Functionalism

Module 4 - 4
History & Systems
Online
 Definition
 “…the psychological orientation that
stresses
the function or utility of the behavior
and consciousness
of organisms
in their adaptation
to the
environment.”
 Reasons for the Rise of
Functionalism in the U.S.
(early 1900’s)
 Dissatisfaction with limitations of Structuralism
 Moral, Social, Educational Climate
 Idealism
 Feelings of Moral and Economic Superiority
 Growth of American Universities
 Desire for development of an “American Psychology”
 Philosophy of Pragmatism
 Emphasis on practicality and the “how” of experience
and behavior
 Description of
Functionalism
 More of a general orientation than a “school”
 Origins:
 Galton’s work
 Mental inheritance, individual differences, mental tests
 Statistical analysis
 Darwin’s (more important) work
 Evolutionary theory
 Studies on animal behavior
 Titchener “named it,” in order to differentiate it from
his theory of structuralism
Galton & Darwin
Francis Galton (1822 –
1911)
 Galton’s Mental
Inheritance
 The occurrence of “greatness” in families
 Cannot be explained by environment.
 Genius is hereditary…
 Goal: “Eugenics”
 Encourage the birth of the more eminent/fit
 Discourage the birth of the unfit
 His goal led to work in measurement and
statistics…to help identify the “fit” individuals
 Originated “Mental Tests”
 Galton: Summary
 An “extremely gifted person” whose
interests surpassed a single discipline; but
not really a psychologist, anthropologist, or
even eugenicist.
 Conducted original research which became
topics of interest to psychologists:
 Adaptation, heredity vs. environment,
comparison of species, child development,
questionnaire method, statistical techniques,
mental tests and individual differences.
 Had a greater impact on American
Psychology than did Wilhelm Wundt.
(Schultz & Schultz, 1996, p. 141)
Charles Darwin (1809 –
1882)
 On the Origin of Species by
Means of Natural Selection
(1859)
 Impacted society as a whole, & Am. Psychology
 Living things change with time (old idea)
 But a new impact because of the Zeitgeist of Change and an
idea of how it occurred: Natural Selection
 Scientific discoveries about other species occurring
 Explorers finding previously unknown forms of life
 Fossil finds…animals that once roamed the earth and then
disappeared
 Societal change due to the Industrial Revolution
 Growing domination of Modern science over religious ideas
 Darwin’s Hesitations
 Why did Darwin hesitate to publish
his findings?

 (Readings: A History of Psychology in

Letters)
Letters
 Effects (continued)
 Psychology now applied to emotions,
personality, social behaviors, individual
differences, mental tests,
psychopathology, animal behaviors, etc.
 New Emphases:
 Operations rather than elements
 Experimentation is still important, but…
 A shift from reliance on introspective data to
emphasis on behavioral data
Herbert Spencer (1820-
1903)
 “Synthetic Psychology”
 Arguments:
 Development of all aspects of the universe is
evolutionary
 Universal principles:
 Survival of the fittest
 Struggle for existence

 Spencer’s views influenced every field of

learning, including Psychology
 “Social Darwinism”
 Spencer applied the theory of evolution to
human nature and society
 Well received by Americans
 Human perfection is inevitable, if nothing
interferes with the natural order
 Promoted individualism; laissez-faire
economics
 Individuals and institutions that fail to adapt
should be allowed to perish
 “Synthetic Philosophy”
 Application of evolutionary principles to all
human knowledge and experience
 1855: The Principles of Psychology
 Used by William James at early Harvard Psych
classes
 Mind exists in the present form due to past and
continuing efforts to adapt to environments
 Increasing complexity of experiences/behavior
is normal evolution
William James (1842-
1910)

“Anticipator” of
“Anticipator” of Functional
Psychology
 Not actually the “founder”
 Did influence the functional
movement
 A pioneer of new scientific
psychology in the U.S.
 A Negative Force?
 Seen by some as a negative force for
scientific psychology
 Believed in mentalistic and psychic
phenomena
 Not an experimentalist in attitude
 Called Psychology:
 “That nasty little science” and
 “The elaboration of the obvious”
 Life and Career
 Multiple interests…wanted to become an artist
 Older brother of Henry James, the novelist
 Studied chemistry, medicine, biology…abandoned
 1872 – taught physiology at Harvard (enamored of
Wundt & Helmholz)
 “Time for psychology to be a science”
 Pragmatist: If knowledge is useful, it is valid
 Life and Career (2)
 1875-1876 Taught his first course in
psychology at Harvard, the first time
experimental psychology was taught
in the US.

 1889 – Professor of psychology

(formerly professor of philosophy)
 Principles of Psychology
(1890)
 – “most important landmark in the development of
functionalism in the United States.”
 Most influential psychology textbook ever
 A 12 year effort; Wrote with a rare clarity
 But afterward, James thought he had nothing more to say
about psychology
 Turned to religion and then to spiritualism
 Varieties of Religious Experience (1902)
 Principles -- Some
Content
 Available:
http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/James/Principles/in
 Psychology—a biological science
 Goal: Study how humans adapt to their
environments
 Human consciousness must have had some
function in order to survive
 Principles -- Some
Content
 Emphasizes the nonrational aspect of human nature
 Intellect operates under physiological influences of the body
 Beliefs are determined by emotional factors
 E.g. James-Lange Theory of Emotion: Emotions are the
result of physiological (autonomic) reactions, not the cause
 Reason and concept formation are affected by human wants
and needs
 Principles -- Some
Content
 Consciousness: produced by biology and
affected by brain
 Mental life is a unity
 Consciousness is..
 A continuous flow: “stream of consciousness”
 Always changing
 Cumulative
 Selective: only pays attention to relevant stimuli
 Purposive: has biological utility; allows for choices
that aid in adaptation
 James’ Views and
Contributions
 Example:
 Views on Temperament (2 types)

 Tough minded (empiricist, sensationalistic,

materialistic, fatalistic, etc.

 Tender minded (rationalistic,

intellectualistic, idealistic, free-willist, etc.)
 James’ Influence
 James was soon joined by others:
 G. Stanley Hall (Harvard, then Clark
University)
 James K. Cattell and Edward Thorndike
(Columbia University)
 John Dewey and James Angell (U. of
Chicago—considered the locale for the
“formal founding of functional psychology”
G. Stanley Hall (1844-
1924)
 Early History
 Encountered James at Harvard
 James was a mentor who helped his career
 Hall began studying for the ministry…became
influenced by Darwinian ideas…left the US for
3 years of independent study of Physiology in
Germany…encountered $ problems… returned
without a degree…found a tutoring position at
Antioch College (Ohio)…where he read
Wundt…and decided to join Wundt in Leipzig
 Early History (2)
 Stopped at Harvard…offered a position as tutor in
English…where he met James (who was 2 years older)…
James persuaded him to do experimental research on
muscular cues and space perception…and Hall eventually
earned his Ph.D. ..the First American Ph.D. in
experimental psychology.
 1878… Hall did go to study with Wundt and was Wundt’s
1st American student…albeit with a graduate degree. Did
not stay long…helped with Wundt’s experiments…and
won his recommendation for possible future openings in
psychology in America.
 Early History (3)
 1880 – returned to US. No jobs available.
 Went back to Cambridge, MA (Harvard) and was
invited to deliver lectures on Education on
Saturday mornings. Crucial turning point
 1. Turned his serious attention for the 1st time to
developmental psychology in teaching
 2. Attracted the attention of president of John
Hopkins U. in Baltimore where he was invited to
become professor of psychology and pedagogy in
1884.
 Early History (4)
 Established the 1st American research
facility for psychology at Johns Hopkins
University
 1887 -- Established the American Journal of
Psychology
 1888 Was offered the presidency of Clark
University in Worcester MA… devoted
exclusively to graduate study…He
remained at Clark for the rest of his life…
 Early History (5)
 Clark had financial difficulties from
time to time…
 Hall also was very controlling in his
administrative style… great
facilities… poor faculty pay
 He continued to teach psychology
and education through the 1890’s…
and Clark produced more than half of
all American Ph.D.’s in psychology
 Contributions of G.
Stanley Hall
 Founder of 1st US psychology lab (1883) at
Johns Hopkins

 Established 1st psychology journal: American

Journal of Psychology (1887) in addition to
other journals in later years…

 Co-founder of APA – American Psychological

Association (1892) started with 31
members (by 1990 had over 60 thousand
members)
 Other Accomplishments
 Popularized use of surveys (questionnaires) as
a research tool
 Stimulated interest in a variety of applied fields
in psychology, especially child & adolescent
psychology and development
 Wrote his most popular book: Adolescence: Its
Psychology and its relationship to Physiology,
Anthropology, Sociology, Sex, Crime, Religion
and Education
 His book popularized the term “Adolescence”
 Later published another book: Senescence
 Hall’s Philosophy
 Attempted to integrate evolutionary theory with
psychology

 Proposed a “Darwinian and ‘recapitulationist’ theory

of child development: each individual’s intellectual,
emotional, and general psychological development
parallels the stages experienced by our pre human
ancestors.
 “Ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny”
 “the individual in his/her development, reenacts
phylogenetically all the steps in the evolutionary process”
 Hall’s Philosophy
 Hall’s work began a general interest in
developmental psychology
 His work, Adolescence, involved him
with many of the same emotional
(“storm and stress” ) and sexual issues
investigated by Freud.
 Hall invited Freud to speak at Clark
University’s 20th anniversary
celebration in 1909.
 Other Accomplishments
 Brought Freud and
Jung to America in
1909 for a
conference at Clark
University
 A great success
and introduced
Freud’s ideas to
the American
continent.
Freud Hall Jung
 Summary Statement
 Although Hall managed to antagonize many of his
mentors, including Freud, James and Wundt,… he
genuinely promoted their new psychologies.
 “Hall was a comet, caught for the moment by
James’ influence, but presently shooting off into
space never to return.” (E.G. Boring, 1957, p. 517)
 “Thanks to the institutions, journals and
organizations that Hall founded, the ideas of
Wundt, James, Freud and countless others found
a much larger, more receptive, and better
educated audience in America than would have
been the case otherwise” (Fancher, 1990, p. 263).
James McKeen Cattell (1860
– 1944)
 Historical Notes
 Graduate study under Wundt at Leipzig 1880
 Studied under Hall at Johns Hopkins
 Returned to Germany in 1883 to work with Wundt
to obtain his doctorate…
 Taught at Bryn Mawr and U of PA
 Taught at Cambridge in UK
 1888 Became professor of Psychology at U of PA
(Dad’s influence and economy issues)
 Contributions (1)
 Impact on American Psychology via his work as
organizer, executive and administrator of
psychological science and practice.
 Established several journals…
 Established the Psychological Corporation Publishers
 Helped found American Association of University
Professors (AAUP)
 An ambassador for psychology, and especially
promoted the practical applications of his field.
 Contributions (2)
 Trained more graduate students in psychology
than anyone else in the US during his years at
Columbia, several becoming prominent, including
Robert Woodworth and Edward Thorndike
 Studies on
 Reaction time
 Mental Testing
 Individual Differences
 Psychophysics
 The use of statistical analysis
 Cattell Summary
 Upon Cattell’s death, the historian of
psychology, E.G. Boring, wrote to
Cattell’s children:
 “In my opinion your father did more
than William James even to give
American psychology its peculiar slant,
to make it different from the German
psychology from which it stemmed.”
 The Founding of
Functionalism
 The Flight to Chicago
 The Date of Functionalism’s founding at
University of Chicago is set at 1894 when
John Dewey and James Angell came to
Chicago from U of Michigan.
 Interesting note: University of Chicago
“enticed” many of the professors and
students from Clark University (where Hall
was president)
John Dewey (1859 –
1952)
 Contributions to
Psychology
 Founder of functionalism at University of Chicago
 Major contribution to Psychology: Criticism of the
“reflex arc” concept (“The Reflex Arc Concept in
Psychology,” Psychological Review, 1896)
 Attacked the “molecularism, elementism, and
reductionism of the reflex arc”
 “Neither behavior nor conscious experience can
be reduced to parts or elements” (as Wundt and
Titchener claimed)
 Coordination is more than the sum of reflexes; a
reflex is an ordered sequence of coordinated
movements that is indivisible, and thus reflexes
must be considered in terms of their utilitarian
(functional) nature. [Cp. Gestalt thinking]
 Reductionism vs.
Functionalism
 Artificial reduction and analysis “causes behavior to
lose all meaning”…leaving “only abstractions”
 Rather, “behavior should be treated…in terms of its
significance to the organism in adapting to the
environment. …the proper study of psychology [is]
…the study of the total organism as it functions in
its environment.
 Dewey’s Significance
 “Dewey’s significance for psychology lies
in
 his influence on psychologists…and
 his development of the philosophical
framework for the new school of thought.
 Left the U. of Chicago in 1904, leaving
the leadership of functionalism
movement to James Rowland Angell
 Other Contributions
 Best known for his educational
philosophy:

 Stressed the importance of “Learning by

doing”

 Popularized the view that teaching

should be student-oriented rather than
subject-oriented
James Rowland Angell
(1869 – 1949)
 Brief History &
Contributions
 “Molded the functionalist movement into
a working school of thought
 U of Chicago psychology department the
most influential in its day… major training
ground for functional psychologists
 Studied under Dewey… Read James’
Principles of Psychology…influenced his
thinking more than any other book
 Worked with James at Harvard for a year,
Masters degree in 1892.
 History/Contributions
 Grad studies at U. of Halle (Germany)…
Wundt was not accepting any more students
at Leipzig that year…

 Never received his doctorate…but went to U

of MN, …eventually received 23 honorary
degrees.

 After 1 year at Minnesota, went to Univ. of

Chicago remained for 25 years…until
leaving to become president of Yale U.
 Psychology, 1904
 Angell published this text in 1904…
finalized the form of functionalism:

 “The goal of psychology was to study

how the mind assists this adjustment of
the organism to its environment.”
 Functionalism is…(3 Major
Themes)
 1. The psychology of mental operations (not mental
elements). Goal: To discover how a mental process
operates, what it accomplishes, and under what
conditions it occurs.
 2. The psychology of the fundamental utilities of
consciousness. “Consciousness…mediates between
needs of the organism and the demands of the
environment.”
 3. The psychology of psychophysical (mind/body)
relations--concerned with the total relationship of the
organism to its environment.
Critique of Functionalism
 Term was not clearly defined… various forms
of definition… function = activity? Or function
= usefulness? Interchangeable
 Titchener criticized it because it was not
structuralism!
 Chaney: The appeal to Function does not
really explain the mechanisms of psychology
 Why consciousness? To adapt
 Why reflexes? To adapt
 Why does any behavior exist? To adapt
 Why does thinking exist? To adapt
 Why does a person hate his mother? To
adapt….etc., etc…
 Contributions of
Functionalism
 Shift in emphasis from structure to function
 Research in animal behavior
 Broad definition actually helped spur research in
a wide diversity of fields: developmental psych,
disabilities, etc.
 Increased the number of “respectable” sources
of psychological data in addition to
introspection: physiological research, mental
tests, questionnaires and objective descriptions
of behavior
 Functionalism’s Legacy
to American Psychology
 Stimulated the use of experimental research in a
variety of fields, such as animal learning, mental
testing, educational psychology, psychopathology
 Gave America its own orientation in psychology
(which persists to the present day)
 Emphasis on applied psychology
 Use of a variety of methods to assess behavior
 The bridge that facilitated the transition from
structuralism to behaviorism and gestalt
psychology