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FIRE PROTECTION AND SYSTEMS

Fire protection system


Definition - Fire protection system is a system that includes devices, wiring, piping,
equipment and controls to detect a fire or smoke, to actuate a signal, and to suppress the
fire or smoke.

Main objectives of fire protection system


• To save lives
• To protect property
• To minimize interruptions of services due to the outbreak of fire

Factors which influence the cost of fire protection system


• The fire resistivity of the building
• The type of occupancy
• The number of floors below the ground level
• The height of the building
• Adequacy of escape routes or way outs
• The degree of protection desired

Classes of fire

Class A - fires of ordinary combustible materials, such as wood, cloth, paper, rubber
and many plastics
Method of extinguishing - water, water based chemicals, dry chemicals, carbon dioxide
Class B - fires due to inflammable liquids, oils, greases, tars, oil-base paints, lacquers,
and flammable gases
Method of extinguishing - form, dry chemicals
Class C - fires that involve energized electrical equipments
Method of extinguishing - using electrically non-conductive chemicals, multipurpose
chemical compounds, carbon dioxide agents
Class D - fires due to combustible metals, such as magnesium, titanium, zirconium,
sodium, lithium, and potassium
Method of extinguishing - using heat-absorbing extinguishing medium: purple k,
monnex, super k

Passive fire-fighting system


It means the design of the building, its structure, fabric, components and their
installations in order to resist fire.

Factors that influence Passive fire-fighting system


• BOMBA requirements - i.e. fire department or fire fighting accessibility
• Uniform Building Bye Laws (MBBL) - part VII (fire requirements) e.g. grouping of
buildings, compartmentalization within the building, fire resistance, planning of
escape routes.
• Local authority requirements - e.g. City Hall, Kajang Municipal Council, Shah Alam
City Council, Subang Jaya Municipal Council
• Building insurance companies' requirements - minimum legislative standard
• etc
Active fire-fighting system
This refers to fixed or portable equipment installed or incorporated into the building for
the purpose of resisting fire during the out break of fire. So the installation of Active
fire-fighting equipments in the building has two main functions:-
• detection of fire
• suppression of fire

Active fire-fighting system


This refers to fixed or portable equipment installed or incorporated into the building for
the purpose of resisting fire during the out break of fire. So the installation of Active
fire-fighting equipments in the building has two main functions:-
• detection of fire
• suppression of fire

Types of Active fire-fighting system


• Portable fire extinguishers
• Automatic fire extinguishers
• Hose reel and Hydrants
• Automatic extinguisher systems
• Pressurized escape routes
• Smoke extraction and ventilation

Automatic fire alarm detectors


• Bimetallic strip
• Ionization chamber
• Light-scattering devices
• Laser beams

Hose reel and Hydrants


• Hose reel
• Hydrants: Internal Hydrants, External Hydrants
• Dry riser
• Wet riser
• Form installation

Automatic extinguisher systems


• Gas extinguisher system
• Water sprinkler system
• Wet sprinkler
• Dry sprinkler
• Alternate wet and dry sprinkler
• Tail-end sprinkler
• Pre-action sprinkler
• Recycling sprinkler

Smoke extraction and ventilation


• Vents
• Shop extract and smoke control
• Shop extractor
• Mall extractor
In general, the basic elements or components of a fire-fighting system are:-
• Water supply
• Water pump
• Fire mains hydrants
• Portable fire extinguishers
• Fire monitors
• Fixed water sprays
• Live hose
• Fire hoses
• Fire forms

Difference between Dry riser and Wet riser

Dry riser - is a vertical pipe which is dry (without water) and with hydrant valve
attached and located at each floor. This vertical pipe shall function only when the fire
department channels water through it during the outbreak of fire
Wet riser - is a vertical pipe which is always full of water. Its function is to supply
water to the hydrant valve located at each floor of a tall (high-rise) building, when there
is a fire

Shop extractor and Mall extractor: are two types of fire protection system in a
shopping central complex

Shop extractor - is a method of smoke and fire containment in a shop-lot unit. It is


controlled by the tenant or the shop-lot keeper.
Mall extractor - is a common smoke collection and containment reservoir at the height
(on top) of a mall. It is controlled by the building owner.

FIRE DETACTORS

Basic principles of fire detectors


• Reaction to heat
• Radiation to flames
• Products of combustion

Main function of fire detectors


• To give warning that a fire has taken place in unattended places
• To activate automatic fire-fighting equipments

Common types of fire detectors


There are several groups of fire detectors
• Group I - detectors for hazardous situations
• Group II - ionization smoke detectors
• Group III - visible smoke detectors
• Group IV - heat detectors

In general we say common fire detectors are:


• Heat detectors
• Smoke detectors
Essential ingredients of fire: Fuel, Heat, Oxygen

The system of fire-fighting employed depends on:


• The total combustible content of the building
• The type of fire risk classification
• The degree of involvement by the occupants

Important terms related to fire:

Fire door: - a door assembly that provides protection against the passage of fire
Fire wall: - fire resistant wall that extends continuously from the foundation of the
building up to or through the roof. Fire walls are related in hours, depending on the use
of the building and the "fire separation distance", required fire resistance ratings vary
from 1 hour to 4 hours
Fire separation distance: - the distance in feet or meters measured from the face of a
building to the adjacent building or the nearest public path/walkway.
Fire partition: - refers to the vertical assembly of a wall material designed to limit the
spread of a fire. The overall assembly shall have a fire resistance rating (in hours) equal
to a greater than that specified in the governing code. Depending on the use of the
building and whether it has a sprinkler system, a fire partition shall have a rating up to 2
hours.
Apparent ignition temperature: - is the temperature required to begin or cause
burning at a rate which is sufficiently rapid so that the burning will continue when the
heat source is removed.
Combustion: - is a chemical process that involves oxidation sufficient to produce heat
and light
Explosion: - is the result of rapid combustion with a sudden, violent change of pressure
involving the liberation and expansion of a large volume of gas.
Smoke detectors and Automatic sprinkler.

Introduction:
• Fire detections are an active fire protection measure subject to stringent buildings
• They are connected to a fire suppression system that consists of over head pipes fitted
with sprinkler heads throughout the coverage area
• Fire detection systems for high-rises are usually also equipped with a fire pump and a
jockey pump and are tied into the fire alarm system.
• Although historically only used in factories and large commercial buildings, home
and small building systems are now available at a relatively cost effective price.

Based on the buildings functions and occupancy, there exist various types of
sprinkler systems.
• Wet sprinkler
• Dry sprinkler
• Alternate wet and dry sprinkler
• Tail-end sprinkler
• Pre-action sprinkler
• Recycling sprinkler

Usage
• Sprinklers required in all new high rise and under ground buildings generally 75 feet
(23 m) above or below fire department access
• Sprinklers may also be required in hazardous storage spaces by building codes or may
be required by insurance companies where liability due to potential property losses or
business interruptions can be reduced by adequate automatic fire protection.
• Building codes for places of assembly, generally over 100 persons and places with
overnight sleeping accommodations such as hotels, nursing homes, dormitories, and
hospitals usually require sprinklers to fight, and subsequently suppress high challenge
type fires

Water sprinkler
• To control outbreak of fire
• Sprinkler head can be attached to rising main supply
• Types of sprinkler head
Fusible link sprinkler head
Glass bulb sprinkler head
Chemical sprinkler head
Open sprinkler head

Glass bulb sprinkler head


• Valve firmly seated by a sealed glass tube containing colored volatile fluid that
expends with heat to burst tube and release water from pipe work.
• Fluid operating temperature based on color codes

Fusible link sprinkler head


• The lever is retained in position by solder that melts with heat change
• Once the solder melts the lever will spring apart to release water

HEALTH AND SAFETY

Safety: is the state of being relatively free from harm, danger, injury or damage.
Danger. A situation which is capable cause injury to someone and destroy a property.
Accident: A happening or an event which is not expected foreseen or intended.

Why safety at the workplace is important?


Safety at work place is important because:
• People place high value on life because life is very priceless
• Fear of loss of property
• Fear of economic loss
• Fear of injury
Occupational Safety and Health Act 1994 (OSHA 1994)
Occupational Safety and Health Act 1994 (OSHA 1994) enforced since 25 February
1994

Main objectives of OSHA 1994


• To promote safety and health commitment among all employers and employees
• To establish effective safety organization and arrangements at the workplace

Long term goal of OSHA 1994


• To create a healthy and safe working culture among all Malaysian employers and
employees
Industrial sectors covered by OSHA 1994
Manufacturing
Mining and Quarrying
Construction
Agriculture, Forestry and Fishery
Utility: Electricity, Water, Gas, and Sanitary services
Transport, Storage and Communication
Wholesale and Retail Traders
Hotels and Restaurants
Finance, Insurance, Real estate and Business services
Public services and Statuary Authorities

Basic Philosophy of OSHA 1994


"Self-regulation" which means that the responsibility of ensuring safety and health at
the work place lies with those who create the risks and with those who work with the
risk.

Some of the more important provisions of OSHA of 1994

General duties
Provisions related to the general duties of employers, employees, self-employed,
designers, manufacturers, importers and suppliers of plant and substances are clearly
defined under the act.

The main duties are summarized as follows


Duties of an employer: Employers must safe guard so far as is practicable the safety,
health and welfare of the people who work for them.
This act outlines five (5) specific measures or steps to be taken by an employer so far as
is practicable in order to safeguard the safety, health and welfare of their employees.
To provide and maintain the plant and safety systems of work that are safe and without
risks to health.
To make arrangements for ensuring safety and health in connections with the use of
operations, handling storage and transport of plants and substances.
To provide information, instruction, training and supervision to ensure employees to
perform their work in a safe manner and without risk to health.
To maintain a workplace that is safe and without risks to health, including means of
access and egress (layout).
To provide and maintain a working environment that is safe and and without risks to
health with adequate welfare facilities.

Definitions:- Plant: means any machinery, equipment, appliance, implement or tool,


any component there of and anything fitted, connected or appurtenant there to.
Substance: means any natural or artificial substance, whether in solid or liquid forms
or in the form of a gas or vapor or any combination there of.
So far as is practicable: is an important clause before an employer could discharge his
duties/responsibilities. The factors that he needs to consider are:
The severity of the hazard or risk in question
The state of knowledge about the hazard or risk
The availability and suitability of ways to remove or mitigate the hazards or risks
The cost of removing or mitigating the hazard or risks
Safety and Health Committee
When to establish this committee?
• When the organization has 40 or more than 40 employees
• When it is being directed by the Director General or Department of Occupational
Safety and Health

Main functions of Safety and Health Committee


• To monitor safety measures taken at the work place
• To investigate any accident and related matters arising at the work place
• To act as a platform for consultation between the employer and employees in matters
related to safety and health at the work place

Committee members in the Safety and Health Committee


Chairman (chair person)
Representative of the employees
Representative of the employer
Secretary (normally is the safety and health officer)

Definitions
Unsafe Acts: are acts which may cause or lead to danger or harm to oneself as well as
to others. e.g.
• Fooling around
• Smoking in "no smoking area"
• Not completing a routine checklist
• Not wearing a proper personal protective equipments
• Climbing a ladder with broken rungs, etc
Unsafe Situations: refers to any situation or condition that may cause or lead to danger
or harm to oneself as well as to others. e.g.
• Working on slippery or very rough floors
• Falling and flying objects

PLUMBING EQUIPMENTS AND SYSTEMS

Domestic water supply


Water is very important for all forms of life. Basically there are two system of water
supply to our homes. They are
• Direct system
• Indirect system

Direct system
• Supplies water directly to our homes (houses) through service pipes

Indirect system
• Supplies water to our homes (houses) through a water tank
• From the water tank the water is supplied through various piping devices. E.g.
communication pipes and distribution pipes
Important related definitions

Service pipe: this pipe connects the water to the water tank and piping to the kitchen
Communication pipe: this pipe connects the main pipe with the water meter
Distribution pipe: this pipe supplies water from the water tank to the piping
equipments in the house like sinks, wash basins and showers
Scour pipe: this pipe is installed at the base of the water tank. Its function is to let
water flow out of the water tank during cleaning or maintenance works
Overflow pipe: this pipe is fixed slightly above the full water mark of the water tank.
Its diameter size is bigger than that of the service pipe. Its function is to let overflow
when the ball valve is malfunctioned or damaged.

Comparison between direct water supply and indirect water supply

Direct water supply


Less pipe work and smaller storage cistern, making it cheaper to install.
Drinking water available at the wash basins or kitchen sink
Smaller cold water cisterns which may be sited below the ceiling

Indirect water supply


Large capacity storage cisterns, providing a reserve of water during failure of the main
supply
The water pressure on the taps supplied from the cisterns is reduced, which minimizes
noise and wear on the taps
Fittings supplied with water from the cistern are prevented from causing contamination
of the drinking water by back siphonage
Taps, valves and cocks are terms used indiscriminately to name fittings required to
control the flow of water (or the fluids), either along or at the end of a pipeline.
Valves: are usually used to control the flow along a pipeline
Taps: are used at the end of a pipeline for draw off purposes
Cocks: consist of a body holding a tapered plug. The plug has a hole cast or drilled in
the middle through which the water can flow. The cock can be fully opened or fully
closed by turning the plug through an angle of 45° (or quarter turn). It can be closed
very quickly and may cause a water hammer.

Plumbing Fixtures and Plumbing Appliance


Plumbing fixtures refers to a receptacle for waste, which are ultimately discharged into
the sanitary drainage system.
Examples: Water closet, Urinal, Wash basin, etc.
Plumbing appliance refers to a special class of plumbing fixtures intended to perform a
special function.
Examples: Bath tub, Shower head, Kitchen sink, etc.

Materials used for plumbing fixtures and appliances


• PVC (poly vinyl chloride), Cast iron, Enameled pressed steel, Stainless steel, Fiber
glass, Plastic, Terrazzo andCement, etc

Water closet
• It is water flushed plumbing fixture designed to receive human waste directly from
the user.
• Water closets are rated at 6 drainage fixture units of waste discharge and require a
75mm waste pipe and a 50mm vent.
Urinal
• It is water flushed plumbing fixture designed to receive urine directly.
• Urinals are manufactured from vitreous china or enameled cast iron.
• Urinals, like water closets, are available with a variety of different flushing actions:
washout, siphon jet and blowout.

Wash basin
• It is a plumbing fixture designed for washing of the hands and face.
• It is commonly found in bathrooms and restrooms or toilets.
• Wash basins are sometimes called vanity lavatories
• They are rated at 1 drainage fixture unit of waste discharge and require a 31mm vent
pipe.
• Wash basins are commonly made from vitreous china, enameled cast iron, enameled
pressed steels, stainless steel and plastics.
• Various models are available, e.g. wall-hung, vanity and vanity-top

Bath tub
• It is a receptacle for water that is shaped to fit a human body and is used for bathing.
• Bath tubs are rated at 2 drainage fixture unit of waste discharge and require a 38mm
waste pipe and a 31mm vent pipe
• Bath tubes are identified as right hand or left hand according to the location of the tub
waste opening. A right hand bathtub has a drain on the right end of the tub as you
face the length of the tub. A left hand bath tub has the drain on the left.
• Bath tubs are manufactured from enameled. That is enameled pressed steel, and
fiberglass in a variety of shapes, sizes and colors.

Kitchen sink
• It is a shallow, flat bottomed plumbing fixture used in cleaning dishes and in
connection with food preparations.
• Kitchen sinks are related at 2 drainage fixture units of waste discharge and require a
38mm waste pipe and 31mm vent pipe.
• Kitchen sinks are available in various sizes and shapes. The most popular is the
double-compartment double-bowl type, installed on a kitchen cabinet counter top.
• Kitchen sinks are manufactured from enameled. That is enameled pressed steel and
stainless steel.

Direct system of water supply

Advantages
• Water supplied is clean and fresh
• Water pressure supplied is high
• With this system, losses can be overcome because it does not undergo overflow at the
water storage tank
• Water storage tank is not to be provided

Disadvantages
• If damage occurs at the main pipe, the main valve shall be closed, hence the water
supply to the entire building shall be disrupted
• Damage or leakage is quite difficult to be detected
• There is no water supply kept if there is water disruption
Indirect system of water supply

Advantages
• If there is disruption to the water supply, there is still water supply for a period of 12
to 24 hours
• Loading to the main pipe can be lightened during peak demand
• Water supply is always constant
• If damage occurs to any of the sanitary equipment fixtures, only nearest valve shall be
closed, hence the water supply to the remaining sanitary fixtures can continue.

Disadvantages
• Water storage tank and its space for positioning need to be provided
• Water supplied from the storage tank may not be that clean. Contamination may be
due to the storage tank itself. E.g. from joints/connections, rust, etc
• Water wastage may happen if the ball valve at the storage tank is not functioning
• The provision of water storage tank need to comply to the rules/requirements of the
relevant authorities
• Water supply will be disrupted when the storage tank is being cleaned or when
maintenance work is in operation.

Direct system
Supply fresh and clean water to bathrooms and kitchen
Lack constant water pressure, therefore may require pump
Inconsistent water supply, especially when water cut or rationing occurs
Inexpensive because less pipe work, and no storage tank
Only suitable for low-rise buildings which require low water pressure
Any defect in the pipe work can cause water cut to the system

Indirect system
Supply fresh water to the bathrooms and wash basins only
Constant water pressure and does not require pump
Constant water due to provision of storage tank
Expensive because more pipe work, and need storage tank
Suitable for high-rise buildings
Defect to the service pipe does not effect the entire system because it can be segregated
by valves

MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL SYSTEM

Mechanical and Electrical system for buildings

Modern buildings must be designed with features to provide;


• Better lighting
• Comfortable space/room temperature
• Humidity
• Air quality
• Convenient power and communication capabilities
• High quality sanitation
• Reliable systems
ALL the above features are needed for the protection of life and property. All these
desirable features have become a reality with recent advances in the technology of
Mechanical and Electrical system. These advances have open the door for a wide range
of architectural design innovations in style, form and scope that are not achievable
without the utilization of Mechanical and Electrical system. Block type without
windows such as departmental stores are totally dependent on electrical lighting,
ventilation and space/room condition.
High-rise buildings must rely on high-speed vertical transportation and high-pressure
water for drinking and cleaning purposes and for protection against fire.
Mechanical and Electrical systems demand considerable floor and ceiling space.
Without proper space allocation during the preliminary planning phase of a building
project, the design process may have to be started all over again, and often the system
performance are compromised. Furthermore in some cases Mechanical and Electrical
systems add to the cost of construction of a building, exceeding 50% of the total cost.
Examples are sophisticated buildings such as research buildings, hospitals with update
facilities, computer centers, etc. Mechanical and Electrical systems also require energy
to operate them. Energy consumed by occupied buildings, including residential,
commercial, industrial, institutional facilities accounts for over 50% of all energy usage
by an industrialized country. Energy also accounts for a large portion of the operating
costs of such buildings. Properly designed Mechanical and Electrical system will utilize
space and energy efficiency, thereby reducing building costs and minimizing
environmental impacts.

Categories of Mechanical and Electrical systems

For modern buildings, Mechanical and Electrical systems are classified into three (3)
major categories:

Mechanical systems

• HVAC- referring to heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning. The components of


HVAC system in the mechanical and electrical system for a building are:
• HVAC delivery
• Cooling production
• Heating production
• Air handling
• Piping systems
• Site utilities- referring water supply, storm (surface) water drainage, sanitary
disposal, gas supply
• Plumbing- referring to water distribution, water treatment, sanitary facilities, etc
• Fire protection- water supply, stand pipes, fire and smoke detectors, automatic
sprinklers, etc
• Special systems

Electrical systems
• Electrical power- normal, stand by, emergency power supply and distribution
• Lighting- interior, exterior and emergency lighting
• Auxiliary- telephone, signal, data, audio/video, sound, fire alarm, security systems,
etc
• Special systems
Building operation systems
• Transportation- refers to elevators, lifts, escalators, moving walkways, etc
• Processing- production, food services, etc
• Automation- environmental controls, management, etc
• Special systems.

The impact on space planning


The floor area necessary for Mechanical and Electrical systems in a building varies
widely, depending on;
• The occupancy
• Climatic conditions
• Living standards
• Quality and general architectural design of buildings

The Mechanical and Electrical space affects the gross floor area, the size and the shape
of the building's ground floor, floor-to-floor height, geometry and architectural
expressions
Reasonable allocations made during the space planning phase allow Mechanical and
Electrical space to be approximately sized and strategically located.

AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEM

What is "Air-conditioning"?
It is the process of controlling and treatment of all the air contents in a room or
enclosed space. Mechanical treatment is conducted on the temperature, air humidity,
and cleanliness and air distribution in order to obtain the requirements and functions of
a particular room or enclosed space.

Main functions on Air-conditioning system


• Temperature control by heating and cooling
• Humidity control by humidification or dehumidification
• Cleanliness control by filtration cleaning and absorption in order to remove dirt's or
contamination.
• Air distribution, i.e. type of ventilation and type of air flow.

Basic cycles of an Air-conditioning system

There are two basic cycles:


• Cooling cycle: transfer of heat from one place to another place
• Air cycle:- The use of air as a refrigerant is based on the principle that when a gas
expands adiabatically from a given temperature

Main components of cooling cycle


• Compressor
• Is the heart of the cooling system
• It increases the pressure of the "refrigerant" and pumps it the condenser/entire
cycle.
• Condenser
• Remove heat from refrigerant which is in high pressure gas form
• Refrigerant
• Absorbs or remove heat
• It can condense or evaporate at low temperature
• Expansion valve
• Controls pressure and rate of entry of refrigerant to the evaporator unit
• Evaporator
• Absorbs heat from the surrounding (i.e. space of room which is being cooled
• Thermostat
• Controls cooling temperature as required

What is the name of the refrigerant?


• Freon gas

The processes which occur in the "refrigerant cycle" of an air-conditioning unit


are:
• Freon gas is compacted at the compressor unit to increase the boiling point. This
causes the pressure of the Freon gas to increase
• This high pressure gases will slowly change into a liquid at the condenser unit.
• There is a fan which functions to cool the condenser unit. This fan is required because
the coil at the condenser got heated due to heat produced from the change process of
the gas into the liquid
• The high pressure liquid shall pass through the expansion valve. Here the expansion
valve will function to lower the pressure of the liquid. The boiling point of the liquid
will decrease when the pressure is lowered.
• The liquid whose boiling point has been lowered shall pass through an evaporator
unit. There exist a cooling coil at this unit
• Here, the liquid will slowly changes into a gas. During this changing process heat is
absorbed and this cools down the coil.
• There is also a blower at the evaporator unit. This blower serves to "suck in" air from
the room/space. This air shall become cold when it passes through the cooling coil of
the evaporator. This cold air shall be "blown out" by the blower through the air
supply grills.
• With this, cold air can be supplied to the room/space which needs to be cooled. This
process shall be repeated and the air can be cooled continuously

Components of air cycle

Fan
• To move air inside the space/room. (all outside air, all inside air within the room-
recycling, contamination of outside air)
Supply duct
• Direct air from the fan into the room/space
Supply outlets
• Distributes air uniformly inside the room/space
Space to be cooled
• Allows air within space/room to enter the return ducts. (OR. Allows air to escape
from the space or room
Return air ducts
• Transports used air to the filter
Filter
• Filters are before being distributed for the following purposes.
Protects health and comfort of the occupiers of the room.
Keeps the cleanliness of the surface and furniture of the room
Protects equipments especially sensitive ones like PC, etc
Protects devices within the air conditioning unit
Cooling air
• Absorbs heat from the room or space in order to obtain comfortable temperature.

Factors that influence on the choice of Air-conditioning system for any building
• Space size
• Space layout
• Space utilization
• Capacity in the room

Space size: The space (room) size needs to be known in order to determine the heat
loads and the capacity of the air-conditioning units to be used in that room (enclosed
space)

Space layout: Need to know whether the spaces (rooms) are grouped together or are
distant apart. If the rooms are grouped (close to each other), a centralized system is
more suitable. If the rooms are distant apart, centralized system is not economical
because it will require the use of longer ducting

Space utilization: Space (or rooms) utilization can be divided into three:

Utilization by time: There exist spaces (or rooms) which are utilized on different
"timings". E.g. rooms in hotels

Utilization by surrounding environment: Spaces (or rooms) within the building


require different temperature and humidity. E.g. rooms for museum, showrooms, and
laboratories

Activities inside (human activities): Different activities within the room create
different situations. E.g. a sports club requires extra ventilation compared to that of
recreation or leisure rooms. A suitable temperature will depend on the requirements
of the occupants as well as on the equipments present in that room. E.g. electrical
devices (computer components), height that emit extra heat, etc
Capacity in the space (room): This refers to human capacity or occupancy inside the
rooms within the building.

Types of Air-conditioning systems

1. Unitary system
• This type of air-conditioning unit is used to cool the air at specific sections of rooms
within the building (or house). E.g. to cool a particular room or various rooms within
the building
• A single unit of this system can be used to cool more than one room
• There exist three types of this unitary system
window type
split type
multi-split type
Unitary system / window type
• This system is suitable for rooms or offices which have part of the wall outside. This
is because some section of the unit is installed outside
• The wall where this unit is to be installed has to be drilled first
• The initial cost of installation of this unit is rather high.

Unitary system / split type


• For this system there exist two units: one unit is placed inside the building and
another unit is placed outside the building
• The indoor unit consists of the evaporator
• The outside unit consists of the compressor, condenser and the expansion
valve/capillary tube
• This split type consists of four models
Ceiling mounted
Ceiling suspended
Wall mounted
Floor mounted

Unitary system / multi-split type


• This system is used to cool more than one room
• Only the outdoor unit is being used
• The total indoor units depend on the total number of rooms which need to be cooled
• The indoor unit can be selected from the type available in the split unit discussed
earlier.

2. Central system

• A central air-conditioning system is used to cool the air for the entire building
• The equipments for a central air-conditioning system are large and capable of cooling
large spaces (or rooms)
• This system requires the use of ducts. Ducts shall carry the cooled air produced from
the air-conditioning plant to the enclosed spaces (rooms) that need to be cooled inside
the building. Usually the ducts (or ducting) are installed above the ceiling within the
building
• In the central system, there are two methods of how the condenser units are cooled:
Air cooled
Water cooled

Advantages of split type of air-conditioning system


• Easy to be installed for completed buildings either for minor or medium requirements
• Good appearance of the indoor units (can be located anywhere within the room or
enclosed spaces)
• The units which uses air ducts are suitable for lecture rooms, meeting/conference
rooms, halls and laboratories provided humidity requirements have no objection
• Quite. (The compressor unit is located at the outdoor unit outside the building).

Ventilation
Ventilation is any air circulation or air movement within a building. It is a process to
maintain a comfortable environment on temperature, humidity, and oxygen in an
enclosed space (or rooms) by having clean air flowing from one room to another room
in order to replace contaminated or used air inside that room. Ventilation is measured in
air volume.

Purposes of ventilation
In general the main purpose of ventilation is to get cooling, drying, and circulation of
clean air. Human requires ventilation for comfort, i.e. to remove "uneasy feelings" due
to warm circulated air in the surrounding. To be more specific, ventilation:
• Prevents the entry of heat from outside
• Maximizes heat loss inside the enclosed space or room
• Removes unpleasant odor and unclean air content, (like ducts, etc)
• Prevents heat intensity machines, lightings and the occupants themselves
• Reduces the increase of carbon dioxide contents and humidity within the enclosed
space or room.

There are two types of ventilation


Natural ventilation
Artificial ventilations

Factors which controls or influence natural ventilation


Pressure variation due to wind
The "stack affect" which results from warm air in the building rising and being
displaced by colder outside air
Combination of pressure variation due to wind and the "stack effect"

The scale used to measure wind space is called the Branford scale
• Ground area where wind speeds > 5m/s - uncomfortable for human occupations
• Ground area where wind speeds > 10m/s - unpleasant
• Ground area where wind speeds > 20m/s - dangerous
• For wind speeds < 5m/s - OK, considered as comfortable

INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICITY

Conductors
Conductors are materials that allow electricity to pass through them. (Conducting
materials vary in the degree to which they can conduct electricity; good conductors are
required for connecting leads in electric circuits so that they may carry the current with
minimum lost of voltage)

Examples of conductors
• Copper , Aluminum, Carbon, Brass, Eurika, Tungsten, Manganin, Nichrone, Human
body

The best conductor is copper

Advantages of copper used.


low resistance
it is ductile and therefore easily formed into wires
it is readily "fined" for soldering
Advantages of brass used.
it is harder than copper
it is easily machined
it can be easily readily
like copper , it is also "fined" for soldering

Insulators:
Insulators are materials do not allow the free passage of an electric current pass
through. (insulators are used combine electric currents to the conductors in which they
are intended to flow and to prevent leakage of electricity to adjacent conducting
materials which are not intended to become "Alive" )

Example of insulators
• wood, rubber, plastic, glass, paper, Asbestos, PVC, Mineral insulation eg MgSO4 ,
Mica, paxolin, bakelite, etc:

Rubber is the best insulator


Often used as covering for cables and wires for following reasons,
• Impervious to water
• Being good insulation
• Flexible

Some disadvantages of rubber.


• Not fire proof
• Cannot resist heat
• Adversely affected by sunlight
Lifts : lift should be installed at strategic location .

Factors that need to be considered in the proper sitting at lift are


• A lift installation has an important bearing on the efficient functioning of the building
service.
• To get an efficient service, the number and type of lift must take into an account,
several factors including the type of building and the nature of its occupancy.
• Lift should be sited in the control area. And take in to an account the proximity at
entrance to the building and staircase.
• If a entrance of a building are not in a central position, there is strong case for
centralizing the lifts, since their use during the day may out weight the inconvenience
of reaching the lifts at morning arrival and evening departure
• When a building has to have a number of passenger lifts, it is usually preferable to
group them together rather than spread them through out of the building.
• Grouping of lifts reduces the cost of installation
• If passengers have to pass a staircase on the way to a lift the demand on the lift tends
to be reduced, if they pass a lift before reaching a staircase, the demand on the lift
tends to be increased.

Factors that influence the number and size of lift for building
• Population of the building
• Type of building occupancy
• The starting and finishing time of the population whether staggered
• The number of floors and heights
• The position of building in relation to the public transport service.
Note: the choice, numbers and sizes of lifts usually lies between the convenience of the
user and the overall building loading times, and a compromise is usually required to
obtain safe factory balance between those 2 factors. Several small lifts will provide a
better service than larger lifts but the installation cost of the lift is lower.

Escalators:
• Are continuous conveyer designed for moving large number of people quickly and
effectively from one floor to another.
• Unlike a normal lift installation, if requires no waiting time and order to get a similar
service, a large number of lifts occupancy more floor space would be required.
• It have advantages of being reversible to suit the main floor of traffic during peak
time and unlike lifts, they may be used when stationary

Usage of Escalators
Bank, departmental stories, sport stadium, exhibition halls airport terminal, railway
station.
The carrying capacity depend on the speed along the line of inclination and the width
of the thread 0.45m/s to 0.1m/s
Variable influencing the comfort of the occupants of building are . temperature …
humidity …airflow ..air quality ..radiation .. lighting ..

Factors affecting the effectiveness of building design


1. Net floor area (NFA). 2. Net to gross ratio (NGR). 3. Floor efficiency ratio (FER).
4. VSR. 5. APR

1. Net floor area (NFA).


It is the floor area that can be used by the occupants and is some times referred
as net design area. Net floor area typically defined as the gross floor area excluding the
area taken bye stairs, circulation space, lobbies, structural columns, M&E equipments.

2. Net to gross ratio (NGR).


NGR=100 X NFA/GFA
The available NGA depends on the building occupancy, M&E system and architectural
design and usually range between 60-90% FER = 100 X NRA/GFA , where NFA is
net floor area /GFA is gross floor area.sq.m.

3. Floor efficiency ratio (FER)


The floor efficiency ratio is frequency used for office building to calculate the
rentable space on typical rental floor. FER=100 X NRA/GFA

4. VSR
VSR=V/s where v is volume of the building / s is total external surface area of the
building.

5. APR
APR= A/P where A is typical or representative floor area of building , P is linear
dimension of perimeter of a typical floor.

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