuneiform inscriptions, in white and on a blue a lion standing over the prostrate figure of a
ground, or with a patterning of rosettes in man, yet seen on the Kasr mound. There
the same colors. The '
' Hanging Gardens '
arc a few modeled clay figures. One is a

292 ANCIENT HISTOR Y.—BAD YLONIA.
statuette of a mother with a child seated on bracelets,armlets and dagger-handles, re-
a rough square pedestal. The mother is sembled the work of the Assyrians. Small
naked, except a hood on the head, and a bronze figures of dogs, monsters and gro-
narrow apron in front. The child sleeping tesque figures of men, were cast as orna-
on her left ann wears a short tunic, gathered ments for houses, furniture, etc.
into plaits. The statuette is about three The Babylonian pottery was excellent,
and a half inches high. There is a figure and the bricks were superior to the Assyr-
of a king, principally remarkable for the ian. The earthenware is of fine terra-cotta,
elaborate ornamentation of the head-dress usually of a light red color, and slightly
and the robes engraved on a large black baked, but sometimes of a yellow hue,
stone. This figure, supposed to represent tinged with green; and consists of cups,
Merodach-iddin-akhi, is now in the British jars, vases and other vessels, which appear
Museum. There are engraved animal forms to have been made upon the wheel. The
on black stones, such as the figure of a dog Babylonians had small glass bottles, several
sitting and the figure of a bird. The en- of which were found \>y Mr. Laj'ard in the
gravings on gems and cjdinders are grotesque Babil mound. Broken glass is found gener-
figures of men and animals, and men and ally in the rubbish of the mounds.
monsters. The most elaborate and artistic of The textile fabrics of the Babjdonians
the Babylonian works of art were the enam- were the most celebrated of all their pro-
elings on brick. According to the prophet du(5lions. Their carpets had acquired a
Ezekiel "the images of the Chaldasans, por- wide fame and were largely exported to
trayed upon the wall, were vermilion." foreign lands. They were dyed in various
Other colors were used in the adornment of colors, and represented griffins and other
palaces and public edifices, such as white, monsters. They ranked above all others in
blue, yellow, red, brown and black. the ancient world, as tho,se of the Turks and
The Babylonians also made considerable Persians do in the modern. The Babylonian
progress in the mechanical arts, such as cut- muslins were almost as celebrated as the
ting, boring and engraving hard stones, and carpets, and were fonned of the finest cotton
the arts of agriculture, metallurgy, pottery, and dyed with the most brilliant colors.
weaving, embroidery, etc. Besides the The Orientals regarded them as the best
softer stones,such as alabaster, serpentine, material for dress, and the Persian monarchs
and lapis-lazuli, the Babylonian artisans preferredthem to their own wear. Borsippa
worked the harder kinds, such as agate, was the chief .seat of the Babylonian linen
quartz, jasper, syenite, cornelian, lodestone, manufacture. Long linen robes were gen-
and green felspar, or amazon-stone. The erally woni by this people.
minuteness of the work in some of the Ba- In astronomy the Babylonians far excelled
bylonian seals and gems indicates that they all other ancient nations, as their Chaldaân
must have been engraved with the aid of a ancestors were the great pioneers in this sub-
powerful maguifying-glass. The art of cut- lime science. The first Greeks who made any
ting glass was well understood. advance in this science acknowledged them-
The Babylonians used gold and silver for selves the disciples of Babylonian teachers.
statues, and utensils, bronze for
furniture Hipparchus, the first great Greek astrono-
gates and images, and iron also for the lat- mer, mentioned the Babylonians as astro-
ter. They used lead and iron in building. nomical observers from a dimly-remote anti-
The golden images were sometimes solid, quity. Aristotle confessed that the Greeks
and .sometimes only plated. The silver im- were vastly indebted for astronomical infor-
ages, ornamental figures and utensils are mation to the Babylonians and Egyptians.
also believed to have been solid. The city Ptolemy made much u.se of the Babylonian
and palace gates were of bronze. The observations of eclipses. vSir Cornwall Lewis
metal-work of personal ornaments, such as says that "the Greeks were in the habit of
Cin/JZATION. 293
attributing the invention and original culti- recognized the Ram, the Bull, the Scorpion,
vation of astronomy either to the Babj'lon- the Serpent, the Dog, the Arrow, the Eagle
ians or to the Egyptians, and represented or Vulture. There are similar forms on
the earliest scientific Greek astronomers as othermonuments of a like characfler.
ha\ ing derived their knowledge from Baby- The Babylonians called the zodiacal con-
lonian or from Egyptian priests." stellations the " Hou.ses of the Sun, " and di.s-
We have alluded to tlie progress of the tinguished them from another set of a.ster-
early Chaldseans in astronomy. On the isms, which they designated the "Houses
broad, flat plains of Chakkea the clear sky, of the Moon." Thej' obser\'ed and calcu-
the dry atmosphere, and the level horizon, lated eclipses, but their knowledge was em-
afforded facilities for ob.servation and natur- pirical. We have noted of the early Chal-
rally first turned man's attention to the dseans that they discovered the period of
celestial hemisphere. At a very early date two hundred and twenty three lunations, or
the fixed stars were distinguished from five eighteen years and ten days, after which
larger linninaries which the Greeks called eclipses, particularly those of the moon,
"planets," which are the only movable recur again in the same order. Their
stars that can be seen without the aid of a knowledge of this cycle enabled them to
telescope of high magnifying power. They foretell lunar eclipses accurately for ages,
also soon discovered that the moon was a and solar eclipses with little inaccuracy for
wandering luminary, and observed that the the next few cycles.
sun rose and set in the vicinity of diflferent The Babylonians carefully noted and re-
constellations in different parts of the 3'ear. corded eclipses. Ptolemy had access to a
They arranged the stars in groups, or continuous series of such observations dating
"constellations," to mark out the courses of back from his own time to B. C. 747. From
the sun and moon among the stars. The Babylonian sources Hipparchus described
names of these constellations were derived eclipses of the moon for the years B. C. 721,
from some real or fancied resemblance of the 720, 621 and 523, the first of which was
groups to objedls with which the early total at Babylon, the others only partial.
observers were familiar. This department These obser\'ations are seen to answer
of astronomy is called uranography. Though every purpose of modern science. We have
these groupings of the fixed stars is mainly knowledge of Babylonian observations as
fanciful, its utility is inestimable, for by its far back as Nabonassar, B. C. 747, as that
means only are we enabled to point out indi- king, according to the account by Berosus,
vidual stars and retain in the memory a destroyed the previously-existing observa-
knowledge of their general arrangement and tions, so that exacft chronology might beg^n
relative positions. with his own reign.
This old Chaldsean, or Babylonian, uran- The Bab>'lonians arranged a catalogue of
ography is to this day recognized by scientific the fixed stars, which were employed by the
astronomers, and is represented on our globes Greeks in compiling their stellar tables.
and maps. The zodiacal constellations, es- They recorded their obser\-ations upon oc-
pecially those through which the sun's cultations of the planets by the sun and the
•course lies, originated, as we have said, moon. They invented two kinds of sun-
with the Chaldasans, and many of them are dials, "Cao. gnomon and \\\q polos, by means of
represented on Babylonian monuments of a which they could measure time during the
stellar charadler. A Babylonian conical day, and accurately establish the exac^
black stone now in the Briti.sh Mu.seum, and length of the solar day. They discovered
Ijelonging to the twelfth century lêfore the length of the synodic revolution of the
Christ, is an aiTangement of constellations moon within a small fracflion. The exa(5l
according to the forms assigned them in Ba- length of the Chaldaean year was three hun-
bylonian uranography. On this stone are dred and sixty-five days, six hours and
'
294 ANCIENT HIS TOR 1 '.—BAB YL ONIA.

eleven minutes; which is only two seconds like the tele.scope; as it is impossible, even
longer than the true sidereal year. Thej' in the clear and vaporless sky of Chaldgea,
obser\'ed comets,and believed them to be to see the moons of that remote planet with-
permanent bodies, revolving in orbits like out the aid of lenses. As we have said, a
those of the planets. They believed eclipses lens has been discovered among the Assyrian
of the sun to be due to the interposition of ruins. A people with sufficient ingenuity
the moon between the sun and the earth. to discover the magnifj-ing-glass would nat-
They knew very nearly the relative dis- urally be able to invent its opposite. The
tances of the sun, the moon and the planets existence of two opposite kinds of lenses
from the earth. Naturally adopting a geo- would furnish the elements of a telescope.
centric system, they decided that the moon Though a class of pure astronomers ex-
was nearest to the earth; that Mercury was isted among the Babylonians, most of those
beyond the moon, \'enus beyond Mercury, engaged in the study of astronomy followed
Mars bej'oud Venus, Jupiter beyond Mars, it because thej' believed that the heavenly
and Saturn beyond Jupiter. From the dif- bodies had some mysterious influence upon
ference in the periodic times of these lumin- the seasons, and also upon the lives and
aries the Babylonians inferred a correspond- fortunes of individuals, and that this influ-
ing difference in the size of the orbits, and ence could be discovered and foretold by
therefore their relative distances from the long and careful observation. The ancient
common center. Jewish and Greek writers bear witness to
The astronomical achievements of the this facft, and their testimony is confirmed
Babylonians thus upon the
far described rest by existing astronomical remains. Most of
authority of the ancient Greek and Roman the Babylonian tablets are of an astrological
writers. There are many Chaldrean and chara(5ter, recording the supposed influence
Babylonian astronomical tablets in the Brit- of the celestial bodies, singly, in conjunc-
ish Museum, which are not yet thoroughly tion, or in upon all earthly
opposition,
understood. It is said that there is clear affairs, from the kingdoms and em-
fate of
evidence that the Babj'lonians ob.ser\'ed the pires to the washing of hands or the paring
four satellites of Jupiter, and good reason for of nails. Says Rawlinson The modem
:
'
'
believing that thej^ had a knowledge of the prophetical almanac is the legitimate de-
seven satellites of Saturn. They .so well scendant and the sufficient representative of
understood the general laws of the mo\'e- the ancient Chaldee Ephemeris, which was
ments of the celestial bodies that they could just as .sill}^ just as pretentious, and just as
'
foretell the positions of the different planets worthless.

throughout the year. Chaldee astrology was chiefly genethli-
They must have employed some instru- alogical, inquiring under what a.specft of the
ments to acquire the knowledge which they heavens individuals were born or conceived,
possessed. We have observed that they in- and pretending to ascertain the entire life and
vented sun-dials to measure time during the fortunes of men from the position of the
day. The clepsj'dra, or water-clock, com- heavenly bodies at one or the other of these
monly used by the Greeks as early as the moments. Diodorus says that it was be-
fifth century before Christ, is believed to lieved that a particular star or constellation
have been a Babylonian invention. The watched over the birth of each individual,
astrolobe, an instrument used to measure the and thereafter exercised a special malign or
altitude of the stars above the horizon, and benignant influence over his life. His for-
which was known to Ptolemy, is likewise tunes depended on the whole aspe(5l of the
believed to have been invented by this peo- heavens, as well as tipon this one star.
ple. If, as believed, the satellites of Saturn Casting the horoscope was reproducing this
are mentioned upon the taljlets, the Baby- aspecft, and then reading bj' its means the
lonians must have had optical instruments destiny of the individual.
CIVILIZATION. 295
The Chaldseaus also pretended to predidl out .sleeves over it, and wear a fillet, or head-
changes of the weather, high winds and band. Figures of hunters attacking a lion,
storms, great heats, the appearance of com- a man accompanying a dog, and a warrior
ets, eclipses, earthquakes, etc., from the condu(5ling six captives, are represented on
stars. They published lists of lucky and cj-linders as dres.sed in short tunics. These
unlucky days, and tables indicating what tunics had no sleeves, and were seldom pat-
aspe<5l of the heavens portended good or terned. Rich worshipers are .sometimes rej)-
evil to particular nations. Sir Henrj^ Raw- resented dressed in coats without sleeves,
linson has discovered both lists among the fringed down both sides, and extending only
tablets. They considered their art as con- a below the knees. They have also a
little
fined to the countries occupied by them- fillet around the head.
selves and kinsmen; they being able

their The Babylonians are, with few excep-
good or poor crops,
to foretell storm, tempest, tions, represented with bare feet, though
war, famine, etc., for Syria, Babylonia and the .soldiers wore low boots, and the king
Susiana; but unable to prophesy concerning had a kind of check-work patterned shoe.
Media, Persia, Armenia or other countries. Herodotus, however, mentions them in his
Like our almanacs, their calendars predicfled time as wearing a "peculiar .shoe." He-
the weather for stated days. rodotus states that every Babylonian man
The Chaldsans also possessed consid- carried a seal and a walking-stick.
erable mathematical and their
learning, The king wore a long gown, reaching to
methods seem to have been geometrical. the feet, and elaborately patterned and
The Greek mathematicians are said to have fringed. Over this he had a close-fitting
quoted the works of such Chaldaeans a.-j sleeved vest, reaching to the knees, and end-
Ciden, Naburianus and Sudinus. ing in a set of heavy tassels. The girdle
Herodotus, Diodorus, Strabo and Nicolas was worn outside the outer vest, and in war
of Damascus have given accounts of the the king carried besides two cross-belts.
Babylonian manners and customs. He- Both the upper and under vests were ele-
rodotus tells us that this people wore a long gantly embroidered. From the girdle de-
linengown extending down to the feet, a pended in front a heavy tassel fastened by
woolen gown or tunic over this, a short a cord.
cloak or cape of a white color, and shoes The Babylonian monarch wôre a remark-
like those of the Boeotians. Their hair grew able tiara, being exceedingl}' high, almost
it
long, but was confined to the head by a cylindrical, slightly tending to swell out
head-band or a turban, and they always toward the crown, which was adorned with
carried a walking-stick with some kind of a a row of feathers around its whole circum-
carving on the handle. This description ference. The space below was patterned with
doubtless applies to the higher and wealthier rosettes, sacred trees and mj^thological fig-
classes. The prophet Ezekiel thus alludes ures. A projecftion of feathers rose from
to these people: "Girded with girdles upon the middle of the crown, rounded at the
their loins, exceeding in dyed attire upon top. This head-dress was worn low on the
their heads, all of them princes to look to, brow, and covered most of the back part of
after the manner of the Babylonians of the head.
Chaldasa, the land of their nativity." The Babylonian king also wore bracelets.
The cylinders represent the
poor wor- Nicolas of Damascus .says that a Babylonian
shiper bringing an offering to a god as go\'emor wore necklaces and ear-rings.
dressed in a tunic reaching from the shoul- The jjriests wore a long robe or gown with
der to the knee, ornamented with a diagonal flounces and stripes, over which they wore
fringe and confined to the waist by a belt. an open jacket. A long riband or scarf
Rich worshipers usually present a goat, and hung down their backs. They wore an
are attired in a tunic, with a long robe with- elaborate crown or mitre on their heads,
296 ANCIENT HISTORY.— BABYLONIA.
which was likewise assigned to many of the In the army of Xerxes the Babylonians
gods. Sometimes a horned cap was worn were infantry, but Darius, in the Behistun
instead of the mitre. The priests wore their Inscription, alludes to Babylonian horsemen;
heads uncovered in all sacrificial and cere- and the Babylonian armies which overran
monial adls. Syria, Palestine and Egypt consisted chiefly
The Babylonian soldiers were armed with of cavalry. The Babylonian armies, like
bows and arrows, spears, daggers, maces the Persian, consisted of immense hosts,
or clubs, and battle-axes, for weapons of poorly disciplined, comprising, besidesnative
offense; while their defensive armor con- Babylonian troops, contingents from the
sisted of bronze helmets, linen breast-plates subjedl nations, such as Susianians, Shu-
and shields. The prophet Ezekiel mentions hites, Assyrians and others. They marched
the shields and helmets of the Babylonians, with great noise and tumult, scattering over
and also their battle-axes; while Jeremiah the country invaded, plundering and de-
mentions their spears and swords, and their stroying on every side. They assailed the
breast-plates. The favorite weapon of the weaker towns with battering-rams, and
Babylonians was the bow, as attested by the raised mounds before the stronger to the top
Old Testament and the native monuments. of the walls, which they then easily scaled
The figure of a king is represented as car- or broke down. They were noted for their
rying a bow; while the soldier conducfling determined persistence and unyielding per-
captives has a bow, an arrow and a quiver. .severance in sieges, only taking Jerusalem
An old Chaldsean monument represents a in the third year, and Tyre in the fourteenth.
king with a bow and arrow, a club and a Omens often decided which country was to
dagger. There is a cylinder representing a be next attacked.
lion disturbed in the a(5l of feasting off an Diodorus described the Babylonian priests
ox by two rustics, one of whom attacks him as a caste devoted to the service of their
in front with a spear, while the other, seizing gods and to the study of philosophy. He
his tail, assails him from behind with an ax. says that they were highly esteemed by the
The Babylonian armies consisted of char- people. They guarded the temples and
iots, cavalry and infantry. The cylinders served at the altars of the gods, to interpret
.sometimes represent a curious four-wheeled dreams and prodigies, to understand omens,
car, drawn by four lior.ses, with a raised to read the warnings of the stars, and to in-
platform in front and a seat behind for the form men how to escape the perils with
driver. The Jewish prophet Habakkuk, in which they were thus menaced, by purifi-
speaking of the Babylonian cavalrj', said: cations, incantations and sacrifices. No
"They are terrible and dreadful." He also one questioned their traditional knowledge
said:. "Their horses also are swifter than transmitted from father to son. The people
the leopards, and are more fierce than the considered them as in possession of a wis-
evening wolves; and their horsemen shall dom of the highest importance to the human
spread them.selves, and their horsemen shall race.
come from far; they shall fly as the eagle The Book of Daniel describes a class of
that hasteth to eat." Ezekiel, alluding to "wise men" at Babylon, chief of which were
"the Babylonians and all of the Chaldas- the Chaldseans, who are noted for a partic-
ans," referred to the " desirable 3-oung men, ular "learning" and a particular "tongue,"
captains and great lords and re-
rulers, and who expounded dreams and prodigies.
nowned; all of them riding upon horses." They were in high favor with the king, who
Jeremiah .spoke of the Babylonian chariots frequently consulted them. These "wise
and cavalry thus: "Behold, he shall come men" were of four classes, according to
up as clouds, and his chariots shall be as a their occupations
— "Chaldaians, magicians,
whirlwind; his horses are swifter than eagles. astrologers and soothsayers." Jews were
Woe unto us for we are spoiled."
! enrolled among these "wise men, "and the
'
CIMl.I/.ATION. 297
prophet Daniel was made chief of the whole added to their wealth and to the esteem in
order by King Nebuchadnezzar. As a dis- which they were held.
tinifl order, these
'
' wise men had consider-

'
' The Babylonians were a great manufac-

able power in the state. They had diredl turing and commercial people. Their com-
communication with the king, and were be- merce was both foreign and domestic. Many
lieved to be endowed with a supernatural were engaged in manufadluring the textile
])ower to foretell future events, as well as fabrics for which the Babylonians were so
in pos.session of human learning; and some famous, e.specially carpets and muslins.
of them held high civil offices. Many were engaged as engravers on hard
Herodotus mentions the Chaldaeans as stone, with which the seal carried by every
"priests;" and Strabo .says that they were Babylonian was adorned. The trades and
"philosophers," employed t:hiefly in as- handicrafts commonly pradliced in the Ea.st
tronomy. Strabo al.so states that they were also flourished in Babylonia. An acftive and
divided into secfts, differing from each other constant import and export trade was kept
in their doctrines. The Babylonian priests up. The Jewish prophet Ezekiel called Ba-
were an order, not a caste; and, as in Egypt bylonia
'
' and Babylon a

a land of traffic,
'
'
'
'
and Persia, they were an esteemed and im- city of merchants." Isaiah said that "the
Priests may have brought was in their ships.
' ' '
portant class. cry of the Chaldseans ' '
up their sons to their own occupation, but The monuments show that the primitive
other persons, even foreigners, were admited Chaldceans navigated the Persian Gulf, and
to the order and to its highest privileges. yEschylus calls the Babylonians in the army
The Babj'lonian priesthood was a sacerdotal of Xerxes "navigators of ships."
and learned having a literature writ-
bod}-, The Babylonians imported frankincense
ten in a peculiar language, which its mem- from Arabia; pearls, cotton, and wood for
bers were obliged to study. This language walking-sticks from the Persian Gulf; dogs
and literature were inherited from the times and gems from India. Strabo says that they
of the earl}' Chaldaean Empire, and were had a colony called Gerra, on the Arabian
thus transmitted to Assyria and later Baby- coast of the Persian Gulf and this colony
lonia. was a great emporium through which the
They professed especially a knowledge of Babylonian trade to the north and the south
astronomy, astrology and mythology, and was conducted. The products of Western
may have also studied history, chronology, Asia were carried down into Babylonia by
grammar, law and natural science. They the courses of the Tigris and Euphrates.
were dispersed over the countr}-, but had Wine, gems, emery and building stone were
special seats of learning at Erech, or Orchoe imported from Armenia and Upper Mesopo-
(now Warka), at Borsippa (the site of the tamia; tin and copper from Phoenicia and fine ;
present Birs-i-Nimrud), and at other places. wool, lapis-laziili, silk, gold and ivory from
They were diligent and ingenious students, Media and the distant East. But these ar-
divided into se<5ls with different docftrines, ticles were brought to Babylon mainly by
and given to speculation. They particularly foreign merchants. The Armenians and
cultivated astronomy with success, and the Phoenicians, and perhaps also the Greeks,
value of their knowledge in this science was used the route of the Euphrates for the
afterwards acknowledged b}' the Greeks. transportation of goods. The Assyrians,
The high socially, having
priests stood the Medes and the Paretaceni floated their
access to the king, and being feared and re- goods down the Tigris and its tributaries.
spedleu by the people. They were made A great portion of the Babylonian people
wealthy by the offerings of the faithful, and were engaged in agriculture. Babylonia
their occupation as interpreters of the will was chiefly a grain-producing country, the
of the gods secured them influence. The wonderful fertility of whose soil has been
civil offices frequently conferred upon them noted in our account of ancient Chaldaca.
1— i9.-r. H.
298 ANCIENT HISTOR Y.—DAD YLONIA.
The deep and rich aUuvium was cultivated dred and fifty women, some singing and
with the greatest care. As before mentioned others playing on the pipe, the harp and the
wheat, barley, millet and sesame flourished psalter},'. The prophet Daniel assigns the
in luxuriant abundance. Bj- means of ca- same instruments along
to the Babylonians,
nals the countrj' was irrigated. Groves of with the horn, the sambuca and the sym-
date-palm furnished the chief article of food. //w«?^, or "symphony." The Babylonians
Little beyond a proper water supply was also usedmusic in their religious ceremonies.
needed for the cultivation of the date. The Daniel mentions their musical instruments
female palm-tree can only produce fruit by in connedlion with Nebuchadnezzar's dedi-
the pollen of the male palm coming in contad; cation of a gigantic idol of gold, when the
with its blossoms. Herodotus states that worshipers were obliged to prostrate them-
the Babylonians tied the branches of the selves before the idol upon hearing the
male to those of the female palm. music begin.
Artificial means increased the yield of the Women were not kept in the same seclu-
date-palm in Babylonia. The seeds and cut- sion in Babylonia as in other Oriental coun-
tings were planted in a sandy soil, to which tries, as is apparent from the two curious
salt was applied if necessary. Abundant customs mentioned by Herodotus the sale —
watering was required, and transplantation of the marriageable maidens at public
was resorted to at the close of the first and audlion to the highest bidder, and the relig-
second year. The ground was broken with ious prostitution enjoined in the worship of
a plow drawn by two oxen. Beltis. On the Babylonian cylinders are
Dates were the chief food of the Baby- frequently found images of a goddess suck-
lonians, and on this fruit and goat's milk ling a child, and also many representations
the poorer class mainly subsisted. Palm- of women engaged in diSerent employments.
wine was an occasional beverage. In the Sometimes they are represented in a pro-
marshy regions of the South fish was the cession visiting the shrine of a goddess, and
principal food of .some tribes of Chaldaeans. sometimes thej' are seen among birds and
The wealthy indulged in luxuries, such as flowers in a garden, plucking the fruit from
wheat bread, meats, luscious fruits, fish, dwarf palms and handing it to one another.
game and imported wine. The rich also They are dressed in a long but scanty robe
drank to excess. They had magnificent extending to the feet, and wear a fillet, or
banquets, which usually ended in drunken- band, round the head, confining the hair,
ness. Bands of musicians entertained the which is turned back behind the head, and
guests. The display of gold and silver tied by a riband, or held up by the fillet.
plate, the magnificent dresses of the guests, The modeled clay image represents bracelets
the beautiful carpets and hangings, the and ear-rings as woni by the women. A
many attendants, all contributed to the single representation of a priestess exhibits
splendor of the scene. that class as wearing petticoats only, thus
The Babylonians and Susianians were exposing the entire bod)' above the waist.
both fond of music. Ctesias and Daniel A few Babj-lonian cylinders have been
testify to the musical taste of the Babylon- found representing saws and hatchets, stools,
ians. Ctesias states that Annarus. or Nan- chairs, tables, and stands for water-jars.
narus, a Babylonian noble, enlivened a ban- The Babylonian furniture was made from
quet with the music of a band of one hun- the wood of the palm-tree.
'
RELIGION. 299
SECTION IV.— BABYLONIAN RELIGION.

dHK later Babylonian religion Among the titles which Nebuchadnezzar
lieiiii; almost identical with assigned to Merodach were the following;
the old Chaldsean, it will not "The great lord," "the first-born of the
be necessarj' to go into detail gods," "the most ancient," " the supporter
upon the subjedl in this con- of sovereignty," "the king of the heavens
necftion. The early ChaldEeans, and their and the earth." Nabonadius, however, re-
successors in the same country, the later stored Bel to his former place among the
Babylonians, worshiped the same gods in gods, as distindl from and above Merodach,
the same temples and with the same rites, and showed particular devotion to the for-
and had the same cosmogon}', the same re- mer. This is proven bj^ the fa(5l that in his
ligious sj-mbols, and the same priestly cos- da3' the great temple at Babj-lon was known
tume. If Urukh or Chedorlaomer could as the temple of Bel, and by the additional
have risen from their graves, and again circumstance that Nabonadius named his
visited the shrines in which thej' had offered eldest son Belshazzar, meaning
'
Bel pro- '
sacrifices fourteen centuries before, the}' tects my sou.

'
would have seen little difference between In the same way the goddesses Beltis and
the ceremonies of their own times and those Ishtar, or Nana, are often confounded,
of the ages of Nabopolassar and Nebuchad- though the same was the case in this in-
nezzar. In the later times the temples and stance in the old Chaldaean monarch3\ The
the idols were more magnificent, music was basis of this confusion of deities was the
more extensively emploj'ed in the ceremo- esoteric docflrine known by the priests and
nial, and corruption concerning priestlj' im- taught b^' them to the kings, showing the
postures and popular religious customs made acftual identity of the several gods and god-
some advance; but in other respedls the re- desses, whom the more intelligent and better
ligion of Nabonadius and Belshazzar was informed may have considered various
like that of Urukh and Ilgi, the religion of phases of the Divine Nature and not as sep-
both periods being the same in the objedts arate and distindl deities. The ancient
and the mode of worship, in the theological polythei.sms apparently had this origin
ideas entertained and the ceremonial observ- among all nations, the various names and
ances and pracflices. titles of the Supreme Being designating His
The repair and restoration of the ancient different attributes or His different spheres
temples by Nebuchadnezzar, and their re- of adlion gradually coming to be misappre-
dedication to the same deities, attests at hended by the ignorant masses, who re-
once the identity of the gods and goddesses garded this seeming difference as appella-
wonshiped, as do likewise the old appella- tions of a number of deities.
tions of the gods as elements in the names Bel, Merodach and Nebo were the deities
of the later kings and nobles. But with all chiefly worshiped by the later Bab)-lonians,
this general unifonnity, there was a fludtua- as attested by the native monuments, and
tion of rankand place among the gods confirmed by the Jewish writers. Nebo, the
at various times, and distindl deities were special deity of Bor.sippa, was considered
often confounded with each other. Nebu- a kind of powerful patron-.saint, under whose
chadnezzar showed special devotion to Mero- protedlion it was regarded important to place
dach, bestowing upon him titles of honor individuals. Nebo's name is the mo.st com-
signifying his supremacy over all the mon divine element in the names of the kings
other gods, and identifying him with Bel, and courtiers of the later Babylonian mon-
the ancient tutelary god of Babylon. ;
archy. Three of the seven monarchs of the
300 ANCIENT HISTORY.—BABYLONIA.
kingdom had names composed with Nebo's ess in the inner .shrine of the temple of Bel,
— Nabopolassar, Nebuchadnezzar and Na- which was furnished by the priests with a
bonadius. Among courtiers we find such magnificent couch and a golden table.
names as Nebu-zar-adaii, Samgar-Nebo and Some of the idols were of wood, others of
Nebu-shazbau. It is also believed that stone, and others again of metal, either
Nebuchadnezzar's Master of the Eunuchs solid or plated. The metals used were gold,
named one of the young Jewish princes silver, brass or bronze, and iron. Sometimes
whom he was educating Abed-Nebo, "the the metal was laid over a cla}- model. In
servant of Nebo" — a name which the Jews some instances images of one metal were
afterwards corrupted into Abed-nego. overlaid with plates of another, as in the
Nergal was also highly reverenced by the case of one of the great images of Bel, origi-
Babylonians. He was worshiped at Cutha as nally of silver, but coated with gold by Nebu-
the tutelary divinity of the city, and was chadnezzar.
also greatly esteemed by the nation in gen- The Bab\-lonian worship was conducfted
eral. His name is often found on cylinder with great pomp and magnificence. A body
.seals; and is sometimes an element in the of priests in each temple condu6ted the cer-
names of men, as in " Nergal-shar-ezer, the emonies and held custody of the treasures.
Rag-Mag," and in Neriglissar, the king. The priests were married, and lived with
The Babylonian religion had a strong their families in the temple itself or in its
local charadler. Bel and Merodach were the immediate vicinity. They were supported
special gods of Babylon; Nebo of Borsippa; by lands belonging to the temple or by the
Nergal of Cutha; the Moon-god of Ur, or offerings of the faithful. These offerings
Hur; Beltis of Niffer; Hea, or Hoa, of Hit; were usualh' animals, mostly oxen and
Ana of Erech, or Huruk; the Sun-god of goats, which are sacrificial animals repre-
Sippara, etc. These deities were particu- sented on the cylinders. The always
priest
larly honored at their respedlive places, inter\'ened between the worshiper and the
though all were recognized in a general way deities, introducing him to them and mak-
throughout the land. Each god was speci- ing intercession in his behalf with upraised
ally worshiped in his own city, where was hands.
located his most magnificent shrine. A god In the temple of Bel at Babylon, and per-
was only respecfted to any account out of his haps most of the temples throughout
in
own city by such as considered him their Bab)'lonia, a great festival was celebrated
special personal protedtor. once a year. Many vidtims were sacrificed
The Babylonians worshiped their deities on such occasions, and on the great altar in
direcftly through their images, thus giving the precinct of Bel at Babylon it was the cus-
their religion the same idolatrous charadter tom to burn a thousand talents' weight of
bestowed upon by the Assyrians. Each
it frankincense. There were processions ac-
shrine had one idol at least, and this idol companied b}' music and dancing. The
was most impiously reverenced by the igno- priests were magnificently costumed. The
rant, who identified it in some way with the people were in holiday attire. Banquets
god whom it represented. Some of them were held, and the city was given up to
appear to have believed that the idol ate and merry-making. The king entertained his
drank the offerings; while others regarded the lords in his palace. There was dancing and
idol as a mere symbol of the god, who was revelry' in private dwellings. Wine was
supposed to paj' an occasional visit to the drunk freely, passion was aroused, and the
shrine where he was worshiped. Tho.se who day often ended in wild orgies, in which the
held the last docflrine nevertheless enter- gro.ssest sensual appetites were allowed free
tained gross anthropomorphic views, as they indulgence under the san<5lion of religion.
regarded the god as coming from heaven to In the temples of one deity such excesses
earth to pass the night with the chief priest- occurred daily. Every Babylonian woman
—
RELIGION.
was obliged once in her lifetime to visit a every subsequent a<5l of the same kind.
shrine of Ikltis, and stay there until some Every vessel touched by either was con-
stranger cast money into her lap and took taminated with this impurity. In order to
her along with him. Herodotus witnessed cleanse themselves of this impurity, the pair
this scene, which he described as follows: were obliged first to sit down before a censer
"Many women of the wealthier sort, who of burning incense, and then to wash them-
are too jiroud to mix with the others, drive selves thoroughly. Onl^' by these means
in covered carriages to the precincfl, followed were they able to again enter a condition of
by a goodly train of attendants, and there legal cleanliness. A like impurity affecfted
take their station. But the larger number such as came into contact with a human
.seatthemselves within the holy enclosure, corpse.
with wreaths of string about their heads The Babylonian .symbolism in religion
and here there is always a great crowd, some was quite extensive. First they assigned to
coming and others going. Lines of cord each god a special mystic number, which
mark out paths in all dire<ftions among the was used as his emblem and might also
women; and the .strangers pass along them stand for his name in an inscriptian. To
to make their choice. A woman who has Anu, Bel, and Hea, or Hoa —
the gods of
once taken her seat is not allowed to return —were given respecftively the
the First Triad
home till one of the strangers throws a sil- numbers 50 and 40. To the Moon-god,
60,
ver coin into her lap, and takes her with the Sun-god and the Air-god — the gods of
him beyond the holy ground. When he the Second Triad — were assigned the num-
throws the coin, he says these words: 'The bers 30, 20 and 10. To Beltis was attached
goddess Mylitta (Beltis) prosper thee. The ' the number Nergal 12, to Bar, orNin,
15, to
silver coin may be of any size; it cannot be 40, as to Hea, or Hoa, but this last is un-
refused, for that is forbidden by the law, certain. Other numerical emblems remain
since once thrown it is sacred. The woman undiscovered.
goes with the first man who throws her There were likewi.se pi(5lorial s\-mbols of
mone}^ and rejedts no one. When she has the various gods, as represented on the cyl-
gone with him, and so satisfied the goddess, inders, many of these forms filling every
she returns home; and from that time forth vacant space where room could be found for
no gift, however great, will prevail with her. them. A certain number may be given
Such of the women as are tall and beautiful definitely to particular divinities. A circle,
are soon released but others, who are ugly,

; either plain or crossed, symbolized San, or
have to stay a long time before thej- can ful- Shamas, the Sun-god; a six-rayed or eight-
fill the law. Some have even waited three rayed star the Sun-goddess, Gula, or Anu-
or four years in the precin(5t." Thus pros- nit; a double or triple thunderbolt the Air-
titution was enjoined as a religious duty, god, Vul; a serpent probably Hea, or Hoa;
and its demoralizing tendency could not a naked female form Ishtar, or Nana; a fish
well be exaggerated. The statement of Bar, or Nin. There is a multitude of other
Herodotus, that "from that time forth no symbols, whose meaning is ob.scure; such as
gift, however great, will prevail with a Baby- a double cross, a jar or bottle, an altar, a
lonian woman," is not repeated by Strabo, double lozenge, one or more birds, an ani-
and is bluntly contradicfted by Quiutus mal between a monkey and a jerboa, a dog,
Curtius. a double horn, a sacred tree, an ox, a bee, a
The BabA-lonian system had
religious spear-head. The inscribed cylinders inform
notions concerning legal cleanliness and un- us that the.se emblems do not refer to the
cleanliness similar to those prevailing among god or goddess mentioned in the inscription
the Jews. The}' belie\-ed that both man and upon them. Each seemingly represents a
woman were made impure by the consum- distinct deity, and their appearance upon a
mation of the marriage rite, and also by cylinder implies the devotion of the man
302 ANCIENT HIS TOR Y.—BAB YL ONIA.
whose seal it is to other deities besides those of Bel at Babylon was known as Bit-Sag-
whose particular servant he regards himself. gath; that of the same god at Niffer as
In some instances one cylinder has eight or Kharris-Nipra; that of Beltis at Erecli (now
ten such emblems. Warka) as Bit- Ana; that of the Sun-god at
The principalBabylonian temples had Sippara as Bit-Parra; that of Anunit at tlie
special sacrednames transmitted from the same place as Bit-Ulmis; that of Nebo at
old Chaldsean times, and belonged to the Borsippa as Bit-Tsida. These names seldom
Turanian form of speech. The great temple admit of explanation.
.\ SVKIAM SIIKl'HKRU.
—
CHAPTER VI.
KINGDOMS OF ASIA MINOR.

SECTION I.— GEOGRAPHY OF ASIA MINOR.
ilSIA MINOR is a large penin- du(5lions, and many portions of it are ex-
sula, forming the western extremely fertile. The Black
coasts of the
tremity of Asia, and is now a Sea are considered the finest portions of Asia
part of the Ottoman, or Turk- Minor. The western shores, along the
ish Empire. It is bounded on vEgean, are likewise productive, and have
the north by the Euxine, or Black Sea; on always been noted for their delightful cli-
the east bj' Armenia; on the south by the mate.
Mediterranean; and on the west by the The rivers of Asia Minor, though small,
^gean Sea (Grecian Archipelago), the Hel- are celebrated in history. The Halys (now
lespont (Dardanelles), the Propontis (Sea of Kizil-Ermak) anciently divided Paphlagonia
Marmora), and the Bosphorus. and Pontus, and is the largest river of Asia
The term Asia Minor, or Lesser Asia, Minor, being about three hundred and Mty
was given to this peninsula in the middle miles long. The Iris (Yeshil-Ermak) is a
ages. The region is now called Anatolia, considerable river.The Thermodas (Tar-
or Natalia, meaning the East, or the place meh) flowed through Themiscyra, the home
where the sun rises; being thus equivalent of the fabled Amazons. The Sangarius
to the French term Leva?it, as often applied (Sakaria) is the second river in length. All
to the shores along the eastern portion of these and numerous smaller streams rise in
the Mediterranean. the Anti-Taurus mountain range, and flow
Asia Minor hundred miles in extent
is five north into the Black Sea. The rivers in the
from east to west, and two hundred and South are small. The Granicus (Ousvo-
sixty from north to south, having an area la)— famed for the first great vicftory of
of about one hundred thousand square Alexander the Great over the Persians
miles, or about half that of France. It is flows north into the Propontis. The Her-
in the same latitude as the Middle States of mus and its tributary, the Padlolus, were
our Union, but has a warmer climate. In celebrated for the gold found in their sands.
the North, along the Black Sea, ice and The Meander was remarkable for its wind-
snow are somtimes seen in winter. In ings, and thence was derived the term mean-
the elevated central regions the winters are dering, as u.sed in describing a crooked
very severe. In the South the seasons are stream. These and other small rivers flowed
mild; and here such fruits as figs, oranges, west into the ^gean.
lemons, citrons and olives are yielded in Two mountain ranges traverse Asia Minor
large quantities. Corn, wine, oil, honey, from east to west, the southern range being
coffee, myrrh and frankincen.se are pro- the Taurus, and the northern the Anti-Tau-
duced in abinidance in A.sia Minor. The rus. Some of their summits are twelve
countrj' has varied .soil, climate and pro- thou.sand feet high, and arc perpetually
(305)
3o6 ANCIENT HISTORY.—ASIA MINOR.
covered with snow. Many peaks of these in ancient and mediaeval times. It has been
mountains are renowned in history. Mount rendered famous by the personal prowess
Cragus was the supposed abode of the fabled and the martial deeds of Achilles, Darius,
Chimera. Mount Ida was the place where Xerxes, Alexander the Great, Mithridates,
Paris adjudged to Venus the prize of beauty. Pompey, Caesar, Tamerlane, Bajazet and
Mount Sipylus was the residence of Niobe. Mohammed II.
The sides of these mountains produce rich There is very little unity in the history
forests of oak, ash, elm, beech, etc. Here of Asia Minor. Only three of its ancient
the plane-tree reaches its perfedlion. These independent kingdoms are of any import-
forests yield a never-failing supply of tim- ance —Cilicia, Phn,-gia and Lydia the last—
ber for the Turkish navy. of which was the most powerful, and was
Asia Minor has many fresh and salt water contemporary with the great empires of
lakes. The mountains divide the surface Media and Babylonia. Since the fall of the
into long valleys and deep gorges, with last of these, Asia Minor has been under the
many plateaus. In the more elevated table- successive dominion of the Persians, the
lands of the center, the South and the Macedonian Greeks, the Romans, the vSeljuk
South-east are still lakes. The fresh water Turks, the Mongol Tartars, and for the last
lakes are in the North-west, in the ancient five centuries luider the Ottoman Turks,
Bithynia, being of considerable size.
five under who,se pernicious rule the country
Of Ascanius is celebrated for its
these, the has everywhere fallen into decay.
beauty, and on its eastern shore is the city The petty states or divisions of ancient
of Nice (now Isnek), famous for the eccle- Asia Minor varied in their respe(5live bound-
siastical council held there in A. D. 325, aries at different times, and some of them
which established Christianity as the state were only geographical divisions or depend-
religion of the Roman Empire, ent provinces of other states, while others
Asia Minor abounds in mineral wealth. were independent kingdoms at various pe-
The Chalybes, in the North-east, were early riods. In the northern part of the peninsula,
celebrated as metal-workers. Copper is bordering on the Euxine, beginning from
found near Trebizond, the ancient Trapezus, the west, were Bithynia, Paphlagonia and
and other places along the Black Sea. Pontus. In the western portion, bordering
There are likewise mines of lead, cinnabar on the j-Egean, beginning from the north,
and rock-alum. The gold of the Pa(?tolus were Mysia, Lydia and Caria. In the south-
filled the treasury of the Lydiau kings. Vol- ern part, bordering on the Mediterranean,
canic convulsions have made deserts of cer- commencing from the west, were Lycia, Pam-
tain spots in Asia Minor. Many of the old phylia and Cilicia. In the interior, begin-
Roman roads in the country yet remain. ning from the west, were Phrj-gia, Galatia,
Along the southern coast of Asia Minor, Lycaonia, Pisidia, Isauria and Cappadocia.
in the Mediterranean, are the beautiful The western part of Mysia, on the coast,
islands of Cyprus and Rhodes. On the was called Lesser Phrj'gia, Troas, or the
western shores, in the ^-Egean, are the fine Troad. It was famous for the Trojan plains
islands of Cos, Icaria, Samos, Chios and and the city of Troj', immortalized by
lyesbos; all of whose history is closely con- Homer.
necfled with that of the adjacent territory Bithynia, Paphlagonia and Pontus were
upon the mainland. skirted with Greek colonies on the Euxine
Asia Minor played a considerable part in coast, during the period of Grecian com-
the drama of the world's history, and was the merce. The Hah's and Sangarius, the prin-
theater of man}- important events. Though cipal rivers of Asia Minor, which flow north
never the .seat of an\- veiy great empire — the into the Euxine, were in this .se<ftion.
ancient Lydian being the most ])owerful — its The whole western or Êgean coast of the
soil witnessed many struggles for dominion peninsula, in Mjsia, Lydia and Caria, were
PHRYCIA AND CILICIA. 307
colonized hy the Greeks, whose commercial donian Greeks became masters of the coun-
cities in Ionia, ôlia and Doris were the tr>', the chief of which were Apamca, Lao-
most flourishing^ free states of antiquity, dicea and Colossc.

prior to their conquest by the Persians. The Galatia was .so called from a horde of
chief Greek cities of Asia Minor were Ephe- Gauls who entered the country in the third
sus, Smyrna, Miletus and Halicarnassus. century before the Christian era. Lsauria
—
Lydia at first called Mteonia was the — and Lj-caonia were intersecfted by the Taurus
richest and most fertile, and ultimately the mountain chain. Cappadocia lay between
most famous and the most powerful, coun- the rivers Halys and Euphrates, and its
try of Asia Minor. Its renowned capital and chief town was Mazaca.
metropolis, Sardis, was situated on the river Caria was chiefly celebrated for the prcs-
Pacftolus at the foot of Mount Tmolus, fa- perous Greek colonies on its coa.st. Lycia,
mous for its rich veins of gold. Magnesia Pisidia and Pamphylia were mountainous
and Philadelphia were other leading cities regions in the South. Cilicia was in the
of Lydia. South-east, and was separated from Syria by
The limits of Phr>-gia were constantly the Amanus mountains; its chief cities be-
changing. were Gordium, the
Its chief cities ing Tarsus and Anchiale, both foimded by
capital, and Celaense in ancient times; but Sennacherib, the renowned Ass\-rian mon-
many others were erected when the Mace- arch.
SECTION 11.— PHRYGIA AND CILICIA.

pN EARLY times Asia Minor was and containing a number of salt lakes. The
occupied by various Aryan na- Phr\-gians were a brave, but brutal race, en-
tions — Phr>'gians, Cilicians, gaged chiefly in agriculture, particularly- in
Lydians, Carians, Paphlago- the culture of the vine. They migrated
nians and Cappadocians —who from the mountains of Annenia, bringing
migrated into the country from the East in with them a tradition of the Deluge and of
primitive times, and were almost equal in the resting of the ark on Mount Ararat. In
power. This equality, along with the nat- primitive times they lived in caves or habi-
ural division of the country by mountain tations which they hollowed out of the
ranges, prevented the growth of a powerful rocks on the sides of the hills, and many of
empire in Asia Minor, and favored the de- these rock-cities can yet be found in every
velopment of a number of parallel, inde- portion of Asia Minor. Before the time of
pendent kingdoms. Herodotus states that Homer, however, the Phrj-gians had well-
the country contained thirty nations in his built towns and a flourishing commerce.
time. Their religion consisted of many dark and
The Phr>'gians are said to have been the mysterious rites, some of which were subse-
firstAryan immigrants into Asia Minor, and quently adopted \>y the Greeks. The wor-
they probabh' at one time occupied the .ship of Cybele, and of Sabazius, the god of
whole peninsula, but successive migrations the vine, was accompanied by the wildest
of other tribes from the east and the west music and dancing.
pressed them in from the coast, except in The Phrj-gians appear to have had a well-
the region just south of the Hellespont, and organized monarchy about B. C. 750, or
caused them to settle in the center of the probably earlier, their capital lieing Gor-
peninsula, where they occupied a large and dium, on the Sangarius river. Their kings
fertile country, abounding in rich pastures were alternately named Gokdi.^s and MiD.\s,
3o8 ANCIENT HISTORY.— ASIA MINOR.
but we have no clironological list of these. nacherib about B. C. 701. That great As-
Phrygia declined as Lydia grew powerful, syrian king founded in Cilicia the city of
and was conquered by Lydia and became a Tarsus, about B. C. 685 — afterwards so re-
province of that monarchy about B. C. 560. nowned as the birth-place of St. Paul. Cili-
Cilicia occupied the south-eastern part of cia having again revolted against Assyrian
Asia Minor, and was a rich and fertile rule, Esar-haddon invaded and ravaged the
countrj', whose inhabitants were employed country about B. C. 677. A king named
in agriculture. It was an independent mon- Tyennesis ascended the throne of Cilicia
archy during the early period of the Assyr- about B. C. 616, and thereafter all the CiU-
ian kingdom. It was subdued by Sargon, cian monarchs bore that name. Cilicia
who, about B. C. 711, bestowed the country maintained her independence against Lydia,
on Ambris, King of Tubal, as a dowry for but was conquered by the Persians and be-
his daughter, thus making it tributary to came a province of the vast Medo-Persian
Assyria. Having revolted from Assyria, Empire during the reign of Cambyses, the
Cilicia was invaded and ravaged by Sen- son and successor of Cyrus the Great.
SECTION III.— KINGDOM OP LYDIA.

HE most famous, and ulti- who coined money.They "were one of the
mately the most powerful, of earliestcommercial people on the Mediterra-
all the kingdoms of Asia nean, and their scented ointments, rich car-
Minor was Lydia, at first pets, and skilled laborers or slaves were
called Mseonia. Its territory highly celebrated. The Greeks received from
varied in geographical extent at different them the Lydian flute, and subsequently
times. Lydia proper was bounded on the the cithara of three and of twenty strings, and
north hy Mysia, on the east by Phrj'gia, on imitated their harmony. The Homeric
the south by Caria, and on the west by the poems describe the Lydians, or Masones, as
Êgean sea. It ultimately embraced the men on horseback, clad in armor, and speak
whole peninsula, except Lycia, Cilicia and of their commerce and wealth. It seems
Cappadocia. Sardis, its renowned capital that the worship of the Lydians resembled
and metropolis, was situated on the Pacflo- that of the Syrians, and was polluted with
lus, at the foot of Mount Tmolus, with its itsimmoral pra<5lices. The ancient writers
strong citadel on the side of a lofty hill with often mention the depravity of the Lj'dians,
a perpendicular precipice on one side. The while admitting their skill and courage in
other cities of Lydia were Magnesia, at the war. When subdued they submitted quietly
foot of Mount Sipylus; Thyatira and Phila- to their conquerors."
delphia. Ephesus was the chief of the According to Josephus, the Lydians were
Greek cities on the coast of Lydia. The named from Lud, a son of Shem. Herod-
original territory of Lydia was noted for its otus, however, derives the name from
wonderful fertility and for its mineral wealth. Lydus, an ancient king of the countrJ^
The Padtolus, a branch of the Hennus, car- An absolute hereditary monarchy was early
ried a rich supply of gold from the sides of established in Lydia. Three successive dy-
Mount Tmolus, and this precious metal was nasties governed the country —
the Atyada^
washed into the streets of Sardis. Mounts so called from Atys, the son of Manes, the
Tmolus and vSipylus contained rich veins of first of the kings regarding whom no dis-
gold. The Lydians were celebrated for their tinct account is given; the Heraclida;, or de-
wealth and culture, and were the first people scendants of Hercules; and the Mermnada,
LYDIA. 309
under whom Lydia ultimatel}- became a fully, but capturing the Ionic city of Colo-
powerful kingdom. phon. Herodotus, Eusebius, Nicolas of
Herodotus us tliat the Lydian tradi-
tells Damascus, and Xanthus are our main
tions represented Ninus and Belus as going authorities for the history of Lydia thus far
from Lydia to found the cities of Nineveh related. Some tell us that Gyges also quar-
and Babylon. We also learn from Herod- reled with the inland city of Magnesia, and
otus of other Lydian traditions. It is said reduced it to submission after many inva-
that in the reign of Atj's, the son and suc- sions of its territory; but Herodotus says
cessor of Planes, the pressure of a se\-ere nothing about this event. Strabo says
famine cau.sed the king to compel a portion that Gj'ges conquered the whole of the
of the nation to emigrate to the distant Troad, and that the Milesians could only
Hesperia, under the command of Tyrrheuus, establish their colony of Abydos on the
the king's son. After building a fleet at Hellespont after obtaining his permission.
Smyrna, they sailed westward for their new The Greeks Minor and the islands
of Asia
countr>% which proved to be Etruria, in of the yEgean evidently considered Gyges a
Italy; and thus was founded the Etruscan rich and powerful monarch, and constantly
nation. At another time the Lj'dians celebrated his wealth, his conquests and his
pushed their conquests beN-ond the limits of romantic histon,-.
Asia Minor to the very southern extremity At the end of the long reign of Gyges a
of Syria, where their general, Ascalus, is great calamitj- fell upon Lydia. The Cim-
said to have founded the famous city of merians, from the peninsula now known as
Ascalon, in the land of the Philistines. the Crimea, and the adjacent region of the
Little confidence is to be placed in any of present Southern Russia, pressed on by the
these early Lydian traditions concerning the Scythians from the steppe region, crossed
remote period of the nation. the Caucasus and entered Asia Minor \>\
The real historj- of Lydia extends only as way of Cappadocia, spreading terror and
farback as the ninth century before Christ. desolation all around. Alarmed at this bar-
The ruling dynasty of the Heraclidae grew barian invasion, Gyges placed himself under
jealous of the Mermnadse and treated them the proteclion of Assyria, and defeated the
with injustice, whereupon the Mermnadse Cimmerians, taking several of their chiefs
sought safety in flight; but when they found prisoners. Grateful for the Assyrian alli-
themselves strong enough they returned, ance, Gyges sent an embassy to Asshur-
murdered the Heraclide king, and placed bani-pal and courted his favor b\- rich gifts
their leader, Gyges, upon the throne of and bj' sending him Cimmerian chiefs.
Lydia, about B. C. 700. The prosperity These the Assj-rian monarch looked upon
of Lydia greatl}- increased under Gyges, as tribute. Gyges, however, afterwards
and the nation assumed an aggressive at- broke with Assyria, and aided the Egyptian
titude toward its neighbors. The great rebel, Psammetichus, in reestablishing his
amount of his revenue made the name of independence. Assj'ria thereupon w ithdrew
Gyges proverbial, and he spread abroad his her proteclion from Lydia, and Gyges was
fame by sending to the temple of Del- left to his own resources, which were totally
phi, in Greece, presents of such magnifi- inadequate when the great crisis came.
cence that they were the admiration of af- Sweeping e\"erything before them, the fierce
ter times. The predecessors of Gyges had Cimmerian hordes swarmed resistlessly into
been on friendly' terms with the Greek the western portions of Asia Minor; overrun-
colonists on the western coast of Asia Minor. ning Paphlagonia, Phrygia, Bithynia, Lydia
But Gyges changed this peaceful policy for and Ionia. Gyges was defeated and killed
the purpose of extending his sea-board, and in battle with them. The inhabitants shut
thus made war on the Greek maritime cities, themselves up in their walled towns, where
attacking Miletus and Smyrna unsuccess- they were often besieged by the barbarians.
;
3JO ANCIENT HISTORY.—ASIA MINOR.

Sardis itself, except its citadel, was taken, king the surrender of the fugitive Scj'ths
and a terrible massacre of its inhabitants en- a demand which Alyattes answered with
sued. Within a generation Lydia recovered a refusal and immediate preparations for war.
from this terrible blow and renewed her at- The numerous other princes of Asia Minor,
tacks on the Greek colonies upon the coast. alarmed at the rapid advance of the Median
Gyges was succeeded on the Lydian dominion westward, willingly placed them-
throne by his son, Ardys, who made war selves under the protedlion of the King of
on Miletus. Sadyattes, the son and suc- Lydia, to prevent the absorption of their
cessor of Ardys, continued this war. Aly- respecftive territories into the powerful
ATTES, the son and successor of Sadyattes, Median Empire, as they had previously put
pursued the same aggressive policy toward themselves under his leadership in the strug-
Miletus, and besieged and took Smyrna and gle which resulted in the expulsion of the
ravaged the territor>' of Clazomente. He- Cimmerians.
rodotus, Nicolas of Damascus, Strabo and Lydia herself had considerable resources.
Eusebius are our main authorities for the She was the most fertile country of Asia
e\-ents of these reigns. Minor, which was one of the richest regions
The great task of the reign of Ah'attes of the ancient world. At this time Lydia
was the expulsion of the Cimmerians from was producing large quantities of gold,
Asia Minor. The barbarian hordes, greatly which was foimd in great quantities in the
exhausted by time, by their losses in battle, Padlolus, and perhaps in other small streams
and by their excesses, had long ceased to be flowing from Mount Tmolus. The Lydian
dangerous, but were able to menace the
still people were warlike and ingenious. They
peace of the country. According to Herod- had invented the art of coining money, say
otus, Alyattes is said to have "driven them Xenophon, Herodotus and others. They
out of Asia." This would imply that they exhibited much taste in their devices. They
were expelled from Paphlagonia, Bithynia, also claimed to have invented many games
Lydia, Phrygia and Cilicia a result which
;
familiar to the Greeks. Herodotus also in-
the Lydian king achieved by placing him- fonns us that they were the first who earned
self at the head of a league embracing the a living by shop-keeping. They were skill-
states of Asia Minor west of the Halys. ful in the use of musical instruments, and
Thus Alyattes, by freeing A.sia Minor of the their own peculiar musical style was much
presence of the Cimmerian hordes, proved his favored by the Greeks, though condemned
great military capacity, and laid the founda- as effeminate by some of the Grecian phi-
tions of the great Lydian Empire. losophers. The Lydians were also brave
The conquest of Cappadocia by Cyaxares and manly. They fought mostly on horse-
the Mede, who thus extended the western back, and were good riders, carrying long
frontier of the Median Empire to the Halys, spears, which they employed very skillfully.
brought the Median and Lydian monarchs Nicolas of Damascus says that, even as early
into collision. Coveting the great fertile as the time of the Heraclide dynasty, they
plains west of the Halys, Cyaxares soon were able to muster thirty thousand cavalr>\
found a pretext for attacking the dominions They found recreation in the chase of the
of Alyattes. Herodotus tells us that a wild-boar.
body of nomad Scyths had sen-ed inider the Thus L>-dia was no contemptible enemy,
Median king, serving him faithfully for some and, with the aid of her allies, she proved
time, chiefly as hunters; but disliking their herself fully a match Median
for the great
position or di.strusting the intentions of their Empire. For six years, Herodotus tells us,
Median mtisters, they finally abandoned did the war go on between Media and Lydia
Media, and proceeding to Asia Minor, were with various success, until, as we have .seen
welcomed by Alyattes. Cyaxares sent an in the history of Media, it was tenninated
embassy to Sardis demanding of the Lydian by the sudden eclipse of the sun in the
LVniA. 3"
midst of a battle, which excited the super- sooner had she reached this po.sition among
stitious fears of both parties and led to the the nations of the time than she was over-
negotiation of a peace. Syeiinesis, King of thrown by a power which made itself master
Cilicia, the ally of the King of Lydia, and of all the then-known world outside of
Labynetus of Babylon, the ally of the King —
Europe the great Medo- Persian Empire,
of Media, proposed an annistice, which founded by Cyrus the Great on the ruins of
being agreed on, a treaty of peace was at the Median limpire, and which ab.sorbed
once concluded, which left everj'thing in Babylonia and Egypt along with Media and
status quo. The Kings of Media and Lydia Lydia.
swore a friendship, which was to be ce- The kingdom Lydia was now one of
of
mented by the marriage of Aryenis, the the great powers of the world and was far
daughter of Alyattes, with Astyages, the more extensive than at any previous period,
son of Cyaxares. By this peace the three and may truly be called an empire. Its
great empires of the time Lydia, Media — capital, Sardis, advantageously situated at
—
and Babylonia became firm friends and the foot of Mount Tmolus, on the river
allies, and stood side by side in peace for fifty Pacftolus, famous for its golden sands, now
years, pursuing their separate courses with- became famed among the great cities of
out jealousy or collision. The crown-princes Asia. Xenophon regarded it as second only
of the three empires had became brothers, to Babylon in Herodotus observes
riches.
and all Western Asia, from the shores of that it was a place of great resort, and was
the ^-Egean on the west to the Persian Gulf frequented by all Grecians distinguished for
on the east,was ruled b}' interconnected dy- their talents and wisdom.
nasties, bound b)- treaties to respedl each CrcEsus was renowned throughout the
other's rights, and to assist each other in aticient world for his wealth, and his name be-
certain important emergencies; and this came proverbial for great riches. His story
quarter of the globe entered upon an era of has furnished a subjeA for moralists of every
tranquillity which it had never before known. Subsequent age to illustrate the uncertainty
Relieved from the fear of Median conquest of earthh' prosperity and the vicissitudes of
by the treat j- just mentioned, Alyattes re- human life. Crcesus considered himself the
newed the war against the Greek colonists most fortunate of men. When only crown-
on the western coast of Asia Minor during prince his father had associated him in the
the last jêars of his reign. He captured government of the kingdom, and while hold-
Smyrna and gained other important suc- ing this station, he was visited by Solon, the
cesses. great sage and lawgiver of Athens, and one
On the death of Alyattes in B. C. 568, his of the "Seven Wise Men of Greece."
son, Crcesus, became his successor. Croe- Crcesus entertained his distinguished guest
sus was the most famous, as well as the last, with great hospitality in his palace; but the
of the Kings of Lydia. He continued the sage viewed the magnificence of the court
wars begun by his father against the Asiatic with calm indifference, which mortified
Greeks, and conquered the Ionian, îjolian Crcesus. Solon was conducted to the roâl
and Dorian Greeks, and all Asia Minor west treasury to view and admire the riches con-
of the Halys, excepting Lycia and Cilicia; tained therein. Croesus then asked him
thus enlarging his dominion by the acquisi- whom he considered the happiest man in the
tion of Phrygia, Mysia, Paphlagonia, Bi- world, expecting to hear himself named.
thynia, Pamphylia and Caria. Herodotus Solon replied: " Tellus, an Athenian, who,
remarks that he was the first conqueror of under the protecftion of an excellent form of
the Greeks of Asia Minor, who had hitherto government, had many virtuous and amia-
never been subjecfl to any foreign power. ble children. He saw their offspring, and
Under him Ljdia attained the highest pin- the3' all sur\'ived him. At the close of an
nacle of her glorj' and prosperity; but no honorable and prosperous life, on the field
312 ANCIENT HISTORY.— ASIA MINOR.
of victon-, he was rewarded by a public boring prince. Belonging to the royal familj'
funeral by the city." of Phrygia, he was received in a friendly
Croesus, disappointed with this reply, then manner by Croesus, who allowed him an
asked Solon whom he regarded as the next asylum at his court. Shortly afterward a
happiest person. The sage mentioned two wild-boar of remarkable size made his ap-
brothers of Argos, who had won the ad- pearance near Olympus, in Mysia. The
miration of their countrj-men by their devo- frightened inhabitants requested Croesus to
and who had been re-
tion to their mother, send his son with hunters and dogs to de-
warded by the gods with a pleasant and stroy the beast. The king, who had not
painless death. Croesus, in astonishment, forgotten the vision, kept back his son, but
ssked: "Man of Athens, think you so offered them a seledl band of dogs and hunt-
meanly of my prosperity as to rank me be- ers. The young man, mortified by his father's
low private persons of low condition?" resolution, remonstrated, until he was per-
Solon, not willing either to flatter or disap- mitted to go to the cha.se, under the protec-
point Croesus, replied: "King of Lydia, the tion of Adrastus. They attacked the boar,
Greeks have no taste for the splendors of and the king's son was killed bj^ an acci-
royalty. Moreover, the vicissitudes of life dental thrust from the spear of the Phrj-gian
suffer us not to be elated by any present refugee. The unhappy monarch pardoned
good fortune, or to admire that felicity Adrastus, thinking that he was the instru-
which is liable to change. He, therefore, ment of an inevitable fatality; but the killer,
whom Heaven smiles upon to the last, is, in in the deepest anguish for what he had done,
our estimation, the happy man!" After retired, in the darkness of night, to the
giving this answer, the Athenian sage took grave of Atys, confessing himself the most
his departure, leaving Croesus chagrined, miserable of mankind, and there committitig
but none the wiser, ^sop, the celebrated suicide. Croesus mourned for two years the
have visited Croesus
fabulist, is also said to loss of his son, who was his heir to the
at Sardis, and is said to have observed to throne of I^ydia.
Solon: "You see that we must either not Alarmed at the rapid growth of the new
come near kings, or say only what is agree- Medo-Persian Empire, which had recently
able to them." To which the sage replied: been founded by Cyrus the Great on the
"We should either say what is useful, or ruins of the great Median power, and seeing
say nothing." that a struggle for the dominion of Asia
The vicissitudes of fortune, which Solon Minor was inevitable, Croesus entered into
desired Croesus to ponder upon, were soon an alliance with Egypt and Babylonia
exemplified in his own case. Croesus had against the new Persian power. Before en-
two sons, one of whom was dumb, but the teringupon the struggle, the King of Lydia,
other, named Atys, was endowed with su- who was very superstitious and would never
perior accomplishments. Croesus is said to begin any important undertaking without
have had a vision warning him that this son consulting the ministers of the various dei-
would die by the point of an iron spear. ties worshiped in those countries, inquired
The frightened father resolved to settle him of various oracles as to the result of his en-
in marriage and devote him to a peaceful terprise. But to assure himself of the truth
life. He took away his command in the of the answers of the oracles he consulted,
army, and removed every military weapon he sent messengers to all the most famous
from those about his person. About this oracles of Greece and Egypt, with orders to
time a certain Adrastus, who had accident- inquire, every one at his respedlive oracle,
ally killed his brother, .sought refuge in what Croesus was doing at such a day and
Sardis, having been banished from home by such an hour, before agreed upon. The re-
his father; and, in accordance with ancient plies are said to have been unsatisfactory to
pagan custom, sought expiation of a neigh- the monarch. But it is said that as soon as
as^fe^*
•j-^r--
fl^'
CROEvSUvS ON THE r'UNERAI, I'VRK.

: ;
LVniA. 313
"When o'er the Medcs a mule shall sit on high,

the messengers entered the temple of Del-
O'er pebbly Hermus, then soft Lydian fly;
])hi, the oracle there ga\'e this answer
Fly with all haste; for safety scorn thy fame,
" couut the sand; I measure out llic sea;
name."
I Nor scruple to deserve a coward's
The silent and the dumb are heard by uie
Even now the odors to my sense that rise, Fully satisiied with this new answer, Croe-
A tortoise boiling with a lamb supplies,
sus advanced against Cyrus, crossing the
Where brass below and brass above it lies."
Halys and marching through Cappadocia
When Croesus heard of this reply, he de- into Syria, and laying waste the country as
clared that the oracle of Delphi was the only he advanced. After some minor engage-
true one; becatise, on the day mentioned, re- ments, Croesus was decisively defeated in the
solving to do what would be difficult to dis- great battle of Thymbra, in which the army
cover or explain, he had cut a lamb and a tor- of Croesus is said to have amounted to four
toise in pieces and boiled them together in a hundred thousand men, and that of CyruiJ
covered brass vessel. This stor>' is given us to one hundred and ninety-six thousand.
by Herodotus. There is no doubt about Croe- This is the first pitched battle of which the
sus consulting the oracle, but the marvelous ancient writers give us any details. The
part of the tale was likely an invention of mercenaries in the Lydian army dispersed,
the priests of Delphi to raise the reputation returning to their respecflive homes. Croesus,
of their oracle. with the remainder, retreated to Sardis,
Croesus is represented as being satisfied of whither he was pursued by the triumphant

the divine charadter of the responses of the Persians, who gained a second great vicftorj',
Delphic oracle, and as therefore resolved to this time before the walls of the Lydian
make a magnificent gift to the oracle. Col- capital itself. The hopes of Crcesus now
leifling three thousand chosen vicflims, a completely vanished, and his capital was
vast number of couches overlaid with gold taken by storm, B. C. 546.
and along with goblets of gold and
silver, Croesus was taken prisoner by his con-
ptirple vests of immense value, he cast all queror, who condemned him to be burned
these into a sacrificial pile and burned them. alive. After the captive monarch had been
The melted gold ran into a mass, and he led to executionon the funeral pile, and as
made of this a vast number of large tablets, the torch was about to be applied, Croesus
and likewise a and these and a num-
lion; remembered the admonitions given him by
ber of vessels of gold and silver he sent to the sage of Athens. Struck with the truth
the Delphic oracle. The lyydians conveying of Solon's words, and overwhelmed with
these presents were instrudled to inquire grief and despair, the unhappy monarch
!
whether Croesus could successfully under- exclaimed :

'
' Solon Solon Solon
! !
'
' Cyrus,
take an expedition against the Persians, and who was present at the scene, demanded the
whether he should strengthen himself by reason for this exclamation, and the entire
forming any new alliances. The response story was related to him. Greatly affected
of the oracle was, that if Croesus made war by the wisdom of Solon's words, and pon-
on the Persians he would ruin a great em- dering on the vicissitudes of human affairs,
pire, and that he wotild do well by making the vicflorious Persian king was moved to
alliances with the most powerful of the compassion for his unfortunate captive, and
Grecian states. therefore ordered the fire to be extinguished
The Lydian king, regarding this ambigu- and Croesus to be given his liberty.
ous answer as ftilly satisfadlory, was exceed- Upon being restored to freedom, Croesus
ingly elated with the hope of conquering at once sent to Delphi the fetters by which
Cyrus the Great. He consulted the Del- he had been confined, with the design of
phic oracle a third time, wishing to know if thus reproaching the oracle for deceiving
his power wotild be permanent. He ob- him with false promises of vicflory for his
tained the following reply; arms. The Delphian priests explained the
3^4 ANCIENT HISTORY.— ASIA MINOR.
story of the mule as designating Cyrus, wlio In consequence of the o\-erthrow of Croe-
had a double nationality, being born both a sus, Lydia ceased to be an independent na-
Persian and a Mede. It was explained that tion, and became a province of the great
the great empire of which Crcesus was in- Medo-Persian Empire; and Sardis, the Ly-
formed that he would ruin if he made war dian capital, became one of the chief cities
on Persia was his own, as that empire had of that vast empire. Cyrus ever afterward
been great, but was now ruined; but Croesus treated Croesus as a friend, and Xenophon
was not comforted hy this explanation of tells us that he took him along with him
the Delphian priests. wherever he went.
KINGS OF LYDIA.
DYNASTIES.
—
CHAPTER VII.
PHCENICIA AND SYRIA.

SECTION I.— PHCENICIA AND ITS PEOPLE.
IHCENICIA was the name an- They have sometimes, however, been con-
ciently applied to narrow
a sidered as the Canaanites of the coast and
.strip of territory- bordered on descendants of Canaan, a son of Ham; in
the east by the mountains of which case they would belong to the Ha-
Lebanon, and on the west by mitic nations, but their Semitic language
the Mediterranean sea, being only about seems to identify them with the other na-
twenty miles wide from east to west, and tions classed as descended from Shem.
about one hundred and t%venty miles long The Phoenicians migrated from the plains
from north to south. Near Sidon the Leba- of Chaldaea soon after the death of Nimrod.
non mountains are only two miles from the Thej' were never united under one govern-
sea, and at T>t« the Phoenician plain is only ment, being divided into a number of petty
five miles wide. The entire Phoenician plain states, or kingdoms, each Phoenician city
was exceedingl}- fertile, being abundantly with its adjacent territorj- constituting a
watered. The coast abounded with good small independent state with an hereditarj-
harbors, and the cedars of Lebanon furnished sovereign at its head, the political power
material in great abundance for ship-build- being shared with the priests and the nobles.
ing. The most important and renowned cities In certain emergencies the Phoenician cities
upon the Phoenician coast were Tj-re and would unite in a confederacy, one of the
Sidon.
—
Tyre " the daughter of Sidon" cities being usually recognized as the leader
was the most southern city, and the only of the confederation. This supremacy was
one whose political history can be traced. onl}- exercised in war, when a common dan-
Sidon, the most ancient citj- of Phoenicia, was ger threatened the existence of the separate
twenty miles north of Tyre, and its modem cities, when a common interest demanded
or
name is Saide. Berv-tus, now Beyreut, was unity. Each city was at all times allowed
sixteen miles north of Sidon, and is now to manage its domestic affairs in its own way.
the principal seaport of Syria. North of —
Sidon who.se name is the same as the
Berytus was Byblus, the Gebal of the Bible, oldest .son of Canaan, a son of Ham was —
inhabited by seamen and caulkers. North the oldest of the Phoenician cities, and the
of Byblus was Tripolis, now called Tarabu- firstwhich became wealthj' and powerful.
lus; and the most northern of all Phoenician engaged in commercial enterprises
It early
cities was Aradus, the Ar\-ad of Genesis and with other nations, by land and sea, and
Ezekiel. was the fir.st to found colonies, a sj'stem
The Phoenicians were a branch of the which afterwards became a distincflive fea-
Semitic race, being therefore a kindred peo- ture of Phoenician policy. Tyre was the
ple with the Hebrews, the Arabs, the Syr- first of Sidon's colonies. Sidon enjoyed the
ians, the Assyrians and the later Baby lonians. supremacy over the other Phosuician cities
a-20.-U. H. ( 31 5)
3i6 ANCIENT HISTORY.— PHCENICIA AND SYRIA.
L'lJIARS 1)1' M-.liAN'
until about B. C. 1050, when the city was founded. The city originally was situated
taken and destroyed by the Philistines from on the mainland, but in after years a new
the South of Palestine. The inhabitants city was erected on an island about half a
found refuge in Tyre, which became the mile from the shore. This insular city soon
leading city of Phoenicia, and so remained eclipsed the old Tyre in wealth and splen-
for seven centuries. dor, and its name became a byword for com-
It is not known exaclly when Tyre was mercial greatness.
SECTION 11.— HISTORY OF TYRE.

:
WING to its geographical situ- supremacy of Egypt, and was successively
ation and its sources of wealth, reduced to subjecflion under the Assyrians,
Phoenicia was a prey to all the the Babylonians, the Medo-Persians and the
great conquerors who made Grasco-Macedonians.
Syria their battle-ground in In the eleventh century before Christ,
ancient times. For these reasons Phoenician Tyre rapidly grew to be the leading city and
independence was of short duration, and kingdom of Phoenicia. Under the govern-
only in their national infancy were this re- ment of its own kings it advanced very fast
nowned commercial people free from the in commercial wealth and internal magnifi-
yoke of foreign masters. At an early period cence. The first known King of Tyre was
Phoenicia was forced to acknowledge the Abibaal, who was partly contemporary
TYRE. 317
with King David. On bis death, about B. He furnished Solomon with a great part of
C. 1025, he was succeeded on the Tj'rian the materials used in the coustrudlion of the
throne by his son Hiram, who rei^^ncd dur- great Jewish Temple at Jerusalem, and w-ith
ing the remainder of that ceniur>-. linani the workmen whom that grand edifice
bj-
was a great friend of the illustrious Hebrew was Hiram's reign of thirty-four
erecfted.
monarchs, David and Solomon, with both of years was a period of wonderful prosperity
whom he entered into commercial alliances. for the great Phoenician cities. Tyre's su-
'
3i8 ANCIENT HISTORY.— PHCENICIA AND SYRIA.

premacy being acknowledged throughout M.ALioN king, excluding his sister, who
the whole of Phoenicia. The other Phoeni- married Zicharbaal, the Sichaeus of Virgil.
cian kings, profiting h\ previous experience, Zicharbaal was High-Priest of Melkarth,
entered into a close confederation and rec- next in rank to the monarch among the Phoe-
ognized the suzeraintj- of the King of Tyre, nicians, and the head of the aristocratic
Shortly afterward he was assassin-
'
'
' monarch of the nation,

the true and only party.
who, in consequence, was called King of '
' ated by order of Pygmalion, whereupon

the Sidonians." This title was not to be Elissar organized a conspiracy of the Phoe-
confounded with that of the King of Sidon, nician nobles to avenge her husband's death
who was the local sovereign of the early and to dethrone her brother, but she was
Phoenician metropolis. The King of Tyre foiled in her design by the vigilance of the
regulated the general interests of Phoenicia, popular party. Thereupon the conspirators,
its commerce and its colonies, concluded several thousand in number, seized a number
treaties with other nations, and diredled the of ships in the harbor of Tyre and sailed
and armies of the confederation.
fleets He away under the leadership of Elissar, who
was aided by deputies from the other Phoe- was thereafter called Dido, "the fugitive."
nician cities. They landed on the northern coast of Af-
On the death of Hiram, in B. C. 991, his rica and founded Carthage, a city whose
son,BaalEazar, became King of Tyre. He greatness, glory and prosperity eventually
died after a reign of seven years, and was eclipsed that of the mother country.
succeeded by his son Abdastartus (or Ab- In consequence of the migration of the
dastoreth), who, after reigning nine years, aristocratic party from Tyre the Tyrian
fell a vi(51:im to a plot of assassination. A king was thereafter an absolute monarch.
long period of civil wars then distracfted During Pygmalion's reign the Assj'rians
Tyre, consequence of the claims of a
in under Asshur-izir-pal first appeared on the
number of pretenders who disputed the Mediterranean coast. The Phoenician cities
throiie in quick succession. Order was re- submitted to the invaders and agreed to pay
stored about B. C. 941 when Eth-baal (or tribute —
a condition of dependence which
Ithobalus), the High- Priest of Astarte, slew lasted almost a centur>-. Pygmalion's reign
the last pretender, Phales, and seated him- ended in B. C. S24, but we have no record
selfon the throne of Tyre as King of the of anj' Phoenician king until the middle of
Sidonians. He gave his daughter Jeze- the next centurj-. The Phoenician cities
bel in marriage to Ahab, King of Israel. were governed by native sovereigns tribu-
By her force of charadler, Jezebel controlled tary to As.syria, but this vassalage did not
her imbecile husband and rendered Phoeni- apparently retard the prosperity of Phoe-
cian influence predominant in Israel during nicia, or weaken its maritime power.
Ahab's reign. Eth-baal died about B. C. The Phoenicians quietly bore the yoke of
909, and was succeeded by his son B.\de- Assyrian supremacy until the middle of the
ZOR, who reigned six j-ears, dying in B. C. eighth centur>' before Christ, when they be-
903, when his sou, Matgen, became his came restive. About B. C. 743, another
successor. Hiram, King of Tyre, headed a Phcenician
Matgen died in B. C. 871, after a reign of revolt against the Assyrian king, Tiglath-
thirty-two j-ears, named Pjg-
leaving a son Pileser II., but the Phoenicians were again
malion and a daughter named Elissar, or reduced to submission and tribute when the
l-'li.ssa, but better known as Dido; the Assyrians advanced into Palestine. In B.
daughter being then thirteen and the son C. 727, Phoenicia, under the leadership of
eleven years old. Matgen desired that his Elulûs, revolted against Shalmaneser
children .should reign jointly. The people IV., King of Assyria; whereupon the As-
wanting a change in the aristocratic form of syrian monarch led an arm>- into the coun-
government, revolted and proclaimed Pyg- tr>', occupied Old Tyre, on the mainland,
TYRE. 319
which made tio opposition, but the Island to the Assyrians, Tyre emerged from the
Tyre withstood a siege. Shalmaneser was siege greatly exhausted. Its supremacy had
unable to assail the insular city from the been shaken off by the other Phoenician
land without the aid of a fleet, and was which had become tributary to Sargon;
cities,
obliged to content himself with a simple and finally, in W. C. 708, its flouri-shing colony
blockade of the cit\-, the most important of Cyprus submitted to the Assyrians. In 15.
feature being the cutting off of the water of C. 704, just after Sennacherib had a.scended
the island city which had been supplied by the Assyrian throne, Hlulaeus reestablished
means of aqueducls from the mainland. Tyre's supremacy over Phoenicia and pro-
The besieged are said to have drunk rain- claimed the independence of the country.
water during the five years that they In B. C. 700 Sennacherib led a large Assyr-
held out against the besiegers. While the ian army into Phoenicia, whereupon the
siege was in progress Shalmaneser IV. was Phoenician cities forsook Tyre and submitted
SIKGE OF TYRE BY THE BABYLONl.\NS.
hurled from the Assyrian throne bj' the to the Assyrian king. Elulaeus retired to
usurper Sargon,who continued the siege. the Island Tyre, relying upon his usual good
The other Phoenician cities had in the fortinie, which, however, deserted him on
meantime submitted to the A.ssyrians, and this occasion. Tyre was taken and IClu-
Sargon collecfted a fleet of sixty ships Iseus was obliged to flee for safety. Sen-
from these cities and attempted to attack nacherib spared the and made Tubal
city,
insular Tyre from the sea, but the Tyrians (or Ethbaal) king, as his vassal and tribu-
sallied out with twelve ships and defeated tary.
and destroyed Sargon's fleet. Finallj% after The capture of Tyre by Sennacherib put
the siege had lasted five years, the Assyrians an end to the supremacy which that city had
relinquished it and retired. for some time exerci.sed so oppressi\-ely over
Notwithstanding; its successful resistance the other Phoenician cities. Tyre had re-
320 ANCIENT HISTORY.— PHCENICIA AND SYRIA.
tained most of the profits of Phoenician com- the population remained in the city under a
merce for herself, and the other cities will- king named Baal, whom the conquering
ingly aided Sennacherib in reducing her to Babylonian monarch had set up as his vas-
submission. All the cities of Phoenicia were sal. Some years afterward Uaphris, King
now placed on an equality as tributaries of of Egypt, attempted to wrest Phoenicia from
Assyria. Upon the assassination of Senna- the dominion of Babylon; but the Phoeni-
cherib, Sidon rebelled against Assyria, and cians remained loyal to Nebuchadnezzar,
endeavored to acquire the supremacy over and, aided by Cyprus, defeated the Egj'p-
Phoenicia formerly exercised by Tyre. The tian fleet,which was manned by Greek and
revolt was mercilesslj^ punished by Esar- Carian mercenaries. Uaphris was checked
haddon, who destroyed Sidon about B. C. in his career by this reverse, and after hav-
68 1 and reduced its inhabitants to slavery. ing taken and sacked Sidon and ravaged
At Esar-haddon's death the Phoenician the Phoenician coast, he returned to Egypt
cities cast off the Assyrian yoke, and allied with a vast amount of spoils.
themselves with Egypt, the enemy of As- Upon the subversion of the Babj-lonian
syria. But the next AsS3'rian king, Asshur- Empire, in B. C. 538, Phoenicia passed un-
bani-pal, after reestablishing the Assyrian der the dominion of the Medo-Persian kings.
dominion over Eg3'pt, suppressed the Phoe- The greater portion of the naval forces in
nician revolt. About B. C. 630, or B. C. 629, the expedition of Camby-ses, King of Persia,
Phoenicia fell a prey to the ferocious Scyth- into Egypt consisted mainly of Phoenician
ian invaders, who devastated the open coun- ships and seamen. Phoenicia remained a
try, but did not take any of the fortified province of the great Medo-Persian Empire
cities. The overthrow of the Assyrian Em- for two centuries; and in B. C. 332 Tyre was
pire in B. C. 625 gave the Phcenicians a taken after a vigorous siege and destroyed
temporary relief; but about B. C. 608 they by Alexander the Great, who thus put an
submitted to the yoke of Neko, King of end to the national existence of Phoenicia,
Egypt. The Egyptian sway over Phoenicia and inflicfled the death-blow upon the Medo-
was ended by the defeat of Neko by Nebu- Persian Empire in the memorable battle of
chadnezzar of Babylon at Carchemish in B. C. Arbela the following j'ear. Phoenicia then be-
605; and after a short respite from foreign came a part of Alexander's vast empire and
domination, the Phoenician cities found a was absorbed in the dominions of his suc-
new master in the Babylonian king, In B. C. cessors, sometimes falling under the domin-
598 Nebuchadnezzar led an army into Phoe- ion of the Ptolemies of Eg>'pt and sometimes
nicia, quickly reducing the country-, and be- under the Seleucidae of Sj'ria. In the first
sieging Tyre, which resisted him for thirteen century before Christ it shared the fortunes
years, at the end of which he took the city of Syria in being swallowed up by the over-
and reduced it to a heap of ruins. Most of shadowing power of Rome. It has ever
the inhabitants fled to their fleet and sailed since shared the fortunes of Syria and Pal-
to Carthage, carrying with them their wealth estine, and has been under the Turkish do-
and industry, but a miserable remnant of minion for almost four centuries.
ALEXANDER BEFORl': TYRIC.
PHOENICIAN COMMERCE AND COLONIES. 321
SECTION III.— PHCENICIAN COMMERCE AND COLONIES.

|ARGEIvY because of the phys- braltar) flourishing colonies, such
.several
ical condition of their country as Tartcssus,on the Boetis (now Guadal-
and other circumstances, the quivir), and Gades (now Cadiz), on an
Phoenicians devoted their en- island near the Spanish coast; the latter
tire attention to manufaclures, of which said to be the oldest town in
is
commerce and colonization; and at a very Europe. These colonies soon became inde-
earl>- period they became the greatest mauu- pendent states, Tyre preferring a close alli-
fadluring, commercial, colonizing and mari- ance with them to retaining a political su-
time people of antiquity. premacy over them. PVom Gades and
The rapid growth of their commerce Tartessus voyages were made to the west
placed the carrj-ing trade of antiquity coast of Africa for apes, to the mines of
almost exclusively in the hands of the Phce- Cornwall in Britain for tin, and to the coasts
nicians. They extended their trade by of the North Sea and the Baltic for amber.
establishing colonies and trading stations in The principal Phcenician colonies on the
distant lands, and many of these became Mediterranean coast in North Africa, in the
important cities in later times. The location modern land of Tunis, were Leptis, Hadrum-
of these colonies indicates tosome degree etum, Utica and Carthage; which attained
the extent of Phoenician commerce, and a degree of splendor not reached by any
the colonies were centers from which ven- other Phoenician cities, and eventually
tures were made into more remote regions. rivaled Tyre itself in wealth and magnifi-
The Phoenician colonies proceeded from east cence. The Phoenicians formed commercial
to west along the Mediterranean coasts, oc- stations along the coasts of Asia Minor and
cupying the chief islands. The island of the shores of the Euxine, or Black Sea, be-
—
Cyprus called Kittim, or Chittim, in Scrip- fore the Greeks; thus establishing intercourse
ture — was a province, as well as a colony, of with Thrace, Colchis and Scythia. In the
the Tyrians; and vestiges of their establish- Persian Gulf the Phoenicians had trading
ments on the island may yet be seen. Their stations on the islands of Tylos and Aradus
principal settlements on Cyprus were Pa- (perhaps Bahrein), from which their vessels
phos, Amathus, Tamisus and Ammochosta. descended the Persian Gulf and traded with
In the island of Rhodes were lalj-ssus and India and Ceylon, bringing diamonds and
Camarius. In the vEgean sea the Phoeni- pearls from those Eastern lands. At the
cians had stations on the islands of Thera head of the Red Sea they had a station at
and most of the Cyclades, and also on Elath, or Ezion-geber, which was the start-
Thasos. In the island of Sicily were the ing-point for voyages to Ophir, a rich coun-
flourishing Phoenician colonies of Lilybaeum try in the distant South or East, believed by
and Panormus (Mahaneth). Their est,ab- some to have been in the South-west of
lishments in Sicily and Sardinia were only Arabia, or Arabia Felix (now Yemen), by
naval stations for vessels employed in the others to have been on the Eastern coast of
trade with Western Europe, especially with South Africa, in the modem Sofala, and by
Spain, "the Mexico or Peru of the ancient others still to have been on the peninsula of
—
world." Spain called Tarshish in Scrip- Malacca, in the Southern part of Farther
—
ture was the country from which the Tyr- India. Ophir was famed for its gold, which
ians had the most lucrative trade; and the Phoenicians brought from there in large
in that country they established on the quantities.
Mediterranean the colonies of Carteia and The land-trade of the Phoenicians was
Malaca (now Malaga), and beyond the divided into three great branches — the
Pillars of Hercules; (now Straits of Gi- Egyptian and Arabian; the Babylonian to
322 ANCIENT HISTORY.— PHOLNICIA AND SYRIA.
Central Asia and the far East; and the vans. The Northern Arabs, especially the
Armenian and Scythian. From Arabia princes of Kedar and the Midianites, were
Felix (Arabia the Happy) — now called Ye- great traveling merchants; and the Kingdom
men —caravans brought through the desert of Edom, afterwards Idumasa, in the North
such articles as frankincense, myrrh, cassia, of Arabia, reached a high degree of com-
gold and precious stones. Before the Phoe- mercial prosperity. On the sea-coast the
nicians had a port on the Red Sea they Edomites were in possession of the ports of
brought by way of Arabia the produdls of Elath and Ezion-geber (now Akaba), at the
Southern India and Africa, particularly cin- head of the Red Sea; in the interior they
namon, ivory and ebony. The Hebrew had the metropolis of Petra, whose mag-
prophet Ezekiel described this trade. The nificent remains were disco-vered in the
Arabian trade was mainly carried by cara- present century. As is charadleristic of the
immutable civilization
of Asia, the commer-
cial caravans of anti-
quity resembled those
of the present da}'.
Merchants traveled in
bands organized like
an army, conve3-ing
their merchandise on
the backs of camels,
"the ships of the des-
ert." They were es-
corted by armed forces,
sometimes furnished
from home, but more
frequently consisting
of some plundering
[] tribe, hired at a great
-^'
price, to secure the car-
< avan from the exac-
^ tions and attacks of
i other like marauding
^ tribes. Most of the
PhcEuician trade with
Egypt was overland,
at least so long as
Thebes was the capi-
tal and metropolis of
Eg)'pt; and when Mem-

phis rose to preemi-
nence an entire quar-
ter of the city was as-
signed to the Pliffini-
cian merchants, and the

trade hy sea to the Del-
ta became important.
The first brajich ol
the Phoenician trade
PIKr.NKIAN ARTS AXD CIMUZATION. 323
in the ICast was with Judaea and Syria. The the prophet Ezekiel: "Tar.shish was thy
Phcenicians depended on Palestine for their merchant by reason of the multitude of all
grain, and this explains the cause of their kind of riches; with silver, iron, tin and lead,
close allianceand friendship with the He- they traded in thy fairs." From Spain the
brew nation in the days of David and Solo- Phoenicians entered the Atlantic Ocean and
mon. The most important branch of Eastern proceeded to the British Isles, where they
trade was through Babylon with Central obtained tin from the mines of Cornwall;
Asia. A considerable portion of the route and probably from the coasts of the Baltic
lay through the Syrian desert; and, to facil- thej'procured amber, which was considered
itate the passage of the caravans, two of the more precious than gold in ancient times.
most remarkable cities of antiquity — Baalath From their trading stations on the Red Sea
(afterwards Baalbec, or Heliopolis) and Tad- and the Persian Gulf, the Phoenicians traded
mor (afterwards Palmyra) were founded in with the coasts of India and the island of
the Syrian desert by King Solomon, who de- Ceylon, and with Africa. During the reign
sired to procure for his subjecfls a share in of Neko, King of Egypt, a Phoenician fleet,
this lucrative traffic. in a three years' voyage, discovered the pas-
The Northern land-trade of the Phceni- sage around the Cape of Good Hope, re-
cians is thus described by the Hebrew pro- turning home by way of the Atlantic and the
phet Ezekiel: "Javan, Tubal and Meshech, Mediterranean, as we have seen in the his-
they were thj^ merchants; they traded the tory of Egypt.
person-, of men and vessels of brass in thy Concerning the ancient Phcenicians, a
markets. They of the house of Togarmah, "Though their voyages
certain writer says:
traded in thy fairs with horses and horsemen did not equal in daring those of modem
and mules." times, yet, when we consider that they were
But the Mediterranean sea was the great ignorant of the mariner's compass, and of
commercial highway of the Phoenicians. the art of taking accurate astronomical ob-
Spain was the richest country of the ancient servations,it is wonderful to reflect on the
world in the precious metals. The Phoeni- commercial enterprise of a people whose
cian colonies reduced the natives to slavery^ ships were to be seen in the harbors of
and forced them to work in the mines. Saj^s Britain and Ceylon."
SECTION IV.— PHCEXICIAN ARTS AND CIVILIZATION.

ESIDES their carrs'lng trade the with this hue, but the most beautiful effects
Phoenicians derived great were obtained from woolen goods. The dye
wealth from their manufac- being very costly, it was u.sed only for stuffs
tures. The textile fabrics of of the best qualit)'. The manufadlure and
the Sidonians, and the pur- use of this dye prevailed in all the Phoeni-
ple cloths of the Tyrians, were celebrated cian cities. Homer represents his heroes as
from the most remote antiquitw The clad in Sidonian robes dyed with Tyrian
"Tyrian purple," the chief product of the purple.
Phoenicians, was a famous dye, obtained Vegetable dyes of exceeding beautj^ and
in minute drops from two shell-fish, the variety were also in use, the dyeing being al-
hiicdmun and the murcx. This purple was ways performed in the raw materials; and the
of a dark red-\-iolet, of various shades, ac- art ofproducing shot colors by using threads
cording to the species of mussel employed. of various tints was only understood by the
Cotton, linen and silk fabrics were d3-ed Phoenicians. The Phcenicians claimed to
—
ANCIENT HISTORY.— PHCENICIA AND SYRIA.

be the inventors of glass-blowing; and, first real alphabet which has been thus far
though the Eg.vptians have as good a claim discovered; and whether the Phoenicians in-
to the discovery, the Phoenicians were the vented letters or not, they w'ere the first
first to attain the highest skill in the art. people to use them in their proper manner,
Sidon and Sarepta were the chief seats of as a system different from hierogh-phic or
the glass-manufacture. The sand used was ideographic writing. The Phoenicians es-
procured from the banks of the little river tablished their alphabet wherever they car-
Belus, near the promontory of Cannel. Nu- ried their commercial enterprises, and thus
merous specimens of Phoenician glass-ware they instrudled other nations in the use of
j-et remain, and bear witness to the skillful letters. As M. Renan truly asserts, the
workmanship of this renowned ancient peo- alphabet was a Phoenician export.
ple. The Phoenicians were likewise skilled According to the evidence furnished us by
in potterj-; and the Greeks acquired from the Hebrew Scriptures, the Phoenicians were
them the art of making painted vases, which descended from Canaan, a son of Ham,
they afterwards carried to remarkable per- thus implying that they were a Hamitic
fecflion. They largely exported potterj' in people; but they spoke a purely Semitic
exchange for tin in their vo^âges to Corn- —
language a language akin to that of the
wall and the Scilly Isles. The Phoenicians Hebrews, the Syrians, the Assyrians and the
likewise achieved great skill in bronze-work Semitic Babylonians. Says a certain writer:
and in jewelry. The .specimens of their "It is certain that the Phoenician idiom
jewelr\' found by modern explorers testify differed but slightly, and in no important
to the wonderful skill and taste exhibited by point, from that of the Hebrews. The iden-
these ancient people in this branch of in- tity of grammatical forms and of the vocab-
dustry. They were also celebrated for their ulary are so complete between the Hebrew
beautiful car\'ings in ivory. and the Phoenician, that they cannot be
The Phoenicians also displayed some skill considered as two distindl languages, but
in agriculture. Excellent wines were pro- merely as two slightly difiering dialecfts of
duced in the vicinity of Tyre, Berytus and the same language."
Gebal, and also in the Lebanon mountain The Phoenicians were a literar>- people at
region. Silk, then as at present, was an a very early day. Their written law em-
important produdt. The fruits of this region braced the principles of their religion and
were famed for their excellence and abund- their social and political systems. They
ance. had books treating on religion, agriculture
It was once thought that the Phoenicians and the pradlical arts; and the different
invented letters, but recent investigations Phoenician cities had regular archives or
and discoveries throw considerable doubt records in writing, going back to very early
upon this claim. But, while other ancient times, and preserved with wonderful care.
Oriental nations had ideographic systems of They made remarkable progress in the sci^
—
writing as for example, the Egyptians ences. The Sidonian architedls were re^
the Phoenicians had an alphabet of twenty- gardcd as the best in Syria. In Phoenicia,
two letters apparently seletfted from the particularly in Sidon, did astronomj', arith-
charadlers of the Egyptian hieratic writing. metic, geometry, navigation and philosophy
Each letter of this alphabet invariably repre- flourish; and the Sidonians endeavored to
.sented one articulation, and the Phoenicians atone for the loss of their political and com-
seem to have been the first people to use mercial supremacy among the Phoenician
such a system. It is believed that the Phoe- cities bj^ their intellecflual glory. The emi-
nician alphabet was invented about the time nent charadlers of ancient Plioenicia were the
of Avaris, one of the Shepherd Kings of historian, Sanchoniathon, of Tyre, and the
Egypt, several centuries prior to the exodus philosopher, Moschus, of Sidon; both of
of the Israelites from that country. It is the whom are said to have flourished about the
PHCKN/CIAN ARTS AND CIVILIZA'JION. 325
time of the Trojan war, in the twelfth ceu- around bj- a fillet of scarlet leather, with
tnry before Christ. two long ends hanging down behind, in the
The character of Phoenician architec- Egj'ptian style.
ture is shown by a few remaining buildings. The Phoenician dress was usually a short
Its prominent characteristic, in the words of cloak or cape thrown over the shoulders and
M. Renan, " is its massive and imposing extending to the elbows, and fastened at the
—
strength a want, indeed, of finish in de- waist by a golden girdle, which, in some
tails, but a general effect of power and ca.ses, encircled the body many times, and
grandeur. In short it is a monolithic art." was tied in front with a large bow-knot.
The Phoenician buildings were constructed The inner garment was of fine linen, con-
of enormous stones, similar to those yet to fined to the waist and extending almost
be seen in the lower walls of the temple at down to the feet. The Phoenicians also wore
Jerusalem, which were built by Phccnician woolen mantles and tunics, of fine tex-
architects and masons, and like those still ture and edged with gold lace.
to be seen in the sea-wall of the ruins of The Egyptian paintings represent the
Tyre. The Phoenician tombs were original Sidonians as allies of the Pharaohs in their
in design and grand in construction. All wars with the Canaanites. The statesmen
their edifices seemed intended to last; and and merchants are represented as having
so durable have they been, that, notwith- long hair and beards, and with a fillet
standing the hard fate to which they have around the head. The .soldiers are depicted
been subjected, many monuments of the with short hair and beard. The arms and
daj's of Phoenician glory remain to give us accouterments of the Sidonians were very
.some light on the antiquities of this famous elegant. The helmet was of silver, with a
race of merchants and colonizers. peculiar ornament at the crest, consisting of
Phoenician statuary seems to be a min- a disk and two horns of a heifer, or of a
gling of the styles of Egypt and Assyria, the crescent. The breast-plate was al.so of silver,
general form being Egyptian, while the quilted upon a white linen garment, which
execution is Assj-rian. There were few was laced in front and extended to the arm-
large statues, but many small statuettes, pits, being held by shoulder-straps. The
some of which display remarkable artistic shield was large and round, and made of
skill, and are made of stone, while others The
iron, rimmed and studded with gold.
are constructed of baked clay and bronze,
sword was two-edged and made of bronze.
exhibiting neither taste in design nor ele-
The spear was remarkably long.
gance in execution. Both kinds of statu- It is believed that the Hebrews obtained
ettes were designed as idols, of which one
their ornaments of dress and their articles
or more were in ever>' Phoenician dwelling. Phoenician
of domestic luxury from their
The first class were those belonging to the neighbors. Says the Jewish prophet Isaiah:
wealthy; while therougher and coarser sort,
In that day the Lord will take away the
'
'
made hastily and cheaply, were those found

bra\erj' of their tinkling ornaments about
in the possession of the poor.
their feet, and their cauls, and their round
The ancient Egyptian paintings represent
like the moon; the chains, the brace-
tires
the Phoenicians as having dark, florid com-
lets, and the mufflers; the bonnets, and the
plexions, and well-formed, regular features,
ornaments of the legs, and the head-bands,
approaching the European cast. They are
and the tablets, and the ear-rings; the rings,
also represented with blue eyes and flaxen
and nose-jewels; the changeable suits of ap-
hair. The hair, when dressed for ornament,
parel, and the mantles, and the wimples,
was powdered white and covered with a net-
and the crisping-pins; the glasses, and the
work of blue beads, or a close cap wound
fine linen, and the hoods, and the veils."
'
326 ANCIENT HISTORY.— PHLEN/C/A AND SYRIA.
SECTION v.— PHCENICIAN RELIGION.

|HE Phcenician religion was a sun, which was regarded as the great agent
gross polytheism, and is but of creative power. He was divided into
imperfec^tly understood, as a number of secondary divinities, named
no sacred book, like
there is Baalim, who emanated from his substance
the Old Testament of the He- and were .simply personifications of his var-
brews, or like the Zend-Avesta of the Medes ious attributes. "The supreme god, con-
and Persians, or the Vedas of the Sanskritic sidered as the progenitor of different beings,
Hindoos, or the Ritual of the Dead of the became Baal-Thammuz, called also Adon,
Egyptians, to spread before us a view of the 'the Lord,' whence the Grecian Adonis.
system. Neither is there any extensive As a preserver, he was Baal-Chon; as a
range of sculptures or paintings to give us destroyer, Baal-Moloch; as presiding over
an idea of the outward aspecft of the wor- the decomposition of those destroyed beings
ship, as in Egypt, Assyria and Greece. whence new life was again to spring, Baal-
Neither has any ancient writer given us any Zebub." Other gods were El, Elium,
account of this religion excepting Philo Sadyk, Adonis, Melkarth, Dagon, Eshmuu,
Byblius, Greek writer of the first or
a Shamas and Kabiri.
second century after Christ, and who was a Each divinity had his female principle, or
native of Byblus. This author is quoted by wife. Each secondary Baal had a corres-
Eusebius in his
'
' Evangelical Preparation

'
ponding Baalath, representing the same god

several centuries later. But the work of under a different aspedl. The female prin-
Philo Byblius deals exclusively with Phoe- ciple of the great god Baal at Sidon was
nician cosmogony and mythologj^ and thus Ashtoreth, or A.starte, the representative of
gives us no light upon the real characfter of the moon, therefore corresponding to the
the religion. We are obliged to rely mainly Grecian goddess Artemis, or Diana. The
upon the notices of the Phoenician religion planets were worshiped under the generic
bj' the writers of portions of the Old Testa- title of Cabirim, the "powerful ones." Fire
ment, upon incidental allusions by cla.ssical was likewise reverenced, and the sun and
authors, upon inscriptions, upon the etj-mol- star deitieswere emphatically "fire gods."
ogy of names, and upon occasional repre- Movers describes the Phoenician religion as
sentations accompanying inscriptions upon
'
an apotheosis of the forces and laws of na-

'
stones or coins. These are, however, so ture; an adoration of the obje(5ls in which
disconnedled and vague as to give us but these forces were seen, and where they ap-
scanty and unsatisfadtory knowledge of the peared most acflive."
inner nature of the Phoenician religious The most cruel and licentious ceremonies
system. accompanied the worship of the Phoenician
The Phoenician was de-
religion evidently deities. Children were burnt alive to ap-
rived from the same source from which the pease the wrath of Baal- Moloch; a custom
religions of Chaldsea and Assyria took their carried to great excess in Carthage. There
origin. It was based on the conception of was a systematic oifering of human vi6fims
one Supreme and Universal Divine Being, as expiatory sacrifices to Eland other gods.
'
whose person was hardly to be distin-
' The reason for this shocking superstious
gui.shed from the material world, which had custom is to be found in the words addressed
emanated from his substance without any by Balak to Balaam, as follows: 'Wherewith'
distindl aift of creation." The Universal shall I come before the Lord, and bow my-
Supreme Being was usually termed Baal, self before the high God ? Shall I come
meaning "the Lord." He represented the before Him with burnt offerings, with calves
PHCENICIAN RELIGION. 327
of a year old? Will the Lord be jileased no material emblem of the god whatever,
\\\\.\\ thousands of rams, or with ten thou- exceping a constantly-burning fire. In other
sands of rivers of oil? Shall I give nij- places conical stones, called ba-lvli, were
first-born for my transgression, the fruit of dedicated to the different deities, and were
ni}- body for the sin of my soul?" Philo honored with a limited adoration, being con-
Byblius says: "It was customar}- among sidered as possessing a certain mystic virtue.
the ancients, in times of great calamity and These stones were sometimes replaced by
danger, that the rulers of the city or nation which were ereefted in front of the
pillars,
should offer up the best beloved of their temples and had sacrifices offered to thcni.
children, as an expiatory sacrifice to the The pillars were mostly of wood, though
avenging deities; and these vi(5lims were sometimes of stone or metal, and were called
slaughtered mystically." The Phoenicians ashcrahs, "uprights," In- the Jews. On
were instru(5led that at one time the god festive occasions they were adorned with
El himself, under the pressure of extreme boughs of trees, flowers and ribbons, and
peril, had taken his only son, clad him in constituted the chief objecft of a worship of
kingly attire, set him as a victim upon an a sensual and debasing nature. An emblem
altar, and killed him with his own hand. in the Assyrian sculptures is regarded as
Thereafter it was the dut}- of rulers to fol- conveying a corredl idea of the usual appear-
low this divine example, and private per- ance of these ashcralis at such times.
sons, when surrounded by diiEculties, might Phcenician worship was condudled pub-
offer up their children to appea,se the divine licly, and included prai.se, prayer and sacri-
anger. Porph\-ry saj-s that "the Phoenician fice. Animals were generally sacrificed,
history was full of instances, in which that though, as we have observed, there were
people, when suffering under great calamity frequently human sacrifices. The vidtims
from war, or pestilence, or drought, chose were usually consumed entirely upon the
by public vote one of those most dear to altars. Libations of wine were lavishly
them, and sacrificed him to Saturn." poured out in honor of the principal deities,
The W'Orship of Ashtoreth in Phoenicia and incense was burnt in extravagant pro-
and Syria was accompanied with licentious fusion. Sometimes an endeavor was made
rites. The worship of the gjeat Nature-god- to influence the deity by vociferous and pro-
'
dess tended to encourage dissoluteness in
' longed cries, and even by self-inflicted
the lelations between the sexes, and even to wounds and mutilation. Festivals were fre-
sanctify impurities of the most abominable quently held, particularh- one at the vernal
description." "This religion silenced all equinox, on which occasion sacrifices on a
the best feelings of human nature, degraded large scale were made, and vast multitudes
men's minds bj' a Superstition alternately of people assembled at the leading temples.
cruel and profligate, and we may seek in vain Says Rawlinson :
'
' Altogether the religion

for any influence for good it could have ex- of the Phoenicians, while possessing some
ercised on the nation." The religion well redeeming points, as the absence of images
illustrated the moral characfter of the Phoe- and deep sense of sin which led them to
nicians, who were generally insubordinate, sacrifice what was nearest and dearest to
but also ser\'ile, gloomy and cruel, corrupt them to appease the divine anger, must be
and fierce, covetous and selfish, vindidlive regarded as one of the lowest and most de-
and treacherous. Being traders in everj'- basing of the forms of belief and worship
thing they were devoid of everj' kindly prevalent in the ancient world, combining
feeling and loftj- impulse. as it did impurity with cruelty, the santftion
The Phoenicians did not worship images of licentiousness with the requirement of
of their deities, and were therefore not idola- bloody rites, revolting to the con.science,
ters, in the usual acceptation of the term. In and destrudtive of anj- right apprehension
the temple of Melkarth at Gades there was of the true idea of God."
328 ANCIENT HISTORY.— PHCENICIA AND SYRLA.
SECTION VI.— GEOGRAPHY OF SYRIA.

|YRIA — at present a province of Syria, or Hollow-Syria; and Commagene, in
the Turkish Empire — now em- the North.
braces ancient Syria, Palestine The chief mountains of Syria were Ama-
and Phoenicia; thus having an nus,now Al lyUcan; Casius, now Cas; Li-
area of about seventy- thousand banus and Anti-Libanus, the Mount Leb-
square miles and a population of two mill- anon of Scripture, whose .summit is said to be
ions. It is between the Arabian
located perpetually capped with snow. The princi-
desert on the east and the Mediterranean pal rivers of Syria are the Euphrates, the
sea on the west. The Greeks regarded Syria Orontes and the Leontes. The small river
as including Palestine and Phoenicia, but called Eleutherus was anciently said to be
the Jews always considered these three haunted by a dragon, whose immense jaws
countries as distincft from each other. Aram could receive a mounted horseman. The
was the Jewish name for Syria. Ancient Sabbatum was represented as ceasing to flow
Syria proper was bounded on the west by on the Sabbath. The Adonis, tinged with
the Mediterranean, on the north by Mount reddi.sh sand in the rain}' .season, was be-
Amanus, on the east by the Euphrates and lieved to flow with blood on the anniversary
Arabia, and on the south by Arabia. Its of the death of Adonis,who was said to have
principal geographical divisions in the time been killed on banks by a wild boar.
its
of the Romans were Syria proper; Coele- The palm, the plane-tree and the cypress are
PUBLIC G.\RDEN, D.-VMASCUS.

GEOGRAPHY OF SYRIA. 3^9
among the forest trees of Syria. Grapes are be the original .seat of paradise. Antioch,
produced in abundance, as are also the dif- the Greek capital of Syria, was celebrated
ferent kinds of o:rain, and millet. The cli- for beauty and magnificence. In the
its
mate is delightful. The animals of Syria famous grove of Daphne, near Antioch,
are those usually found in South-western Venus was worshiped with licentious cere-
Asia. The S5'rian goat is remarkable for its monies. Hieropolis was renowned for its
P.\I.MVR.\. TKIUMPH.\L .-iRCH.
long hair and its pendulous ears, the hair temple of Venus, which was so rich that
having been a valued article of commerce the Roman general Crassus was engaged for
for many centuries. The wolf, the jackal several days in weighing the spoils when he
and the fo.K are seen in the mountains. captured the city. Eme.s.sa had a temple to
Damascus— the chief city of ancient, as of the sun. Other famous cities of ancient
modem, Syria — believed by
is people to its Syria were Tadmor, in the desert, later
ANCIENT HISTORY.— PHCENICIA AND SYRIA.
known as Pahnjra, and Baalbec, the Greek The history of Syria, like that of Asia
Heliopolis, or City of the Sun. Minor, has little political unity. Since its
The earhest inhabitants are beheved to petty ancient states have lost their indepen-
have been the Aramites, or Aramseans, the dence the countrj' has been under the suc-
descendants of Aram, Shem's j-oungest son. cessive sway of the Assyriatis, the Babylon-
Some of the po.sterity of Hamath, a son of ians, the Medo-Persians, the Graeco-Mace-
Canaan, is also said to have dwelt there in donians, the Romans, the Saracens, the Sel-
primitive times. The Hebrew Scriptures juk Turks, the Mongol Tartars, and for the
P.\I^MVR.\ MIDDLE CROSSING OF GR.^.ND COLONNADE ; GR.-iNITE MONOLITH.
represent primeval Syria as divided into a last four centuries under the Ottoman
number of small kingdoms, among which Turks. Under its present masters the coun-
were Damascus, Hamath, Zobah and Geshur. try has everywhere fallen into decaj-, and
S>ria is believed to be one of the earliest in- can scarcely be said to have any history:
habited regions of the globe, and the mod- though in ancient and mediseval times it
ern Syrians still have traditions represent- was the theater of many important events,
ing their countr}- as the oldest in the world. having witnessed the prowess and martial
The vSj'rians were at first governed by deeds of Sennacherib, Nebuchadnezzar,
numerous petty chiefs, called kings, a title Pompey, Abu-bekir and Omar, Godfrey of
which the ancient writers applied to every Bouillon, Saladin and Richard the Lion-
ruler or leader, or chief, of a communitj-. hearted, Zingis-Khan and Tamerlane.
///S/VA'}- OF DAMASCC/S. 331
SECTION VIT,— TTTSTORY OF DAMASCUS.

IplREVIOUS to its organization capital was Hamath (now Haraah); the
into a satrapy of the Medo- Southern Hittites, in the region south of
Persian Empire, Syria had Hamath; and the Syrians of Damascus,
never been united under one whose capital was Damascus.
government. During the pe- Of all these pretty states, the most power-
riod of Assyrian supremacy the country was ful and the best-known was Syria of Damas-
divided into no less than five leading states. cus. The citv of Damascus is the oldest
'^^^fi^z
ARAK Ti.Ml'l.l; AT KXAl.UHC.
some of which were mere loose confedera- known city of the world, its existence dating
cies. The five were the Northern
states as far back as the time of Abraham, about
Hittites, whose capital was Carchemish, on four thousand years ago. The kingdom of
the Euphrates; the Patena, on the Lower Damascus arose in the twelfth century be-
Orontes, whose capital was Kinalua; the fore Christ, after the Hebrew king Saul had
Hamathites, on the Upper Orontes, whose vanquished the King of Zobah, one of the
1—21.-U. H.
332 ANCIENT HISTORY.— PHCENICIA AND SYRIA.
GREAT STONE AT BAALlilX.
most ancient SjTian kingdoms. Hadad, C. goo, and warred with that monarch. He
King of Damascus, assisted Hadadezar, was a powerful monarch, and had thirty-
King of Zobah, against the great Hebrew two vassal kings in his army. He adorned
king David, but was defeated in a great Damascus with splendid edifices, and did
battle by David, who captured Damascus, much to advance the glory of his king-
Belah and Berothai; and Hadad submitted dom. He was finally murdered treacherously
to the supremacy of his Hebrew conqueror. by his servant Hazael, who then usurped
Near the close of the reign of Solomon, the throne of Damascus. Hazael was a
David's illustrious successor, Rezon, King great warrior and an able monarch, and
of Damascus, who had originally been a reigned contemporaneously with Jehu, King
slave, revolted against the Hebrew rule and of Israel, and Shalmaneser II., the Black
reestablished the independence of the king- Obeli.sk King of Assyria, about B. C. 850.
dom of Damascus. Tab-rimmon, King of He won several great vidlories over the
Damascus, was contemporary' with Abijah, armies of Israel and Judah, wresting im-
King of Judah, from about B. C. 960 to B. portant territories from the kings of both of
C. 950. Ben-hadad I., his son and suc- those nations, and forcing them to pay him
cessor, was contemporary with Baasha in Is- tribute. He also seized Elath, on the Red
rael and Asa in Judali, about from B. C. 950 Sea, and largelj^ advanced the commercial
to B. C. 920, and warred with Baasha and his prosperity of his dominions. After his
successor, Omri. Ben-hadad II., son and death the Syrians deified him, and thus ren-
successor of Ben-hadad I., was contempo- dered him an objedl of wonship. Hazael's
rary with Ahab, King of Israel, about B. .son and successor, Ben-hadad III.,contem-
HISTORY OF DAMASCUS. 333
porary with Jehoabaz and Joasli of Israel, David. The alliedkings besieged Jerusa-
about B. C. 840, oppressed the Israelites, lem, but without success. They, however,
but was three times defeated by Joash, and carried on a predatorj' war during the fol-
lost the provinces which his father had lowing year, and the Syrians returned to
wrested from the Israelites. The Syrians Damascus with much valuable booty and
of Damascus were now for some time trib- many captives. Ahaz, in revenge, sent val-
utary to Jeroboam II., King of Israel. uable presents to Tiglath-Pileser II., King
They, however, recovered their indepen- of Assyria, for the purpose of securing his
dence amid the dissensions which prevailed aid againgst Damascus. The Assyrian king
in Israel upon Jeroboam's death. Rezin, at once ledan army into Sj'ria, took Damas-
the last King of Damascus, became the cus and put Rezin to death. Most of the
ally of Pekah, King of Israel, against Damascenes were carried captive to Kir, in
Ahaz, King of Judah, for the purpose Media, and the ancient kingdom of Damas-
of dethroning the latter, and putting a cus came to an inglorious end, about B. C.
stranger named Tabael on the throne of 732-
KINGS OF DAMASCUS.
KNOWN KINGS.
H
CHAPTER Vni
THE HEBREW NATION.

SECTION I.— THE HEBREW PATRIARCHS.
^HILE the great mass of the thee, and curse them that curse thee; and
vj' population of ancient Chal- in thee shall all families of the earth be
dsea about two thousand j-ears bles.sed."
,
!^! before Christ were polj'theists, Abram's brother, Nahor, delighted with
worshiping the multitudinous the beauty and fertility of the Mesopotamian
deities of the Chaldasan pantheon, there plain, remained at Haran; while Abram, after
was a small Semitic band of nomads who the burial of his father, migrated with his
were pure monotheists, recognizing Jehovah flocks and herds, and with his wife, Sarai,
(or Elohim) as the only God. At this time and his brother's son, Eot, "and all the souls
the leader of this small band was the famous they had gotten in Haran," to the "prom-
patriarch Abram, the son of Terah, and a ised land of Canaan," where the new emi-
native of "Ur of the Chaldees." This grants from Mesopotamia received from the
patriarch has become celebrated as the foun- inhabitants the name '
' Hebrews, '
' meaning
der of several Semitic nations, among them strangers from the other side, " " the men
'
'
the Hebrews, or Israelites, and the Arabs. who had crossed the river, " " the emigrants
During the general migration of Semitic from Mesopotamia." Journeying through
and Hamitic tribes from Chaldaea after the the Syrian desert he tarried for some time at
death of Nimrod, Abram with his father, Damascus, which was then an old city. At
Terah, and his flocks and herds, removed Damascus he met his faithful ser\ânt Eliezer,
from Ur to Haran up the Euphrates. whom he created "steward of his house."
Says the Book of Genesis: "And Terah Thence he passed on to the south, crossing
took Abram his son, and Lot the son of Ha- the Jordan and entering the Promised '
'
ran his son's son, and Sarai his daughter-in- Land," halting in the valle}' of Sichem, or
law, his son Abram's wife; and they went Shechem. The Hebrew record goes on to
forth with them from Ur of the Chaldees, to say: "And the Lord appeared unto Abram,
go into the land of Canaan; and they came and said. Unto thy seed will I give this land;
unto Haran, and dwelt there." After al- and there builded he an altar unto the Lord,
luding to Terah's death in Haran, the Mo- who appeared unto him.
'
' Abram proceeded

saic narrative further says: "Now the "unto mountain on the east of Bethel, and
a
Lord had said unto Abram,- Get thee out of pitched his tent, having Bethel on the west,
thy countrs', and from thy kindred, and and Hai on the east; and there he builded
from thy father's house, unto a land that I an altar unto the Lord, and called upon the
will show thee. And I will make thee a name of the Lord."
great nation, and I will bless thee, and —
This country then called Canaan, from
make tlij' name great; and thou shalt be a one of Ham's sons, whose descendants had
blessing. And I will bless them that bless peopled it, and afterwards known as Judaea,
(337 )
338 ANCIENT HISTORY.— THE HEBREWS.
and now called Palestine —was inhabited by Sodom, Gomorrah, Admah, Zeboiim and
many idolatrous tribes. Abram settled in Bela (afterwards called Zoar), which had
the mountain region, where he was secure risen in revolt against him. In this war
from the Canaanites, who dwelt in the more Lot and all his cattle were captured and
fertile plains below, but where he had but carried away by the vidlorious Chaldseans.
scant pasturage for his cattle. He pushed But Abram, with a band of three hundred
on further southward, but was driven by a and eighteen of his own people and a body
famine into Egj'pt. Fearing that the Pha- of Amorite allies, pursued the hosts of Che-
raoh who then reigned over Egj'pt would be dorlaomer, and routed them near Damascus,
tempted by Sarai's beauty to kill him to get rescuing Lot and recovering all the booty
her in his possession, Abram passed her off that they had taken from the five Canaanite
as his sister. Thinking that she was an un- cities.
married woman, the Egyptian monarch took Says the Hebrew record: "After these
her to his house, and bestowed wealth and things the word of the Lord came unto
honors upon Abram with a lavish hand. Abram in a vision, saying, Fear not Abram;
But says the Mosaic account: "The Lord I am thy shield, and thy exceeding great
plagued Pharaoh and his house with great reward. And Abram said. Lord God, what
plagues because of Sarai, Abram's wife. wilt thou give me, seeing I go childless, and
And Pharoah called Abram, and said, What the steward of my house is this Eliezer of
is this that thou hast done unto me? why Damascus. And Abram said. Behold, to
didst thou not tell me that she was thy wife ? me thou hast given no seed; and, lo, one
Why saidst thou. She is my sister? so I born in my house is mine heir. And, be-
might have taken her to me to wife ; now hold, the word of the Lord came unto him,
therefore behold thy wife, take her, and saying. This shall not be thine heir; but he
go thy way. And Pharaoh commanded his that shall come forth own
out of thine
men concerning him; and they sent him bowels shall be thine heir.And he brought
away, and his wife, and all that he had." him forth abroad, and said. Look now
Thereupon Abram left Egypt, with his toward heaven, and tell the stars if thou be
wife and with Lot, "and all that he had," able to number them; and he said unto him,
and returned to Canaan. And Abram was
'
' So shall thy seed be. And he believed in

very rich in cattle, in silver, and in gold." the Lord and counted it for righteousness.
Returning to Bethel, near which he had be- And he said unto him, I am the Lord that
fore erecfled his tent, "Abram called on the brought thee out of Ur of the Chaldees, to
name of the Lord." "And Lot also, which give thee this land to inhei-it it. * * * *
went with Abram, had flocks, and herds, And when the sun was going down, a deep
and tents." The land was not rich enough sleep fell upon Abram; and, lo, an horror
for their sustenance; and Abram and Lot of great darkness fell upon him. And he
here separated, because "there was strife said unto Abram, know of a surety that
between the herdmen of Abram's cattle and thy seed shall be a stranger in a land that is
the herdmen of Lot's cattle." Abram at not theirs, and shall serve them; and they
remained on the mountains, while Lot
first shall afflitft them four hundred years. And
descended to the fertile plain of the Jordan, also that nation, whom they shall serve,
near Sodom. Abram then removed south- will I judge;and afterwards shall they come
ward to the "oaks of Mamre," near Hebron, out with great substance. And thou shalt
and that place thereafter remained his usual go to thy fathers in peace; thou shalt be
abode. buried in a good old age. But in the fourth
Shortly afterward, Chedorlaomer, King generation they shall come hither again;
of Chaldaea, who had built up the first great for the iniquity of the Amorites is not yet
empire in Western Asia, invaded the South full. And it came to pass, that, when the
of Canaan, and conquered the five cities of sun went down, and it was dark, behold a
z:
'D
JJ
<
Jj'
<.
JJ
•J
'J
JJ
THE PATRIARCHS. 339
smoking furnace, and lamp that

a burning will estaljlish my covenant between me and
passed between those pieces. In that same thee and thy seed after thee in their genera-
day the Lord made a covenant with Abram, tions for an everla.sting covenant, to be a
sa)-ing, Unto thy seed have I given this God unto thee, and to thy seed after thee.
land, from the river of Egypt unto the great And I will give unto thee, and to thy .seed
river, the river Euphrates." after thee, the land wherein thou art a
After sojourning ten years in the land of stranger, all the land of Canaan, for an ever-
Canaan, Sarai began to despair of becom- lasting possession; and I will be their God.
ing the mother of Abram's heir and advised And God said unto Abraham, Thou shalt
Abram to take to wife her servant Hagar, keep my covenant therefore, thou and thy
an Egyptian woman, by whom Abram had seed after thee in their generations. This
a son. Before the birth of the child, Ha- is my covenant, which j'e shall keep, be-
gar, puffed up with pride, treated her mis- tween me and you and thy seed after thee;
tresswith such insolence that Sarai felt con- every man-child among you shall be cir-
strained to punish her. Thereupon Hagar cumcised. * * * * Afi£j Qod said unto
fled into the wilderness of Kadesh, south- Abraham, As for Sarai thy wife, thou shalt
east of Abram's abode. "And the angel not call her name Sarai, but Sarah shall
of the lyCrd said unto her, I will multiply her name be. And I will bless her, and
thy seed exceedingly, that it shall not be give thee a son also of her; yea, I will
numbered for multitude. And the angel of bless her and she shall be a mother of
the Lord said unto her. Behold, thou art nations; kings of people shall be of her.
with child, and shalt bear a son, and shalt H; * * * * ^jj^ QqjJ said, Sarah thj-
call his name Ishmael; because the lord hath wife shall bear thee a son indeed; and thou
heard thy afHicflion. And he will be a wild shalt call his name Isaac; and I will estab-
man; his hand will be against ever}^ man, lish my covenant with him for an everlast-
and every man's hand against him; he shall ing covenant, and with his seed after him.
dwell in the presence of all his brethren." And have heard thee; Be-
as for Ishmael, I
Hagar returned to her mistress before the hold, I have blessed him, and will make
child was boni, and Abram named the child him fruitful, and will multiply him exceed-
Ishmael. He is regarded as the progenitor ingl}'; twelve princes shall he beget, and I
of the Bedouin Arabs, who have always will make him a great nation. But my cov-
lived in a wild Regarding Ishmael
state. nant I will establish with Isaac, which
as the heir promised him by Jehovah, Abram Sarah shall bear unto thee at this set time
treated him with fatherly affecflion. in the next year. And he left off talking
We are further told that "when Abram with him, and God went up from Abra-
was ninety years old and nine, the Lord ap- ham." Abraham and Ishmael and all the
peared to Abram, and said unto him, I am males of his hou.sehold were then circum-
the Almighty God; walk before me, and be cised.
thou perfedl. And I will make my cove- We are told that some time after this,
nant between me and thee, and will multiply when Abraham was sitting at the door of
thee exceedingly. And Abram fell on his saw three men approaching. He
his tent, he
face; and God talked with him, saying, As and greeted them with a heartj^
at once arose
for me, behold my covenant is with thee, welcome, and urged them to remain for
and thou shalt be a father of many nations. the night. They accepted his invitation,
Neither shall thy name any more be called and when they had partaken of the meal
Abram, but thy name shall be Abra- placed before them they revealed themselves
ham; for a father of many nations have I to him, one as the angel Jehovah and the
made thee. And I willmake thee exceed- other two as attendant angels. It is said
ing fruitful, and I will make nations of thee, that the angels renewed to Abraham the
and kings shall come out of thee. And I Lord's promise that Sarah should bear him
340 ANCIENT HISTORY.-- THE HEBREWS.
a son within a year; and that Sarah, who establishing his abode in the tract between
was within the tent, hearing them, and be- Egypt and Canaan. He concluded a treaty
ing ninety years old, laughed at this predic- with the king of the country, named Abi-
tion;whereupon the angel reproved her for melech, beside a well, which he named Beer-
her skepticism, and reassured Abraham of sheba (the Well of the Oath), in memory
the Divine promise. The angels, we are then of the event. During his residence at Beer-
told,went toward Sodom, accompanied part sheba, his wife, Sarah, gave birth to the
of theway by Abraham. In consideration of long-promised heir, who was circumcised
the favor with which the Lord Jehovah re- and called Isaac. When Isaac was weaned
garded Abraham as the founder of his chosen the patriarch celebrated the occasion by a
people, the angels informed him of the Di- feast, during which Sarah observed Ishmael
vine purpose to destroy Sodom and Gomorrah taunting Isaac, thus exciting her anger. She
and the cities of the plain as a punishment asked her husband to send Hagarand Ishmael
for theirextreme wickedness, and told him away, so that Isaac might have no rival in his
that they were on their way to warn Lot father's house. Abraham hesitated, as he
and his family to save themselves by flight had a paternal affecftion for Ishmael. And '
'
from the doomed cities. After the depart- God said unto Abraham, Let it not be griev-
ure of the angels, we are told that Abraham ous in thy sight because of the lad, and be-
vainly interceded for the cities; and that cause of thy bond-woman; in all that Sarah
the Lord, in response to the patriarch's hath said unto thee, harken unto her voice;
prayer, promised that if ten righteous men for in Isaac shall thy .seed be called. And
could be found in the cities he would spare also of the son of the bond-woman will I
them, but that even so small a number make a nation, because he is thy seed."
could not be found. Lot and his family, in The next morning Hagar and her son were
obedience to the angels' warning, fled from furnished with provisions and sent away.
Sodom; but his wife, in disregard of the Wandering in the wilderness of Beer-sheba,
warning, looked back, and, says the Scrip- they were danger of perishing from thirst,
in
tural record, became a pillar of salt.
'
' Sod- '

' when, it is they were rescued bj^ an
said,
om, Gomorrah, Admah and Zeboiim were angel. After growing up in the wilderness,
destroyed by a dreadful convulsion of nature, Ishmael became a skillful archer. His mother
not a single individual escaping the terrible obtained for him a wife from her own peo-
doom. Says the Hebrew account: "And ple, the Egyptians, and from him are de-
the Lord rained upon Sodom and upon Go- scended the Bedouin Arabs. The Koreish
morrah brimstone and fire from the Lord tribe, which inhabited Mecca, regarded
out of heaven; and he overthrew all those themselves as the direcfl descendants of
cities, and all the plain, and all the inhabi- Ishmael. The chief sancfluary of this tribe
tants of the cities, and that which grew was the Caaba, believed by them to have
upon the ground." Lot and his daughters been built by Ishmael and Abraham.
sought refuge in Zoar, which was spared, Among the descendants of this tribe was
we are told, in answer to his prayer; but Mohammed, the great prophet and founder
fearing to remain there. Lot fled to the hill of I.slam.
country, and found refuge in a cave east of Abraham seems to have lived at Beer-
the Dead Sea. There occurred the incestu- sheba many years. During his residence
ous birth of Moab and Amnion, the respedl- there, we are told, his faith in Jehovah was
ive ancestors of the Moabites and the Am- put to its severest test. Says the Scriptural
monites, whom Moses and Joshua found set- account: "And it came to pass after these
tled in the region east of the Jordan and the things that did tempt Abraham, and
God
Dead Sea. said unto him, Abraham; and he said. Be-
Soon after the destrucflion of the cities of hold, here I am. And he said, Take thy
the plain, Abraham proceeded to the south, son Isaac, whom thou lovest, and get thee
THE PATRLIKCIIS. 341
into the land of Moriah; and offer him for a Rebekah, the youngest and most beautiful
l)urnt offering upon one of the mountains daughter of the house, who, upon hearing
which I With a sad heart,
will tell thee of." of his mission, agreed to leave her own
we Abraham obeyed the Divine
are told that family and become her cou.sin Isaac's wife.
command, and taking Isaac with him to the Going with Eliezer to Canaan, she was
land of Moriah, which is believed to be the greeted with joy by Isaac and his father.
hill on which the great temple at Jerusalem Isaac was said to have been forty years old
afterwards was built, he there built an altar when he married. After a marriage of twenty
and prepared to offer up Isaac as a sacrifice, years Rebekah gave birth to twin sons —one
when, says the narrative, "the angel of the called Esau and also Edom (the Red), on
Lord called unto him out of heaven, and account of his ruddy complexion; the other
said, Abraham, Abraham; and he said, name Jacob (the Supplanter).
Here am I. And he said, Laj' not thine After Isaac's marriage, Abraham took an-
hand upon the lad, neither do thou anything other wife, named Keturah, by whom he
unto him; for now, I know that thou fearest had six sons, one of whom was Midian, the
God, seeing thou hast not withheld thy son, ancestor of the Midianites, who occupied
thine only son, from me." The patriarch, the region between the Dead Sea and the
seeing a ram caught by its honis in the Elanitic gulf of the Red Sea, to the east
bushes, offered it as a sacrifice instead of his of the Nabsetheans. Abraham lavished
son. "And the angel of the Lord called giftsupon these sons, but sent them out of
unto Abraham out of heaven the second Canaan, which was reserved exclusively as
time, and said, By myself have I sworn, the inheritance of Isaac, to whom the patri-
saith the Lord; for because thou hast done arch bequeathed his vast wealth.
all Abra-
this thing, and hast not withheld thy son, ham died at Beer-sheba " in a good old age,
thine only son; That in ble.ssing I will bless and full of years." His .sons, Isaac and
thee, and in multiplying I will multiply thy Lshmael, buried him tomb in
in the family
seed as the stars of the heaven, and as the the cave of Machpelah. Thus ended the
sand which is upon the sea shore; and thy career of the renowned patriarch who was
seed shall pos.sess the gate of his enemies; the ancestor of the Israelites, the Bedouin
and in thy seed shall all the nations of the Arabs, the Edomites and the Midianites.
earth be blessed; because thou hast obejêd After Abraham's death Isaac continued to
my voice." dwell by the well of Lahai-roi, in the ex-
Some time after this Abraham returned to treme South of Canaan, or Palestine, where
home
his old at Mamre, near Hebron, where his sons grew to manhood. Esau was a
Sarah died. After purchasing the cave of reckless man, an expert hunter, and his
Machpelah from the Hittites of Hebron, father's favorite. He was rough and hairy
then called Kirjath-Arba, Abraham buried in appearance, and caused his parents much
Sarah there; and the cave became his family trouble. W'hen forty years old he married
sepulcher. After Sarah's burial Abraham two Hittite wives, contrary to his father's
returned to Beer-sheba. As he felt his end wish; thus introducing heathen alliances
approaching, he determined to secure a wife into the chosen family. Jacob was peaceful
for his son Isaac; and, in order that Isaac's —
and prudent ready to obtain by cunning
posterity might be a pure race, he resolved and intrigue what Esau sought to procure
to .secure one of his kindred as a bride for by violent means. He was smooth-skinned,
his son. For this reason he .sent his stew- and fond of the peaceful occupation of the
ard, Eliezer, to Mesopotamia, binding him shepherd and the quiet life of the tent.
by a solemn oath to seledl from his own Jacob was his mother's favorite.
family a wife fOr Isaac. Reaching Haran, As Esau came in one day, tired and hun-
Eliezer met the family of Bethuel, the son gry from the chase, he saw Jacob preparing
of Nahor, Abraham's brother. He chose a mess of red lentils, and asked him for
'

"some of that red." Jacob aSked Esau's Mesopotamia, taking the route by which
birth-right in payment for the mess; and Abraham had entered Canaan. Upon arriv-
Esau, simply to gratify his appetite for the ing at Abraham's old encampment at Bethel,
moment, agreed to the demand, thus "sell- he remained there all night, taking a stone
ing his birth-right mess of pot-
for a for a pillow. "And
he dreamed, and be-
tage." For this proceeding St Paul calls hold! a ladder set up on the earth, and the
him " a. pfofaitc person, who for one mor.sel top of it reached to heaven; and behold the
of food sold his birthright." Jacob, by his angels of God ascending and descending on
craft, became the head of the cho-sen family, it. And behold! the Lord stood above it,
and the progenitor of the chosen race. and said, I am the Lord God of Abraham
When, in his old age, Isaac felt that thy father, and the God of Isaac; the land
his end was near, he informed Esau of his whereon thou liest, to thee will I give it,
design of transmitting to him the patri- and to thy seed. And thy seed shall be as
archal authority, and ordered him to prepare the dust of the earth; and thou shalt spread
a feast for the occasion. Esau started to abroad to the west, and to the east, and to
obtain venison, of which his father was very the north, and to the south; and in thee and
fond, whereupon Rebekah informed Jacob in thy seed shall all the families of the earth
of her husband's intention. With her help be blessed. And behold I am with thee,
Jacob craftily passed him.self off upon his and will keep thee in all places whither thou
father as Esau, thus securing the patriarchal goest, and will bring thee again into this
blessing, which made him the head of his land; for I will I have
not leave thee, until
family, aud which, when once given, was done that which I have spoken to thee of."
irrevocable. Esau now returned from the When Jacob awoke he acknowledged the
chase, and was apprised of the trick by Divine presence by erecfting an altar on the
which he had been defrauded of his inherit- spot, which he named Bethel (the Hou.se of
ance. His anger and grief were great. God), and solemnly dedicated himself and
"He cried with a great and exceeding bitter all that Jehovah should give him to the .serv-
cry, and said unto his father, Bless me, even ice of the Almighty. This was the turning
me also, O my father. '
' The spiritual bles.s- point in Jacob's religious life, and occurred
ing, having passed to Jacob, could not be when he had reached a good age.
recalled, but Isaac blessed Esau by promis- Proceeding on his journey, Jacob at
ing him ^reat earthly prosperity, qualified length reached the home of his uncle La-
by submisson to his brother, whose yoke he ban, his mother's brother, at Padan-Aram.
should eventually break. Concerning this There he was heartily welcomed, and fell in
promise. Dr. William Smith, in his History love with his beautiful cousin Rachel, the
of the Bible, says: "The prophecy was ful- youngest daughter of Laban. Entering his
filled in the prosperity of the Idumaeans, uncle's ser\'ice as a shepherd for wages, he
their martial prowess, and their constant con- asked of Laban the hand of Rachel, offering
flidts with the Israelites, by whom they were to serve him seven years for her. Laban,
subdued under David, over whom they more crafty than Jacob, accepted this offer,
triumphed at the Babylonian captivity, and but, taking advantage of the marriage cus-
to whom they at last gave a king in the per- toms of the country, gave his eldest daugh-
'
son of Herod the Great. ter, Leah, who suffered with sore eyes, and
Thenceforth Esau was resolved to kill could not easil}' be disposed of, in marriage
Jacob, delaying his design until after Isaac's to his nephew. Jacob was indignant at the
death. Becoming aware of this, Rebekah fraud pratfticed upon him, but was obliged
induced her husband to send Jacob to her to submit, and consented to serve Laban
kindred for safety. Isaac was glad to do seven years longer for his beloved Rachel.
this, to procure a wife of pure blood for In the progress of these years eleven sons
Jacob. Taking his staff Jacob started for and a daughter were born to Jacob. Iêah's
THE PATRIARCHS. 343
sons were Reuben, Simeon, I^vi, Judah, brother Esau had become the powerful
Issacliarand Zebulun. Rachacl bore Jacob chieftain, Jacob was .seriously alarmed, fear-
one son, named Joseph. Leah bore him a ing that Esau might kill him in revenge for
daughter, named Dinah. Jacob had four the loss of his birthright, and seize his fam-
sons with two concubines. Rachacl's hand- ily and flocks. He sent him a conciliator^'
maid, Billah, Ijore him Dan and Naphtali; message, and Esau came to him at the head
and Iâh's handmaid, Zilpah, bore him Gad of four hundred warriors. Jacob, in great
and Asher. alarm, prepared to meet the peril which
After the birth of Joseph, Jacob's young- menaced him, dividing his people and his
est and favorite child, the son of Rachel, flocks into two portions. Then he prayed
Jacob desired to return to his own countr\-, to Jehovah, after which he sent rich presents
but Laban prevailed upon him to ser\'e him to his brother, and then rested for the night.
longer for a part of his flocks, Jacob's por- He arose before day the next morning, and
tion to be distinguished by certain marks. sent his wives and children over the Jabbok.
Laban endeavored to defeat this arrange- remaining behind to prepare by solitary
ment by trickery; but Jacob, more expert in meditation for the day's trials. While he
cattle-breeding, foiled him and obtained a man made his appearance and
' '
tarried ' '
most of the produce of the flocks. At wrestled with him until the break of day
length Jacob became rich in "cattle, and And when "the man" obser\-ed "that he
maidservants and manservants, and camels prevailed not against him, he touched the
and asses." hollow of his thigh; and the hollow of
After sojourning twenty j-ears with Laban Jacob's thigh was out of joint as he wrestled
the Scriptural record says,
'
' the Lord said with him. And he said, Let me go, for the
unto Jacob, Return unto the land of thy day breaketh. And he said, I will not let
fathers, and and I will be
to th}- kindred; thee go, except thou bless nie. And he
with thee." Fearing that Laban would de- said unto him, What is thy name ? And he
tain him, Jacob secretly set out on his re- said, Jacob. And he said. Thy name shall
turn to Canaan; and after crossing the Eu- be called no more Jacob, but Israel; for as a
phrates, he passed through the desert by the prince hast thou power withGod and with
great fountain of Palmyra, traveled across men, and hast prevailed. And Jacob asked
the eastern portion of the plain of Damas- him and said, Tell me, I pray thee, thy
cus and the plateau of Bashan, and entered name. And he said. Wherefore is it that
the mountain land of Gilead, east of the Jor- thou dost ask after my name ? And he
dan, which constitutes the frontier between blessed him there. And Jacob called the
Palestine and the Syrian desert. There La- name of the place Peniel; for I lia-ve seen
"
ban with a considerable force overtook him. God face and my life is preserved.
to face,
Rachel had taken along her father's house- It is said that Jacob never recovered from
hold efiFecfls, and now, by an ingenious de- the lameness caused by the angel's touch,
vice, succeeded in concealing them. '
' And and in memory of this the Israelites, in after

God came Laban the Syrian in a dream
to times, would not eat of the sinew in the
by night, and said unto him. Take heed hollow of the thigh.
that thou speak not to Jacob either good or Descending into the valley of the Jabbok,
bad." Not finding his idols, Laban made Jacob met Esau, who gave him a brotherly
a treaty with Jacob and set up a pile of welcome. He had long before forgiven his
stones as a witness of it. And Jacob went
'
' brother for defrauding him of the spiritual

on his way, and the angels of God met him. blessing which his father had designed for
And when Jacob saw them, he said, This is him, and was satisfied with the earthly pros-
God's host; and he called the name of that perity' which he had achieved. After a
place Mahanaim." pleasant interview between the brothers,
Approaching Mount Seir, of which his Esau returned to Mount Seir. and Jncob
.U4 ANCIENT HISTORY.— THE HEBREWS.
proceeded on his journey to the Jordan, pense of his bretheni, and he verj' indis-
crossing the stream at Succoth. Entering creetly apprised them of these dreams.
Canaan, he moved on to Shechem, which They at once resolved to put him out of the
was then a considerable town of the Amor- way; and when Joseph had been sent by his
ites. He bought a piece of land from these father to visit his brethren, who were feeding
people, and this was the first possession of their flocks at Shechem, they determined to
the chosen family in the " Promised Land." assassinate him. Reuben, the eldest son,
There Jacob eredled an altar to the God prevailed upon his brothers not to kill
'
'
of Israel," and renewed his promise to serine Joseph outright, but to cast him into a dry
Him. He likewise dug a \vell, which is yet well, where he would perish from hunger;
.shown there, and known as "Jacob's well." intending to rescue him afterwards. Thej^
Jacob was now to experience the greatest agreed to this; but while Reuben was tem-
trials of his life. Shechem, son of Hamor, porarily absent, they sold Joseph to a cara-
prince of the Shechemites, carried off and van of Midianitish merchants, who were on
outraged his daughter, Dinah, and notwith- their journey to Egypt. Returning to their
standing he subsequentlj' demanded her in father, theymade him believe that Joseph
marriage, Jacob's sons resolved to avenge had been killed by some wild beast.
the wrong done to their sister. They agreed Joseph was carried to Egypt by his pur-
to the marriage, and, throwing the Shechem- chasers, who sold him as a bond-slave to
ites off their guard, treacherously attacked Potiphar, or Petephra, an officer of the
them, killed all the males, pillaged the city, Egyptian army. Winning the favor of his
and carried off the women and children, and master, Joseph was made superintendent of
likewise the flocks and herds. Jacob was his house. Potiphar' s wife conceiving an
intensely indignant at this treacherous act; unlawful passion for Joseph and being re-
and, in fear that the Canaanites would en- pulsed by him, in revenge, brought an in-
deavor avenge the massacre of their
to famous accusation against him, causing him
brethren, removed with his family and pos- to be cast into prison by his master. His
sessions to Bethel, whence he proceeded good behavior won for him the fa-\'or of the
southward towards Mamre, where his father, prison officials, who conferred iipon hini im-
Isaac, was yet living. In the vicinity of portant duties.
Bethlehem his beloved wife, Rachel, died in Among the prisoners were the chief cup-
giving birth to Benjamin, and was buried at bearer and the chief cook of the reigning
that place. Her tomb is preserved to this Pharaoh, who had been imprisoned for com-
daj\ Jacob then proceeded to Mamre where plicity in a conspiracy at the court of the
he rejoined his father. It was some years king. Each of these prisoners dreamed a
after this that Isaac died, when his sons, dream prophesying his fate. Relating
Esau and Jacob, buried him in the cave of their dreams to Joseph, the latter interpreted
Machpelah. He died about thirteen years them. His interpretation was verified, the
after Joseph had been sold b}' his brethren. chief cupbearer being pardoned and restored
Joseph, Rachel's eldest son, was Jacob's to office, and the chief cook being executed,
favorite, upon whom his father bestowed as he had predidled. The fortunate man
such repeated and distinguishing marks of promised to intercede for Joseph, but forgot
his affe(5lion as to excite the envy of his him for two years, when the king, having
other sons. By playing the part of a spy had two dreams which caused him much
upon his brothers, and informing their trouble, and which the wise men of Egypt
father of their misdeeds, Joseph won the could not explain, the chief cupbearer re-
implacable hatred of his brethren. When membered Joseph and informed the Pharaoh
yet a mere lad he dreamed several remark- of the Hebrew prisoner's interpretation of
able dreams, which he regarded as por- his own dream and its fulfillment. The
tending his future greatness at the ex- Pharaoh thereupon sent for Joseph and told
TIIF. PAI'RIARCHS. 345
him of his dreams. Joseph told him that his return for the food which saved them from
dreams were prophetic, and were sent by starvation, the fee simple of their lands, and
God to warn him that Egypt would be to pay a quitrent of one-fifth of the produce
blessed by seven years of rich harvests, for the right of occupation. The priests
which would be followed by seven years of were exempt from arrangement, and had
this
dreadful famine. He urged the monarch to the right to draw supplies from the public
prejiare for the famine by gathering stores stores.
of grain at certain points in the country dur- As the famine reached that portion of Ca-
ing the years of abundance. naan in w^hich Jacob was living, he sent his
Egypt was then divided into two king- sons to Egypt to purchase grain. Thej- did
doms, Upper Egypt being governed by a not know Joseph, although he recognized
native Egyptian dyna.sty of Theban princes, them at once. He subjedled them to a se-
and Lower Egypt being ruled by those ries of trials, partly as a punishment for
Canaanite or Hittite conquerors known in their condudt towards him, and partly to
Egyptian history as the Hyksos, or Shep- .subjecT: their affedion for their father and
herd Kings. These latter had adopted the for their brother Benjamin to a test; after
Egyptian customs and language. The which he made him.self known to them, for-
Pharaoh who sent for Joseph was one of this gave them for the wrongs which they had
dynast}-, and was called Apophis, or Apepi. infli(5led upon him, and brought them and
As he was himself of foreign origin, this their father into Egypt, where he would be
monarch did not indulge in the native able to provide for them. The Pharaoh
Egyptian dislike of foreigners. Impressed willingly allowed them to .settle in that por-
with Joseph's interpretations of his dreams, tion of Eow-er Egypt east of the Delta known
Apepi at once declared that Joseph was the as "the land of Goshen." In this proceeding
best man in the land to make the provision the Pharaoh was only carrying out a leading
he had .suggested against the famine. He policy of the Shepherd Kings, encouraging
therefore made the stranger his prime-min- the development in Egj'pt of a non-Egyp-
ister, giving him his signet-ring in proof of tian element to support them in case of a
the royal favor. Joseph was clothed in formidable revolt of the native Egyptian
magnificent apparel, and received the Egyp- population.
tian name of Zaph-n-to, the
'
Nourisher of
' Jacob died seventeen years later, blessing
the Country;" while all .subje<5ts were com- his sons and declaring that the posteritj- of
manded to render him implicit obedience. Judah should inherit the Divine promises to
He also received a bride in the person of Abraham and should rank as the head of
Asenath, daughter of Petephra, the High the chosen famil}-; Reuben, Simeon and
Priest of On (afterwards Heliopolis), by —
Levi the three elder sons of Jacob having —
whom he had two sons, Manasseh and Eph- forfeited their succession by their crimes.
raim. Jacob's body was embalmed in the usual
Joseph collecfted vast stores of grain from Egyptian style, and was cairied in great
the abundant harvest in public granaries, state by Joseph and his brethren, with a
which he constructed for the purpose. This formidable escort of Egj'ptian troops, back
he accomplished by doubling the usual royal to Canaan, and was interred in Abraham's
impost of one-tenth of the grain. When tomb at Hebron. Joseph reached a vener-
the period of famine commenced he had able age, enjoying high honors, and contin-
stores of grain sufficient to supply the Egyp- uing to be the protedlor of his family. On
tian population, and to sell to the neighbor- his death-bed he exacted a .solemn oath from
ing nations which suffered from the famine. his brethren that his embalmed body should
He sold to the Egyptian people on very hard be conveyed to the land of Canaan when his
conditions, requiring them to surrender, in Hebrew countrymen should lea\-e Egypt.
'
SECTION IT.— THE EXODUS AND WANDERINGS.

v__^ ^| HE real history of the Hebrew great conqueror and a heartless tyrant. He
^/l^M'c^\ nation, now called Israelites, oppressed the Israelites with overwork, and
only commences with their forced them to labor under brutal taskmasters
exodus from Egypt. The in building the treasure cities ofPithom and
Abra-
three great patriarchs — Ramses. In spite of his cruelty and oppress-
ham, Isaac and Jacob and —
their posterity, —
sion in spite of the heavy burdens which
were simply wandering nomads, roaming he imposed upon the Hebrews their num- —
over the Promised Land of Canaan, but not bers continued to increase rapidly. Alarmed
possessing any portion of it. and enraged at this, the despotic monarch
The Hebrews, or Israelites, remained in ordered all the Hebrew male children to be
the fertile land of Goshen for over two cen- cast into the Nile as soon as they were bom.
turies, and multiplied so rapidly that the The female children were spared to furnish
family of seventy persons which had entered wives for the Egyptians. By this means the
Eg>'pt with Jacob grew to be a nation of great Pharaoh expecfted to wholly extermin-
almost three million people. They consti- ate the race of Israel.
tuted a people distin<5l from the Egyptians, Amram, a man of the tribe of Levi, had
having their own language, manners, reli- married Jochebed, a woman of the same
gion and patriarchal government. Although tribe. They had two children-— a son named
they had somewhat departed from the pure Aaron and a daughter named Miriam. Soon
monotheism of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob, after the Pharaoh had issued his cruel edidl,
they never adopted the Egyptian polytheism. Jochebed gave birth to a second son, and
They were governed diredlly by their own concealed him for three months from the
patriarchal chiefs, who were responsible to king's ofScers. Not being able to hide him
the Egyptian king for the coUedlion of the any longer, she put him in a basket, or ark,
taxes imposed upon the Hebrew colony. of bulrushes, covered with pitch, and placed
During this period the native Egyptian him among the flags on the bank of the
dynasty reigning at Thebes expelled the Nile, where the infant was discovered by the
Shepherd Kings from Lower Egypt, and daughter of the Pharaoh, who had gone
united all Egypt into one great kingdom. down to the river to bathe. Touched with
This native dynasty was one of the greatest pity, the princess had the child brought to
that ever occupied the throne of Egypt, and her. She gave it to Jochebed, who offered
its monarchs appear to have favored the herself as nurse, and commanded her to rear
Hebrew colony in the land of Goshen. '
the boy as the son of Pharaoh's daughter.

'
'
But when the Eighteenth Dynasty, which She gave the child the name Moses, mean-
had driven out the Shepherd Kings, was ing drawn out of the water.
'
' When the '

'
succeeded by the Nineteenth Dynasty, the boy had grown to manhood his mother took
Egyptian policy toward the Hebrews him to the princess, who had him educated
changed. This new dynasty of Pharaohs as one of the royal family, and he became
considered the Hebrews very dangerous on learned "in all the wisdom of the Egyp-
account of their rapid increase and their tians," and was instrudled in military sci-
location, and infli(5led upon them a series ence. A
tradition represents him when
of cruel persecutions, with the design of manhood as holding an important
reaching
weakening their power and destroying them command in the Egyptian anny in an expe-
as a nation. This oppressive policy was in- dition sent against Ethiopia.
augurated by Rameses the Great, the most Notwithstanding his fortunate lot, and
renowned of Egyptian kings, who was a the high favor he enjoyed at court, Moses
MOSES.
THE EXODUS AND WANDERINGS. 347
felt deeply the wrongs infli(5led upon his I

my people, which are in Ivgypt,
afflidlion of
Hebrew countrymen. He upon
reflecfted
'
and have heard their cry by reason of theii

their suflferings,and often went among them taskmasters; for I know their sorrows; and
to cheer them. On one occa.sion, when he I am come down to deliver them out of the
was forty years of age, he killed an Egyp- hand of the Egyptians, and to bring them
tian whom he had seen cruelly beating a up out of that land unto a good land and a
Hebrew. For thi.s homicide Mo.ses was large,unto a land flowing with milk and
obliged to flee from Egypt for his life. He honey; unto the place of the Canaanites,
sought refuge in the peninsula of Sinai, and and the and the Amorites, and the
Hittites,
at length found himself in the laud of Mid- Perizzites, and the Hivites, and the Jebu-
ian, where there was a tribe ruled by a sites. Now therefore, behold, the cry of the
chief and priest named Jethro. By defend- children of Israel is come unto me; and I
ing Jethro's daughters from the violence of have also seen the oppression wherewith the
some shepherds who endeavored to drive Egj'ptians oppress them. Come now there-
them away from a well where they were fore, and send thee unto Pharaoh, that
I will
watering their flocks, Moses was invited by thou ma5'est bring forth my people the chil-
the chief to come to his home and was urged dren of Israel out of Egypt."
to remain with him. Moses accepted Jethro's Jehovah revealed
It is further related that
invitation and received the chiefs daughter, to Moses his design of making him the
Zipporah, as a wife. Moses remained with leader and the divine mouthpiece in this
Jethro manj- 5-ears, during which Rameses great movement. Moses timidly shrank from
the Great died, and the Pharaoh Menepta as- this position, but it is said that Jehovah
cended the throne of Egypt. Menepta pur- reassured him and associated with him
sued his predecessor's oppressive policy to- his brother, Aaron, who was to be his
ward the Hebrews. In their bitter distress spokesman to the Egyptian king and to the
the Hebrews prayed for the aid of the Lord Hebrews. The whole projedl of Jehovah is
Jehovah, the God of their fathers. said to have been revealed to Moses, who
At length, Avhen Moses had led his flock was commanded to make it known to the
to a remote portion of Mount Horeb, we are Elders of the tribes. Jehovah, we are
told that he was startled by what appeared further told, direcfled Moses to return to
to be a burning bush. The Hebrew record Egypt, assemble the Elders of his people,
says: "And the angel of the Eord appeared disclose his mission to them, and, after secur-
unto him in a flame of fire out of the midst ing their obedience, to go before the Pharaoh
of a bush; and he looked, and behold, the and demand pennission for the Israelites to
bush burned with fire, and the bush was depart from Egypt. Jehovah, it is also said,
not consumed. And Moses said, I will now- told Moses that the Pharoah would not grant
turn aside and see this great sight, whj- the this demand, but that He would displaj- His
bush is not burnt. And when the Lord power over Egypt and avenge the suffering
saw that he turned aside to see, God called of His chosen people " b}^ a series of pun-
'
'
unto him out of the midst of the bush, and ishments in the nature of plagues such as
said, Moses, Moses. And he said. Here am L Egypt had never endured at any other period
And he said. Draw not nigh thither; put ofi" of its history'.
thy shoes from off thy feet, for the place Moses thereupon started on his return to
whereon thou standest is holy ground. Egypt, meeting on the way his brother
Moreover he said, I am the God of thy Aaron, who is also said to have been di-
father, the God of Abraham, the God of vinely dire<5led to look for him. The two
Isaac, and the God of Jacob. And Moses brothers returned to Egj'pt, and, summoning
hid his face; for he was afraid to look upon the Elders of the Israelites, submitted to
God. them the message from Jehovah. The peo-
"And the Lord said, I have surely seen the ple consented to obey the Divine will, ami
34^* ANCIENT HISTORY.— THE HEBREWS.
promised to faithfull}- execute all the com- clean." 7. A fearful hail stonn, accom-
mands of Jehovah. panied with thunder and lightning, devas-
We are told that the Pharaoh not only tated the country, destroying the crops and
contemptuously refused to permit the Israel- killing men and beasts. 8. Swarms of locusts
ites to depart, but increased their burdens. overspread the land, devouring what the
Moses, it is said, complained to Jehovah hail had left. 9. A remarkable darkness en-
that his effort for their release only brought veloped the country', and for three days the
sorrow and aflSicflion upon his Hebrew coun- people could not see each other, or follow
trymen; but was encouraged by the predic- their daily pursuits. None of these visita-
tion that, although the Pharaoh would tions afHidled the land of Goshen, the dwell-
steadily refuse for some time to release the ing-place of the Hebrews. It is said that
Israelites, and that he would steadily in- the Pharaoh, terrified and humbled by
crease their hard tasks, y&V Jehovah would these sufferings, more than once sent for
break the obstinate pride of the Egyptian Moses and Aaron, and implored them to in-
king and force bin: to agree to allow the duce Jehovah to release the Egyptians from
Hebrews to depart. Moses and Aaron again these sufferings; but as soon as one plague
asked repeatedly the Pharaoh Menepta to ceased, the king's obstinate pride returned,
consent to the departure of the Israelites, and he refused to allow the Israelites to de-
but were as often refused. We are further part from Egypt.
told that Jehovah punished the king's re- The Mosaic record now tells us that the
fusals by inflidlingupon Egypt ten violent tenth and most dreadful plague was sent
plagues. These are enumerated as follows: upon the land. It is said that Jehovah
I. The waters of the Nile, the sacred river ordered Moses to institute the Feast of the
of Egypt, and the main support of its water Passover, which, marking the commence-
supply, became red like blood and offen- ment of the Hebrew national history, was
sively putrid. As they were not able to made the beginning of the Jewish year.
use these waters, the Egyptians were obliged Minute diredtions were given concerning the
to sink wells along thebanks of the river to manner of celebrating the fea.st, no deviation
obtain water to drink. 2. Frogs increased being permitted from it, and the feast being
to such an extent as to become a dreadful made an annual celebration a perpetual —
pest to the Egyptians. 3. Swarms of lice memorial of the deliverance of the Hebrew
covered the land, producing great suffering nation from the Egyptian bondage. Then
alike to man and beast. These increased says the Mosaic account: "And it came to
and were a dreadful anno5ânce to the scru- pass that at midnight the Lord smote all
and were like-

pulou-sly-cleanly Eg}'ptians, the first-born in the land of Egypt, from the
wise a religious defilement. 4. Clouds of first-born ofPharaoh that sat on his throne
flies, swarmed
or beetles, covered the countr}', unto the first-bom of the captive that was in
in the houses, and devoured the harvest and the dungeon and ; all the first-boni of cattle.
shrubberJ^ The beetle being an objedl of And Pharaoh rose up in the night, he and
worship to the Egyptians, they were thus all his servants, and all the Egyptians; and
scourged through their own gods. 5. An therewas a great cry in Egypt; for there
epizootic disease appeared among the cattle, was not a house where there was not one
carrying off great numbers of them. 6. A dead."
grievous afflicftion of boils and blains broke Completely subdued in his haughty spirit
out on the bodies of the Egyptians and their by this last terrible visitation upon his sub-
beasts. Dr. Smith says: "This plague jecfts, the Pharaoh Menepta sent for Moses
seems to have been the black leprosy, a fear- and Aaron and urged them to lead their
ful kind of elephantiasis, which was long countrymen out of Egj'pt at once. By or-
remembered as the 'blotch of Egypt.' It der of Moses, the Hebrews asked the Egyp-
also rendered the Egyptians religiously un- tians for jewels of silver and gold and rai-
ment, which ck-niaiuls were immediately against the Egyptians. And the Lord said
complied with. The ICgj'ptians were glad unto Moses, Stretch out thine hand over the
to have the Israelites out of the country, sea, that the waters maj- come again upon
fearing that any further delay would cause the Egyptians, upon their chariots, and
further suffering. upon their horsemen. And Moses stretched
Under the leadership of Mo.ses, the He- forth his hand over the sea, and the sea
brews started upon their march, taking the returned to his strength when the morning
embalmed body of Joseph along with them. appeared; and the Egyptians fled against
They numbered six hundred thousand men it; and the Lord overthrew the Egyptians
on foot, besides women and children. These, in the midst of the sea. And the waters re-
with the multitude following them, and con- turned, and covered the chariots, and the
sisting probably of other Semitic races, horsemen, and all the host of Pharaoh that
nomadic in their habits, who were doubtless came into the sea after them; there remained
glad of this opportunity to escape from not so much as one of them. But the chil-
Egj'pt, swelled the Israelite host to almost dren of Israel walked upon dry land in the
three millions of people. The Mosaic nar- midst of the sea; and the waters were a wall
rative saj-s: "And the Lord went before unto them on their right hand, and on their
them by day in a pillar of a cloud, to lead left. Thus the Lord saved Israel that day
them the way and by night in a pillar of
; out of the hands of the Egyptians; and
fire, to give them light, to go by day and Israelsaw the Egyptians dead upon the sea-
night; He took not away the pillar of the shore. And Israel saw that great work
cloud by da}-, nor the pillar of fire bj' night, which the Lord did upon the Egyptians;
After a march of
'
from before the people. ' and the people feared the Lord, and believed
three days the Israelites reached the head of the Lord and his .sen-ant Moses."
the Red Sea, or Gulf of Suez, which then In accordance with the chronology- fixed
extended much farther north than at present. upon by English Egyptologists the Exodus
Meanwhile the Pharaoh Menepta, regret- must have occurred about B. C. 1320.
ting that he had allowed the Israelites to de- Among the various dates assigned to this
part from Eg^'pt, pursued them with a vast great event in Jewish national historj- are
host, and came up with them as they were the years B. C. 1652 and B. C. 1491.
encamped near the Red Sea. Says the After reaching the eastern shore of the
Mosaic account: "And Moses stretched out Red Sea, the Israelites proceeded down the
his hand over the sea; and the Lord caused peninsula of Sinai towards the mountain
the sea to go back by a stroug east wind all peak of the same name, instead of going
that night, and made the sea dry land, and direcflly to the Promised Land. For forty
the waters were divided. And the children years, we are told in the Mosaic account,
of Israel went into the midst of the sea upon did the Israelites wander in the "Wilder-
the dry ground; and the waters were a wall ness" in the desert region of North-western
unto them on their right hand, and on their Arabia. We are also told that Jehovah pro-
left. And the Egyptians pursued, and went vided for the temporal wants of his chosen
in after them to the midst of the sea, even people, sweetening the bitter waters of the
all Pharaoh's horses, his chariots and his region through which they passed, making
horsemen. And it came to pass, that in the water gush forth from a rock to appease
morning watch the Lord looked unto the their thirst, and sending them food, first in
host of the Egyptians, through the pillar of the shape of quails, and aftenvard in the
fire and of the cloud, and troubled the host form of manna, the latter falling with the
of the EgA'ptians. And took off their char- dew every morning in the camp.
Only a
iot wheels, that they drave them heavily; so day's supply of manna is have been
said to
that the Egyptians said, Let us flee from the allowed to be gathered, except on the sixth
face of Israel; for the Lord fighteth for them day, when a suflicient quantity was gathered
1-22.-U. H.
'

to lasttwo days, so that the people could Mosaic record says that the Ten Command-
scrupulously obsenêi the Sabbath. This ments were engraven on tablets of stone by
heavenly supply is îd to have continued the hand of Jehovah himself
every day during the forty years' Wander- '
'
The Decalogue, or Ten Commandments,
ings in the Wilderness.
'
and the other Laws of Moses were preserved
When they arrived at Rephidim, believed in the Ark of the Covenant. The affairs of
to be the Wady-Feiran of the present day, religion were conducfled by the High Priest
the Israelites were attacked by the Amale- and Levites. vSacrifices of animals, and the
kites, who endeavored to stay their advance feasts of the Passover, the Pentecost and
into the Sinaitic peninsula. The Hebrew the Tabernacles, formed the bond between
army led by Joshua, the future conqueror Jehovah and His "chosen people." Every
of Canaan, gained the vic5tory. The Israel- fiftieth year — the j'ear of Jubilee —a new
ites then moved on to Mount Sinai, and and equal distribution of the lands was
encamped in the plain and in the ravines made. The civil government established by-
in the vicinity of that con.secrated mountain. Moses for the Hebrew nation was a theo-
We are now told that Jehovah descended cratic system, and the Elders of the Twelve
upon Mount Sinai, and amid thunder and Tribes of Israel condudled the government
lightning delivered the law to the Hebrew in Jehovah's name.
nation. The Mosaic account says that During the long absence of Mo.ses on
Moses was called up into the mountain by Mount Sinai the Israelites, in disregard of
Jehovah, and that the people promised obedi- their covenant with Jehovah, we are told,
ence to His Ten Commandments. Says the compelled Aaron to make a golden calf, in
narrative: Then went up Moses, and Aaron,
'
'
imitation of the Egyptian bull-deity Apis.
and Nadab, and Abihu, and seventy of the They abandoned themselves to the worship
Elders of Israel; and they saw the God of this idol; and Moses, upon returning to
of Israel. * =i= * * And them from the mountain, found them thus
the Lord said unto Moses, Come up to occupied. Overcome with anger, he rallied
me into the mount, and be there; and I the tribe of Levi, and attacked the idolaters
will give thee tables of stone, and a law, and with the sword, killing three thousand of
commandments which I have written; that them and destroying the idol. The people
thou mayest teach them. And Moses rose acknowledged the justice of their punish-
up, and his minister Joshua and Moses ; ment, and promised to shun idolatry in the
went up into the mount of God. * * future. In consequence of their loyalty to
* * And Moses went up into the Jehovah on this occasion, the Levites were
mount, and a cloud covered the mount. constituted the sacerdotal class of the Israel-
And the glory of the Lord abode upon iti.sh nation.
Mount Sinai, and the cloud covered it six The Israelites sojourned on Mount Sinai
days; and the seventh day he called unto eleven months and twenty days, during
Moses out of the midst of the cloud. And which the second celebration of the Pass-
the sight of the glory of the Lord was like over was held. This long halt was a busy
devouring fire on the top of the mount in season in the life of the nation. The He-
the eyes of the children of Israel. And brews had arrived at Sinai without discipline,
Moses went into the midst of the cloud, and without institutions, without laws, almost
gat him up into the mount; and Moses was ignorant of their God, and with no estab-
in the mount forty days and forty nights." lished form of religious worship. During
During this time we are informed that the stay at Sinai this disorganized mob was
Jehovah revealed to Moses minute diredtions converted into a compatfl and powerful
afterwards embodied in the Laws of '
'
nation, with a code of laws which has ever
Moses," which constituted the civil and re- since won all ages and of
the admiration of
ligious systems of the Hebrew nation. The all nations, and which remained in force
' —
among the Hebrews until the end of their We are further told that when everything
national career. was arranged, Moses, at the command of
The Tabernacle, or sacred tent, was con- Jehovah, took a census of the males of the
structed in accordance with the mode pre- nation, from and over the age of twenty
scribed by God, and all the particulars of j'ears, capable of bearing arms. The census
the religious ceremonial were minutely ar- was taken on the first day of the second
ranged. The priesthood was organized, month from the epoch of the Exodus (Jyar
and the succession to the sacred offices — May, 1490, or 1319, B. C), and fixed the
were definitely provided for. The prin- number of fighting men at 603,550. This
ciple at the basis of the whole civil and great host was divided into four camps, one
religious system was the supreme author- being placed on each of the four sides of the
ity of Jehovah over the Hebrew nation. tabernacle, which stood in the center of the
"He was, in a literal sense of the word, camp.
their sovereign,and all other authority, both Being thus organized as a nation and an
in political and civil affairs, was subordi- army, the Israelites broke up their camp at
nate to the continual acknowledgment Sinai on the twentieth daj^ of their second
of His own. The other powers were insti- year —
about May 20, B. C. 1490, or 13 19
tuted by God to administer affairs in accord- and continued their advance, and, we are
ance with His laws, but were not ordinarily informed, were again led by the "pillar of
chosen among the priests, descendants of cloud which was said to have guided them
'
'
Aaron, nor from the tribe of Levi, consecra- since the memorable night of the E.xodus,
ted to the various funcliions of public worship. and which was to lead them to the Prom- '
'
Each tribe had its civil authorities, although ised Land." Thus guided, the Israelites
certain causes were reser\'ed for the supreme were condu<fled into the Wilderness of Paran.
central tribunal; but the unity of the nation After several halts, the Israelites arrived
was, above all, founded on unitj' in faith at Kadesh Bamea, near the frontiers of Ca-
and worship, on the mightj- recollecflions naan, whence Moses sent twelve spies, one
recalled each year by the solemn feasts; the from each tribe of the Hebrew nation, into
Passover, or Feast of Unleavened Bread Canaan to examine the country and to re-
(commemorating the Exodus from EgA'pt); port the charadler, condition, strength and
Pentecost (the promulgation of the law), number of its inhabitants and its cities.
and the Feast of the Tabernacles, or tents These spies were absent fourteen days, and
(the sojourn in the desert). The one taber- during that time they explored the country
nacle, where the solemn sacrifices were of- from the Dead Sea to the slopes of Mount
fered, and where was deposited the ark, Hermon. On their return to Kadesh Bamea
the symbol and covenant made between they reported to Moses and the subordinate
God and His people, was equallj' the polit- leaders that the landwas extremely fertile,
ical and religious center of the nation. The but that the Israelites would not be able to
Mosaic law presents the spectacle, unique conquer it, because its inhabitants were men
in the historj' of the world, of a legislation of immense size and lived in strongly-forti-
which was complete from the origin of a fied cities. This report had a discouraging
nation, and subsisted for long ages. In effecft upon the Lsraelites; and Joshua and
spite of frequent infractions, it was always Caleb, who were two of the spies, vainly en-
restored, even although in its very sublimity deavored to persuade their countrymen that
it was in direcl opposition to the coarse in- the other spies had exaggerated the impedi-
clinations of the people whom it governed. ments in the way of the conquest of Canaan,
He alone could impose
on the Israelites,
it and tried to raise their courage by means of
who could say: 'I am the Lord thy God,' a more favorable report. The people, panic-
and confirm the words by forty j-ears of stricken, broke out into open mutiny the
'
miracles. following morning, declaring that they

intended to choose a chief who would and the succeeding generation consisted of
lead them back into Egj-pt. Moses and men trained to fatigue and war men who —
Aaron vainly fell on their faces before their were hardy and brave, and accustomed to
countrymen. Joshua and Caleb vainly freedom —a generation superior to their pre-
sought to assure them of vicftory and con- decessors, who had been reared in the Egyp-
quest, and to dissuade them from rebellion tian bondage, and had suffered from the
against Jehovah. The enraged people were taint of that oppressive servitude.
on the point of stoning Moses, Aaron, At the commencement of the fortieth year
Joshua and Caleb to death, when, we are after Exodus, Aaron, the brother of
the
again told, " the glory of the Lord filled the Moses and the High Priest of the Hebrew
tabernacle
'
' and the people were induced to nation, died at Masera at a ripe old age, and
repent of their rebellious conducfl. Jehovah, was buried there. Mount Hor was on the
it is said, threatened to disinherit the rebell- border of the territory of the Edomites, the
ious nation and selecfl as his chosen people descendants of Esau. Moses requested a
the posterity of Moses; but when Moses in- free passage for his countrymen through the
terceded for his ungrateful countrymen they Edomite territory, offering to respecfl the
were pardoned, but the rebels were threat- property of the inhabitants, and to pay for
ened with the displeasure of Jehovah, who even the water used by the people of Israel.
is said to have informed Moses that, except- But the Edomites refused and it
this request,
ing Joshua and Caleb, not a man of the is said that the Hebrews were forbidden by
nation from and over twentj' years of age Jehovah to attack their kindred, whereupon
should enter the "Promised Land," that they turned towards the south, marching
they should all die in the wilderness, in toward the head of the Elanitic gulf, and,
which the nation was condemned to wander rounding the mountain range, advanced
tliirty-eight years longer, and that their chil- again northward, east of the territory of
dren should enter upon the promised inheri- Edom. The Canaanites of Arad endeavored
tance of the Hebrew race. to obstrucfl the passage of the hosts of Israel,
The Lsraelites, stricken with anguish upon but suffered a defeat. The Edomites per-
hearing of this doom, were anxious to be led mitted the Israelites to march past their ter-
into Canaan, but, we are told, the Divine ritorj' without disturbing them. We are
decree would not be revoked. The people, told thatJehovah forbade Moses attacking
it is said, were persistent in their resolve, the Moabites and Ammonites, descendants
and despite the warnings of Moses, who re- of Lot.
fused to lead them, they attempted to force The Hebrews had now arrived at the
their way through mountain pass de-
a Arnon, a small stream flowing into the
fended by the united armies of the Canaan- eastern side of the Dead Sea, and fonning
ites and the Amalekites. They met with a the southern boundary of a new kingdom,
bloody repulse, and were driven back into founded by Sihon, an Amorite adventurer,
the desert. The Israelites led a nomadic who had conquered it from the Moabites and
life for thirty-eight years, roaming over the Ammonites. The Jabbok formed the north-
de.sert north of the peninsula of Sinai, which em boundary of this kingdom, and Sihon
the Arabs have named Et Tih, or Tik Bcni established his capital at Heshbon. Moses
Israel (the wanderings of the Children of sent a peaceful embassy to Sihon, requesting
Israel). Their range occupied the region a free passage through his territory, promis-
from Kadesh Barnea on the north to the ing to keep his countrymen to the highway
head of the Elanitic gulf (now Gulf of on their march, and to pay for everything
Akaba) on the south. They were not ap- used bj' them. This request was refused by
parently disturbed by any of the neighbor- Sihon with extreme insolence, and that
ing tribes. In the meantime the males of prince lead his army against the Israelites,
the nation over twenty 3'ears of age died, but was totally routed, his capital was taJcen
by stonii, and his kingdom fell into the hands for sowing dis.sensions in the nation; but
of the Hebrews. Og, the gigantic King of agreed to the arrangement upon obtaining
Bashan, whose dominions extended from the the promise of these tribes that they would
Jabbok to Mount Hermon, and who was a only leave their families and their cattle in
fortunate Amorite adventurer, attempted to their new homes, while their fighting men
avenge the overthrow of Sihon, but was de- would cross the Jordan with the other tribes
feated and killed, and his kingdom was like- and aid them in conquering the "Promised
wise conquered by the Israelites. These Land. The tribe of Reuben was assigned
'
'
two conquests made the Israelites masters the southern portion of the country east of
of all the territory east of the Jordan, from the Jordan, from the Anion to Mount Gil-
Mount Hermon to the Dead Sea. ead; the tribe of Gad was given the tracft
The hosts of Israel now encamped on the north of the former, including Mount Gilead,
fertile plains opposite Jericho. Balak, to the southern extremity of the Sea of
King of Moab, in great alarm because of the Chinneroth (the Sea of Galilee); and the
appearance of so powerful a nation on his half-tribe of Manasseh was allotted the dis-
borders, entered into an alliance with the trict north of Gad as far as Mount Hermon.
Midianites against the Hebrews. Feel- The two tribes and a half faithfully observed
ing sufficiently strong to assail the strangers, their pledges to their brethren and rendered
Balak sought to induce Balaam, a noted them valuable sen,-ice in the conquest of the
diviner from the countrj- of the Ammonites, country west of the Jordan.
to pronounce a curse against the Israelites The great work of Moses was now fin-
and devote them to destrudlion. We are ished. He had led the children of Lsrael to
told, however, that Balaam was obliged to the borders of the "Promised Land" at a
bless the "chosen people," and to prophesy point where it could be easily entered, and
to Balak their future triumphs. The Moab- he is warned by Jehovah
said to have been
ites and Midianites then endeavored to se- that his end was near. The Scripture record
duce the Israelites from their religion by in- says that both Moses and his brother Aaron
ducing them to participate in their immoral had been denied pennission to enter the
and voluptuous worship of their god Baal- " Promised Land," because their faith had
Peor. This scheme was so successful that failed when Jehovah had commanded them to
Moses had to resort to severe measures to speak to the rock in Kadesh to give water
check the evil. All the Hebrews guilty of to his people. We are likewise told that
this apostasy from the worship of Jehovah Moses assembled the whole Hebrew nation,
were put to death; and twenty-four thousand recited the law in their presence, prophesied
men were carried off by a plague which for them a blessing, prediAing for them a
broke out in the camp. The Israelites glorious future, named Joshua as his suc-
then engaged in a war of extermination cessor, and exhorted the people to continue
against the Midianites, defeated their armies, faithful to Jehovah. He then bid his coun-
ravaged their country and carried off a vast trj'men an affedling farewell,and we are told
booty. went up into Mount Nebo at the command
A new census taken at this time showed of Jehovah, who there showed the great
that there were 601,730 fighting men in the Hebrew lawgiver the land which was to be
Israelitish host. The country conquered on the inheritance of his people, after which he
the east side of the Jordan was exceedingly disappeared from among the living.
fertile and was well adapted to grazing. "And
Moses went up from the plains of
Delighted with this secftion the tribes of Moab unto the mountain of Nebo, to the
Reuben and Gad and the half-tribe of Man- top of Pisgah, that is over against Jericho.
asseh requested Moses the possession of this And the Lord showed him all the land of
region for their inheritance, had
as they Gilead, unto Dan. And all Naphtali, and
many cattle. Moses sternly rebuked them the land of Ephraim, and Manasseh, and all
354 ANCIENT HISrORY.— THE HEBREWS.
1 '
CONQUEST OF CANAAN— THE JUDGES. 355
the land of Judali, unto the utmost sea. ulcher unto this day. * * * * ^^d the
And the south, and the plain of the valley children of Israel wept for Moses in the
of Jericho, the city of palm trees, unto Zoar. plains of Moab thirty days; so the days of
And the I.,ord said unto him, This is the weeping and mourning for Moses were
land which I sware unto Abraham, unto ended. * * * * And there arose not a
Isaac, and unto Jacob, saying, I will give it prophet since in I.srael like unto Moses,
unto thy seed; I have caused thee to see it whom the Lord knew face to face, In all the
with thine eyes, but thou shalt not go over signs and the wonders which the Lord sent
thither. So Mo.ses the .servant of the Iôrd him to do in the land of Egypt to Pharaoh,
died there in the land of Moab, according to and to all his servants, and to all his land.
the word of the Lord. And he buried him And in all that mighty land, and in all the
in a valley in the land of Moab, over against great terror which Moses showed in the
Beth-peor; but no man knoweth of his sep- sight of all Israel."
SECTION III.— CONQUEST OF CANAAN— THE JUDGES.

|FTER the thirty days of mourn- ites was sometimes assigned to a particular
ing for Moses —exacftly forty tribe occupying a certain part of Palestine,
years from the time that they but was more generally applied to all the
Egypt the Is-
tleparted from — inhabitants of that countrj', and embraced
raelites broke up their camp .seven distindt nations, as follows, according
on the plains of Moab, and advanced toward to Dr. William Smith:
the Jordan under the leadership of Joshua. "I. The Canaanites, the ' lowlanders,
The column was led by the priests carrying who inhabited the plain on the lower Jordan,
the Ark of the Covenant. The Jordan was and that on the sea-shore. These plains
swollen with the spring freshets, and was were the richest and most important part of
too high to be forded. As the priests step- the country.
ped into the stream, carrying the sacred ark, "II. The Pcrizzites seem, next to the
the waters, we are told, were miraculously Canaanites, to have been the most important
divided, as had been the Red Sea, and a tribe. ***** ju Judges I. 4, 5,
wide path was opened, along which the they are placed in the southern part of the
Hebrew host passed to the western side of Holy Land, and in Joshua XVI. 15-18, they
the stream, and entered Canaan (B. C. 145 occupy, with the Rephaim, or giants, the
or B. C. 1280). The Israelites encamped at '
forest country ' in the western flanks of
Gilgal, on the plains of Jericho, for the Mount Carmel.
night. The supply of manna is said to have "III. The Hittites,or children of Heth,
ceased here, and thenceforth the Israelites were a small tribe at Hebron, of whom
subsisted upon the produdls of the country Abraham purchased the cave of Machpelab.
which they had come to conquer. They are represented as a peaceful people.
We will now give an account of the char- "IV. The Aniorites, 'mountaineers,' a
a(5ler of the Canaanitish tribes, or nations, warlike tribe, occupied first the barrier
with whom the Israelites were now to wrestle heights west of the Dead Sea, at the same
for the possession of the "Promised Land." place which afterwards bore the name of
During the patriarchial period, Canaan, En-gedi, stretching westward towards He-
or Palestine, was occupied hy numerous bron. At the time of the conquest they
tribes of Canaanites, descendants of Canaan, had crossed the Jordan and occupied the
the fourth son of Ham. The name Canaan- . rich tract bounded by the Jabbok on the "
'

north and the Amon on the south, the Jor- they were a pastoral tribe in the vicinity of
dan on the west and the wilderness on the Gerar. During the patriarchal period, and
east. the epoch of the sojourn of the Israelites in
V. The Hivitcs are first named at the
'
' Egypt, the Philistines renounced their no-

time of Jacob's return to the Holy Land, madic life and developed into a settled and
where they occupied Shechem. At the time powerful nation. They established them-
of the conquest hy Joshua, the}' were living selves in the fertile plain bordering upon
on the northern confines of Western Pales- the sea-coast, which was therefore called
tine. the Plain of Philistia. The great fertility
'
' VI. The mountain tribe, oc-

Jebusitcs, a of this plain was the basis of their wealth
cupying Jebus (Jerusalem), where they con- and prosperity. In times of scarcity and
tinued to dwell with the children of Judah famine all the neighboring nations depended
and Benjamin to a late date. upon them for bread. The low trac5l which
"VII. The Girgasites, whose position is they occupied favored their development as
quite uncertain." a formidable military people, as it enabled
During the period when the Israelites them with ease and
to transport their troops
were sojourning in Egypt several important rapidity,and admitted of the maneuvering
changes occurred in the characfter and loca- of war-chariots, "the artillery of the
tion of the nations occupying the land of ancients," in which these people were
Canaan. The maritime people of Phoenicia, alwaj's very formidable. It is believed that
situated immediately north of Palestine, had the Philistines had a navy, as historians sev-
risen quietly and suddenly, and had become eral times allude to them in accounts of
the most enlightened and the wealthiest naval expeditions and naval battles. Gaza
community of antiquity. Phoenicia, how- and Ascalon were Philistine sea-ports.
ever, did not attain its highest pinnacle of Many well-fortified cities were built by the
greatness and prosperity until several cen- Philistines in the plain, its undulating char-
turies later, about B. C. 1050. At the time acfter affording numerous excellent sites for
when the Lsraelites entered Canaan, the such strongholds. The most important
PhcEnicians, who occupied a narrow strip Philistine cities besides its seaports, Gaza
around the .sea-coast, and whose territory and Ascalon, were Ashdod, Ekron and
was embraced in the region assigned as a Gath.
heritage to the Hebrews, had established Thus the two most important nations in
themselves firmly in the country, and were Palestine when the Israelites conquered the
sufficiently powerful to hold it against the country were the Phoenicians on the north
strangers. and the Philistines on the south. We have
The Holy Land proper, on
sea-coast of the seen that the Promised Land
'
' embraced '
'
the coast south of Phoenicia, was occupied the territory extending from the Arabian
by the Philistines, a warlike and powerful desert to the Mediterranean, and from the
nation, whom some authorities consider a de.sertof Sinai to "the entering in of Ha-
Semitic people, while others regard them as math," the name applied in Scripture to the
a Hamitic race. Those who believe them low range of hills forming the water-sheds
to be Semites maintain that they cros.sed between the Orontes and the Litany. Phoe-
over from the island of Crete, while those nicia, the northern part of Canaan, was
who hold that they were Hamites suppose never occupied by the Israelites. The Phil-
that they came into Canaan from Egypt. istine plain was constantly contested, and
Their territory was called Philistia, from was seldom a safe and peaceful possession
which the name Palestine has been derived. of the Hebrews. The Land of Possession
'
'
'
The Philistines are believed to have mi- lay only between Dan on the north and Beer-
grated to Caanan before the time of Abra- sheba on the south; hence the frequency- of
ham; and during their sojourn in that land the allusion in the Old Testament in speak-
'
CONQUEST OF CANAAN—THE JUDCES. 357
ing of the northern and southern Hniits of the ujiper and lower levels. These three
the Hebrew state: "From Dau to Beer- features— the mountains, the plains and the
torrent beds — make up the principal physi-
'
sheeba.
The country itself — known variously as cal chara<5leristics of the Holy Land."
the Promised Land, Canaan, Palestine, Ju- Little over midway up the coast, the plain
dasa, or the Holy Land —was in many partic- is .suddenly broken by a bold spur of the
ulars a remarkable region. Its importance mountain chain, leaving the middle mass
in the historj- of mankind vastly overshadows and running abruptly north-west to the
its small territorial extent. Palestine is a sea, there ending in the beautiful promontory
very small country — about the size of the of Mount Carmel, which is also the name
principality of Wales or the State of New of the entire spur or ridge. North of Car-
Jersey. Its entire length from north to south mel the plain again commences, and there
is about one hundred and eighty miles, and pushes back the mountains and reaches en-
its average breadth from east to west about tirely across Palestine to the Jordan val-
forty-five miles, thus giving the country an ley. This is the famous plain of Esdraelon,
area of eight thousand square miles. It or Jezreel. North of this plain the moun-
lies between latitude thirty degrees forty tains are again seen, first in the low hills of
minutes and thirty-three degrees forty-two Galilee, and rising higher until Mount Her-
minutes north, and between longitude thirty- mon and the Lebanons are reached. The
three degrees forty-two minutes and thirty- mountains again push their way out to the
five degrees forty-eight minutes east. It is sea, and end in the white headland of Ras
bounded on the north by Syria, on the Nakhilra, north of which is the ancient
east by the Jordan and the country now Phoenicia.
known as the Hauran, on the south by the The height of the mountainous region is
Desert of Et Tik, and on the west by the usually uniform along its whole course, with
Mediterranean. It is located in Western an average of from fifteen hundred toeighteen
Asia, to the north of Egj-pt, and to the hundred feet above the level of the Mediter-
north and west of Arabia. ranean sea. Says Dr. William Smith: "It
It is practically a mountainous region. It can hardly be denominated a plateau, j-et so
has no independent mountain chains, and evenly is the general level preserved, and so
other countries surpass it in the height and thickly do the hills stand behind and be-
grandeur of its mountains; "but every part tween one another, that when seen from the
of the highland is in greater or less undula- coast or the western part of the maritime
tion." The mountain region occupies the plain, it has quite the appearance of a wall."
center of the country, and lowlands border This .seeming monotony is broken at inter-
it on both the east and the west, extending vals by greater elevations, and these consti-
fi-om the foot of the uplands to the bound- tute the most conspicuous features of the
aries of Palestine. This lowland spreads landscape. The water-shed of the country
out on the west into the two great plains of lies between these highest points, and on each
Philistia and Sharon, which extend from the side the many torrent beds descend to the
foot of the mountains to the sea. The Jordan valley on the east, and to the Medi-
mountains are bordered on the east by the terranean on the west. The valleys on the
remarkable depression of the Jordan valley, and rugged, particularly
east are very steep
still continued by the yet more remarkable in the middle and southern parts of the
depression of the Dead Sea and by the Ghor. country; but those on the west slope more
"The slopes, or cliffs, which form, as it were, gradually. As the level of the mari-
the retaining walls of this depression are time plain is higher than that of the
furrowed and
by the torrent beds
cleft Jordan valley, it gives them a more grad-
which discharge the waters of the hills, and ual descent, which is rendered easier by
form the means of communication between the greater distance intervening between the
358 ANCIENT HISTORY — THE HEBREWS.
mountains and the sea than between the having no means of conducfling a siege, it is
mountains and the Jordan. Upoii the west- said that Jehovah came to their aid. The
ern side, as upon the eastern, the valleys, or walls are said to have been thrown down in a
wadies, form the only means of communica- miraculous manner; and when the Israelites
tion between the mountains and the plains. entered the city over its ruined fortifications
All the roads from the borders to the interior they put the people to the sword and de-
are located along these valleys. These stroyed the city. The only family which
mountain passes constitute a singular fea- escaped the general massacre was that of
ture of Palestine, and were very important "Rahab the harlot," who had received and
to it in ancient times. Being difficult, they befriended the spies sent by Joshua into
presented very great obstacles to an army the city before it fell, and who had conse-
burdened with a camp train or baggage. quently been promised protecflion to her
The western passes, though easier than the household. She afterward became the wife
eastern, were still difficult, and made it no of one of the spies, and was the ancestress
easy task for an enemy to enter the territory of David. Proceeding up the Jordan valley
of the Israelites. Secure in their mountain Joshua turned to the left and took the
fastnesses, the Israelites were frequently un- stronghold of Ai, near Bethel, by stratagem,
disturbed, while the cities of the plain below and, advancing rapidly to Shechem, cap-
them were captured and recaptured by the tured the city without striking a blow, and
struggling armies of Egypt and Asia. The established himself in the heart of the
plain of Esdraelon was the great battle-field country.
of Palestine, but the mountains were com- The Canaanitish tribes now recovered
paratively free from warlike operations. from the surprise and dismay into which
The river Jordan constituted the eastern they had been thrown by the quick and suc-
boundary of the " Promised Land," and is cessful operations of the Israelites, and
one of the most remarkable rivers of the united in a general coalition against the He-
world. It rises on the slope of Mount Her- brew invaders of their country. Joshua de-
nion and flows through an extraordinary feated the allied forces of the Canaanitish
depression, known as the Jordan valley, kings in the great battle of Beth-horon, in
passing through Lake Huleh and the Lake which we are told that the day was mirac-
of Tiberias, or Sea of Galilee, and empty- ulously lengthened to enable the Israelites
ing into the Dead Sea. Its source is 1700 to complete their vidlorj'. The kings of the
feet above the level of the Mediterranean; five Canaanitish tribes were taken prisoners,
its mouth is 13 17 feet below the sea level, and were hanged. After this vidlory the
making the entire descent of the river 3017 Israelites captured successively the cities of
feet. The river is two hundred miles long; Makkedah, Libnah, Lachish, Eglon, He-
the distance in a straight line is sixty miles. bron and Debir, and exterminated their in-
The Jordan was never a navigable stream, habitants. The.se successes completed the
and was passed only by fords in ancient conquest of vSouthern Palestine by the Is-
times. No bridges were thrown over it until raelites.
after the Roman conquest of Palestine. No A second coalition was now formed against
citieswere located on its banks. Jericho the Hebrews, and embraced all the tribes of
and the other towns were situated some dis- Northern Palestine. The leader of this co-
tance away from the river. alition was Jabin, King of Hazor. Joshua
The first exploit of the Israelites after routed the allied army on the banks of Lake
entering Palestine was the capture of the Merom (now Iâke Huleh), and Jabin was
strong city of Jericho, which stood immedi- taken prisoner and put to death. Many
ately in front of the place where they had cities of Northern Palestine then fell into
crossed the river Jordan, and which com- the possession of the Israelites, and their in-
manded the Jordan valley. The Israelites habitants were mas.sacred. The Anakin
of Southern Palestine were then attacked and .southward to Beth-horon, and thence up
exterminated. The IsraeHtes were occupied again to the near Joppa. The northeni
.sea
six or seven years in making these con- border passed west from the Jordan opposite
and were finally in possession of all
quests, the mouth of the Jabbok, past Michmethah
the "Promised Land" from the foot of to the mouth of the river Kanah." It in-
Mount Hernion to the borders of Edom. cluded the sacred valley of Shechem and the
The Canaanites still held many of their maritime plain of Sharon. The half-tribe
strongest cities in the midst of the Hebrew of Manasseh occupied the districl north of
conquests. The Philistines held the sea- Ephraim as far as the range of Mount Carmel
coast of Southern Palestine, and the Phoe- and the plain of E.sdraelon, from the Jordan
nicians that of Northern Palestine. westward to the Mediterranean. To Benja-
Joshua had now reached an advanced age, min was assigned the hill country north of
and concluded to suspend his conquests and Judah and south of Ephraim, from the Jordan
devote his remaining years to establishing west as far as Jerusalem. Dan received the
the Israelites firmly in the lands which their tradl between Ephraim on the north, Judah
arms had won. It is said that he was com- on the south, Benjamin on the east, and the
manded by Jehovah to divide the Promised '
' Mediterranean on the west. The greater part

Land' by lot among the nine and a half tribes
' of this region was occupied by the Philistines.
now located west of the Jordan; the other For this reason, and because their territory
two and a half having received their
tribes was too small for them, a portion of the peo-
allotment east of the Jordan from Moses, ple of Dan migrated northward, and took
and the Levites having no special territory the cit}^ of Leshem, or Laish, at the source
bestowed on them. The di^•ision of the of the Jordan. They named the city Dan,
tribe of Joseph into the two tribes of Eph- and acquired a considerable tradl around
raim and Manasseh made up for the with- it. This city became the great northeni
drawal of the Levites from the number of landmark of the Promised Land, as Beer-
the twelve tribes to devote themselves es- sheba was the southern. Hence the phrase
pecially to the .ser\'ice of Jehovah. The "from Dan even to Beer-sheba," so fre-
territorj- divided among the Hebrew tribes quently used in alluding to the whole ex-
included many places yet held by the Ca- tent of the Hebrew couutr\' from north to
naanites and the Philistines, and Joshua re- south. The tribe of Simeon was allotted an
signed to each tribe the duty of reducing inheritance out of Judah's portion, and
the strongholds and possessions of these was seated in the south-western portion of
people within the territon,' allotted to the the maritime plain. Their frontier bordered
twelve tribes. on the desert from Beer-sheba westward to
The tribe of Judah obtained the South Gaza, and their sea-coa.st extended north to
Country. Its southern boundarj- reached the Ascalon. Issachar was given the great and
territory of the Edomites and the Arabian fertile valley of Jezreel, known also as
desert, while its northern limit was a line the plain of Esdraelon. Zebulun received
drawn from the mouth of the Jordan west- the mountain range bordering the plain
ward to the Mediterranean sea. A con- of Esdraelon on the north, and which in
siderable portion of the Philistine plain after times constituted the upper part
was embraced in this allotment. The of Lower Galilee. He po.ssessed a small
children of Joseph were assigned the central strip of sea-coast north of Mount Cannel,
part of the countr>% from the Jordan to the and his eastern border included the Sea of
Mediterranean. The tribe of Ephraim ob- Chinneroth (Sea of Galilee). Asher ob-
tained the southern part of this tracT:, and its tained the plain along the Mediterranean
was drawn from the from Mount Carmel,
'
southern limit ' Jor- in a northerly dire(5lion,
dan along the north side of the plain of including a considerable portion of Phceni-
Jericho to Bethel, whence it took a bend cia. The Israelites never made anj- attempt
36o ANCIENT HISTORY.— THE HEBREWS.
to secure the Phceuician portion of their in- tribes began to appear indifferent concern-
heritance, and Asher's northern boundary ing the national ties, and .secured the best
was adlually the Phoenician border south of terms possible for themselves from the Ca-
Tyre. His territory extended to the east naanites in their midst. The Israelites were
about midwey across Palestine. NaphtaH repulsed in their efforts to conquer the land
was assigned the country north of Zebulun of the Philistines, and the coast cities mostly
to Mount Hermon and between the Jordan remained in the possession of that powerful
and the territory' of Asher. The two tribes and warlike people. The intercourse which
and a half east of the Jordan were allowed arose between the Israelites and the Canaan-
to rest contented with their share of the ites soon led to evil results. The great re-
spoils of conquest,and were dismissed with ligious center of the Hebrew nation was
blessings, which they returned to
after Shiloh, where the Tabernacle and the Ark
their homes beyond the river. of the Covenant had been set up. At this
Feeling his end approaching, Joshua as- time the Altar of God began constantly to
sembled the representatives of the entire become more and more negledted, and the
Hebrew nation at Shechem, and after re- idolatrous worship of the Canaanites was in-
minding them of the Divine goodness to the troduced among the Hebrews. Civil wars
nation, exhorted them to remain faithful to broke out among the tribes of Israel, and
the worship of Jehovah and the laws of in one of these the tribe of Benjamin was
Moses, and to continue the war against the almost exterminated by the other tribes.
Canaanites until they had ultimately ex- The Book of Judges describes this condition
pelled them from the whole of the Promised of affairs in the following words: "There
Land. Joshua, who was said to have been was no king in Israel; every man did that
divinely commissioned to exterminate the which was right in his own eyes." There
Canaanitish race, because of its crimes, re- was no central or general government to
minded his people of their duty, and pre- hold the nation together or to enforce civil
didled great misfortunes for them if they order; and although, according to the the-
renounced their religion, or neglected to ex- ocracy established by Moses, Jehovah was
ecute Jehovah's purposes regarding the Ca- the King of the Hebrews, idolatry spread so
naanites, or mingled with them. The people rapidly and obtained .so firm a hold on the
solemnly vowed to obey him and renewed nation that the moral restraints which had
their covenant with Jehovah. Thereupon held the Israelites in lo^-alty to their Divine
Joshua up in the place of the assembly
set Ruler were utterly disregarded. The result
a monumental stone as a witness of this vow was division and weakness. The Canaan-
of the Hebrew nation. Soon afterward ites and Philistines were not slow to dis-
Joshua died at a venerable age, after con- cover this, and sought to avenge their past
dudling the affairs of Israel for twenty-five grievances by subjecting the Israelites ~to
years, and was greatly mourned by the their yoke. We are told that, as a punish-
whole Hebrew nation. ment for their repealed apostasy from the
Jo.shua unfortunately failed to appoint a worship of Jehovah, the Israelites were as
successor,and the nation was thus left with- repeatedly abandoned to their enemies, who
out a legitimate head. During the lives of cruelly oppressed them, and thus were blind
the Elders who had been his contemporaries, instruments to execute the Divine judg-
the Israelites reverenced the laws of Moses ments upon the faithless and rebellious na-
and held fast to the worship of Jehovah; but tion. When the sufferings of the Israel-
when the.se Elders died dissensions and di- ites became unendurable, they realized the
visions distracfted the nation, alienating the enormity of their sins and their ingratitude
different tribes from each other. No earnest to Jehovah, and in sorrow and humiliation
was made to conquer the cities still
effort they became penitent and implored Jehovah
held by the Canaanites. The northern for aid against their enemies. We are told
that their prayers were heard aud answered dominions from the Euphrates to the borders
by Jehovah, who raised up valiant and he- of Canaan, reduced the Israelites to a con-
roic leaders to deliver His "chosen people" dition of subje(5lion, and held them tribu-
from the cruel >-oke of their oppressors. tary for eight years, during which he griev-
These leaders delivered Israel by defeating ously oppressed them. At length Jehovah,
itsoppressors and reestablishing the inde- we are informed, raised up Othniel, the
pendence of the Hebrew nation. No sooner, nephew of Caleb, the contemporary of
however, were the Israelites liberated from Moses and Joshua. Othniel, as Judge, de-
the despotic sway of foreign kings and peo- feated the invaders and recovered the inde-
ples, than they again apostatized to idolatrj% pendence of his countrj-men, who remained
and were again chastised by fresh defeats undisturbed for fortj- j-ears.
and subjugation. At the end of this period of forty j-ears,
The deliverers thus said to have been Eglon,King of Moab, who had formed an
raised up by Jehovah to free His people from alliance with the Ammonites and the Amale-
the oppressive yoke of their enemies were kites, crossed the Jordan, defeated the
caW&A Judges. By rescuing the people from Israelites, and established himself near the
their enemies they became their governors site of Jericho. He held the Israelites in
or rulers, performing their duties as repre- bondage for eighteen years, after which he
sentatives or agents of Jehovah, Whose de- was assassinated by Ehud, a Benjamite, as
sire was ascertained in a prescribed manner. the latter was presenting to the king the
These Judges were not only the civil chiefs tribute required of his tribe. Ehud escaped,
of the Hebrews, but were their military rallied the Israelites, and drove the Moab-
commanders and led their armies in battle. ites beyond the Jordan, inflidling a loss of
The Judge did not rank with a king in ten thousand men upon them. This victory
power or dignity-. His station was but lit- secured tranquillity for portions of Palestine
tle above that of the mass of the nation, for twenty-four years, but this state of peace
and was not hereditars-. The Judge was did not embrace the whole countn,'.
believed to be supematurally direcfted by The Old Testament names Shamgar as
revelations from Jehovah, either to himself the third of the Judges. He is said to have
or to others. The consent of the people led a body of laborers armed only with agri-
was necessary for the exercise of his func- cultural implements, and to have defeated a
tions, and his authority was not always rec- Philistine army, himself slaying six hun-
ognized by the entire nation. He was ap- dred of the enemy with an ox-goad.
pointed for life, but his successor was not After the death of Ehud the Israelites
always seledted after his death. There were again apostatized to idolatry, for which sin
sometimes long interregnums between the Jehovah is said to have delivered them into
administration of one Judge and that of the power of the Canaanite Jabin, King of
another. During these interregnums the Hazor, a descendant of the king whom
Hebrew nation was either without a civil Joshua had defeated, and like him the chief of
head, or was subjeA to the dominion of a powerful confederacy' in the North of Pales-
some foreign conqueror. The Old Testa- tine. This monarch had nine hundred iron
ment gives us the names of fifteen Judges chariots in his array, which was under the
altogether. The period of the Judges cov- command of a great general named Sisera.
ered several centuries, and its chronology is Jabin overran the North of Palestine, reduc-
very uncertain. The dates usually assigned ing its inhabitants to slavery. This bondage
for the events of this period are unreliable. lasted twenty years.
During the lifetime of the generation At this time the prophetess Deborah ad-
of Hebrews following the conquest of Ca- ministered justice to the Israelites under a
naan, a King of Western Mesopotamia, palm grove between Ramah and Bethel, in
called Chushan-rishathaim, extended his Mount Ephraim. Excited by the wrongs
362 AA'CIENT HISTORY.— THE HEBREWS.
of her people, she sumnioned Barak, the prise. Gideon overthrew^ the altar of Baal
son of Abinoam, of Kadesh, in Naphtah, and collecfted an army of thirty-two thou-
to lead in an effort to free the Hebrew na- sand Israelites. The Midianites and their
tion, promising him that Jehovah would allies, connnanded by famous leaders, im-
give him
vicftory. Barak agreed to do so on mediately took the field to subdue the re-
condition that Deborah should accompany bellious Hebrews. Gideon took his position
him. She consented, but warned him that on Mount Gilboa, while the Arab tribes
he would win no honor from the vidlory, as occupied the vallej^ of Jezreel below. As-
Jehovah would sell Sisera into the hands of sured of vi(5torj% Gideon allowed all of his
a woman. Barak gathered the forces of men to depart who desired to do so, and
Naphtali, Zebulun and Issachar, with a few twenty-two thousand immediately retired,
men from Ephraim, Manasseh and Benja- leaving only ten thou.sand to face the foe.
min, altogether about ten thousand men, The Hebrew account states that Jehovah
and took position on Mount Tabor. Sisera ordered Gideon to seledt three hundred war-
advanced to meet him without delay at the riors by a given test, and to hold the remain-
head of Jabin's armj-. Barak attacked him der of hisarmy in reservê. Gideon divided
on the banks of the Kishon, and, with the the three hundred chosen men into three
aid of a severe storm which overflowed the bands, with which he made a night attack on
stream and destroj'ed a portion of the army the camp of the Midianites. He anned his
of the Canaanites, routed him with frightful band with trumpets, and torches enclcsed in
lo.ss. Sisera fled on foot and found shelter earthenware pitchers. At a given signal
in the tent of Heber the Kenite, in the each of his men blew his trumpet, broke his
North of Palestine. Jael, Heber's wife, pitcher, and displayed his torch, shouting:
killed him in his sleep, thus fulfilling De- "The Sword of the Lord and of Gideon!"
borah's prophecy. Barak took the city of The Midianites, aroused from their sleep, and
Harosheth, Sisera's home, afterwards Hazor, utterly surprised and panic-stricken, turned
Jabin's capital, and killed Jabin himself. their swords upon each other, and fled to-
Aided by the other tribes, Barak continued ward the Jordan, leaving their camp in pos-
the war until he had liberated the whole session of the Israelites. They were pursued
Hebrew nation. These triumphs were fol- by the remainder of Gideon's arm}^ and were
lowed by forty j-ears of peace for the tribes utterly exterminated, scarcely a man escap-
that had participated in the war. ing across the Jordan. This great and de-
The Israelites were next chastised for laps- cisive vicftory utterly broke up the power of
ing into idolatry by being delivered into the the Midianites and liberated Israel from their
power of the Midianites, who, aided by the oppressive yoke. The Israelites, in grati-
Amalekites and the Bedouin Arab tribes, tude for this brilliant vicftory, offered to make
made repeated raids into Palestine, ravaging Gideon king, but he refused the profTered
the country as far as Gaza, carrjdng off dignity, saying: "Not I, nor my son, but
everything they could transport, and de- Jehovah .shall reign over you." Gideon
stroying everything that they could not take ruled his countrymen for many years after-
along. The Israelites were obliged to con- ward as Judge. His ride was not fully
ceal their cattle and crops in caves in the beneficial to the nation, as he almost openly
groimd, and to live in fortified cities. This encouraged idolatrj'. After his death one
condition of things lasted seven years, and of his sons, named Abimelech, made him-
Anally the Hebrews, in humiliation and self King of Shechem and the neighboring
penitence, implored Jehovah for deliverance. territory, but he only reigned three years,
Jehovah, it is .said, summoned Gideon, the when he was killed by a woman while en-
.son of Joash, of the tribe of Mana.sseh, to gaged in the siege of a town that had re
head the movement for the liberation of the fused to acknowledge his authority.
Israelites, and promised success to the enter- The next Judge was Tola, who admini.'s
tercel the government for twentj'-three years, informed He gave them

over into the hands
and was succeeded by Jair, the Gileadite, more warlike and more
of the Philistines, a far
who ruled for twenty-two years. These two powerful enemy than any they had hitherto
administrations were uneventful; but the encountered. As we ha\-e seen, these people
Israelites again phniged so deeply into idol- occupied the strip of country ^long the sea-
atr>-that Jehovah again, it is said, delivered coa.st of the South of Palestine. At this
them into the power of their enemies. The time they conquered the whole South of Pal-
two and a half Hebrew tribes east of the estine, reducing the Hebrew tribes of vSimeon,
Jordan were subdued by the Ammonites, Judah, Benjamin and Dan to subjedlion, and
who held them in bondage for eighteen held them in the severest bondage for forty
years. During this period the Ammonites years.
often crossed the Jordan and ravaged the At this time Eli, of the house of Ithamar,
lands of Judah, Benjamin and Ephraim. The Aaron's youngest son, was Judge of Lsrael.
tribes east of the Jordan selecfled for their Eli, who was a man of sincere piety, resided
leader a man named Jephthah, the chief of a at Shiloh, with the tabernacle; and his au-
band of outlaws occupying Mount Gilead. thority was generally acknowleged by the
Jephthah defeated the Ammonites in a great Hebrew nation. The crimes of his vicious
battle, and liberated the countrv-. He vowed and profligate sons disgraced the priesthood,
at the beginning of his campaign that, if but he pa.ssed them over, allowing his sons to
Jehovah would give him the vi(ftory, he retain their sacred offices. A prophet warned
would sacrifice to Him the first living Eli that Jehovah would puni.sh him for his
being that he should meet at the door of indulgence to his sons, that they would
his house when he returned home. The be killed for their wickedness, and that the
first who met him on his return home sacred office would be transferred to another
was his daughter, whom Jephthah, feeling family; but Eli simply remonstrated with
himself bound by his vow, sacrificed after his sons, permitting them to continue in their
allowing her the respite of two months wickedness.
which she requested. This sacrifice, di- During Eli's judgeship, we are informed,
redlly opposed to the laws of Moses, shows Jehovah raised up two great champions for
how far the Hebrew tribes east of the Jordan Israel —
Samson and Samuel. Samson be-
had departed from the teachings of the great longed to that portion of the tribe of Dan
lawgiver. Jephthah judged Israel for six which dwelt westward of Judah.
to the It
years after his great vidtorj' over the Am- is said that his birthhad been foretold by
monites, and was buried on Mount Gilead. the angel of Jehovah to his parents, and that
Ibzan, the Zebulunite, who was the next they had been commanded to rear the child
Judge, encourage more extensive inter- as a Nazarite, to keep him from all unclean
course with the neighboring nations by mar- food and strong drink, and not to allow a
rying his children to foreigners. After judg- razor to be applied to his head. This child,
ing Israel .seven j-ears, Ibzan was succeeded it was predicfted, was to accomplish wonders
by Elon, whose judgeship

also a Zebulunite, for his countrymen against the Philistines
lasted ten yearsand was uneventful. Hillel, when he grew to manhood. Samson was
the Pirathonite, the next Judge, had an un- the Hercules of the Israelites, who con-
eventful term of eight years, and is identi- stantly warred with their oppressors; the
fied by some writers with Bedan, whom sturdy warriors of the tribe of Dan living
Samuel names among the Judges. in a fortified camp near Kirjath-jearim,
The great militarv triumphs of the Judges where, we are told, "the spirit of Jehovah
so completely broke the power of" the Ca- began to move Samson at times." Samson
naanites that they are no more heard of. is represented to us as possessing more than
Still the Israelites again offended Jehovah human strength, and as fearless and in-
by relapsing into idolatry, for which we are capable of fatigue. For the purpose of pro-
voicing the Philistines, he asked the hand countrymen bribed her to betray her lover,
of a woman of Timnatli, and on his way to and Samson finally yielded to her entreat-
seize her, it is by
said that he killed a lion ies and informed her of the source of his
seizing it by its mouth and jaws

tearing its strength as being in his long hair. As he
apart. He left the dead lion by the way- lay asleep in her arms, the Philistines stole
side, and told no one of his exploit. Shorth' in upon him, cut off his hair,took him
afterward returning that way, he observed prisoner, put out his eyes, bound him in
that a swarm of bees had made their abode fetters, and took him to Gaza, where they
in the dead lion's carcass. He ate the compelled him to grind the prison-mill.
honey found there, but told no one. At his When Samson's hair grew long again he
marriage feast he propounded a riddle to his recovered his former strength. Soon after
thirty young groomsmen, the riddle to be this the lords and chief people of the Phil-
solved during the week of the marriage istines held a great fea.st in the temple of
feast, for the stake of thirty tunics and Dagon, Gaza, and brought out Samson
at
thirty changes of raiment. The young men to entertain them with feats of his strength.
induced Samson's wife to ask her husband It is said that they then allowed him to rest
the answer to the riddle, by threatening to between two pillars supporting the roof of
burn her and her family if she refused. the court, which, like the court itself, was
Samson, always subjedl to her wiles, told filledwith people, altogether about three
his wife, and she disclosed it to her kinsmen, thousand in number. Wildly praying to
the Philistines, who solved the riddle prop- Jehovah for strength to avenge himself upon
erly on the appointed day. Samson, at his enemies, the blind champion of the Is-
once seeing through the trick, and openly raelites seized the two pillars in his arms
charging the Philistines with their treach- and bore upon them with all his strength.
ery, proceeded to the Philistine city of The account says that the pillars gave wa}^
Ascalon, where he- killed thirty men, sent whereupon the house fell, killing Samson
their clothing to their fellow-countrymen and the whole concourse of people. "So
who had given the answer to the riddle, and the dead which he slew at his death were
returned to his people. His wife was more than they which he slew in his life."
given to one of his groomsmen, and he was His Israelite kinsmen took his body and in-
refused permission to see her. In revenge terred it with the remains of his fathers.
for this wrong, Samson burned the stand- Samson is generally considered the thir-
ing harvests of the Philistines; whereupon teenth of the Judges, but his authority ap-
they retaliated by burning his wife and her parently only extended over his own tribe,
father. He avenged this cruelty by attack- that of Dan.

ing them and slaying many of them, after Samuel was the fifteenth and the last
which he took refuge in the territon.- of Judge of Israel. Like Samson, we are told,
Judah. Thenceforth Samson was continu- he was a child of promise. His father, El-
ally at war with the Philistines, and he is kanah, was a descendant of Korah, and be-
represented as repeatedly demonstrating his longed to the tribe of Levi. He resided at
wonderful strength by a series of remark- Ramathaim-zophim. He had two wives,
able exploits. We are told that on one oc- Peniimah and Hannah. The first of these
casion "he .slew a thousand Philistines with was the mother of several children. The
the jaw-bone of an ass." family attended regularly the national relig-
As long as Samson remained true to his ious festivals at Shiloh. While they were
Nazarite's vow he escaped all the snares set fea.sting upon the free-will offering, Elkanah
for him, but he ultimately yielded to tempt- bestowed upon Hannah a mark of his affec-
ation, and this brought on his ruin. Fall- tion, thus arou.sing the jealousy of Penin-
ing in love with a Philistine woman, named nah, who
reproached Hainiah so bitterly
Delilah, living in the valley of Sorek, her that she retired from the feast weeping.
COA'OrjCST OF CAXAAX—TIIE jriHillS. 36S
Ilaniuih Weill lo the door of the tabernacle misfortune, Eli, who was then sitting at the
and praj-ed silently for a son, whom she gates of the tabernacle, backward from
fell
vowed to de\-ote to Jeho\-ah as a Nazarite. his seat, broke his neck and died.
The Hii,di Priest, Eli, saw her lips in motion, The Philistines carried the Ark in triumph
and thinking that she had drunken at the into their own country, but the Hebrew rec-
feast rebuked her sharpl.\-. vShe assured him ord tells us that Jehovah chastised them so
that she was stricken with sorrow, and was severely by means of a severe plague that
Ijewailing her griefs before Jehovah. There- they sent the sacred Ark to Bethshemcsh.
upon Eli spoke more mildlj- to her, bestowed Excited by curiosity the men of Bethshe-
upon her and implored Jehovah
his blessing, mcsh opened the Ark and looked into it, but
to grant her pra}-er. She returned home in Jehovah put 50,070 of them to death in
a happier state of feeling, and in due time punishment for this .sacrilege. Appalled at
gave birth to a son who was named Samuel. this judgment, those who survived .sent for
His mother kept him initil he had reached the men of Kirjath-jearira to take the Ark
a proper age to be separated from his family, away. These people took it to their own
after which she took him to Shiloh, where cit}-, where it was kept in the house of
she solemnly dedicated him to the service of Aminidab, a Levite, until David had it con-
Jehovah, leaving him with the High Priest. veyed to Jerusalem.
Hannah afterwards bore her husband three Samuel was Eli's successor as Judge of
sons and two daughters. Samuel grew up Lsrael, and his authority was generally ac-
in the service of the tabernacle, gaining the knowledged by the Hebrew nation. For
favor of Jehovah and his Hebrew country- twenty years after the loss of the Ark, the
men. We when Samuel was
are told that Israelites were sorely oppressed by the
still quite a youth, Jehovah spoke to him Philistines. At the end of this time Sam-
in the night, telling him of His design uel summoned the nation to make a bold
to destroy the house of Eli, and to de- strike for their deliverance from the Philis-
prive it of the office of High Priest in pun- tine yoke and to prepare them for it he con-
;
ishment for the sins of Eli's sons and for vened a solemn assembly at Mizpeh, where
his own indulgence toward them. Thence- the Israelites renewed the broken covenant
forth Samuel was a prophet of Jehovah. with Jehovah, amid fasting and repentance
All his predictions are said to have been for their past transgres.sions. Upon hearing
verified, and his renown and his influence of this assembly the Philistines sent an
over his countrj'men increased as he grew up. army to disperse it. Samuel incited his
The favor bestowed upon Samuel by Je- countr>-men to attack this Philistine force,
hovah inspired the Israelites with the belief and it is said that the Israelites were aided
that their God would aid them to cast off by a violent storm froin heaven, which de-
the Philistine j-oke. They consequently stroyed a great portion of the hostile army.
arose in arms, but suffered a defeat in the The Philistines fled in dismay, and were
hill country of Benjamin, a little north of pursued by the Israelites, who slaughtered
Jerusalem. Eli's sons, Hophni and Phinehas, a vast number of them.
lirought the Ark of the Covenant from Shi- This great Hebrew victory shattered the
loh to the camp of the Israelites, thinking power of the Philistines in Palestine, and
that such sacrilegious u.se of the Ark firmly established Samuel's authoritj' over
would give them victory. We are informed the Israelites. He made circuits of the
that Jehovah punished this sacrilege by per- country to administer justice, and appointed
mitting the Philistines to defeat the Hebrews his sons, Joel and Abiah, as his a.ssistants
with a loss of tliirt)- thousand men. Hophni in the government of the nation. Under
and Phinehas were both among the slain, and Samuel's administration, the Israelites en-
the Ark of the Covenant fell into the hands jojêd a period of peace and prosperity which
of the Philistines. Upon hearing of this they had never before known. But still
]— L'S.-U. H.
tliej^were dissatisfied, and longed for a ern them, reminding them that Jehovah was
king who should govern them in peace and their King. But they were deaf to all his
lead their armies to vicflon,- in war. Thej^ arguments and entreaties, replying: "We
ascribed their past misfortunes to their want will have a king over us." We are told
of union under a strong central government, that Jehovah therefore authorized Samuel
and feared that the same cause might sub- to comply with the demand of his people;
jec5lthem to similar calamities in the future. and in accordance with the Divine diredlions,
Samuel vainly remonstrated with them, and Samuel anointed Saul, the son of Kish, a
tried to dissuade them from their determin- Benjamite, as the first King over Israel, B.
ation to have an earthly sovereign to gov- C. 1095.
SECTION IV.— THE UNITED KINGDOM OF ISRAEL.

AUL, the first King of Israel, destitute of power to interfere with the old
was about when
forty 5'ears old constitution and laws bequeathed to the na-
he ascended the throne. The tion bj' Moses, and entirely unlike the sov-
Book of Kings describes him ereigns of the neighboring nations. For
as
'
' taller than any of the peo- some time Saul accepted vSamuel's view of
ple,"and so kingly in bearing that when the powers of royalty, and submitted to the
Samuel presented him to the people as their prophet's influence; but his ferocious temper
monarch, they hailed him with rapturous could not long pennit him to endure this
shouts of
'
' God save the king.
'
' He pos- control, and Saul began to resent the re-

and tribe, all
sessed all the vigor of his race straint exercised over him by Samuel, and
their courage and energ3^ but was impulsive desired to be king in facft as well as in name.
and vacillating, and possessed a temper Saul's solemn installation as King of Is-
so utterlj' uncontrollable that opposition rael occurred at Gilgal on his return from
aroused him to a condition approaching his triumphant campaign against the Am-
madne.ss. monites; after which he dismissed the Is-
The choice of a sovereign from the raelites to their homes, and kept a force of
smallest of the Hebrew tribes greath- of- only three thousand men in the field, retain-
fended a considerable portion of the nation, ing two thousand under his own command,
and Samuel thought it prudent to postpone and placing the remaining thousand under
the solemn public installation of Saul until his son Jonathan, a very worthy young man.
this opposition could be allayed. At this Jonathan .surprised and took the Philistine
jumfture, Gilead, the Israelitish territories stronghold of Gibeah, in the land of Benja-
east of the Jordan, suffered an invasion from min, relieving that tribe of a constant an-
Nahash, King of the Ammonites. Saul noyance. Thereupon the Philistines set a
speedily colledled the forces of Israel, cro.ssed powerful army in motion, and Saul sum-
the Jordan, annihilated the Ammonites, and moned the forces of Israel to assemble at
rescued Gilead. The valor and military Gilgal,where Samuel was to join him and
ability displayed by Saul in this campagn offer asolemn sacrifice to Jehovah as the
utterly silenced the opposition to him, and opening adt of the campaign. The Israel-
his authoritj' was acknowledged with enthu- ites assembled at the appointed time, but
siasm bj' the whole Hebrew nation. Samuel did not appear. Saul waited for
Samuel continued to exercise a great in- him seven days, when, seeing that the peo-
fluence over the affairs of the Israelites. He ple were impatient, he seized the opportu-
considered the king simply a military chief, nity to throw off entirely the control of
THE UNITJU) KINGDOM OF ISRAEL. Tfil
Sanuicl and usurped the sacerdotal power consisted of veterans and was kept in a high
belonyiujj to tlie High Priest. He oflered state of discipline and thorough efficiency.
the sacrifice himself, thus claiming priestly He assigned the command of this army to
as well as kingly authority. Soon after- his cousin Abner, the son of Ner.
ward Sanuiel arrived, and inunediately per- The High Priest Samuel, now venerable
ceived that Saul's action was directed at for his years, came to Saul and ordered him
putting the Hebrew monarchy on the same to undertake a war against the Amalekites,
level as those of the neighboring nations, the earliest and most implacable foes of
giving the king the supreme spiritual power, Israel. Saul immediately took the field
as well as the chief civil authoritj-, o^'er the against them and defeated them, but diso-
Hebrew nation. The prophet rebuked Saul beyed the prophet's command to destro\-
.sharply for his sacrilegious proceeding; and everything he captured, carrj-ing away a
in the name of Jehovah told him that the vast booty and sparing Agag, the Amale-
Divine fa\-or would thenceforth be with- kite king, with the design of receiving a
drawn from him, and that at his death ransom for him.
the ro3-al dignity would be transferred Sanuiel met Saul at Gilgal when he re-
to another family. The bondage of the turned from the campaign, and severelj' re-
Philistines bore heavilj' upon the Southern poached him for his disobedience of the Di-
Hebrew tribes, whose smiths were forbidden vine connnand. In Jehovah's name, the
to pursue their occupation, in consequence prophet pronounced a curse upon the diso-
of which weapons were so scarce that Saul bedient monarch, telling him that Jeho-
found only six hundred armed men in the vah had rejected him from that day. At
entire assembly of people. Notwithstanding the same time Samuel slew Agag with his
this drawback, he advanced northward to own hand.
Michmash to confront the foe; while Jona- Samuel then departed from Saul, and the
than, accompanied oidy by his armor-bearer, breach between the king and the High
surprised the camp of the Philistines, who, Priest of the nation was complete. The
seized by a panic, turned their arms against Divine protection, it is said, was withdrawn
each other, and fled. Saul immediately from Saul thenceforth; and Samuel, we are
pursued the flying foe, and was joined by told,was commanded by Jehovah to go to
all the Israelites who could obtain arms. Bethlehem to anoint the future King of
He soon found himself at the head of ten Israel.
thousand men, and pursued the retreating Samuel obeyed the Divine command, ac-
Philistines to Beth-aven, inflicting frightful Hebrew account, and going
cording to the
losses upon them. to Bethlehem he solenmly anointed, with
The Philistines retired into their own ter- .sacred oil, David, the youngest and most
ritory, and did not molest the Israelites gifted son of Jesse, of the tribe of Judah.
again for some years. During this time The newly-anointed King of Israel was de-
Saul repulsed the attacks of the Ammonites, scended from Nahshon, who had been the
the Moabites, the Edomites, and the Syr- chief, or prince, of the tribe of Judah, in the
ians of Zobah, who in succession endeavored Wilderness, and also from Rahab the harlot
Hebrew dominions. About the
to invade the of Jericho and from the beautiful Ruth.
same time the Hebrew tribes east of the David had already arrived at man's estate,
Jordan conquered the nomadic Arab tribe and had pro\-ed his courage by his many
of the Hagareens and extended their terri- successful defenses of his father's flock
tory in the direction of Damascus. Con- against the bandits and the wild beasts of
scious that the security of his kingdom that region.
depended upon its defensive power against
After the breach with Samuel, Saul fell
invasion, he made great exertions to organize into a state of deep melancholj', amounting
a standing army, which, though not large, sometimes to madness, and which only the
368 AA'CIENT HISTORY— THE HEBREWS.
music of David's harp could alleviate; David in the region of the wilderness of Judaea, in
having been introduced into Saul's palace the territory of Judah.
through the secret influence of vSamuel. Samuel died about this time at Ramah, at
Saul cherished a wann affedtion for David, an advanced age, and was deeply mourned
conferring honors upon him and making him by all Israel. After Samuel's death Saul
his armor-bearer. gave full vent to his furious temper. He
The war with the Philistines had been re- violently persecuted allwho supported the
newed in the meantime, and the armies of laws of Moses, and massacred the High
Israel and Philistia confronted each other Priest Abimelech, eighty-five priests, and
in the South of Palestine. The Philistines allthe inhabitants of the city of Nob, the
brought forward a champion in the person residence of the High Priest. Abiathar,
of the giant Goliath, of Gath. No Israel- the .son of Abimelech and the heir to the
ite had courage to meet him, until David, office of High Priest, escaped the massacre
after joining the anny, offered to fight him. by fleeing to David for protecflion.
Saul sought to prevail upon David not to Saul now turned his anns against David,
venture upon so dangerous a proceeding, but and hunted him through the South of Pal-
finding him determined and depending upon estine. On two occasions David liad the
Jehovah for vicflorj-, agreed to the encounter. king within his power, but magnanimously
It is said that David was armed only with spared his life. He was finally obliged to
his shepherd's sling, in the use of which take refuge with Achish, King of Gath,
he had become an expert, and that he killed who a.ssigned him the city of Ziklag, where
the giant with a stone from this sling, the he resided for some years, leading many ex-
stone striking him on the forehead. After peditions against the Amalekites, the ene-
killing the giant, it is al.so said that David mies of both Israel and Philistia.
cut off his vidlim's head with his own sword. The war between the Israelites and the
Appalled at the death of their champion, Philistines was again resumed, and Achish,
the Phili.stine army fled in di,smay, and was King Gath, ordered David to join the
of
pursued by Saul's forces to the gates of Philistine army and advance against Saul.
Gath and Ekron, suffering frightful slaugh- David was forced to obey, but the Philistine
ter during the retreat. leaders, suspicious of the jôung Israelite
Saul, highly delighted with the prowess refugee, induced the king to order him to
of David, gave him his daughter Michal in return to Ziklag. The Philistines invaded
marriage. Saul's son, Jonathan, entertained the Hebrew territory; and in a great battle
a deep and permanent affecftion for the on Mount Gilboa the Israelites were routed,
youthful hero. But .soon afterward the and Jonathan and two others of Saul's sons
vacillating Saul suddenly di.splaj'ed a deadlj' were .slain, and Saul himself, being severely
jealousy of his young son-in-law, upon hear- wounded, killed himself by falling on his
ing the praises which were lavished upon own sword, in order to avoid being made
him on account of his great feat in slaying pri.soner by the vi(5lorious Philistines, B. C.
the giant champion of the Philistines. 1055. Saul had reigned forty êars (B. C.
Thenceforth Saul sought the life of David, 1095-1055).
who was at length obliged to flee from the "Upon hearing of the death of Saul and
court of Saul, and to seek refuge from his Jonathan, David returned to his own coun-
father-in-law's anger by fleeing to the court try, and was acknowledged as king bj' his
of the King of Gath, where he feigned mad- own tribe of Judah; while all the other
ness, in order to escape the vengeance of the tribesadhered to Ishbosheth, the only sur-
Philistines. Soon afterward he became the viving son of Saul, whom Abner had caused
leader of a band of outlaws, living for some to be crowned at Mahanaim. For the next
time in Moab, and then establishing him- seven years the Hebrew kingdom was rent
self in the dens and caves of the mountains by a sanguinarj- civil war. When Abner
THE I'Niri-.n KiNcno.'if or israiu,. 369
deserted to the side of David, and Ish- l)()wcrful ally in Hiram, King of Tyre, who
bosheth was assassinated bj' two of his furnished hiui with cedars of Lebanon and
guards, the whole Hebrew nation acknowl- with workmen and artificers for the con-
edged David as its sovereign, and the civil struction f)f the splendid palace which he
war was brought to a close. David was creeled at Jerusalem.

solemnly anointed King of Israel at He- David proved himself a wise and benefi-
bron, his capital, B. C. 1095. cent sovereign. He thoroughly organized

David was almost thirty-eight years of the Israelitish army, personally superin-
age when he began to reign over the entire tended the civil administration, inaugurated
kingdom of Israel. He soon proved him- an admirable internal sen'ice for the de-
self a great warrior and conqueror. His spatch of public business, and revised and
first great military exploit was the capture upon a per-
settled the religious institutions
of Jebus, or Jerusalem, with its strong for- manent David was a great poet, as
basis.
tress. Mount Zion, from the Jebusites. He well as a successful king and warrior, as is
made this city the capital of his kingdom, proven by the Psalms, or h3'mns, which he
and likewise the center of the Hebrew wor- composed, and which have ever since been
ship by bringing thither the Ark of the ranked among the most soul-stirring pro-
Covenant. He organized a standing army, ducftions of lyric poetrj'.
set up a splendid court at his capital, pro- Says a certain writer concerning David's
vided himself with a large harem, or se- poetry: " Great as was the military glor)' of
raglio, after the usual fashion of Oriental David, his fame with later times is derived
monarchs, and introduced a royal magnifi- from his psalms and songs. He was the
cence hitherto unknown in I.srael. He is first great poet of Israel, and perhaps the
ranked as a faithful servant of Jehovah, earliest in the world. The freshness of the
whom he delighted to honor and worship. pastures and mountain-sides among which
The prophets Gad and Nathan were inti- his youth was passed, the assurance of Di-
mate associates of David, who always heard vine prote(5tion amid the singular and ro-
them with deference, even when they re- mantic incidents of his varied career, the
proached him with the faults of his public enlargement of his horizon of thought with
and private life. the magnificent dominion which was added
David was the greatest and most powerful to him in later life, all gave a richness and
monarch that ever reigned over the Hebrew depth to his experience, which were repro-
nation. He extended his kingdom in every duced in sacred melody, and found their fit-
direction by successful wars. He broke the ting place in the temple .ser\-ice; and every
power of the Philistines by conquering their form of Jewish and Christian worship since
country as far south as Gaza. He subdued his time has been enriched by the poetry of
Moab, exterminating two-thirds of its popu- David."
lation, and compelling the remairiing third David had designed building a gorgeous
to pay tribute. He conquered the Ammon- temple to Jehovah at Jerusalem, but is said to
ites and the various Syrian kingdoms be- have been forbidden to do .so by Divine com-
tween the Jordan and the Euphrates, includ- mand, because his hands had been stained
ing that of Damascus, thus extending his by blood. The temple was to be built by a
dominions eastward to the Euphrates. He man of peace, and was therefore to be deferred
also subdued Edom, and extended the He- until the reign of his son and successor.
brew territory to the Red Sea and the fron- David merely confined his efforts to securing
tier of Eg3'pt. Thus David founded an a location and the collection of materials for
empire extending from the Red Sea to the the grand sacred edifice.
Euphrates, and from Phcenicia and the David sometimes yielded to temptation
Mediterranean to the Arabian and Syrian and gave way to the baser passions of his
deserts. He .secured an important and nature. During the siege of Rabbah, the
Ammonite capital, David offended Jeho- people the proudest name in their historj',
vah by seducing the beautiful Bathsheba, and to his successor a flourishing empire.
the wife of Uriah, the Hittite, one of his Solomon — David's son with Bathsheba,
captains, and taking her to himself, giving and the favorite of his father — succeeded the
her husband a dangerous command in which illustrious warrior and psalmist on the
he was treacherously slain. For this crime throne of Israel. He began his reign by
David was severely repro\'ed b}' the prophet putting Adonijah, his rebel half-brother, to
Nathan, and we are told that he humbly death. said that Jehovah appeared to
It is
confessed his sin and that his remorse and him dream and promised to give him
in a
repentance obtained for him the pardon of whatever he should ask, and that Solomon
Jehovah. He took Bathsheba to his harem, chose wisdom, and not only was this granted,
but the child which she bore him died in but also riches, honor and length of days,
accordance with the predidtion of the on condition of his continued obedience to
prophet Nathan. Another child bom to the Divine command. Solomon's reign was
Bathsheba was the illustrious successor of the most splendid period of Jewi.sh histor\-.
David. He began his reign in peace, and all the neigh-
The was inter-
prosperity of David's reign boring nations acknowledged his dignity;
rupted by domestic calamities, due direcftly and the reigning Pharaoh of Egypt gave him
to the evil of polj-gani}', which David had his daughter in marriage, and she received
introduced into the kingdom. His sons by as her dowry a part of Canaan which had
different wives tonnented his later years by been conquered by that king. The Israel-
their jealousies and crimes. Amnion, his ites were now the ruling people in Syria.
eldest son, was slain b)- Absalom in revenge Many kings were tributary to the Hebrew
for a gross insult offered to his sister. As monarch, and the court of Jerusalem rivaled
soon as Absalom was pardoned and received those of Nineveh and Memphis in its glory
into favor he conspired to dethrone his in- and magnificence. The fame and wis-
dulgent father, and raising the standard of dom of Solomon secured for him the alli-
rebellion, forced the king to flee from Jeru- ances of the most powerful Eastern mon-
salem and take refuge in the country east of archs; and thus tranquillity was established,
the Jordan; but a large armj' under Joab and his entire reign was one of peace and
and his brothers took the field against Ab.sa- prosperity.
lom and utterly routed his forces in the Solomon's enterprise and luxun,- gave a
forests of Ephraim, and the unfortunate wonderful impulse to commerce. Hiram,
prince, in his endeavors to escape, was King of Tyre, was as warm a friend of Solo-
entangled by his long hair in the branches mon as he had been of his father, David;
of an oak, being slain in that situation by and cedars were brought from Lebanon for
Joab, contrary to the express command of the constru(5tion of the great Temple and a
David, who was fondly attached to this re- palace at Jerusalem. Through his alliance
bellious son. Adonijah also plotted to de- with Hiram, Solomon was allowed to par-
throne his father and rose in rebellion, but ticipate in the Tyrian trade; and to facilitate
atoned for this crime with his life. David commercial intercourse between Central and
thereupon gave orders that Solomon, his Western Asia, he founded two cities in the
son with Bathsheba, should be proclaimed Syrian desert which became great empori-
king. The northern tribes revolted under a ums for the caravan trade Tadmor, (after- —
leader named Sheba, but were soon subdued, wards Palmyra), and Baalath (after^^'ards
and the leader was punished with death. Baalbec, or Heliopolis). Says the Book of
After a glorious but troubled reign of forty Kings: He founded Baalath and Tadmor in
'
'
years, of which thirty-three were spent in the desert. Solomon akso opened a lucrative
'
'
Jerusalem, David died B. C. 1015, at the trade with Egypt, and by the influence of
age of seventy-eight years, leaving to his the reigning Pharaoh, his father-iu-law, he
PHOENICIAN EMBASSY AT THE COURT OI- SOLOMON.
THE UMITED KINGDOM OF ISRAEL. 371
sandals and spices from India, silver from

Spain, ivory- from Africa, and gold from
Ophir, increased the wealth and luxury of
the court of the great Hebrew monarch.
Horses from Egypt, now first introduced
into Palestine, filled the royal stables; and
by tribute from the dependent monarchs, as
well as by commerce, a constant stream of
gold and silver flowed into Palestine. Solo-
mon was the first to introduce horses and
war-chariots into Israel, and these were pro-
cured from Egypt, from which linen-yarn and
cotton manufadtures were likewise brought
into hiskingdom.
Solomon's greatest work was the grand
Temple to Jehovah, which he erecfled on
Mount Moriah at Jerusalem, in which the
obtained from the Edomites the port of Ark of the Covenant was thenceforth kept,
Ezion-geber (now Akaba), a convenient and which has become famous as the sacred
harbor on the Gulf of Akaba, at the north- spot towards whicii the prayers of Israelites,
€rn end of the Red Sea, where he construdled though for many centuries dispersed in every
a great fleet of merchant vessels, and whence portion of the world, have ever since been
bis subjects, with the aid of the experienced directed. The precincfts of the Temple in-
mariners of Tyre, carried on a lucrative cluded apartments for the priests and towers
trafficwith the rich countries of Southern for defense; and it has been said that the
Asia and Africa. Through these various different purposes of forum, fortress, univer-
channels of commerce, the rarest produdls sityand sancfluarj^ were united in this im-
of Europe, Asia and Africa were poured mense and magnificent national edifice. Sol-
into Jerusalem. Gold and precious stones, omon enlisted the superior skill of the Phoe-
ANCIENT HISTORY.— THE HEBREWS.
nicians in wood and metal work in his fame and wisdom, came to visit him from a
ser\-ice in the Temple.
erecftion of the far country.
His warm, roj-al friend and ally, Hiram, But Solomon's character was corrupted
—
King of Tj-re who was half Tyrian and by prosperitj-. He had introduced the
—
half Israelite was the chief architedl and licentious luxury of an Oriental court into
sculptor, and furnished the Hebrew monarch the Holy City of David, and his harem,
with cedars from Lebanon for the wood-work or seraglio, was vastly augmented, so that
and witk skilled workmen to build the grand it reached a point which has no parallel,
strudture. Seven and a half years were oc- as we are told that Solomon had seven
cupied in the ere(?lion of the splendid edifice, hundred wives and three hundred concu-
and the costliness of its materials was only bines. His commerce was a monopoly of
surpassed by the beauty of its workman- the government and did not benefit the
ship, all the resources of wealth and ingenu- people. His enormous and expensive court
ity being expended on the magnificent was maintained by taxes so excessive as to
strucfture. When the work was completed impoverish the nation and arouse general
it was solemnly dedicated to Jehovah; and discontent. His great public works with-
the Feast of the Dedication brought to Jeru- drew large numbers of men from the tillage
salem an immense multitude from both ends of thesoil, and from the proper channels of
of the Hebrew dominions

—
"from Hamath industr\-, thus lessening the resources of
to the river of Egypt. " It is .said that on the nation. The luxury and sensualitj' of
this occasion the Shekinah, or cloud of the court had a corrupting influence upon
glor>' hovering over the splendid edifice, an- the nation, and the people were estranged
nounced the visible presence of Jehovah. from the ancient faith by the encouragement
This evênt is of such importance as a turning given heathen religions by their luxurious
point in Jewish histor>' as to mark the com- and sensual monarch. Seduced by his
mencement of their connedled record of many "strange wives," who were taken
months and years. Solomon also built a from all the surrounding nations, Solomon
magnificent palace opposite Mount Moriah, not only permitted them their idolatrous
on which the Temple was erecfted, and fur- worship, but even participated in the rites
nished it with unrivaled splendor. of their impious and licentious idolatry',
Solomon's early years were marked by all and forsook Jehovah to whose glory he
the virtues which could adorn a prince. had erected the magnificent sandluarj' on
Humbly con.scious of the great duties as- Mount Moriah. Then we are told enemies
signed him, and of the insufficiency of his arose againsthim on all sides, and the sub-
powers, he preferred wisdom to long life or ject kingdoms arose in revolt. Rezon, King
wealth or kingly dominion, and was re- of Damascus, threw off the Hebrew yoke.
warded with the possession of even what he Hadad endeavored to restore the indepen-
had not asked for. His wi.sdom exceeded dence of Edom, but was defeated and com-
that of all the philosophers and learned men pelled to flee to Egypt. The tribes of
of the East, and his Proverbs are classed Ephraim and Manasseh almost broke out
among the wisest maxims of antiquity. into open rebellion; but the attempt was dis-
His knowledge of natural historj% improved covered, and Jeroboam, the leader in the
\>y the collections of rare plants and strange conspiracy, was obliged to flee to Egypt,
animals, which he obtained from every where he found refuge at the court of King
quarter of the world, was regarded as mirac- Shishak. vSolomon died in B. C. 975, after
ulous. All monarchs sought Solomon's al- a reign of forty years, like those of Saul
liance and friendship; and the Queen of and David.
Sheba, whose dominion is supposed to have The glory of Solomon's reign dazzled the
been in the modern Abys.sinia, or Soutli- Hebrew nation and silenced all discontent,
we.stern Arabia, and who had heard of his but when he was succeeded on the throne
77//-; AVX(,7)(XU OF ISRAEf.. 373
by his son RkhorOam, the smolhcrcd dis- known as the " Revolt of the Ten Tribes."
satisfaction assumed the form of open rebell- Thenceforth there were two Hebrew states
ion. Rehoboam, instead of f[uietin;4 his — the Kingdom o/Judah, embracing the two
subjecfls bj' necessary reforms, exasperated tribes of Judah and Benjamin, which remain-
them by his haughty refusal to lessen their ed true to the House of David represented by
burdens. Ten of the twelve tribes therefore Rehoboam and his successors, whose capi-
at once revolted, under the leadership of tal was Jerusalem; and the k'higdom of Israel,
Jekoboaji; and the Hebrew kingdom, which comprising the ten revolted tribes governed
had cut such a grand figure under David by Jeroboam and his successors, who were
and Solomon, was rent in twain, B. C. 975. idolaters, and whose capital at first was
This secession and successful revolution is Shechem.
SECTION v.— THE KINGDOM OF ISRAEL.

IKE Kingdom of Israel, estab- into the national life that it could not be
by the Northern tribes
lished eradicated. In the time Elijah only
of
under Jeroboam, extended seven thousand were left who had not
|Kî\i3^ •
from the borders of Damascus "bowed the knee unto Baal;" and even
to within ten miles of Jerusa- these were not known by the prophet, being
lem, including all the Hebrew territory' forced by persecution to hide their religion.
east of the Jordan, and held Moab as a trib- The Kings of Israel belonged to nine
utarj'. It had far the more extensive and diiferent dynasties, only two of which, tho.se
fertile territorj-, and twice the population of of Omri and Jehu, occupied the throne for
Judah; but its capital was far inferior to any considerable time. All but a few of the
Jerusalem, alike in strength, beaut\' "or nineteen kings had short reigns, and eight
sacred association. Its successive capitals met with violent deaths. The kingdom was
were Shechem, Tirzah and Samaria. repeatedly at war with Judah, Damascus
Jeroboam, the first monarch of the new and Ass^-ria. Jeroboam was aided in his
Kingdom of Israel, in order to sever the war with Judah by his friend and protecftor
most powerful tie binding the people to the in his exile, Shishak, King of Egypt. Jero-
House of David, made golden calves for boam's reign of twenty-two years was pa.ssed
idols, setting up two national sanctuaries, in almost constant war with Judah. He died
one at Dan and the other at Bethel, with in B. C. 953; and his son and successor
idolatrous emblems, saying: "It is too Nad.\b, after a reign of two years, was mur-
much for you to go to Jerusalem; behold dered by Baash.\, the commander of the
thy gods, O Israel, which brought thee up army, who then usurped the throne, Baa-
out of the land of Egypt " A new priest- sha removed the capital to Tirzah. He was
!
hood was instituted in opposition to that of grossl}' addicted to idolatry. The remnant
the Levites, whereupon manj- Levites and of the worshipers of Jehovah retired from
other faithful adherents of the religion of Je- Israel and settled in Judah, being attracted
hovah migrated into the Kingdom of Judah. thither by the piety of its king, Asa. To
The people of the Northern kingdom fell check this defedtion, Baasha made war upon
into the snare set for them by their sovereign. Judah, and built the fortress of Ramali, by
A succession of prophets, some of them the which he designed holding the Jewish fron-
greatest in Hebre\\' histors', stro\e to keep tier, but was forced to desist by Ben-hadad
the people faithful to Jehovah, but the taint of Damascus, whose alliance had been
of idolatrj' had become so deeph' rooted bouijht bv A.sa.
Baasha died in B. C. 930, and was suc- Judah. We are told that the allied army
ceeded by his son, Elah, who, while intoxi- was miraculously supplied with water, and
cated, was murdered by Zimri, who usurped that the Moabites met with a decisive de-
the throne, but was not acknowledged by feat, after which Jehoram ravaged "the
the army, which set up its commander, land of Moab with fire and sword, '
but
'
Omri. acivil war of seven years ensued, his cruelties caused the King of Judah to
and Zimri, being defeated, shut himself up desert his alliance and return to his own
in his palace, which he set on fire, himself kingdom. Before the end of his reign the
perishing in the flames. Omri began to worship of Baal was restored in Israel. Je-
reign B. C. 929. At first he had a rival horam renewed the war with the Syrians of
named Tibni, whose claim was supported by Damascus by seizing Ramoth-Gilead. Be-
half the people, but Omri overcame him and ing wounded in the battle with the Syrians,
reigned until B. C. 918. Omri built the he went to Jezreel to be healed, and was
strong city of Samaria and made it his capi- there visited by his ally, Ahaziah, King of
tal. He made war on Damascus, but was Judah. During his stay at Jezreel, Jehu
obliged to conclude a humiliating peace. was proclaimed king hy the army. Jehu
The next king was Ahab, who strength- went to Jezreel, and slew both Jehoram and
ened himself by marrying Jezebel, the Ahaziah, after which he caused Jezebel,
daughter of Ethbaal, King of Tyre and Ahab's wicked widow, to be thrown from
High Priest of Astarte; and the result of the walls of Jezreel, thus exterminating all
this alliance was the introducftion of the of Ahab's family, in accordance with the
Phoenician religion into Israel. Near the prophecy of Elijah.
end of this century the prophet Elijah came Jehu began to reign B. C. 884. He vio-
to denounce upon the king and people of lently suppressed the worship of Baal, but
Lsrael the Divine punishment for their sins, retained the idolatry of Jereboam. Hazael
and a famine for three years devastated the of Damascus deprived Jehu of his provinces
kingdom. At its close Elijah offered sacri- east of the Jordan, and at one time he paid
fice on Mount Carmel, and the priests of Baal tribute to Shalmaneser II. of Assyria, the
were slaughtered, which was regarded as a Black Obelisk King. Jehoahaz, Jehu's
vindication of Jehovah's power. In the lat- son, became king B. C. 856, and under him
ter part of his reign Ahab waged a success- the kingdom of Israel was still further
ful war with Damascus and reestablished weakened by Syrian conquests, the King
the independence of Israel. Three years of of Damascus even forcing Jehoahaz to limit
peace followed. About B. C. 897 Ahab re- the strength of his standing army. Jeho-
newed thewar with Damascus, by miiting ash, the son of Jehoahaz, became king B.
with Jehoshaphat, King of Judah, in an C. 839, and was a vigorous and warlike
effort to seize the strong frontier of Ramoth- monarch. He defeated Ben-hadad III. of
Gilead, but in the battle which followed the Damascus in three successive engagements,
allied army was routed and Ahab was and re-conquered a part of the territory
killed. wrested from Israel. He likewise defeated
Ahaziaii, the son of Ahab, became his Amaziah, King of Judah, and entered Jeru-
successor, and reigned a little more than a salem in triumph. He was succeeded by
year, during which Moab revolted. Jeho- his son, Jeroboam II. B. C. 825. This
ram, Ahaziah's brother and successor, con- king raised Israel to the highe.st piimacle of
tinued the alliance with Judah. He abol- power and glory. He conquered Moab
ished the worship of Baal, though he ad- and Amnion, thus recovering all the terri-
hered to the idolatry of Jeroboam. He tory lost by Israel east of the Jordan, and
waged war with Moab, and was joined in attacked Damascus, which had been weak-
the struggle by Jehoshaphat and by the ened by the sudden ri.se of A.ssyria, adding
King of Edom, the va.ssal of the King of
THE KINC.DOM OF JUDAH. 375
& large portion of the Syrian territory- to the to the Assyrian monarch and entered into
Kingdom of Israel. an alliance with ligypt to recover his coun-
Zachariah, the son of Jeroboam II., who try's independence. Thereupon Shalmaneser
succeeded his father about B. C. 772, was IV., King of As.syria, invaded Israel, overran
assa.ssinated .six months later hy Shallum, the countrj' and besieged Samaria, its capi-
who thus put an end to the house of Jehu tal, which held out heroically for two years,
and usurped the throne of Israel, but was but was taken by Sargon, Shalmanezer's
himself murdered after a reign of little over successor; and with its capture ended the
a month by Menahem, who became his Kingdom of Israel, after having lasted t\vo
successor. Menahem invaded the Assyrian hundred and fifty-five j-ears (B. C. 975-721).
territoryeast of the Euphrates and took In accordance with the policy of the Assyr-
Thapsacus, but the Assj'rian king defeated ian monarchs, the inhabitants of the con-
him and reduced him to tribute. In B. C. quered kingdom were carried captive to re-
762 Menahem was succeeded by his son Pe- mote portions of the Assyrian Empire; and
KAHiAH, who was murdered by Pekah, one '
with the Assyrian Captivity the history

'
'
'
of his generals, who then usurped the throne, of the "'ten tribes" is ended forever, B. C.
B. C. 760. 721.
Pekah's reign of thirty-three years was The Israelite territorj^ remained depopu-
marked by a .series of calamities. He formed lated until Esar-haddon, King of Assyria,
an alliance with Rezin, King of Damascus, Sargon's grandson and second successor, in
to protedl his kingdom against Assyria and the seventh century before Christ, colonized
to conquer Judah. The allied armies of this fertile region with Babylonians, Susia-
Pekah and Rezin then invaded Judah and niaus and others. These strangers brought
reduced that kingdom to great extremities; their idolatrous worship with them. The de-
but Ahaz, King of Judah, called in the aid population of the countrj- rendered it so deso-
of Tiglath-Pileser II., King of As.syria, who late that for a time wild beasts multiplied in
came to the rescue of Judah and forced Pe- the cities. The new settlers considered them-
kah to make peace. The Assyrian monarch selves free to ser\'e their own national gods,
again invaded Israel, ravaged its provinces and their religion was a strange mixture of
east of the Jordan, and carried the inhabi- the worship of Jehovah with their own
tants captive to Assyria. polytheism, which the Hebrew Scriptures
Pekah was assassinated by Hoshea, who describe thus: "They feared Jehovah and
then usurped the throne, B. C. 730.Hoshea servêd their own gods." The descend-
was the last King of Israel. That mon- ants of these colonists were known in the
arch 3^ was now rapidly Hearing its end. later Jewish history as Samaritans, and were
Hoshea vainly endeavored to suppress idol- the most inveterate enemies of the Hebrew
atry'. He began to reign as a tributary of race. We are told that
'
' the Jews had no

Assyria, but soon renounced his allegiance dealings with the Samaritans."
SECTION VI.— THE KINGDOM OF JUDAH.

HE Kingdom of Judah occupied two tribes of Judah and Benjamin, with great
the southern and least fertile numbers of refugees from the ten revolted
part of the Holy Land. It tribes, who willingly sacrificed home and
began its separate national ex- lands for the religion of Jehovah. The
same time with
istence at the people were thus closely united in bonds of
Israel, but sur\-ived that kingdom one hun- common interest iji the wonderful traditions
dred and thirty-fi\-e years. It embraced the of the past and the hopes for the future.
376 ANCIENT HISTORY.— THE HEBREW'S.
Though territorially smaller and numerically was invaded by a strong armj- led
'
by Te- '
weaker than the Kingdom of Israel, Judah rah the Egyptian," believed to be Osorkon
was really the stronger and more important II. of Egj'pt; but Asa routed this army at
kingdom of the two. Its inhabitants were Mareshah, pursued it to Gerar, and returned
thoroughly convinced that the}' were the to Jerusalem with the spoils of vidlory and
true people of God and the legitimate heirs of the cities around Gerar. Urged by the
of Jehovah's promises, and they exhibited prophet Azariah, Asa summoned a convo-
remarkable vigor and wonderful recuperative cation at Jerusalem in B. C. 940, when the
powers. It was less given to apostasy from nation entered into a solemn covenant to be
Jehovah than the Kingdom of Israel, and faithful to the worship of Jehovah. Many
suffered fewer calamities. The indomitable devout Israelites from the Northern kingdom
spirit of its people enabled them to defy suc- attended this a.s.semblage; and this migration
cessively thepower of Assyria and of Egypt, of the worshipers of Jehovah in Israel to
and required the exertion of the whole force Judah so alarmed Baasha, King of Israel,
of the Babylonian Empire to crush it. Ramah, on the road between
that he fortified
Although exposed to peril from the attacks Judah and Israel, to check this emigration,
of many enemies, because of its situation and made war upon Asa, who, in alarm,
between the two great rival empires of Eg>'pt purcha.sed the alliance of Ben-hadad I.,
and Assyria, this little kindom maintained King of Damascus, with the treasures of the
its existence for almost four centuries, and Temple. Ben-hadad at once invaded Israel,
was governed during all that period by and the Israelitish army was withdrawn
monarchs of but one dj-nasty, the House of from Judah to meet this invasion. Asa was
David. engaged in constant war during the re-
The reign of Rehoboam, the King of
first mainder of his reign, and died in B. C. 916.
Israel, lasted eighteen years, and was one A.sa's son and successor, Jehoshaphat,
of disaster. In B. C. 970, Shishak, King passed much of his reign in crushing out
of Egypt Sheshonk in Egj-ptian his-
(called idolatry, and in fortifying the cities of his
tory), invaded Judah in support of the ten kingdom, and likewise those captured by
revolted tribes, captured Jerusalem and his father in Mount Ephraim. Jeho.shaphat
plundered the Temple and the palace of their reigned twenty-five years. He reduced the
treasures, and, after reducing Judah to trib- Moabites and the Philistines to the condition
ute, retired from the country. Rehoboam of tributaries. He contracted an alliance
was constantly at war with the Kingdom of with Ahab, King of Israel, by the marriage
I-srael, and during his reign a considerable of his eldest son Jehoram with Athaliah, the
portion of the people lapsed into idolatry. daughter of Ahab and Jezebel, a union pro-
Abijah, the son of Rehoboam, became ducftive of very much
trouble for Judah.
King of Judah upon his father's death, B. He aided Ahab in his wars with the Syrians
C. 958. He prosecuted the war with Israel of Damascus, and was with that king at
with great vigor, defeated Jeroboam at Ze- Ramoth-Gilead, where Ahab was defeated
maraim, in Mount Ephraim, and captured and killed in battle. This defeat of the
Bethel, Jeshanah and Ephraim, which closed forces of Judah and Israel encouraged the
the struggle for ten years. Asa, who suc- Moabites, the Anunonites and the Edomites
ceeded to the throne upon his father Abi- to invade Judah in great force. It is said
jah's death, in B. C. 955, was a devout that the invaders were miraculously defeated
follower of Jehovah. He sternly put down by Jehovah, in response to the prayer of Je-
idolatry, and replaced the treasures of the hoshaphat. This vidlorj- of Judah terrified
Temple carried away hy Shishak with rich all the neighboring nations and secured
offerings of gold and silver. He strength- peace for the remainder of Jehoshaphat's
ened the fortifications of his cities and in- reign. Jehoshaphat, in alliance with Aha-
creased his army. About B. C. 941 Judah ziah. King of Israel, Ahab's successor, en-
THE KINGDOM OF JUDAH.
deavored to renew the niaritinie enterprises years of his reign, during whicli period Je-
of Solomon h\ way of the Red Sea, but his hoiada was his chief coun.selor, Joash admin-
was wrecked at Eziou-geber, it is said,
fleet istered the government with success, and
inpunishment for his alHance with Ahaziah, the kingdom was prosperous. Idolatry- was
whereupon Jehoshaphat rehnquished the stamped out and mercilessly punished. Jo-
enterprise. ash repaired the Temple, ami put an end
Jehoshaphat died B. C. 8S9, and his son to the peculations of the Levites who had
Jehokam, whom he had associated with him .squandered the sacred funds. After the
in the government for three years, became death of Jehoiada, Joash plunged into idol-
his successor. Jehoram's reign was short atry-. Hazael, King of Damascus, attacked
and disastrous. He was utterly corrupted Judah and compelled Joash to purcha,se
by his marriage wtth Athaliah, the daughter peace by surrendering all the treasures of
of Ahab, and he introduced the worship of the Temple and the palace, including the
Ashtoreth, with all its immoral rites, into sacred vessels.
Judah. To avoid a disputed succession he In B. C. 839 Joash was murdered by two
murdered all his brothers, but we are told of his servants and was succeeded by his
that Jehovah punished his wickedness, in- son Am.azi.\h, who at once executed his
fli<5ting dire calamities upon his kingdom. father's assassins. Amaziah attempted to
Edom successfulh- revolted and recovered its reconquer Edom, which had revolted from
independence under its own kings, and, Jehoram. He defeated the Edomites and
though afterwards defeated in battle by took their capital Petra, where he massacred
Judah, it never again became tributar\- to ten thousand Edomites, but he failed to
it. The Philistines and the Arabs, who had subdue Edom. He made war on Jehoash,
been tributary- to Jeshoshaphat, invaded King of Israel, but was defeated and taken
Judah and captured and pillaged Jerusalem, pri.soner at Beth-shemesh. The King of
and carried away all the king's wives ex- Israel led his captive in triumph to Jerusa-
cept Athaliah, and all his children except lem, where he plundered the Temple and
Ahaziah, the youngest son. the palace, and broke down the north wall
Ah.a.zi.\ii came to the throne upon his of the city. After taking hostages for the
father's death in B. C. 885. He entered future peaceable conduct of Judah, Jehoash
into an alliance with his uncle, Jehoram, returned to Samaria. Amaziah grew so
King of Israel, the brother of his mother, tyraunical and corrupt in his last years that
Athaliah. He was with his uncle in the his subjedls hated him, and he was finally
battle of Ramoth-Gilead, where Jehoram assassinated at Lachish, B. C. 809.
was wounded, and was slain shortly after- Amaziah' s successor was his son Uzzi.\H,
ward by Jehu in the revolt which made that who was a great and warlike monarch. At
warrior King of Israel, B. C. 884. His the beginning of his reign he recovered and
mother, Athaliah, became his successor rebuilt the ancient port of Elath, at the
and slew all the ro}-al family of Judah. ex- head of the ea.steru arm of the Red Sea.
cept Joash, a newly -bom infant, the youngest He reigned si.Kty-two years, during which
son of Ahaziah, and made herself queen. his kingdom enjoyed great prosperity. He
Joash was hidden in the Temple by his aunt, subdued the greater part of Philistia, and
the wife of the High Priest, Jehoiada. received tribute from Amnion. His arro-
Athaliah reigned six years, during which gance in assuming sacerdotal functions, we
Joash remained concealed in the Temple. are told, was punished, as he was attacked
At length Jehoiada headed a rebellion, and with lepro.sy while offering incense in the
was supported by the army and the people. Temple. This obliged him to remain se-
Joash was proclaimed king and Athaliah cluded, and for the remaining six or .seven
was put to death, B. C. 878. Jehoiada be- years of his reign his son and successor,
came regent. For the first twenty-three Jotham, conducted the government.
378 ANCIENT HISrORY.— rHE HEBREWS.
JoTHAM became sole sovereign upon his hovah was unable to protecfl him against the
father's death in B. C. 757. He was a pious vengeance of Assyria. Hezekiah went to
and prosperoiis monarch, but during his the Temple, where he turned in prayer to
reign the people of Judah grew more and Jehovah and "spread Sennacherib's letter
more corrupt. Jotham fortified Jerusalem, before the Lord. " It is said that the de-
and compelled the Ammonites to pay trib- strudlion of"one hundred fourscore and
ute. In the latter part of his reign Pekah, five thousand" of Sennacherib's army at
King of Israel, and Rezin, King of Damas- Pelusium, while camping opposite the
cus, began the war with Judah which was Egyptian army, was the miraculous an-
eventually so disastrous to them. swer which Jehovah gave to Hezekiah's
At his death, in B. C. 742, Jotham was prayer. Sennacherib hastily returned to
succeeded by his son, Ahaz, who reestab- Assyria, dismayed and disheartened. The
lished the worship of Baal and corrupted prophet Isaiah is represented as announcing
the people. The war began against Judah the purposes of Jehovah in advance and as
by the Kings of Israel and Damascus during foretelling the fate of Sennacherib's army.
the reign of Jotham was prosecuted with Hezekiah, at his death in B. C. 697, was
vigor; and Ahaz prevailed upon Tiglath- succeeded by his son Manasseh, who
Pileser II. to come to his aid, purchasing reigned fifty-five years, and was one of the
his powerful help by becoming his tributary. most wicked of all the Kings of Judah.
The Assyrians invaded Syria, took Damas- He restored everj^ sj'stem of idolatry that
cus, and put an end to the Syrian kingdom. had ever been pracfticed in Judah or Israel,
Israel was also severely chastised and forced and these abominable rites became so firmly
tomake peace. rooted in the nation that the Temple was
Ahaz died in B. C. 726, and his son Hez- closed and the laws of Moses were almost
EKiAH became his Hezekiah was
succes.sor. forgotten by the people, while the worship-
one of the best kings of Judah, and began ers of Jehovah were actually persecuted in
his reign by restoring the pure worship of the Holy City itself. The prophets de-
Jehovah and destroying all the idols. He nounced this apostasy in the severest terms,
was a wise and virtuous ruler, and "did and were cruelly persecuted by the idola-
that which was right in the sight of Jeho- trous monarch. Isaiah is believed to have
vah." He defeated the Philistines, and been among the first victims put to death by
boldly attempted to cast off the Assyrian Manasseh.
yoke. Thereupon Sennacherib, King of About B. C. 577 Esar-haddon, King of
Assyria, attacked him and forced him to re- Assj'ria, suspecting Manasseh of a design to
main a tributary of Assj^ria; but he soon rebel against him, deposed him and carried
again revolted against Sennacherib and en- him captive to Babylon. We are told that
tered into an alliance with Egypt, then at Manasseh was brought to repentance by the
war with Assyria. hardships of his captivity, and that Jehovah
In B. C. 699 Sennacherib again invaded was pleased to hear his prayers. Esar-
Judah, with the design of crushing the lit- haddon generously pardoned him and re-
tlekingdom before invading Egj'pt, which stored him to his throne as a vassal mon-
he resolved to chastise severely for assist- arch. Thereafter Manasseh had a long and
ing his rebellious vassal. He marched prosperous reign, and exerted himself to his
along the coast to the southern extremity utmost to suppress idolatr}- and to restore the
of the Philistine plain, the cities of the low religion of Jehovah. He likewise strength-
country falling into his possession, and, ened the defenses of Jerusalem. About this
having captured Lachish, he besieged Lib- time the colonization of the territory of the
nah. In the meantime he sent a message Kingdom of Israel by direction of the As-
to Hezekiah demanding his unconditional syrian monarch took place.
submission, blasphemouslj' asserting that Je- Amon, the son of Manasseh, succeeded
THE KINCDOM OF Jl 'DA IF. 379
to the throne of Judah upon his father's ing of the Messiah. In B. C. 602 Jehoiakim
death in B. C. 642. Anion sought to re- revolted against the Babylonian supremacy
store idolatry, but was assassinated after a and endeavored to recover his absolute inde-
short reign of two years, and was succeeded pendence. The projjhet Jeremiah uttered
by his son, Jcisiaii, a boy of eight years, his first predictions during the reign of Jo-
B. C. 640. Josiah at once set about up- siah, and continued his prophecies during
rooting idolatr\- and restoring the worship the reigns of his sons, Jehoahaz and Jehoia-
of Jehovah. He reigned thirty-one years, kim.
and was one of the best of the Kings of Jehoiakim opened his rebellion against
Judah. In his reign the Assyrian Empire Babylon inider favorable auspices. He
fell. In B. C. 608 Neko, King of Egj-pt, was promi.sed the aid of Egypt; and Phoe-
declared war against Babylon, invaded Pal- nicia, under the leadership of Tyre, had
estine, conquered the Philistine cities, and also risen in revolt against the power of
advanced along the Mediterranean coast of Babylon. In B. C. 598 Nebuchadnezzar,
Palestine to Carmel, thence crossing the who had been King of Babylon for six
great plain of Esdraelon and marching to- years, took the field against both Phoenicia
ward the Euphrates. Josiah assembled his and Judah, determined to reduce the.se re-
anny, and, in accordance with his dut}- to bellious provinces to submission. Eirst
his suzerain, the King of Babylon, prepared entering Phoenicia, he laid siege to Tyre,
to resi.st the advance of the Egyptian mon- but finding it too strong to be reduced speed-
arch. Neko warned him to desist, as his ily, he left a part of his army to continue
expedition was simply directed against Ba- the siege, while he himself led the remain-
bylon; but the Jewish king persisted in his der against Judah and moved upon Jerusa-
opposition, and was defeated and .slain in lem, which submitted upon his approach.
the battle of Megiddo, nearly on the verj- Jehoiakim was put to death, and his body
spot where Deborah and Barak had won was treated with indignity, contrarj- to gen-
their great vicflorj- over the Caananites about eral Oriental usage, thus fulfilling Jere-
six centuries before. miah's prophecy concerning this monarch.
Jehoahaz, the second .son of Josiah, suc- JEHOIACHIN, the son of Jehoiakim, a
ceeded to the throne of Judah, B. C. 608. mere youth, was placed upon the throne of
Jehoahaz had been made king by the people, Judah b}' Nebuchadnezzar, who allowed
but reigned only three months, when he was him to reign only three months, when, dis-
dethroned by Neko, who bestowed the trusting him, he carried him to Babylon,
crown on Jehoi.\kiii, the eldest son of and placed his uncle, Zedekiah, the brother
Josiah, B. C. 608. Jehoiakim reigned four of Jehoiakim and the son of Josiah, upon
years as a tributarj- of the King of Egypt, the throne. Zedekiah remained loyal to the
when Judah was forced to submit to the su- Babylonian monarch for eight years, and
premacy of Bab\lon, consequence of the
in then entered into an alliance with Uaphris,
great vidtory of Babylonian crown-
the King of Egj^pt, who agreed to aid him with
prince Nebuchadnezzar over the Egyptian a powerful arm>' in his effort to throw off
king at Carchemish, B. C. 604. Many He- the Babylonian j-oke; and Zedekiah at once
brew youths, the prophet Daniel being rai.sed the standard of rebellion, B. C. 589.
among them, were carried captive to Baby- The siege of Tyre was still in progress,
lon by the conquering Nebuchadnezzar, and and Nebuchadnezzar led a large armj''
were there educated "in all the learning of against Jerusalem, defeating the Eg>'ptian
the Chaldaeans." Daniel arrived at high king in his effort to relieve his ally, the
honors under Nebuchadnezzar,and was made King of Judah. and took Jerusalem by storm.
chief of the order of "wise men;" and it Zedekiah and the remnant of his army fled,
was at Bab}-lon that he delivered his pro- and were overtaken in the plain of Jericho.
phetic visions, and that he foretold the com- Zedekiah was made a pri.soner and his troops
;oo ANCIENT HISrORY.— THE HEBREWS.
were cut to pieces. Nebuchadnezzar stained the House of David. This work of destruc-
his triumph by the most shocking atrocities, tion was bewailed by the prophet Jeremiah
causing Zedekiah's sous to be slain before in his Lamentations.
the eyes of" their father, and the eyes of Judsea was placed under a Babylonian
the unfortunate monarch himself to be put governor, who was murdered soon afterward.
out, after which he was carried captive to His found refuge in Egypt, taking
as.sa.ssins
Babylon; while the city of Jerusalem and with them the prophet Jeremiah, who had
the Temple were then pillaged and burned, sought to dissuade them from their danger-
and the population, except a small renmaut, ous course. The Jews afterwards became
were carried into the seventy years'
'
Baby-
' involved in the fate of Egypt, and the rem-
lonian Captivity," being transported as col- nant left in Judsea were carried into captivitj'
onists to Chaldaea, B. C. 586. Thus ended in Babylon about the same time, thus ahno.st
the Kingdom of Judah and the dynasty of entirely depopulating the coinitry.
BABYLONIAN CAPTIl'/rV AND RETURN. 381
HEBREW KINGS.
BEGAN TO REIGN. KINGS OF THE UNITED MONARCHY.
B. C. 1095 — Reigned 40 years.

Saui,
" 1055 David— Reigned 40 years.
" 1015 Solomon — Reigned 40 years.
KINGS OF JUDAH. KINGS OF ISRAEL.
975 Rehoboam Jeroboam.

958 Abijah.
956 Asa.
954 Nad.\b.
953 Baasha.
930 Elah.
929 ZiMRI.
" I
Omri.
918 ;
AH.\B.
I
916 I JEHOSHAPHAT. !
S97 ]
[
Ahaziah.
S96 Jehoram.
892 !
Jehoram.
S85 Ah.\ziah.
884 Athaliah Jehu.
878 JOASH.
856 Jehoahaz.
839 JO.^SH.
838 Amaziah.
S23 jEROBO.\M II.
809 Azariah, or t'zziAH.
772 Zachariah.
Sh.\i.lum.
Menahem.
762 Pekahiah.
760 Pekah.
757 JOTHAM.
742 Ahaz.
730 Hoshea.
726 Hezekiah.
721 Assyrian Capti\-ity.
697 M.\NASSEH.
642 Amon.
640 JOSIAH.
609 JEH0.\H.\Z.
jEHOI.\KIM.
598 jehoiachin.
597 Zedekiah.
586 Babylonian Captivity.
SECTION VII.— BABYLONIAN CAPTIVITY AND RETURN.

NEBUCHADNEZZAR colonized them for their disobedience and transgres-
in Chaldaea the Jews whom he sions, and that he would restore them to
removed from their own homes. their own laud after they had suffered the
They were comforted in their chastisement He was then iiiflicling upon
captivity by the promises said them.
to have been made by Jehovah, "through During the Babylonian captivity of the
the mouths of his hoh' prophets," that he Jews the Babylonian limpire was over-
did not intend to extenninate His "chosen thrown by Cyrus the Great, and the Baby-
people" as a nation, but simply to chasten lonian dominions were absorbed in the great
]— 24.-U. H.
Medo-Persian Empire. When Cjtus cap- spite of the jealousy and hostility of the Sa-
tured Babylon in B. C. s^S he there found the maritans and other neighboring nations.
Jews "an oppressed race, in whose religion Xerxes the Great, the successor of Darius
he found a considerable resemblance to his Hystaspes on the throne of Persia, notwith-
own." He became ardently interested in standing that he was favorably disposed to-
these people, and learning that many of them wards the Jews, almost caused their exter-
strongly desired to return to their own land, mination by weakly giving his consent to a
he issued an edidt pennitting them to do so. plot with that design formed by his prime-
In pursuance of this edicfl, a Jewish colony minister, Haman. This plot was detected
of 42,360 persons, besides their servânts, re- by Mordecai, a Jew and the uncle of Esther,
turned to Jerusalem from Babylonia in B. C. the favorite wife of Xerxes. Through the
535. The}^ proceeded diredlly to Jerusalem efforts of Mordecai and Esther, King Xerxes
under the leadership of Zerubbabel, a de- was prevailed upon to put the Jews on their
scendant of the legitimate ro}-al race; and guard and to pennit them to defend them-
most of them at first settled on the site and selves against their enemies. Consequently
in the immediate vicinity of the Holy City. the plot resulted in the death of Haman,
The far greater portion of the Jewish nation who was hanged from the same scaffold
yet remained in Chaldaea. which he had designed for others, and the
The restored Jews under Zerubbabel at Jews successfuUj' defended themselves in
once devoted their efforts to rebuilding the every portion of the empire. Taking ad-
Holy City and the Temple and restoring the vantage of the king's permission, they
worship of Jehovah and the Mosaic laws. caused their most prominent antagonists to
They began the work in the j'ear of their be put to death. This event, which occurred
return, but were stopped by the interference about B. C. 473, is still commemorated in
of the Samaritans, who were a mixed race the Feast of Purim.
occupying the old territory' of Ephraim and Ezra, a Jewish priest, who enjoj-ed the
Manasseh and descended from foreign col- favor of the King of Persia, led a second
onists settled in that country by Esar-had- colony of his countrymen from Babylon to
don. King of Assyria. The Samaritans, Jerusalem in B. C. 458. As soon as he ar-
when the Jews had returned, offered to rived he stopped the custom of inter-
unite with them in rebuilding the Temple, marriages between his countrymen and the
desiring to make it a common sancftuary for neighboring nations, which had already' as-
both races. They claimed to be descendants sumed proportions so formidable as to
of the ancient tribes of Israel, but the Jews threaten the extincftion of the pure Jewish
repudiated their claim and
'
' would have no race. Ezra made other essential reforms in

dealings with the Samaritans." In con- church and state, and had the books of
sequence of this refusal to allow them a the Old Testament definitely and authori-
share in the work of rebuilding the Temple, tatively arranged.
the Samaritans became the bitter enemies of Nehemiah, a Jewish favorite of the Per-
the Jews, and endeavored by every possible sian king Artaxerxes Longimanus, the suc-
means to thwart their work. They successor of Xerxes, who had been the king's
ceeded in delaying the rebuilding of the Tem- cupbearer, arrived at Jerusalem, having
ple and the city for a time in B. C. 522, but been given permission to restore the walls
it was resumed by order of the great Per- and fortifications of the Holy City. In
sian king, Darius Hj-staspes, in B. C. 519, spite of the king's orders, the surrounding
and the Temple was finished and dedicated nations tried to stop the work, but the vigi-
in B. C. 515. lance of Nehemiah caused his countrj-men
Through the favor shown them by Darius to perfonn their labors under arms, and thus
Hystaspes, the Jews were enabled to firmly thwarted the plans of their enemies. The
establish themselves in their old homes, in Jewish people were divided between the
llAliYLONIAN CAPTIi-lTY AKD RETURN. 383
Holy Citj- and the royal districts, after the Moses was the earliest sacred historian,
walls and fortifications of Jerusalem were as well as the lawgiver and founder of the
restored. The laws of Moses were now re- Hebrew state. David's Psalms are among
established in Judtca. Nehemiah, as High the mo.st soul-stirring productions of lyric
Priest of his people, was appointed gover- poetry, and vSolomon's Proverbs are among
nor of Judtea, which had followed the the wisest maxims of antiquity. The most
fortunes of the other Babylonian domin- noted of the Hebrew prophets were Elijah,
ions in becoming a province of the vast Elisha, Jonah, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Daniel and
Medo-Persian Empire and thenceforth
;
Ezekiel. Isaiah, in his .sublime strains of
Judaea was usually governed by the High coming of the Mes-

lyric poetry, foretold the
Priest. Judaea was afterwards joined to the siah.Jeremiah denounced divine judgments
Persian satrapy of Syria. The Persian on his people for their apostasy from Jeho-
monarchs allowed the Jews to manage their vah, and in his Lamentations vented his
domestic affairs in their own way, so long as sorrow for their downfall. Daniel and Eze-
they paid their tribute regularly. kiel, during their captivity in Babylon, de-
The Babylonian Captivity thoroughly livered their prophetic visions, and Daniel
cured the Jews as a nation of their fondness arrived at high honors under the Babylonian
and they were therefore careful
for idolatn,-, kings. He predicted the time of the advent
thenceforth to shun idolatry and to avoid all of the Messiah with such precision that a
intercourse with idolatrous nations. They general expedtation of his appearance pre-
ever afterwaid remained steadfast in the vailed among the Jews at the time of Christ's
worship of Jehovah and faithfully observed coming.
the laws of Moses. Among the sacred places or structures be-
From the time of the return of the Jews fore the Captivity were the Tabernacle, with
from the Babylonian Captivity, the ancient its altar and brazen laver, its golden candle-
territorj^ of Judah was called and its
//<a'«'«, stick, table of show-bread, and Ark of the
inhabitants were namedyi?7t'5. The Jews in Covenant; and Jerusalem, the Holy City, with
Babjlonia returned bj- degrees to Palestine, its Mount Moriah and Temple, and the
but manj' remained in Babj-lonia and kept sancfluary of that Temple. The Taberna-
up a constant intercourse with their brethren cle was the place where public worship was
in Judaea to the latest period. conducfted from the time of Moses to the
Here the Old Testament history- of the time of Solomon; and consisted of three
Jews ends, and we will give the remaining parts — the area, or court, a space of about
portions of Jewish history as it is connected one hundred feet long and sevent5'-five feet
with the history^ of other nations. wide; the Tabernacle proper located in the
The Hebrew race contributed little to an- middle of the western side of the court, be-
cient civilization in the way of science, art ing an oblong square of about forty-five feet
or politics. Such was not the mission of long and fifteen feet broad, covered on every
the Israelites. The world has received no part, and also walled up with boards and ;
impulse from their national achievements or the entrance, which was closed by means of
history in this respe(fl. But their religious a curtain made of cotton.
institutions, spiritual ideas and moral teach- Among the sacred seasons of the Hebrews
ings have exerted a mightj' influence on were the Sabbath, the sabbatical year, the
modem civilization. The sacred writings year of Jubilee, and the gêat festivals of the
of the Jews, and the sublime works of the Passover, Pentecost and the Tabernacles. The
Hebrew bards and sages, reverenced b)- us Passover was the Feast of Unleavened
as the body of Old Testament literature, Bread. The Pentecost, the fiftieth from the
have become the permanent possession of second da>' of the Passover, is also called
all mankind, and their influence pervades the Feast of the Weeks, because it followed
the most civilized nations of the globe. a succession of weeks. It was a festival of
—

thanks for the hanêst. The Feast of the laws respecfting circumcision, cleanliness,
Tabernacles, celebrated from the fifteenth tithes, usurj', .slaver>', property, marriage,
to the twenty-third of the seventh mouth, theft, war, and the like, were adapted to the
was commemorate the Wanderings in the
to peculiar circumstances of the Hebrew nation.
Wilderness, and was also in honor of the These laws were rigidly enforced.
vintage and the gathering of the fruits. It Polygamy was prevalent among the He-
was a season of joy and gladness. brews from the Mosaic times. Moses en-
The Israelites considered themselves as deavored to check this institution by narra-
sacred and holj' —as the special guardians of ting the original institution of marriage,
the only true religion; but the tribe of Levi, and showing the evils resulting from a plu-
and particularly the priests of that tribe, rality of wives —evils
which are very great
called Levites, were more especially viewed in all Asiatic countries. There were like-
in that light. Aaron and his posterity, who wise some special regulations restraining
were from this tribe, were consecrated to the polygamy, and the e\-il considerably dimin-
priesthood, who were given a close access to ished in the progress of time.
the throne of Jehovah, in the Holy Place. Agriculture, and likewise the keeping of
The other Levites performed the inferior re- flocks and herds, prevailed in the primitive
ligious duties, but were allowed sen-ants for ages, and the Mosaic laws speciallj' favored
the more menial oiSces. The High Priest the tillage of the This art was held in
soil.
sustained the most exalted office of the tribe. high esteem among the Hebrews. The
Among sacred things we may name sacri- naturally-fertile soil of Palestine was made
fices, of which there were many kinds and more fertile bj' the care taken to improve it.
for different purposes purification , the: first- Such grains as wheat, millet, spelt, barley,
born, ths. first fruits, tithes, oaths and vows. beans, lentils, meadow-cumin, etc., were
Concerning these there were many particular cultivated; while flax, cotton, melons, cu-
regulations. One peculiar rite was the cumbers and rice were likewise raised. The
sending forth of the scape-goat into the beasts of burden used in agriculture were
wilderness, in atonement for national sins. bulls, cows and asses. The vine was ex-
After the lustration of the Holy Place, the tensiveh' cultivated.
Tabernacle and the altar, the High Priest Agriculture was the chief pursuit of the
was diredted to procure a live goat, lay both Hebrews. Every" .seventh year the lands
hands upon his head, confess over him all were left untilled, and whatever grew of it-
the iniquities, transgressions and sins of the self was to be given to the destitute. The
nation, putting the blame for them on the houses were mostly poor and low, and were
goat, and then letting him go free in the built of sun-dried mud or unhewn stones
desert. until the time of the kings, when more at-
The Hebrews were taught that Jehovah tention was devoted to archite(5ture. The
is —
the Only God the Creator and Ruler of street-doors were adorned with inscriptions
the entire universe, to whom all men owe from the Laws of Moses. The windows had
gratitude and obedience. The^- were only no glass, but were latticed. The roofs were
admonished to abstain from such kinds of flat, and the people often resorted to them
food as were regarded unclean, to keep them- for cool air, and e\-en slept there in summer
selves free from moral pollution, and to be time. Domestic implements were rare and
pure as God is pure. They were taught to of simple construcftion. Grain was ground
be kind to the poor, to the widow and the in hand-mills by the women. Olive-oil was
orphan. They were forbidden to utter false- used in lamps to give light. The to\\'ns
hoods and to spread scandal. They were presented a mean appearance, because of the
not allowed to curse such magistrates as want of public buildings. The Hebrew
they disliked. Thus the Laws of Moses books, like those of other ancient nations.
generally had a good moral tendency. The were in the form of rolls.
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COMPLETE IN EIGHT (VOLUMES

REVIEWED, VERIFIED AND ENDORSED BY THE PROFESSORS OF

MOSES COIT TYLER, A.M., L.H.D.

•NOT TO KNOW WHAT HAPPENED BEFORE WE WERE BORN IS

Volujue I. — Ancient Orie7ital Nations

By ISRAEL SMITH CLARE,

Entered according to Act of Congress in the year 1893,

By ISRAEL SMITH CLARE,

Entered according to Act of Congress in the year 1896,

Entered according to Act of Congress in the year 1897,

THE EDUCATIONAL VALUE

JN" order to do justice to the claims of historical study, it can never be

All real knowledge is good, being in one way or another a source of

facts about the past, —

operation of spiritual forces, to with the inscrutable mysteries of personal

definitene-ss and certainty of many of your conclusions.

with the very problems which

methods which come up between man and

attain, it is by no means easy of attaiimient even with regard to dead controversies ;

its incomparable u.se in enlarging one's mental horizon.

enjoyed and suffered by .since he

came into it, leaves a man

Perhaps the most impressive consideration touching the benefit to be derived

Uio^-^ (jtrU- c^^^

Part I.— Ancient History—Vol. I.

CHAPTER I.— ANCIENT EGYPT.

SECTION II. SECTION IV.

XII TABLE OF CONTENTS.

CHAPTER II.— CHALDEAN EMPIRE.

Cradle of Asiatic History and Civilization.

Inscriptions. —The Canon of Ptolemy. — Assyrian

TABLE OF CONTENTS. XIll

CHAPTER III.—THE ASSYRIAN EMPIRE.

SECTION ian Invasion on Assyria. —

CHAPTER IV.— THE MEDIAN EMPIRE.

CHAPTER v.— THE BABYLONIAN EMPIRE.

CHAPTER VI.— KINGDOMS OF ASIA MINOR.

CHAPTER VII.— PHCENICIA AND SYRIA.

XVI TABLE OF CONTENTS.

Paintings. — Of Isaiah. rapolis. — Emessa. — Tadmor, or Palmyra. — Baalbec,

CHAPTER VIII.— THE HEBREW NATION.

TABU-: OF CONTENTS. XVII

Reign of Jeroboam. — Coinplele Separation of the Sennacherib, King of Assyria. —

World according to Strabo 21 Earliest Historic Regions . 104

150 170 lao

control of natural law as is bodily growth. and ends with the

Medeak Nohle. Assyrian Hi(;h Pkikst Assyrian King.

THE EARLIEST HISTORICAL T1ME&

BRANCHES OF THE CAUCASIAN, THE ONLY HISTORICAL RACE

MEDIA, ASSYRIA. PERSIA.

' to the First Cataracl, does not exceed fifteen

SECTION II.— SOURCES OF EGYPTIAN HISTORY,

S()('A'C7-:S OF EGYPTJAX Jf/SICN): 43

44 ANCIENT HISTORY.— EGYPT.

SECTION III.— POLITICAL HISTORY.

Persian conquest of Egypt in 525 B. C. ,

THIC GREAT PYRAMID.

OBELISK OF USURTASEN I. .^T HELIOPOLIS.

POLITIC. If. ins TOR )

fitted together. however, place that event a little later.

50 ANCIEiYT HISTORY.—EC, TT. ]

.AN KGVPTI.\X KING DKSTROVING HIS ENlvMIKS.

obelisks at Karnak. said to have brought to Egypt the bodies of