Professional Documents
Culture Documents
(Win 32 Version)
March 2010
Information in this document is subject to change without notice. Companies, names and data
used in examples are fictitious.
This document may be reproduced for the sole purpose of reference by PROKON users. No
part of this document may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means,
electronic or mechanical, for any other reason without the express written permission of
Prokon Software Consultants
Copyright © 1988-2010 Prokon Software Consultants (Pty) Ltd. All rights reserved
PROKON is the registered trademark of Prokon Software Consultants (Pty) Ltd
This is a guide to using the 32-bit Windows version of the PROKON suite of structural
analysis and design programs. It is designed to help you be more productive by explaining
ways of integrating everyday structural analysis, design and detailing tasks.
In this manual, the basic procedures of installing and using PROKON are explained.
Components of the suite not covered in this manual include the PROKON Drawing and
Detailing System, Padds, and the geotechnical analysis modules. These are explained
separately in the following manuals:
Padds User's Guide and Command Reference: Information on using the PROKON
Drawing and Detailing System.
Geotechnical Analysis and Design: Background on using the geotechnical analysis
modules are given on the online help, available on the Help menu of each module.
All analysis and design modules also have complete context-sensitive help to introduce you to
the use of the system. The on-line help information is updated on a regular basis and may
occasionally contain information not included in the manual.
This manual is also available in electronic form on the PROKON Structural Analysis and
Design installation CD-Rom. The complete text can be viewed and printed for the purpose of
reference by PROKON users a PDF viewer such as Adobe Acrobat Reader.
Note: A copy of this manual is available PDF format on the PROKON installation CD-Rom.
Introduction i
Using this manual
The manual should introduce you to both the basic and more advanced features of the
PROKON suite of programs. The various procedures relating to installing and using the suite
are discussed in sequence to gradually lead you to productive use of the system:
Chapter 1 - Installing PROKON: This chapter deals with installing and activating the
software for use. The procedures for stand-alone and network installation are explained
in detail.
Chapter 2 - The PROKON basics: Essential reading for all new users and for users
upgrading to the 32-bit Windows version. Subjects covered include using Calcpad, setting
preferences and customising projects.
Chapter 3 - Structural analysis: Detailed discussion of the frame, beam and finite element
analysis modules.
Chapter 4 - Steel member design: Explains how you can design a variety of steel members
using elastic or plastic methods. The post-processing of frame analysis results is discussed
in detail.
Chapter 5 - Steel connection design: Design and generation of drawings of typical steel
connections.
Chapter 6 - Concrete design: Detailed explanation of the design and detailing of
reinforcement for typical concrete members.
Chapter 7 - Timber design: Detailed discussion of the design of timber members.
Chapter 8 - General analysis tools: Overview of using the general analysis utilities.
Chapter 9 – Masonry section and Masonry wall design
ii Introduction
Getting help
An important part of the service provided to PROKON users, is technical support. If you are a
registered user, you can obtain free program updates and support information from the World
Wide Web or your nearest branch of PROKON Software Consultants.
Internet support
Access answers to frequently asked questions, news on new developments, revision
information and programs updates on-line:
PROKON Home Page: Visit www.prokon.com for news on the latest developments.
PROKON Support Web: Browse www.prokon.com/support for solutions to problems and
to obtain program updates and the latest versions of the help files and manuals.
Direct support
If you experience difficulties resolving your problems using PROKON, you may contact
Prokon Software Consultants directly for assistance:
Introduction iii
Quick Reference
Use the thumbnails alongside for quick access to the chapters in this manual.
iv Quick Reference
Chapter 1: Installing PROKON
Quick Reference v
vi Quick Reference
Chapter
1
Installing PROKON
This explains the procedures for installing and activating PROKON. step-by-step to help new
and experienced users alike avoid pitfalls.
The minimum system requirements and recommended specification to run the 32-bit Windows
version of PROKON are:
Required Recommended
The suite often needs to save temporary information on your hard disk. For this purpose, the
Windows temporary folder, e.g. ' C:\Users\YourName\AppData\Local\Temp', is used. When
analysing large structures, a significant amount of disk space may be required.
You can install PROKON on a stand-alone computer, or on a network for access by multiple
computers on your network. Setting up your system PROKON consists of the following steps:
1. Install PROKON on your computer or on your network.
2. Activate PROKON.
3. Set up the design codes and section and material databases. This is explained in Chapter 2.
PROKON uses a sophisticated licensing scheme that allows a lot of flexibility in your choices:
The software is modular: No need to pay for features you don't use; order only the
modules you need.
Short-term license available: In addition to the conventional way of purchasing software,
you can rent PROKON modules on an annual basis. You may have a special project, for
example, that requires certain design modules that you would not normally use.
Network use: PROKON software can be installed on stand-alone computers or on a
network server. When installing on a network server, multiple workstation computers can
access the software (the number of concurrent users is limited to the number of
workstations including in the license). No special network license is required to use
PROKON software on a network.
License portability: You can deactivate and activate your programs (storing your license
on the PROKON license server) at any time. Moving your license between computers at
the office (and even your home computer) is simple.
Note: When not activated, e.g. directly after the initial installation, the PROKON suite will
function in 'demo mode' – a special mode with reduced functionality meant for evaluation
purposes.
Note: When installing PROKON on a network, you need to adjust some folder permissions
to enable network users to access PROKON. See page 1-12 for more information.
Note: The PROKON license server (an internet service) keeps track of the number of
workstations that have been activated and the number of workstations available for
activation. An internet connection is required to activate or deactivate your programs.
Note: Your PROKON license proper functioning is sensitive to your computer's date and
time. To guarantee error-free operation, ensure that the date and time is correct.
Note: If the Setup program appears to freeze while copy program files, it may be because of
your anti-virus software scanning the program files. For a faster installation, we recommend
you temporarily disable your anti-virus software.
Note: For the Direct Internet activation method to work, your firewall should allow
communication on TCP port 80 (HTTP) as well as 20 and 21 (FTP).
Note: Deactivating does not delete any files. Instead, all program and data files are left in
position to enable you to later activate the workstation again. To completely remove
PROKON from a PC, you must uninstall the software 1-15
Note: To install PROKON on a server version of Windows, you may need to be seated at
the server (or accessing its desktop remotely) and logged in as an administrator.
Note: When not activated, e.g. directly after the initial installation, the PROKON will operate
in 'demo mode' – a special mode with reduced functionality meant for evaluation purposes.
Note: For a network installation it is not necessary to install the PROKON CD on each
individual workstation.
Note: Before uninstalling , please deactivate the software first as discussed on page 1-10.
To deactivate the PROKON suite, follow the procedures described on page 1-10.
The PROKON development team is continuously working at improving the software. Changes
in design codes, support for additional design codes, new program features and occasional bug
fixes make for regular program updates.
Upgrade Eligibility
You are eligible for free program updates in the following cases:
If you have an annual rental agreement.
If you have a maintenance agreement for your purchased PROKON software.
If you do not have a maintenance agreement but have purchased or upgraded your
PROKON software less than 12 months ago.
Tip: For up-to-date version information and update instructions, please refer to the
following web page: www.prokon.com/updates.
Note: Firewall restrictions on your network can prevent Live Update from communicating
with the PROKON server. Please refer to the following web page for alternative update
options: www.prokon.com/updates.
2
The PROKON Basics
The basic principles of using PROKON are discussed in this chapter. Starting with the issues
you need to address when using the program for the first time, e.g. setting up a working folder,
the text progresses to everyday tasks like running analysis and design modules. The chapter
ends with explaining advanced procedures like creating an equation library and customising the
page layout for your projects.
Depending on the shortcut options chosen during the installation procedure, you will be able to
run PROKON by double-clicking the shortcut on the Desktop or selecting it from the Start
Menu.
Note: When running PROKON for the very first time, the default design codes and units of
measurement are automatically set to match your current Windows Regional Settings. To
check or change your settings, open Control Panel and double-click Regional Settings.
Once you start using the PROKON analysis and design modules, you will want to progress to
working with project files:
Entering a header for a project.
Working with more than one project at a time.
File management.
Selecting a wallpaper
To personalise your PROKON workstation, you may want to display a wallpaper in Calcpad.
To load a wallpaper, open the Settings menu and choose Wallpaper. The following limitations
apply to wallpapers:
Supported graphics formats include: Windows Bitmap (.bmp), Icon (.ico), Metafile (.wmf)
and Enhanced Metafile (.emf).
The wallpaper image is scaled to fit the Calcpad working area. Therefore, not all images
will necessarily look well.
File management
Use the File menu commands to open and save project files in the working folder or any other
location on your own computer or on a network drive that you have write access to:
To create a new project file, select New Project.
To open an existing project file, use the Open Project command.
Use Save Project to save the active project.
To save a new, unnamed project file, use Save Project as.
To close the active projects or all open projects, use Close Project or Close All.
To open a recently used project file, click the file name at the bottom of the File menu.
PROKON Project files as saved with the extension '.PPF' for easy recognition.
To run a PROKON analysis or design module, click its icon on the shortcut bar or select it
from the Program menu. If a particular module's shortcut icon or menu item is dimmed, it
means that the module is not included in your workstation.
A number of discontinued modules, notably Plastic Frame Analysis and Design and Finite
Element Slab Design are available on the Program menu only.
Similar layout
All modules present you with a number of tabbed pages or menus:
The File menu: Standard Windows commands are provided for opening and saving data
files. The commands are similar to those described on page 2-8.
The Input page: All input
data is entered on this page.
In the case of some of the
larger analysis modules, e.g.
the frame analysis modules,
this page will itself contain a
number of tabbed input
pages. Some modules also
allow specialised input
trough a separate Settings
page or button.
The Analysis or Design
page: Selecting this page
typically starts the analysis
and displays the results.
The Calcsheets page: Analysis and design results can be accumulated in a single
calcsheet. You can choose between printing or sending the information to Calcpad.
The Drawings or Bending Schedules page: Most design modules are capable of
generating a detailed drawing or bending schedule of the designed element. Drawings and
bending schedules can be edited and printed using Padds.
The Help menu: Access is provided to on-line Help topics and built-in Examples.
To display a particular page or menu, click it with the mouse. Alternatively use F11 and F12 to
move forward and back between the pages.
Note: In the case of some of the larger modules, e.g. the frame analysis modules, you need
to first view the results and select individual components to be included in the calcsheet.
Click Send to Calcpad to append the results to the active project in Calcpad.
Saving input
You can use the File menu of a module to
save and open input data files. However, if
you enable the Data File option before
sending a calcsheet to Calcpad, you can
later recall the input data by double-clicking
the relevant object in Calcpad. A data file
embedded in Calcpad is saved as part of a
project and does not need to be saved in the
relevant module as well.
If you do save a data file in an analysis or
design module, the file name extension will
automatically be set to the program number
for easy recognition, e.g. '.A03' for Frame
Analysis.
It is easier to update electronic information than printed manuals. Therefore, you may
occasionally find that the on-line help is more up to date that the manual.
Updated help files are published regularly on the PROKON Website. Additional information
not given in either the manual or Help, e.g. answers to frequently asked questions and details
of program revisions, is also available on the PROKON Support Web. Refer to the
introduction of this manual to read more about support service included with your purchase of
PROKON software.
You can edit text in tables using the standard Windows functions, i.e. as employed by most
spreadsheet applications such as Microsoft Office Excel. The standard Windows functions are
supplemented with a number of special functions that speed up table editing.
Tip: Click a cell with the mouse to quickly move the cursor to that cell.
Note: Some cells have special drop-down lists for selecting values. Depending on the
specific application, you may be able to select common values from the list or optionally
type values.
While entering or editing text, you can move left and right using the left and right arrow keys.
To jump to the left-most or right-most positions, press Home or End. To move one word to the
left or right, use Ctrl with the left and right arrows.
To edit text in a cell, move the cursor to the cell and press F2 or double-click it. If you want to
replace the text in the cell rather than change it, simply retype the text without first
pressing F2.
Inserting lines
Press Enter to move to the first cell on the next line. To insert a blank line at the cursor,
press Ctrl+I.
Marking blocks
When marking blocks, you can choose between using the standard Windows functions and the
extended PROKON block functions – the behaviour of the resulting blocks are different.
Note: When marking a block this way, moving the cursor will undo the selection.
Note: A persistent selection will remain active until unmarked with Ctrl+U. While the cells
are selected, you are free to move the cursor without the block being de-selected.
Examples:
To copy cells in the table, first select the cell or block of cells and Copy the information to
the clipboard. Then position the cursor to the new position and Paste the text.
To move one or more selected cells, Cut them to the clipboard and Paste them at the new
position.
To delete one or more selected cells, select and Cut them. Alternatively press Del to delete
the selected cells.
Moving around:
Arrows : Move one cell up, down, left or right.
Enter : Jump to the first cell in the next row.
Tab : Move one cell right.
Shift+Tab : Move one cell left.
Home : Jump to the first cell of the current row.
End : Jump to the last cell of the current row.
Ctrl+Home : Jump to the top left corner of the table.
Ctrl+End : Jump to the bottom left corner of the table.
Del : Delete the cell at the cursor.
Ctrl+Y : Delete the line at the cursor (irrespective of any block selected).
Backspace : Delete the cell at the cursor and open it for editing.
Ctrl+I : Insert a blank line.
Ctrl+F : Find or replace text
Editing cells:
F2 : Edit the cell at the cursor.
Left/right : Move the cursor inside the text.
Ctrl+left/right : Move the cursor left or right one word.
Up/down : Accept the changed text and moves to the adjacent cell.
Enter : Accept the changed text and jumps to the first cell in the next row.
Del : Delete the character to the right.
Backspace : Delete the character to the left.
Clipboard commands
Ctrl+C : Copy the block to the clipboard.
Ctrl+X : Cut the block to the clipboard.
Ctrl+V : Paste the clipboard to the cursor position.
Use the PROKON calculator for basic calculations. You can copy a result to the Windows
clipboard and then paste it into Calcpad or an input table of a design module.
During installation, the calculator can be configured to automatically load when Windows
starts. If so, the calculator will be visible in the Windows system tray that is typically located
in the bottom right corner of the screen, i.e. next to the clock.
Clicking its icon or pressing Ctrl+1 can display the calculator. To
close the calculator, click Exit or press Esc. On closing, the
calculator will return to its idle status in the system tray.
To close the calculator and remove it from memory, right-click its
icon and choose Close.
Doing calculations
Operation is similar to a conventional hand-held calculator:
Enter an equation using the normal mathematical operators.
To enter a mathematical function, click the relevant button or write out the function.
Simplify complex equations by enclosing portions in brackets.
Press Enter to display the result.
To remove the displayed equation and continue working with the result, press Clear left.
Tip: When using a Dos module, press Ctrl+Z to display a calculator. Use F10 to send the
result back to the module's input table.
The analysis and design modules often have pictures linked to the input tables to make data
entry interactive and more intuitive. Pictures are also often used to present analysis results.
The following zoom commands are normally available for all pictures:
Window: Indicate a rectangular area to zoom into.
All: Display the whole picture, based on the size defined internally for the
background.
Last: Revert to the last zoom setting.
Extents: Display the whole picture, based on the drawn entities.
In: Zoom in by 50%.
Out: Zoom out by 50%.
Pan: Drag the project in any direction to view an adjoining portion.
Print: Send the picture to the printer.
Saving pictures
In addition to the Zoom button commands, the right-click pop-up menu also allows you to
save the picture in the following file formats:
PAD: Fully editable Padds drawing.
PIC: Prokon picture file.
EMF: Enhanced Windows metafile, readable by many graphics and
presentation packages.
DXF: 2D or 3D DXF drawings for use in other CAD systems.
In some modules, e.g. the frame analysis modules, a special button may is available
for adding a picture to the Calcsheets.
Detailed settings
Some modules allow detailed configuration of pictures. In the frame analysis
modules, for example, you can access the Graphics Options to enable or disable
display of node numbers, global axes etc. Pictures can also be rendered in 3D or
shown as simple line diagrams.
Tip: The default view angle of 50° works well with perspective projections of structures. If
you cannot see the complete structure, the view point is probably to near to the structure.
Reset the View Point using the Default button or use the Zoom extents function to move
back far enough to view the complete structure.
The View Point Control dialog box can be left open while you work in the program. You can
also use the zoom and pan functions while the dialog box is open.
Tip: If your PC's screen resolution permits, you may move the View Point Control and
View Plane Control dialog boxes to one side so as not to clutter the display of the
underlying program.
The analysis output generated by the various analysis and design modules will provide
normally sufficient detail of your designs. However, you may want to enhance your project
files by adding additional design notes, pictures and even additional calculations.
The procedure to write and edit text and to insert and manipulate pictures in Calcpad is
described in the following text. Equation writing is explained from page 2-37.
Typing text
Type text as you would in any other word processor or text editor.
Deleting text
Use Del and Backspace to delete a character to the left or right. To delete words or paragraphs,
select the text and press Del.
The change will be applied to the selected text only or, if you did not select any text, to new
text from the cursor position and further.
You can also use the keyboard shortcuts Ctrl+B, Ctrl+I and Ctrl+U to make text bold, italic
or underlined.
When changing font style of text with mixed style, the style will toggle between normal,
formatted and mixed, e.g. all normal, all bold and mixed normal and bold.
Check spelling
Click the Check Spelling button in the toolbar to check the spelling of text in the document.
The built-in dictionary includes terminology commonly used in structural engineering.
Note: Prior to version 2.5, the spell checker required Microsoft Office to be installed. This
is no longer the case in the current version.
Inserting a graphic
Use the commands on the Insert menu to insert graphics:
To insert a Windows Bitmap or Metafile: Click Picture and select the file.
To insert a Padds drawing: Click Drawing and select the file.
To move a graphic:
1. Select the graphic by
clicking it.
2. Drag it to the new position.
To resize a graphic:
1. Select the graphic.
2. Drag the graphic's edge to
change its horizontal or
vertical size.
3. Drag one of the graphic's
corners to proportionally
change its horizontal or
vertical size.
Using the keyboard, select text by holding down Shift and pressing the same key that moves
the cursor. To extend a selection:
One character to the left or right: Shift+Left or Right arrow.
To the beginning or end of a word: Ctrl+Shift+Left or Right arrow.
To the beginning or end of a line: Shift+Home or End.
One line up or down: Shift+Up or Down arrow.
One screen up or down: Shift+PgUp or PgDn.
To the beginning or end of the project: Ctrl+Shift+Home or End.
To select all the words in a line: Ctrl+L.
To select the entire project: Ctrl+A.
You can use the Equation Editor to create your own equations in Calcpad. The Equation
Editor is also used to edit existing equations or save equation objects for re-use in future,
e.g. create a library of equations
To create or edit an equation, work through the different pages to create an equation object:
Equations: Use one or more lines to enter equations. When creating a new equation, this
page is displayed first.
Variables: Assign a value to each variable used on the Equations page. When editing an
exiting equation, this page is displayed by default.
Settings: Choose how the equations should be displayed and optionally attach a picture.
Note: When sending a series of equations to Calcpad, the equations are grouped together as
a unit, called an equation object.
Writing equations
A few simple rules apply when writing equations:
Like when using a simple calculator, use 'normal English' to write an equation – the
equation is automatically formatted for you. For example, if you want to enter the equation
y = a · x2 + b · x + c, enter 'y=ax^2+bx+c'.
The mathematical operators that can be used include +, –, /, and ^.
Note: The Greek symbols Π and π are reserved and cannot be used as variable. Their values
are fixed at 3.141593 etc. You may however use the symbol e as a normal variable.
Trigonometry
Logarithmic functions
ln, log
Other functions
Additional functions can be derived using the standard mathematical operators and functions.
A few simple examples include:
Instead of using the built-in square root function, you may determine the square root and
other roots as follows: a bc can be entered as 'a=sqrt(b+c)' or
'a=(b+c)^(1/2)’
If a = log(b), then b = 10a, which is entered as 'b=10^a'.
Examples:
To determine the circumference of a circle in feet, you may enter 'Circ{ft}=#p*r{ft}'.
The result in Calcpad will be:
To calculate the area of a circle in square meter, you may enter ' A{m^2}=#p*r{m}^2'.
The result will be:
r = 2.5m
A = p .r = 19.635 m2
2
Note: The program does not evaluate the consistancy of units within equations.
In the example, the first conditional branch causes K' to determined differently for different
values of the percentage of redistribution, %RD. Further, by comparing the values of K and K',
additional compression reinforcement is calculated when necessary.
By default, projects are displayed on a framed page with the PROKON logo. The top portion of
the page, called the header, also includes a number of pre-defined fields like 'Designed by',
'Date' etc. The page layout and header items are collectively referred to as a template.
The following templates are available when you run PROKON for the first time:
Default: The default template with frame and PROKON logo. For a start, you may want to
replace the PROKON logo and contact details with your own.
Frame: No-frills template with a frame only. This template offers a larger workspace.
Nothing: A blank template, in case you prefer printing on blank sheets.
Script commands
A number of script commands are available to draw lnes, write text and define special items.
All commands use parameters, i.e. values, to define certain entities. Parameters are separated
with spaces or commas.
The template script commands can be categorised as follows:
Graphics:
BM Xleft,Ybot,Xright,Ytop,filename : Insert a Bitmap image and stretch it between the
coordinates Xleft,Ybot and Xright,Ytop , e.g. 'BM 5,261,34.6.5,2779.5,LOGO.BMP'. The
Bitmap is assumed to reside in the same folder as the template file. For the best printing
results, the bitmap should be sized so that it can be placed at true size, e.g. an image of 700
pixels wide by 300 pixels high, placed 29.6mm wide by 12.7mm high should print well at
600 dpi.
Line drawing:
LT thickness: Set the line thickness in millimetres, e.g. 'LT 0.25'.
LL X1,Y1,X2,Y2: Draw a line from the coordinate X1,Y1 to X2,Y2, e.g. 'LL 5,10,5,110'
to draw a vertical line 100mm long.
Text:
TF font,style: Set the font and style, e.g.'TF Times New Roman, Normal'
TS size: Set the text height in points, e.g. 'TS 11'.
TT Xleft,Ybot,text: Write text at the coordinate Xleft,Ybot , e.g. 'TT 5,10,Project No'.
Header items:
HI Xleft,Ybot,Xright,Ytop,description: Insert a header item in the rectangle defined by the
coordinates Xleft,Ybot and Xright,Ytop, e.g. 'HI 150,270,Designed by'. In Calcpad, the
header item is later referenced by its description. See page 2-7 for details on entering
header information.
Other:
Comments can be written after two slashes, e.g. '//comment'.
The Section Database utility is a base component for all steel member and connection design
modules. The module contains section databases for several countries, comprising standard
steel profiles and common concrete and timber profiles. You can expand the database to
include custom sections.
Use the Section database command on the Tools menu to edit the database or select another
country database.
Selecting a database
Depending on the Windows Regional Settings, PROKON will automatically select an
appropriate section database when you run it for the first time. You can load another country's
database as follows:
On the Country menu, choose the country of your choice.
On the File menu, choose Safe as Default to save the selected database as the default
database for all PROKON modules, Sectable.dat
If a section database is not available for your country, you can build your own database. Use
the Edit Countries command on the Country meno for this purpose. The currently loaded
database will be used as the starting point for the new country database. A good starting point
will therefore be to load a similar database (e.g. the UK or USA databases that are used in
many parts of the world) and then making adjustments. The procedure to add new sections is
explained below.
Tip: The normal text editing commands apply when entering sections. Refer to Chapter 2
for detail on copying, deleting and inserting lines.
Tip: Some modules, e.g. Steel Member Design for Combined Stress, support certain
section types only. Therefore, it may in some cases be better to simplify a non-standard
section and then add it as a standard shape. That way, the simplified version of the section
will be available to the relevant design modules.
Use the Material database command on the Tools menu to edit the database. The material
database is a base component for the analysis and design modules. The default database
contains lists properties for common grades of steel, concrete, timber and aluminium available
in various countries in the world. The database also includes stress-strain curves for use in non-
linear analyses in Frame Analysis. You can add new materials to the database using the
Material Database utility that is accessible on the tools menu in Calcpad.
Adding materials
You can edit existing grades of materials or add new grades as needed. Material grades are
categorised as steel, concrete and aluminium. For other material types, use the other group.
Terminology
The meaning of the symbols used is as follows:
Grade: Name of the material grade, e.g. 350W. The grade will be visible in the Frame
Analysis module when you select from the available items in the material database.
E: Modulus of elasticity (kN/m2 or psi)
Poisson's ratio: Transverse strain ratio
Density: Unit weight (kN/m3 or lb/in3)
Expansion coefficient: Thermal expansion coefficient (strain per °C )
fy: Steel and aluminium yield stress (kN/m2 or psi)
fu: Steel and aluminium ultimate stress (kN/m2 or psi)
fcu: Concrete cube strength
f'c: Concrete cylinder strength
Stress-strain designation: Select a stress-strain curve if you wish to model non-linear
material behaviour in Frame Analysis.
Yield criterion: Select a yield criterion if you wish to model non-linear material behaviour
in Frame Analysis. The Von Mises yield criterion is suitable for materials that exhibit
similar behaviour under compression and tension, e.g. steel, and the Drucker-Prager
2-58 Configuring the Material Database
criterion is suitable for materials with pressure dependent behaviour, e.g. concrete and soil
that has negligible tensile resistance.
c: Cohesion (kN/m2 or psi). Optionally enter this value if using the Drucker-Prager yield
criterion, e.g. when modelling soil.
φ: Angle of internal friction (°). Optionally enter this value if using the Drucker-Prager
yield criterion, e.g. when modelling soil.
Note: By default, all materials in the database have no stress-strain curves or yield criteria
assigned to them. The reason for this is that non-linear analyses (in Frame Analysis) are
usually performed to evaluate geometric non-linearity (i.e. where deflection are large
enough to have an effect on the analysis). To include non-linear (inelastic) material
behaviour, you must associate an appropriate stress-strain curve and yield criterion to each
material concerned.
Yield criteria
The yield criterion supplements the stress-strain curve in defining a material's behaviour:
The Von Mises yield criterion is suitable for ductile materials with similar compressive
and tensile properties, e.g. steel. If presented in three-dimensional space of principal
stresses, it would be a circular cylinder of infinite length with its axis inclined at equal
angles to the three principal stresses.
The Drucker-Packer yield criterion is suitable for materials that do not exhibit the same
behaviour in tension and compression, e.g. concrete and soil. Its three-dimensional
presentation would be a cone. The Drucker-Prager yield surface is a "smooth version" of
the Mohr-Coulomb yield surface, and therefore it is often expressed in terms of the
cohesion, c, and the angle of internal friction, φ, that are used to describe the Mohr-
Coulomb yield surface.
3
Structural Analysis
The structural analysis collection includes frame analysis and also some specialised finite
element and beam analysis modules.
The accent of the analysis modules falls on user friendliness, speed and efficiency. The frame
analysis module is ideally suited for the analysis of small to medium sized structures, not to say
that the analyses of large structures are not possible. Frame has a comprehensive array of static
and dynamic analysis modes.
Extensive use is made of interactive graphic representations during both the input and output
phases. The input modules incorporate error checking to help eliminate input errors as they
occur.
Frame analysis
Frame can take account of own weight, temperature changes, prescribed displacements and
elastic supports. Loads are entered as load cases and grouped in load combinations at ultimate
and serviceability limit states.
The following static analysis modes are available:
Linear analysis: Normal elastic frame analysis.
Second order analysis: Models sway behaviour by incorporating P-delta effects. The
solution is obtained by iterative analysis, thereby allowing for options like tension
elements.
Non – linear analysis. This takes the second order analysis a bit further. The load is
applied in steps and the deflected structure at the end of each step is used to apply the next
step. Material non – linearity is not yet supported.
Buckling analysis: For calculating safety factors for structural instability due to buckling.
Dynamic analysis modes available include:
Modal analysis: Calculation of a frame’s natural modes of vibration.
Harmonic analysis: For determining a frame’s response to harmonic loading.
Earthquake analysis: Quasi-dynamic analysis of a frame subjected to ground
acceleration.
Beam analysis
Modules are available for the analysis of simple beams and beams on elastic supports.
Frame can be used for the analysis of the following types of structures by selecting a domain
on the ‘General’ input page:
Plane Frames: Analysis of a frames in a vertical (X-Y) plane.
Grillages: Analysis of a structure in a horizontal (X-Z) plane.
Space Frames: Analysis of three-dimensional structures made up of beam and/or shell
elements and design of concrete shells.
Space Trusses: Analysis of three-dimensional trusses where only axial forces are
considered.
Frame analysis results can be post-processed using some of the steel and steel design modules.
Sign conventions
Frame input and output uses a mixture of global axis and local axes values.
Global axes
The global axis system is nearly
exclusively used when entering frame
geometry and loading. Global axes are
also used in the analysis output for
deflections and reactions.
The global axes are defined as follows:
For the sake of this definition, the
X-axis is chosen to the right.
The Y-axis always points vertically
upward.
Using a right-hand rule, the Z-axis
points out of the screen.
Note: Unlike some other 3D programs that put the Z-axis vertical, Frame take the Y-axis as
being vertical.
To simplify the analysis output, the orientation of the local shell axes can sometimes be
manipulated by slight rotation of the shell elements. In the case of horizontal slab, for example,
the local x and y-axes (and stresses) are taken parallel to the global X and Z-axes. In the case of
a circular slab, radial and concentric stresses may often be more desirable. By generating the
shell elements at a slight slope towards the centre, they will not be considered as horizontal
anymore. As a result, local y-axes will point (upward) towards the centre and the x-axes taken
Note: Rotating elements (for the sake of manipulating the local axes) can induce additional
support conditions in some cases. Such manipulation should thus be performed with
great care.
Note: In this manual, the global and local axes are written in uppercase and lowercase
respectively.
Note: To assist you in evaluating shell element stresses, stress contour diagrams show
orientation lines at the centre of each shell element. An orientation line indicates the
direction (not axis) of bending or plane stress. In a concrete shell, the orientation line would
indicate the direction of reinforcement resisting the particular stress.
Units of measurement
The following units of measurement are supported:
Use the Convert Units button on the Settings page to change the units for the current analysis:
Convert Units: Changes the units and converts all numeric data from the old to the new
units of measurement.
Analysis modes
The following types of analysis are possible:
Linear analysis: Basic linear elastic analysis. A linear analysis is normally sufficient for
the static analysis of a frame or truss with negligible sway.
Second order analysis: Choose this mode to include p-delta effects in the analysis. This
option is recommended for structures where sway may have a marked effect on the
member forces, e.g. portal frames. The second order analysis is an iterative procedure. The
total strain energy of the frame is calculated after each iteration. The analysis is deemed to
have converged once the total strain energy of two sequential iterations differs by less than
the specified tolerance. If convergence was not possible, e.g. structural instability due to
buckling of critical members, a message to that effect will be displayed.
Non Linear analysis: Choose this mode where non-linear effects and large deflections
may be expected or where second order analysis might not provide sufficient accuracy.
Element formulation
The bending formulation of the quadrilateral shell element was derived from the Discrete
Kirchoff-Midlin Quadrilateral. The membrane behaviour of the element was improved by
introducing the drilling degree of freedom using an interpolation technique by Alman. The
result is a shell finite element that shows good plate and membrane performance
characteristics.
Stress smoothing
A reduced integration technique is used to calculate the element stiffness matrices. The stresses
are calculated at the Gaussian integration points and subsequently extrapolated bi-linearly to
the corner point and centre point of each element. Taking the average of all contributing stress
components smooths stresses at common nodes.
Element layout
Consider a typical continuous flat concrete slab supported on columns or walls. To ensure
accurate modelling of curvature, a minimum of about four elements should be used between
bending moment inflection points. This translates to a minimum of about eight elements per
span in both directions.
Using more elements per span often does not yield a significant improvement in analysis
accuracy. In addition, the particular finite element formulation yields its most accurate results
when the element thickness does not greatly exceed its plan dimensions.
For a typical concrete slab with a thickness of about one-tenth or one-fifteenth of the span
length, a reasonable rule of thumb is to make the plan dimensions of the shell elements no
smaller than the thickness of the slab. In other words, use a maximum of about ten to fifteen
elements per span.
Stress smoothing
A reduced integration technique is used to calculate the element stiffness matrices. The stresses
are calculated at the Gaussian integration points and subsequently extrapolated to the corner
nodes of each element. Taking the average of all contributing stress components smooths
stresses at common nodes.
Concrete design
Frame can perform reinforced concrete design for shell elements. The Wood and Armer
equations are used to transform the bending and torsional stresses to effective bending
moments in the user-defined x' and y'-directions.
To allow for the effect of in-plane forces, bending moments Mx, My and Mxy are increased to
include the effects of these forces. The moments are increased by conservatively taking the in-
plane forces to act with a lever arm of a quarter of the section depth. The Wood and Armer
equations are then evaluated in same manner as described above.
Codes of practice
The following concrete design codes are supported:
ACI 318 - 1995.
BS 8110 - 1997.
CSA A23.3 - 1993.
Eurocode 2 - 1992.
SABS 0100 - 1992.
Analysis type
Linear analysis: Normal linear elastic frame analysis. A linear analysis is normally
sufficient for the static analysis of a frame or truss with negligible sway. The linear
analysis procedure is performed faster than any other type of analysis. If you need to
perform a second order, buckling or dynamic analysis, it will be wise to first verify the
basic integrity of the frame input by performing a linear analysis.
Second order analysis: Models sway behaviour by incorporating P-delta effects. The
solution is obtained by iterative analysis, thereby allowing for options like tension
elements.
Analysis parameters
Depending on the selected analysis type, you may need to specify additional analysis
parameters:
Concrete design parameters: Concrete and reinforcement properties. Details are given
on page 3-61.
Second order and buckling parameters: Required analysis tolerance and number of
buckling mode shapes. Refer to page 3-62 for detail.
Dynamic parameters: Values influencing modal, seismic and harmonic analysis. A
detailed discussion is given on page 3-64.
Non linear parameters: Values influencing the non-linear analysis. A detailed discussion
is given on page 3-64.
Own weight
The own weight of the frame can be calculated using the entered cross-sectional areas and
member lengths. If you specify a load case, the own weight is calculated and added to the other
loads of that case.
The following are points of importance:
By default, the own weight of the frame is set to not be included in the analysis. Be sure to
select the appropriate load case for own weight or, alternatively, to include the frame's
own weight in the values of the loads entered.
Tip: If you wish to use own weight in its own separate load case, you can do so by defining
an empty load case. You can enter a zero load at any node number, for example, and then
select that load case as the one to use for own weight.
The own weight or beam elements are modelled as uniformly distributed loads along the
lengths of the beams. In the case of a vertical beam element, own weight is modelled as two
equal point loads at the ends of the beam, yielding a constant axial force equal to half the own
weight. In the case of shell elements, own weight is modelled as point loads at the corner
nodes. In the case of solids, the weight is added as point loads at the nodes.
Graphics Options
Click on the graphics options button to have the graphics options dialog displayed.
Select whether you want
items like node numbers
and supports to be
displayed.
Choose whether you want
all beam elements or only a
certain type to be displayed.
Display the structure with
full 3D rendering, e.g. to
verify section orientations.
3D rendering is
automatically suppressed
when viewing output.
Choose quick or detailed
rendering. Quick rendering
is faster than the detailed
method, but you may find that some surfaces are drawn incorrectly.
All surfaces are drawn as polygons. You can choose to make the surfaces transparent or have
them filled and outlined.
Tip: The Graphics options and 3D rendering function can also be accessed using the buttons
next to the displayed picture.
Alternative methods of generating frame analysis input are discussed on page 3-58.
Wizards
The wizards are suitable for the
rapid generation of complete
input files for some typical
structures. Because the resulting
input data is presented in the
normal way on the input pages,
you are free to edit and append
to the data as necessary.
Input generated this way can
optionally be appended to
existing data – you can therefore
repeatedly use the wizards to
generate complicated structures.
Note: The frame analysis modules are not limited to modelling only those frames generated
by the wizards. Any general two or three-dimensional frame can be collectively built up.
The wizards merely serve to simplify input of typical frames.
Title
Enter a descriptive name for the frame. It should not be confused with the file name you use
when you save the input data.
Note: Most of the examples given in this section show 3D co-ordinates as would be
applicable if the domain is set to Space Frame or Space Truss. If the domain is set to
Plane Frame or Grillage use the X-Y and X-Z planes respectively.
The Y-coordinate of node 4 is left blank. Therefore, node 4 is put at the coordinate
(0.805,0,14.614).
The No of is set to '2', meaning that two additional nodes must be generated.
Setting Increment to '7' means that the node numbers are incremented by seven.
Therefore, node 4 is copied to node 11 and node 11 is copied to node 18.
The values in the X-inc, Y-inc and Z-inc columns set the distance between copied nodes.
The coordinates 4 to 18 are horizontally spaced at 1.140 m and 0.472 m along the X and
negative Z-axis respectively. The coordinates of the additional nodes are thus
(1.945,0,14.142) and (3.085,0,13.670).
An alternative method to generate equally spaced nodes is to use the Inc to End option. This
method allows you to define two nodes and then generate a number of nodes in-between:
Use the same procedure as above to define the first node's coordinates.
Set the values of X-inc, Y-inc and Z-inc to the total coordinate difference to the last node
and enable the Inc to End option. The last node's coordinates are then first calculated and
the specified number of intermediate nodes then generated.
Block generation
A group of nodes can be repeated by entering a 'B' in the No column followed by the first and
last table line numbers in which the nodes were defined. Separate the line numbers with a '–'.
Block generation example:
The nodes defined in lines 11 to 26 are copied twice. Node numbers are incremented by thirty for
each copy. The X, Y and Z-coordinate increments are 10 m, zero and zero respectively.
To copy one line only, simply omit the end line number, e.g. 'B10' to copy line 10 only.
Tip: The current line number is displayed in the status bar at the bottom left of the
program's window.
The block generation function may be used recursively. That means that the lines specified
may themselves contain further block generation statements.
Moving nodes
To move a group of nodes to a new location without generating any new nodes, use the block
generation function and set No-of to '1' and Inc to '0'.
Arc generation
A group of nodes can be repeated on an arc by entering an 'A' in the No column, followed by
the start and end line numbers. Enter the centre of the arc in the X, Y and Z columns and use
the X-inc, Y-inc or Z-inc column to specify the angle increment about the X, Y or Z-axis
respectively. If the program domain is set to Plane Frame or Grillage, the angle increment
should be entered in the last column. Rotation will be about the Z and Y-axis respectively.
All nodes defined in lines 5 to 9 of the table will be repeated eleven times on an imaginary
horizontal arc. The centre point of the arc is located at the coordinate (10,0,1.5). The node
number increment is set to 5, i.e. node number 3 becomes node 8, etc. The rotation angle
between the generated groups of nodes is 30 degrees about the Y-axis, i.e. anti-clockwise using
a right-hand rule.
To copy one line only, simply omit the end line numbers, e.g. 'A12' to copy line 12 only.
Rotating nodes
To rotate a group of existing nodes without generating any new nodes, use the arc generation
function and set the No-of to '1' and Increment to '0'.
Deleting nodes
Nodes can be deleted by entering 'Delete' in the Inc to end column. This can be especially
handy if you have generated a large group of nodes and then need to remove some of them
again.
Example:
Graphical input
The following graphical input functions are available on the left hand side of the screen. The
toolbar containing the graphics options buttons can also be dragged and docked on any side of
the picture.
To delete nodes click the ‘Delete
nodes’ button and then select the
nodes to be deleted on the screen
using the mouse. Click ‘Done’ when
finished. Clicking ‘Undo’ will undo
the deletions in reverse order.
To block delete nodes click the
‘Block delete nodes’ button. Select a
Tip: Enable full 3D rendering in the Graphics options to view the true beam orientation.
Tip: Enable full 3D rendering in the Graphics options to view the true beam orientation.
A section can be rotated through ninety degrees by selecting the alternative orientation when
reading it from the section database.
Note: In a space truss analysis the section orientation is of no importance. The analysis
results are influenced by the section area and not by it's second moment of inertia.
End fixity
The fixity at each end of an element, i.e. continuous or pinned, must also be defined in the
Fixity columns. Pins are modelled on the element itself and not on the node. External pinned
supports should be defined on the supports input table. External supports are described in the
next section.
The following types of end fixities can be specified:
Fixed: Specify 'F' to provide full rotational continuity. If you leave the field blank, 'F' is
assumed.
Pinned: Use 'P' to for no rotational restraint, i.e. a ball-joint.
Torsional fixity: Use 'T' to provide restraint for rotation about the element axis only. This
option is only available in the Grillage domain and the Space Frame domain.
Entered fixities are applied at an element's lower node number (designated as the 'left' end) and
higher node number (the 'right' end). The order of the node numbers entered in the first column
of the table has no bearing on the application of the fixity codes.
To define a pin only at the two remote ends of a group of elements, enable the Group fix
option by entering a 'Y'. In this case, the normal convention of smaller and larger node
numbers does not apply. Instead, pins are put at the remote ends in the same order that the
nodes have been entered.
The group of elements from node 42 to 24 is continuous except for the pins used at nodes
42 and 24.
Note: Do not use an internal pin on an element to model an external support that allows free
rotation. Rather allow the beam to be fixed to the node and define a simple support on the
Support input page.
If the Group fix is left blank or 'N' is entered, the normal individual element fixity mode is
assumed.
Tip: Element fixity can be displayed graphically on the screen. For this, edit the Graphics
options to disable the Elements Continuous option.
When using pins, especially in the Space Frame domain, you should take care to ensure
overall stability of the frame. Consider two elements on a straight line with pins at all three
relevant nodes, for example. The centre node will be unrestrained for rotation about the
element axis, resulting in instability during the analysis.
Note: When performing a second order analysis, you can use tension elements to model
bracing, for example. For this, special settings need be made on the Beam Sections input
page. Refer to page 3-31 for detail.
Tapered beams
A beam can be made to taper between by entering two or three section names, separated with
commas:
Use two sections, e.g. 'Rafter,Haunch' or '1,2', to make the program vary the section
properties linearly along the length of the beam element. The first and second sections are
taken at the lower and higher node numbers respectively.
For a more accurate non-linear variation, enter three section names, e.g.
'Rafter,Middle,Haunch'. The first, second and third sections are taken at the at the lower
node number, the centre of the element and at higher node number respectively.
The procedure the enter haunches is described on page 3-31.
Rigid links are defined between nodes 12 and 24, 14 and 26 and 16 and 26.
The elements between nodes 251 and 266 are copied ten times with the node numbers
decrementing by five with each copy.
Block generation
A group of elements can be repeated by entering a 'B' in the No column. Then enter the first
and last table line numbers in which the elements were defined, separated with a '–'.
Block generation example:
All elements defined in lines 11 to 26 will be copied twice with a node number increment of
thirty. The copied elements will use the same section number and fixity codes as the original
elements.
To copy one line only, simply omit the end line number, e.g. 'B11' to copy line 11 only.
Tip: The current line number is displayed in the status bar at the bottom left of the
program's window.
Tip: When entering a complicated structure it may help to leave a few blank lines between
groups of elements. Not only will it improve readability, but it will also allow you to insert
additional nodes at a later stage without upsetting block and arc generations.
Deleting elements
Beam elements can be deleted by entering a special section name 'Delete'. This can be
especially handy if you have generated a large group of elements at regular increments and
need to remove some of them again.
Example:
Note: The display of selected beam element groups can be activated or suppressed by
editing the Graphics options.
Error checking
The program checks for duplicate elements and elements with zero length. It also checks that a
section number is assigned to each element. If an error is detected, an Error list button will be
displayed.
Graphical input
The following graphical input functions are available on the left hand side of the screen. The
toolbar containing the graphics options buttons can also be dragged and docked on any side of
the picture.
To add beams click the ‘Add beams’
button. Enter the section name, ß angle
and fixities for the beams. By clicking
two successive nodes, a beam will be
inserted between them. If ‘follow on’ is
checked, the last node of the previous
beam is taken as the first node of the
next beam. If ‘Link end nodes only’ is
checked, only one beam is placed
between the last two nodes entered. If
not, all nodes between the last two nodes
are also added into the beam string. The
3-28 Frame Analysis
nodes must lie within a certain tolerance from the straight line between the end nodes to be
included. This tolerance can be entered in the Tolerance (%) field. If e.g. 1% is entered, any
node closer than 1% of the distance between the end nodes from the line joining them is
included. Pressing ‘Undo’ will delete the beams in reverse order, in which they were entered,
one by one.
To delete beams click the ‘Delete
beams’ button and then select the
beams to be deleted on the screen using
the mouse. Click ‘Done’ when finished.
Clicking ‘Undo’ will undo the deletions
in reverse order.
To block delete beams click the ‘Block
delete beam elements’ button. Select a
rectangle on the screen with the mouse. All
beams inside the rectangle will be deleted.
Press ‘Done’ when finished. Pressing
‘Undo’ will undo the deletions in reverse
order one by one beam. Pressing ‘Undo All’ will undo all deletions done with this function.
Click the ‘Change beam properties’
button to change beam properties. Enter
the desired properties for the beam(s) on
the dialog. One can also use the ‘Get
properties’ button to do this. Click the
button and then click on a beam. The
beam’s properties will then be
transferred to the dialog. Clicking on
beams will now change their properties
to those specified on the dialog. The
‘Undo’ button will undo the changes in
reverse order.
Click the ‘Explode beams’ button to
explode the beam input. This results in the
list of beams being written, each on a
separate line without block generations etc.
Once done, it cannot be reversed.
On the beams input page one can also delete nodes and groups of nodes in the same way as on
the nodes input page. Refer to page 3-22 for details
Each section should also have an associated material selected. If no section or material
properties are entered, the values applicable to the previous line in the table are used.
Entering haunches
Haunches are entered by appending the haunch depth to the section designation. To add a
haunch of 180 mm to a '305x102x66' BS taper flange I-section, enter '305x102x66 (0.280h)'.
The overall depth is then taken to be 305 mm + 280 mm = 585 mm.
Tip: You can verify your definition of haunches by enabling 3D rendering. For more detail,
refer to page 3-17.
Tension members
When performing a second order analysis, you can designate members to have tension stiffness
only, e.g. slender bracing members. To make a member be ignored during the analysis when it
would act in compression:
1. Enter the member's section properties in the usual manner.
2. Edit the value for the cross sectional area and change its sign to negative.
Note: The program uses the absolute value of the cross sectional area. The negative sign
entered merely enables the tension-only behaviour for beams of the given section group.
Own weight
If a material's definition includes a density value, the own weight of a member is calculated
automatically and added to the load case specified on the Settings page.
Selecting materials
Each section should have an associated
material.
To add one or more materials to a frame
analysis data file, click Materials. Open
the relevant material type screen and
select the materials that are required for
the current frame input.
After adding the selected materials to
the input, you can select them by
clicking the Material column to drop
down a list.
Graphical input
The following graphical input functions are available on the left hand side of the screen. The
toolbar containing the graphics options buttons can also be dragged and docked on any side of
the picture.
Click the ‘Change beam properties’
button to change beam properties. Enter
the desired properties for the beam(s) on
the dialog. One can also use the ‘Get
properties’ button to do this. Click the
button and then click on a beam. The
beam’s properties will then be
transferred to the dialog. Clicking on
beams will now change their properties
to those specified on the dialog. The
‘Undo’ button will undo the changes in
reverse order.
Note: Quadrilateral elements generally yield more accurate analysis results than triangular
elements. Refer to page 3-10 for more detail.
An element definition must include a thickness and material type. Refer to page 3-31 for more
detail on using materials.
Tip: When entering a complicated slab, it may help to leave a few blank lines between
groups of elements. Not only will it improve readability, but it will also allow you to insert
additional elements at a later stage without upsetting block and arc generations.
Error checking
The program checks for duplicate elements and nodes not connected to elements. It also checks
that a group number is assigned to each element. If an error is detected, an Error list button
will be displayed.
Block generation
You can use the block generation to copy shells you defined earlier in the table. A group of
shells can be repeated by entering a 'B' in the Node 1 column followed by the first and last
table line numbers in which the nodes were defined. Separate the line numbers with a '–'.
To copy a single line only, simply omit the end line number, e.g. 'B11' to copy line 11 only.
Tip: The current line number is displayed in the status bar at the bottom left of the
program's window.
The block generation function may be used recursively. The group of lines referenced may thus
contain block generation statements.
Deleting elements
Shell elements can be deleted by entering 'Delete' in the Material column. This can be useful if
you have generated a large group of elements and need to remove some of them again.
Example:
The element 15-16-26-25 and the generated element 18-19-29-28 are deleted.
On the shells input page one can also delete nodes and groups of nodes in the same way as on
the nodes input page. Refer to page 3-22 for details
Note: Hexahedral elements generally yield very accurate analysis results. The tetrahedrons
should only be used as filler elements where it is not possible to use hexahedrons.
Own weight
If a material's definition includes a density value, the own weight of a member is calculated
automatically and added to the load case specified on the Settings page.
Tip: When entering a complicated model, it may help to leave a few blank lines between
groups of elements. Not only will it improve readability, but it will also allow you to insert
additional elements at a later stage without upsetting block and arc generations.
Error checking
The program checks for duplicate elements and nodes not connected to elements. It also checks
that a group number is assigned to each element. If an error is detected, an Error list button
will be displayed.
Block generation
You can use the block generation to copy shells you defined earlier in the table. A group of
solids can be repeated by entering a 'B' in the Node 1 column followed by the first and last
table line numbers in which the nodes were defined. Separate the line numbers with a '–'.
To copy a single line only, simply omit the end line number, e.g. 'B11' to copy line 11 only.
Tip: The current line number is displayed in the status bar at the bottom left of the
program's window.
The block generation function may be used recursively. The group of lines referenced may thus
contain block generation statements.
Deleting elements
Solid elements can be deleted by entering 'Delete' in the Material column. This can be useful if
you have generated a large group of elements and need to remove some of them again.
Example:
On the solids input page one can also delete nodes and groups of nodes in the same way as on
the nodes input page. Refer to page 3-22 for details
Tip: Spring elements can also be made "rigid" to force two nodes to have the same
translation and/or rotation. In the above example, a very large value for K x would
cause nodes 16 and 116 to have identical displacements in the direction described by
nodes 3 and 4.
Graphical input
The following graphical input functions are available on the left hand side of the screen. The
toolbar containing the graphics options buttons can also be dragged and docked on any side of
the picture.
To add springs click the ‘Add spring
elements’ button. Enter the spring
stiffnesses and orientation nodes on
the dialog.. Now click the mouse on
nodes to have springs entered into
the input table. Pressing ‘Undo’ will
delete the springs in the reverse
order in which they were entered,
one by one.
On the springs input page one can also delete nodes and groups of nodes in the same way as on
the nodes input page. Refer to page 3-22 for details
Supports input
Frames require external supports to ensure global stability. Supports can be entered to prevent
any of the six degrees of freedom at a node, i.e. translation in the X Y and Z-directions and
rotation about the X, Y and Z-axes. You can also define elastic supports, e.g. an elastic soil
support, and prescribed displacements, e.g. foundation settlement.
Enter the node number to be supported in the Node No column. In the next column a
combination of the letters 'X', 'Y' and 'Z' can be entered to indicate the direction of fixity. Use
capitals and lowercase to define restraint of translation and rotation respectively, e.g. 'XYZy'
means fixed against movement in the X, Y and Z-direction and rotation about the Y-axis.
Tip: To enter a simple support with no moment restraint, one would typically enter a 'XYZ'
or 'Y'. Avoid using a pin on an element to model an external hinge.
If you want to repeat the supports defined on the previous line of the table, you need only enter
the node number, i.e. you may leave the Fixity column blank. If the XYZxyz column is left
blank, the supports applicable to the previous line will be used automatically.
Gap supports
Gap support are supports that work in one direction only and allow free movement in the
opposite direction, e.g. allow uplift. The sign of the gap support corresponds to the global axis
direction, e.g. a [+] input in the Y-direction provides support in the positive Y-direction
(upward reaction) and none in the negative Y-directions (i.e. uplift is allowed).
Note: The display of supports can be activated or suppressed by editing the Graphics
options.
Error Checking
The program does a basic check on the structural stability of the frame. If a potential error is
detected, an Error list button will appear.
Note: You cannot define an elastic support and a prescribed displacement at the same node
because it will be a contradiction of principles.
Graphical input
The following graphical input functions are available on the left hand side of the screen. The
toolbar containing the graphics options buttons can also be dragged and docked on any side of
the picture.
On the supports input page one can also delete nodes and groups of nodes in the same way as
on the nodes input page. Refer to page 3-22 for details
Sign conventions
Nodal loads are applied parallel to the global axes – an explanation of the sign conventions are
given on page 3-6.
Tip: For a typical steel or timber frame or roof truss, it may be easiest to define a node at
each purlin position. Roof loads transferred via the purlins can then be entered as
nodal loads.
Error checking
The program checks that specified nodes have indeed been defined in the Nodes input table. If
an error is detected, an Error list button will appear.
Graphical input
The following graphical input functions are available on the left hand side of the screen. The
toolbar containing the graphics options buttons can also be dragged and docked on any side of
the picture.
To add nodal loads click the ‘Add nodal loads’ button.
Enter the forces, moments and the load case on the
dialog. Now click the mouse on nodes to have nodal
loads entered into the input table. Pressing ‘Undo’ will
delete the nodal loads in the reverse order in which
they were entered, one by one.
Sign conventions
Depending on the selected load direction, beam loads are applied parallel to the global axes or
parallel to the local y-axis – the definitions of the global and local axes are given on page 3-6
and 3-6 respectively.
Note: Positive vertical loads act upward and negative loads act downward.
Error checking
The program checks that element definitions match previously defined elements. If an error is
detected, an Error list button will appear.
Graphical input
The following graphical input functions are available on the left hand side of the screen. The
toolbar containing the graphics options buttons can also be dragged and docked on any side of
the picture.
To add beam loads click the ‘Add beam loads’
button. Enter the loads, direction and
temperature change on the dialog. The load
case also needs to be entered. Now click the
Frame Analysis 3-51
mouse on beams to have beam loads entered into the input table. Pressing ‘Undo’ will delete
the beam loads in the reverse order in which they were entered, one by one.
To block add beam loads click the ‘Block add
beam loads’ button. Enter the loads, direction
and temperature change on the dialog. The
load case also needs to be entered. Select a
rectangle on the screen with the mouse. All
beams inside the rectangle will have a beam
load added. Pressing ‘Undo’ will delete the
beam loads in the reverse order in which they
were entered, one by one.
Tip: If the shell element numbers are not visible in the picture, edit the graphics options to
enable detailed rendering and disable the full 3D view. Refer to page 3-17 for detail on
changing the graphics options.
Sign conventions
Shell loads are applied parallel to the element's local z-axes – an explanation of the local axes
of shell elements are given on page 3-6.
Note: Positive vertical loads act upward and negative loads act downward.
You can model practical scenarios by grouping load cases together in load combinations. Enter
the load combination name in the Load comb column; followed by the load case name and
relevant load factors.
If the Load comb column is left blank, the load combination is taken to be the same as for the
previous line of the table. The load cases to consider in a load combination are entered one per
line in the Load case column. Enter the relevant ultimate and serviceability limit state load
factors in the ULS factor and SLS factor columns.
Tip: You may leave one or more blank lines between load combination definitions to
improve readability.
Tip: If you plan to use a working stress method to design the frame members, e.g. steel
design according to SABS 0162 - 1984, you may use the same load factors at ULS and SLS.
Error checking
The program only checks that valid load cases are specified. It has no knowledge of the design
code that will be used in the member design and therefore does not check the validity of the
entered load factors.
Input Wizards
A number of typical frames can be input by entering a number of parameters. The Input
Wizards do most of the data input. See page 3-18 for more detail on the Input wizards.
Note: The frame analysis modules are not limited to modelling only those frames generated
by the input wizards modules. Instead, the input wizards merely serve to simplify input of
some typical frames.
Importing drawings
You can also use your favourite CAD system to save a frame's geometry in a 2D or 3D
Dxf/Dwg format drawing and then use the Import -> Dxf/Dwg files command on the File
menu to convert it to frame input.
CIMsteel
The Space Frame Analysis module can import complete frame models, including geometrical
and loading data, defined in the CIMsteel (Computer Integrated Manufacturing for
Constructional Steelwork) integration standard. Modelling packages that can create CIMsteel
files include Intergraph Frameworks and Microstation Structural Triforma. Note that at the
time of writing this feature had not been fully developed.
Analysis type
Select the type of analysis to be performed. Refer to page 3-13 for a description of the various
analysis modes.
Note: In a harmonic or seismic analysis, all dead and live load that move with the structure
during its dynamic response will influence the dynamic response of the structure. Such loads
should be considered as masses for the purpose of determining the mode shapes.
Own weight and distributed vertical loads are added using the consistent mass matrix
formulation. Point loads are added as lumped masses at the relevant nodes.
Note: In a seismic analysis all loads not selected as masses will be excluded from the
analysis.
Damping
Stress level Type and condition of structure
ratio
Working stress no
Reinforced concrete with considerable
more than about 3% to 5%
cracking
half of yield stress
ii – iii 0.003 g
iv – v 0.01 g
Vi 0.03 g
Ix 0.3 g
x – xi 1.0 g
TMH 7 - Part 2, when considering the influence of seismic disturbances, gives the following
guidelines:
Symmetrical structures: The influence of seismic disturbances should be considered along
both principal axes of symmetry.
Non-symmetrical structures: It would normally be sufficient to consider the seismic effects
along any two arbitrarily chosen orthogonal axes.
For structures, symmetrical and non-symmetrical, the seismic effects along two orthogonal
axes may normally be considered independently of each other.
Structural
Type or arrangement of resisting elements
ductility factor
If you enter a value greater than one, the elastic response spectrum will be adjusted to obtain an
appropriate inelastic response spectrum. The program allows you to adjust the design response
spectrum as required.
Foundation
Description of founding material
factor f
Analysis options
You can set the following options prior to analysis:
Load combinations only: Select this option to analyse only load combinations. If you do
not select this option, the individual load cases will also be analysed. Having the results
available for load cases will help you verify the accuracy of you analysis or understand the
behaviour of your model under those load cases, but it can slow down the analysis process
in some cases, e.g. non-linear analysis of large models.
Store output with input: With this option selected, the analysis results are saved with
your Frame Analysis input file. If you open the input file again at a later date, your
analysis results will be available immediately, allowing you to continue without needed to
run the analysis again. This feature is particularly useful when dealing with complex cases
that require a long analysis time.
Output file: If you choose to not store your output with your input, the program will store
your analysis results in a separate text file. You can enter the name for the output file;
historically Frame Analysis used the output file SF.OUT.
Save before analysing: If enabled, this option will automatically save your input file
before commencing the analysis. If something would go wrong during the analysis, you
will not lose your work.
Tip: Perform a buckling analysis to get an indication of the general stability of the frame
under the entered loads. A frame with a buckling load factor less than unity normally
experiences the same local or global stability problems during a second order analysis.
Reactions: The reactions forces and moments at all supported nodes are displayed. The
arrowheads points in the direction of each reaction.
Beam element forces:
Axial forces: The force is shown as expanded red and blue lines. Compression forces
are shown in red and tension forces in blue. The distance of a line from the element
centre line is in proportion to the size of the axial force.
Moments: Bending moments about the local x and y-axes. A plot factor can also be
entered to enlarge or reduce the bending moment diagram on the frame.
Shear: Shear force diagrams are drawn for the local y and x-directions. A beam
element's shear force diagram is constructed by viewing it with its local z-axis
pointing to the right. Since the direction of the z-axis depends on the node numbers,
irregular numbering of nodes can result in apparent irregular signs used in the shear
The x, y and xy bending moments: The bending moments about the local x and y-
axes and the torsional moment. The direction (not axis) of bending is shown as a small
line on each shell element.
Maximum and minimum bending moments: The principal bending moments.
The x, y and maximum shear forces: The shear forces are in local x and y-axes.
The maximum shear stress is also given and is obtained by dividing the maximum
shear force by the thickness of the element.
Contours of the required reinforcement in the top and bottom faces in the x' and y'-
directions are given. The corresponding ‘Wood & Armer’ moments from which the
reinforcement was calculated is also given. The reinforcement direction is shown as a
small line on each shell. Refer to page 3-61 for the definition of the reinforcement
directions.
Tip: If the lines indicating the direction of bending or of the reinforcement is not clearly
visible, enable detailed rendering under the graphics options. Refer to page 3-17 for
instructions.
Tip: Shell element stress contours are drawn on the deflected shape of the structure. Careful
choice of the deflection magnification factor can enhance contour diagrams.
The stresses presented are the direct stresses in the X, Y and Z directions, the shear stresses in
the XY, XZ and YZ planes, the 3 principal stresses 1,2 and 3 as well as the maximum shear
stress and the von Mises stress. For solids all the stresses are plotted in the global co-ordinates.
Open the Output file page for a tabular display of the frame analysis output file. You can filter
the information sent to the calcsheets by enabling or disabling the relevant sections.
The Find heading function allows you to quickly locate any main section of the output file.
If you right click on the output, various editing functions are available. For example, you can
search for any string by pressing Ctrl and F.
The Plane Stress/Strain Analysis module can be used to perform a finite element analysis of a
membrane of any general geometry subjected to plane stress or strain. An automated element
grid generation facility helps speeding up the input and analysis processes.
Scope
The program analyses membrane structures of any general shape, including openings. The
cases of plane stress and plane strain are both supported. Element grids are automatically
generated with a customisable grid size.
Nodes input
A structure is defined by entering one or more shapes. A shape may comprise straight lines and
arcs. When more than one shape is entered, the shapes will accumulate and form one structure.
Often, a complicated section is easier defined using more than one shape.
Supports input
You can define point supports, distributed support and prescribed displacements anywhere
along the edges of the structure. Supports are entered as follows:
Nodes : Enter a single node number for a point support or a range of nodes for a
distributed support, e.g. '2' for node 2 only and '2-5' for the zone described by
the straight line joining nodes 2 and 5.
XY support : Enter 'X' and/or 'Y' for horizontal and/or vertical support.
Displ. : Specify the value of any horizontal or vertical prescribed displacement in the
relevant column (m).
Note: Point supports invariably result in localised stress concentrations, with the effect
increasing for smaller element grids. It is therefore recommended to avoid point supports
and rather distribute each support over as large a width as possible.
Concrete
25E6 to 35E6 0.20 ± 24
(normal strength)
Loads input
Point loads and distributed loads can be defined anywhere along the edges of the structure. Use
as many lines as necessary to define the loads.
Loads are entered as follows:
Nodes : Enter a single node number for a point load or a range of nodes for a
distributed load, e.g. '2' for node 2 only and '2-5' for the zone described by the
straight line joining nodes 2 and 5.
X : The load direction can be either 'X' or 'Y' for horizontal or vertical respectively.
Wleft : Distributed load intensity at the smaller node number (kN/m).
Wright : Distributed load intensity at the larger node number (kN/m).
Note: Positive forces are taken to work upward and to the right.
Analysis options
During the analysis, the program generates a rectangular grid of nodes in which rectangular
and, where necessary, triangular finite elements are placed. The grid spacing can be set
independently in the horizontal and vertical directions.
Choose Settings to set the grid spacing and other analysis options:
Finite element size: Horizontal and vertical grid spacings (m).
Type of analysis: Enter 'E' for plane stress or 'A' for plane strain.
Angle increment: The program models arcs as straight
lines at the specified angle increment. Although a
smaller angle would yield a smoother modelling of an
arc, the resulting increase in modes will mean that more
elements will be used. Generally, an angle increment
between 5° and 15° would yield good results.
Tip: You can embed the Data File in the calcsheet for easy recalling from Calcpad.
The Single Span Beam Analysis module can be used to quickly analyse a beam. The beam
can be a single span beam or a single span taken from a continuous beam with the appropriate
end conditions. The analysis results of steels beams can be post-processed with the steel
member design module for combined stress, Com.
Beam input
The following values must be entered:
Length : The overall length of the beam (m).
M Left : The applied moment at the left-hand end (kNm). If you leave the field blank, a
zero moment is used, e.g. the beam is simply supported. You can also fix an
end by entering an 'F' or make it a free cantilever end with a 'C'.
M Right : The applied moment at the right-hand end (kNm).
Concrete
25E6 to 35E6
(normal strength)
Aluminium ± 70E6
Section input
The moment of inertia of a standard steel section can be selected from the section database.
You can also define your own sections or remove sections from the database.
Own weight
On selecting a steel section form the database, the own weight is automatically entered as a
uniform distributed load.
Loads input
Use as many lines as needed to enter any general loading on the beam in the Loads input table:
W Left : Distributed load intensity (kN/m) applied at the left-hand starting position of
the load. If you do not enter a value, the program will use a value of zero.
W Right : Distributed load intensity (kN/m) applied on the right-hand ending position of
the load. If you leave this field blank, the value is made equal to Wleft, i.e. a
uniformly distributed load is assumed.
P : Point load (kN).
M : Moment (kNm).
Note: Positive forces and moments are taken to work downward and taken anti-clockwise
respectively.
Tip: You can embed the Data File in the calcsheet for easy recalling from Calcpad.
The Beam on Elastic Support Analysis module can be used to quickly analyse a beam or slab
on an elastic foundation. The beam cross-section may vary along its length and the elastic
foundation can include gaps and rigid supports.
Analysis procedure
The program performs a linear analysis in which the beam is modelled as a two-dimensional
frame on a series of least fifty closely spaced springs. Rigid supports are put at the specified
positions and gaps in the elastic support where the supporting width is set to zero. Nodes are
taken at close intervals along the length of the beam. A node is also introduced at every support
and load position.
If negative soil pressures are not allowed, i.e. uplift is allowed, springs with negative reactions
are removed and the analysis repeated. Likewise, previously removed springs are restored if
downward deflections are calculated at the points concerned. The analysis procedure is
repeated until the iteration converges to a stable solution.
A beam is considered unstable, i.e. to overturn under the applied load, if the analysis yields less
than two springs with compressive forces.
Beam input
The beam is defined as one or more segments, each with its own properties. The following
values must be entered:
Lsec : The length of a beam segment with a specified stiffness and support width (m).
You may enter more than one segment to define a beam varying section or an
elastic medium of varying stiffness. Each additional beam segment entered is
added to the right-hand side of beam.
Isec : The stiffness of the beam segment, express as the second moment of inertia of
the relevant cross section (m). The value of Young's modulus, applicable to the
whole beam, is entered under the analysis settings.
Bsec : The support width of the beam segment (m). This beam width is multiplied by
the foundation modulus of the soil, Km, to obtain the support stiffness per unit
length of the beam. Enter a zero value for no foundation stiffness, i.e. a gap in
the elastic medium.
Supports input
Use the Support input columns to enter rigid supports in the elastic medium:
Position : A rigid support position, measured from the left-hand side (m).
Support : You can set the support type to vertical and/or rotational:
Support Description
Note: Positive forces and moments are taken to work downward and taken anti-clockwise
respectively.
Analysis settings
Press Settings to edit the material constants and other parameters to be used in the analysis:
E modulus: Young's modulus for the beam (kPa). Values for typical building materials are
tabled below:
Concrete
25E6 to 35E6
(normal strength)
Aluminium ± 70E6
The foundation modulus, K, is a conceptual relationship between the soil pressure and
deflection of the beam. Because the beam stiffness is usually ten or more times as great as
the soil stiffness as defined by K, the bending moments in the beam and calculated soil
pressures are normally not very sensitive to the value used for K. Recognizing this,
Bowles suggests that the value of K can be approximated from the serviceability limit state
bearing capacity, qa, as being 40 × qa (kN/m3) or 12 × qa (k/ft3).
Allow negative pressure: Enter 'Y' to enable full
adhesion between beam and elastic medium. Enter
'N' to allow uplift, i.e. zero adhesion between beam
and elastic medium.
Note: The foundation modulus, Km, is multiplied with the support width to obtain the
support stiffness per unit length of the beam. Enter a zero value for no foundation stiffness,
i.e. a gap in the elastic medium.
'Foundation Analysis and Design, Fifth Edition', by Joseph E. Bowles, published by
McGraw Hill
Beam on Elastic Support Analysis 3-109
Example
The sketch shows an 800 mm wide by 300 mm deep beam is modelled on an elastic
foundation:
The first fourteen meters of its length is supported on very stiff clay. The foundation
modulus is set to 40 000 kN/m3.
The beam crosses a rock intrusion ten meters from the left that provides vertical support.
The beam then spans four meters over a ditch, i.e. no support. This is modelled by entering
a zero section width.
On the other side support is provided on a strip of hard clay, two meter wide. The hard
clay is modelled by increasing the support width to 1.2 m. The resulting effective
foundation modulus is then given by 1.2/0.8 x 40 000 = 60 000 kN/m3.
The beam is loaded with a long trapezoidal distributed load, twelve meters long, a point
load and a moment at its right-hand end.
Tip: You can embed the Data File in the calcsheet for easy recalling from Calcpad.
4
Steel Member Design
The steel member design modules can be used for elastic and plastic design of structural steel
members. Several modules act as post-processors for the frame analysis modules, facilitating
integrated frame analysis and design.
A variety of steel member design modules are included in the PROKON suite. These are
considered useful tools when designing members using either elastic or plastic methods.
Note: This module is no longer developed or supported, and was removed from the program
toolbar in PROKON version 2.4. However, for the sake of users that purchased this module
in the past, it is still access via the Program menu. To evaluate non-linear behaviour of
frames, the recommended procedure is to use the Frame Analysis module and perform a
non-linear analysis.
Girder design
Specialised modules are available for designing crane gantry girders and plate girders.
The steel member design modules are suitable for the following design tasks:
Use Strut for checking and optimising steel members subjected to axial stress only,
e.g. truss members.
Combine is used for checking and optimising steel members subjected to a combination of
axial and uniaxial or biaxial bending stresses, e.g. beams and columns in frames.
The steel member design modules primarily act as post-processors for the frame analysis
modules. Both modules also have an interactive mode for the quick design or checking of
individual members without needing to perform a frame analysis.
Design scope
The steel member design modules can design hot-rolled sections subjected to axial stress or a
combination of axial and bending stresses.
Strut can be used to design any hot-rolled section for axial stress. Because the design
procedure is relatively simple, design results are presented in tabular format. This feature
makes the program especially useful when designing of a large number of struts and ties.
Combine can design hot-rolled double symmetric sections and channels subjected to axial
and bending stress. Non-symmetric sections like angles are not supported. More design
checks need to be performed for each member requiring more detailed output.
Strut and Combine use a similar design approach. Although there may seem to be a degree of
overlapping in their design features, the two modules rather complement each other with
specialised individual design functions. You will typically use them to design the different
components of the same structure, e.g. design a roof truss in Strut and its supporting columns
in Combine.
Note: Support for cold-formed sections is not provided. However, hot-rolled hollow circular
and rectangular sections may be designed with the programs if such sections are deemed to
have relatively thick walls with a resulting low risk of local buckling.
Tapered sections
The current versions of Strut nor Combine cannot design tapered sections, e.g. haunches in
portal frames. When evaluating members with varying sections, the section type at the first
node is used over the whole length of the member.
Design codes
The program designs axially loaded steel members according to the following design codes:
AISC - 1989 ASD (Strut only).
AISC - 1993 LRFD.
AS4100 - 1998.
BS 5950 - 1990.
BS 5950 - 2000.
CAN/CSA-S16.1-94.
4-6 Steel Member Design for Axial or Combined Stress
CSA S16-01 - 2001.
Eurocode 3 - 1992 (Strut only).
GBJ 17-88 (Strut only).
IS:800-1984 (Strut only).
IS:800-2007 (Combine only).
SABS 0162 - 1984 (allowable stress design).
SABS 0162 - 1993 (limit state design).
SABS 0162-2 - 1993 (Combine only).
SANS 10162 - 2005
Units of measurement
The steel design modules support the following units of
measurement:
Metric.
Imperial (Strut only).
The preferred unit of measurement can be selected using the Units
command on the File menu.
Symbols
Where possible, the same symbols are used as in the design codes:
Ane/Ag : Effective area factor with which the gross sectional area must be multiplied to
obtain the effective sectional area, reduced for fasteners holes. The factor
applies to elements subjected to tensile axial stress only.
Ke : Factor with which the member length is multiplied to obtain the effective
length for lateral torsional buckling (Combine only).
Kv : Factor with which the member length is multiplied to obtain the effective
length for buckling about the v-v (weakest) axis of the member (Strut only).
Kx : Factor with which the member length is multiplied to obtain the effective
length for buckling about the x-x axis of the member.
Tip: The exact orientation of the v-v axis of a mono-symmetric section can be determined
using the Section Properties Calculation module, Prosec.
P-delta effects
Design codes generally allow stability effects to be taken into account in buckling checks by
reducing design capacities or amplifying design moments or axial forces. Trusses are normally
not sensitive to sway. However, in any structure, if you judge P-delta effects to be an important
part of the analysis, you should perform a second order frame analysis.
Design parameters
Different design parameters can be set for each group of elements designed:
Note: CSA S16.1, SABS 0162 and SANS 10162 clause 9.3.2 allows the effective length
factor for compression members to be reduced to 1.0 if a second-order frame analysis has
been performed. A second order analysis will therefore normally yield a more economic
design.
Consider a typical portal frame subjected to dead and live load. The effective length L x relates
to buckling in the plane of the portal, i.e. about the strong axis of each member. The length L y
relates to out-of plane buckling, i.e. weak axis buckling. This value is typically set equal to the
distance between restraining purlins and sheeting rails.
Note: The current versions of Strut and Combine cannot design tapered sections. The use
of haunches in the sketch is merely for the sake of explaining the effective lengths. See
page 4-6 for more detail.
Slenderness limits
The different codes specify similar slenderness ratios for members in compression, typically 200.
For tension members, a maximum slenderness ratio of 300 is generally used. When launching
Strut or Combine, the slenderness limits given by the selected design code will be used by
default.
You are free to alter the maximum slenderness ratio for each individual load case or combination
if required. For example, in the case where uplift due to wind is dominant, the maximum
slenderness ratio may possibly be increased, e.g. SABS 0162 - 1984 clause 8.4 and
BS 5950 -1990 clause 4.7.3.2 allows a slenderness ratio of 250.
Design steps
Working through the input and design pages, the frame design procedure can be broken up into
the following steps:
The Input page: Defining design tasks by choosing a design approach, selecting members
to be designed, setting the design parameters and selecting load cases and slenderness
limits. The concept of tasks is described in detail on page 4-17.
The Members page (Combine only): Define internal nodes and enter effective lengths.
Refer to page 4-27 for detail.
The Design page (Combine only): Evaluating the design results. See page 4-29 for detail.
The Calcsheet page: Accumulate design results. See page 4-31 for detail.
Steel Member Design for Axial or Combined Stress 4-15
Re-analysis of the frame
Having evaluated the various member sizes, you may find it necessary to return to the original
frame analysis and make some changes to section sizes. Before exiting the member design
module, first save the task list using the Save command on the File menu. After re-analysing
the frame, you can return to the member design module and recall the task list to have the
modified structure re-checked without delay.
Note: For a task list to be re-used with a modified frame, a reasonable degree of
compatibility is required. Tasks that reference specific laterally supported nodes, for
example, will require modification if relevant node numbers have changed.
Design steps
Working through the input and design pages, the interactive design procedure can be broken up
into the following steps:
The Interactive page (Strut) or Input page (Combine): Choose a design approach, set the
design parameters and enter the element loads. In Strut, results are displayed interactively
on the same page. Refer to page 4-23 for a detailed explanation.
The Design page (Combine): Evaluate the design results. More detail is given on
page 4-29.
The Calcsheet page: Accumulate design results to print or send to Calcpad. See page 4-31
for detail.
The pages that follow describe the use of the programs for reading and post-processing frame
analysis results. Information regarding interactive design is given on page 4-23.
In Combine, the appearance of the Input page determined by your selection of the mode of
operation:
If you choose to read and post-process the results of the frame analysis modules, you will
use the Input page to define design tasks.
However, if you opt for interactive design of members, the Input page displays a table for
entering member geometry and loading.
Defining tasks
To define design tasks, you have to select or enter the following information:
1. Select a design approach.
2. If you choose to select the lightest section, then also choose a profile to use.
3. Select the members to be designed.
4. Enter the design parameters.
5. Select the load cases to be considered.
To save a task, enter a Task title and click Add task. Once added to the task list, a task will be
automatically performed when you go to the Calcsheet page. Define as many tasks as
necessary to design the frame in the required detail.
Deleting tasks
To remove a task from the list, first select the task and then click Delete task. To save the
complete task list to disk, use the Save commands on the File menu.
Note: In Combine, saving the task list with File | Save also saves the intermediate nodes
and effective lengths entered in the Members page.
Note: The section type selected under Profile (F5) is used when the design approach is set
to 'Select lightest section'. However, the selected section type has no bearing on the design
when the approach is set to 'Evaluate current sections'.
Tip: To keep the design of a large truss manageable, consider using more tasks and
specifying fewer nodes at a time.
Note: In Combine, effective length factors are entered on the Members page. Refer to page
4-28 for details on entering effective lengths in Combine.
Tip: In the frame analysis modules you can also select to analyse load combinations only.
The analysis output will then be more compact due to the omission of individual load case
results.
You are free to modify the slenderness limit for each individual load case or combination as
required. In the case where uplift due to wind is dominant, for example, you may be able to set
a higher slenderness limit. The code requirements regarding slenderness limits are discussed on
page 4-14.
The pages that follow describe the use of the programs for interactive member design. The
procedure to reading and post-processing frame analysis results is explained on page 4-15
Note: All entered forces and moments are ULS design values. For allowable stress design
with SABS 0162 - 1984, you should enter working loads.
M1: Moment applied at the left end (anti-clockwise positive) about the X or Y axis (kNm
or kipft).
M2: Moment at the right end (anti-clockwise positive) (kNm or kipft).
W1: Distributed load at the left end. The load works over the whole length of the member
load and varies linearly between the left and right ends (downward positive) (kN/m or
kip/ft).
Note: All entered forces and moments are ULS design values. For allowable stress design
with SABS 0162 - 1984, you should enter working loads.
The profile of the members to evaluate is chosen using the Profile (F5) function. On opening
the Design page, the lightest section will be chosen for each member. Lighter or heavier
sections of the same profile can then be browsed as required.
Consolidation of members
With the addition of each internal node, the relevant node is 'removed' by joining the two
adjacent members into a single member. The table of members is continuously updated to
show the new member layout.
The program uses the following guidelines to decide which members to join at an internal
node:
For the automatic selection of internal nodes, adjoining members must have the same
section.
Only members with an included angle greater than 100° (where 180° corresponds to a
perfectly straight member) are joined.
Where members of different sections intersect, the larger section defines the main member
that should be joined.
Where two or more members intersect, the internal node is taken to belong to one of the
intersecting members only. The chosen member will be the straightest member or, if the
same, the first in the table of members.
Note: The list of internal nodes and effective length factors are automatically saved when
you save the task list. See page 4-17 for detail.
Note: Strut designs members for axial stress only and ignores any bending stresses.
Note: The level of detail of the information added to the Calcsheet can be set using the
Settings function on the Input page. Refer to page 4-22 for detail.
Use the Output settings function on the Calcsheets page and Settings function on the Input
page for the following:
Embed the Data File in the calcsheet for easy recalling from Calcpad.
Clear the Calcsheet page.
The Plastic Frame Design module can perform a linear elasto-plastic analysis of any general
two-dimensional framed structure. The program can be used in the following plastic design
modes:
The plastic collapse mechanism and load factors can be determined for a series of load
combinations.
The frame’s plastic behaviour can be optimised to achieve more economical sections.
Elastic design of a steel frames can be done using the Plane frame Analysis or Space Frame
Analysis modules in conjunction with the steel member design modules axial and combined
stress, Strut and Combine. See Chapter 4 for detail.
Note: This module is no longer developed or supported, and was removed from the program
toolbar in PROKON version 2.4. However, for the sake of users that purchased this module
in the past, it is still access via the Program menu. To evaluate non-linear behaviour of
frames, the recommended procedure is to use the Frame Analysis module and perform a
non-linear analysis. See Chapter 3 for more information.
Design scope
The use of plastic design methods is normally limited to the design of continuous beams and
single storey frames with rigid joints, e.g. portal frames. It may also be acceptable to use plastic
methods for designing some braced multi-storey planar frames.
Analysis modes
Depending on the analysis module used, the following types of analysis can be performed:
Linear analysis: Basic linear elastic analysis. A linear analysis procedure is typically
performed markedly faster than a plastic analysis. It therefore is recommended that you
verify the basic integrity of the frame input by performing a linear analysis prior to
attempting a plastic analysis.
Plastic analysis: Choose between evaluating the adequacy of the frame as entered or
optimising the section sizes. When optimising, the program will search for a more
economic configuration of sections. The plastic modulus, Zpl, is used as the criterion for
section economy.
Design codes
The program uses general plastic theory. Working within their scope, the program can be
considered to support the all the limit state design codes supported by Strut and Combine. See
page 4-6 for a list of design codes.
Note: SABS 0162 - 1984 use an allowable stress design method for elastic design. For
plastic design, however, it adopts an ultimate limit state design method.
Sign conventions
Frame input and output uses a mixture of global axis and local axes values.
Global axes
The global axis system is nearly
exclusively used when entering frame
geometry and loading. Global axes are
also used in the analysis output for
deflections and reactions.
The global axes are defined as follows:
The X-axis is chosen to the right.
The Y-axis points vertically upward.
A positive vertical load thus works
up and a negative load down.
Using a right-hand rule, the Z-axis
points out of the screen.
Local axes
Local axes are used in the output for element forces. You can also apply loads in the direction of
a beam element's local y-axis. The local axis system is defined as follows for beam elements:
The local z-axis and axial force is chosen in the direction from the smaller node number to
the larger node number.
Note: In this manual the global and local axes are written in uppercase and lowercase
respectively.
Units of measurement
The following units of measurement are supported:
Use the Units commands on the Options menu to change the units for the current analysis:
Set Units: Changes the units of measurement without altering the input data.
Convert Units: Changes the units and converts all numeric data from the old to the new
units of measurement.
Alternative methods of generating frame analysis input are discussed on page Error!
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Tip: You can zoom into a picture and print, save or add the picture to the Calcsheets.
General input
The General input page handles several important analysis parameters.
Analysis type
Choose between performing a simple linear elastic analysis or a plastic analysis. Refer to page
4-34 for an explanation of the analysis modes.
Own weight
The own weight of the frame can be calculated using the entered cross-sectional areas and
member lengths. If you specify a load case, the own weight is calculated and added to the other
loads of that case.
The following are points of importance:
By default the own weight of the frame is set to not be included in the analysis. Be sure to
select the appropriate load case for own weight or, alternatively, to include the frame's
own weight in the values of the loads entered.
The list of load cases from which you can select is based on the load cases defined on the
Nodal loads and Beam loads input pages. You may thus prefer to specify the own weight
load case only after completing all other input for the frame. However, you can also enter
Tip: If you wish to use own weight in its own separate load case, you can do so by defining
an empty load case. You can enter a zero load at any node number, for example, and then
select that load case as the one to use for own weight.
Parametrics
The parametric plastic frame
input modules are suitable for the
rapid generation of complete
input files for some typical
structures. Because the resulting
input data is presented in the
normal way on the input pages,
you are free to edit and append to
the data as necessary.
Input generated this way can
optionally be appended to
existing data – you can therefore
repeatedly use the parametric
input modules to generate
complicated structures.
Note: Plasdes is not limited to analysing only those frames generated by the parametric
modules. The program can treat any general two-dimensional frame. The parametric
modules merely serve to simplify input of typical frames.
Title
A descriptive name for the frame. It should not be confused with the file name you use when
you save the input data.
You are allowed to skip node numbers to simplify the definition of the frame. You may also
leave blank lines in the input to improve readability. If a node number is defined more than
once, the last definition will be used.
Error checking
The program checks for nodes lying at the same coordinate. If a potential error is detected, an
Error list button will appear.
The Y-coordinate of node 4 is left blank. Therefore, node 4 is put at the coordinate
(0.805,0).
The No of is set to '2', meaning that two additional nodes are generated.
Setting Increment to '7' means that the node numbers are incremented by seven.
Therefore, node 4 is copied to node 11 and node 11 is copied to node 18.
The values in the X-inc and Y-inc columns set the distance between copied nodes. The
coordinates 4 to 18 are horizontally spaced at 1.140 m to the right at 0.472 m downward,
i.e. along the X and negative Y-axis respectively. The coordinates of the additional nodes
are thus (1.945,-0.472) and (3.085,-0.944).
An alternative method to generate equally spaced nodes is to use the Inc to End option. This
method allows you to define two nodes and then generate a number of nodes in-between:
Use the same procedure as above to define the first node's coordinates.
Set the values of X-inc, Y-inc and Z-inc to the total coordinate difference to the last node
and enable the Inc to End option. The last node's coordinates are then first calculated and
the specified number of intermediate nodes then generated.
Block generation
A group of nodes can be repeated by entering a 'B' in the No column followed by the first and
last table line numbers in which the nodes were defined. Separate the line numbers with a '–'.
Block generation example:
The nodes defined in lines 11 to 26 are copied twice. Node numbers are incremented by thirty for
each copy. The X and Y-coordinate increments are 10 m and zero respectively.
To copy one line only, simply omit the end line number, e.g. 'B10' to copy line 10 only.
Tip: The current line number is displayed in the status bar at the bottom left of the
program's window.
The block generation function may be used recursively. That means that the lines specified
may themselves contain further block generation statements.
Moving nodes
To move a group of nodes to a new location without generating any new nodes, use the block
generation function and set No-of to '1' and Inc to '0'.
Arc generation
A group of nodes can be repeated on an arc by entering an 'A' in the No column, followed by
the start and end line numbers. Enter the centre of the arc in the X and Y columns and use the
X-inc column to specify the angle increment about the Z-axis.
Example:
All nodes defined in lines 5 to 9 of the table will be repeated eleven times on an imaginary
horizontal arc. The centre point of the arc is located at the coordinate (10.0,1.5). The node
Rotating nodes
To rotate a group of existing nodes without generating any new nodes, use the arc generation
function and set the No-of to '1' and Increment to '0'.
Mirror
Nodes of a plane frame or grillage can be mirrored horizontally or vertically by entering an 'M'
in the No column, followed by the start and end line numbers.
Mirror example:
All nodes defined in lines 5 to 9 are mirrored about a vertical (horizontal for a grillage) line
through X=10 m. Node numbers are incremented with 5. By specifying a Y or Z-value instead
of an X-value, nodes can be mirrored about a horizontal line passing through the specified Y or
Z-value.
Deleting nodes
Nodes can be deleted by entering 'Delete' in the Inc to end column. This can be especially
handy if you have generated a large group of nodes and then need to remove some of them
again.
Example:
Tip: Enable full 3D rendering in the Graphics options to view the true beam orientation.
End fixity
The fixity at each end of an element, i.e. continuous or pinned, must also be defined in the
Fixity columns. Pins are modelled on the element itself and not on the node. External pinned
supports should be defined on the Supports input table. External supports are described in the
next section.
The following types of end fixities can be specified:
Fixed: Specify 'F' to provide full rotational continuity. If you leave the field blank, 'F' is
assumed.
Pinned: Use 'P' to for no rotational restraint, i.e. a pin.
Note: To retain compatibility with the Dos version, you may also use '0' or'1' instead of 'F'
and 'P' respectively.
Entered fixities are applied at an element's lower node number (designated as the 'left' end) and
higher node number (the 'right' end). The order of the node numbers entered in the first column
of the table has no bearing on the application of the fixity codes.
To define a pin only at the two remote ends of a group of elements, enable the Group fix
option by entering a 'Y'. In this case the normal convention of smaller and larger node numbers
does not apply. Instead, pins are put at the remote ends in the same order that the nodes have
been entered.
The group of elements from node 42 to 24 is continuous except for the pins used at nodes
42 and 24.
If the Group fix is left blank or 'N' is entered, the normal individual element fixity mode is
assumed.
Tip: Element fixity can be displayed graphically on the screen. For this, edit the Graphics
options to disable the Elements Continuous option.
When using pins, you should take care to ensure overall stability of the frame. Consider two
elements on a straight line with pins at all three relevant nodes, for example. The centre node
will be unrestrained for rotation about the element axis, resulting in instability during
the analysis.
Note: Do not use an internal pin on an element to model an external support that allows free
rotation. Rather allow the beam to be fixed to the node and define a simple support on the
Support input page.
Tapered beams
The current version of Plasdes does not support tapered sections.
Rigid links
You can use rigid links to rigidly fix sub-structures to each other. To define a rigid link, enter
'R' in the Section Name column.
Rigid links are modelled as very stiff beams. The stiffness of a rigid link is determined by
multiplying the maximum stiffnesses of the other beams with a factor, typically one thousand.
Rigid link example:
Rigid links are defined between nodes 12 and 24, 14 and 26 and 16 and 26.
The elements between nodes 251 and 266 are copied ten times with the node numbers
decrementing by five with each copy.
Block generation
A group of elements can be repeated by entering a 'B' in the No column. Then enter the first
and last table line numbers in which the elements were defined, separated with a '–'.
Block generation example:
All elements defined in lines 11 to 26 will be copied twice with a node number increment of
thirty. The copied elements will use the same section number and fixity codes as the original
elements.
To copy one line only, simply omit the end line number, e.g. 'B11' to copy line 11 only.
Tip: The current line number is displayed in the status bar at the bottom left of the
program's window.
The block generation function may be used recursively. The group of lines referenced may thus
contain block generation statements.
Tip: When entering a complicated structure it may help to leave a few blank lines between
groups of elements. Not only will it improve readability, but it will also allow you to insert
additional nodes at a later stage without upsetting block and arc generations.
Deleting beams
Beam elements can be deleted by entering a special section name 'Delete'. This can be
especially handy if you have generated a large group of elements at regular increments and
need to remove some of them again.
Note: The display of selected beam element groups can be activated or suppressed by
editing the Graphic options.
Error checking
The program checks for duplicate elements and elements with zero length. It also checks that a
section number is assigned to each element. If an error is detected, an Error list button will be
displayed.
Each section should also have an associated material selected. If no section or material
properties are entered, the values applicable to the previous line in the table are used.
Entering haunches
Haunched sections are entered by appending the haunch depth to the section designation. To
add a haunch of 280 mm to a '305x102x66' BS taper flange I-section, enter '305x102x66
(0.280h)'. The overall depth is then taken to be 305 mm + 280 mm = 585 mm.
Tip: You can verify your definition of haunches by enabling 3D rendering. Refer to page
for 4-15 more detail.
Own weight
If a material's definition includes a density value, the own weight of a member is calculated
automatically and added to the load case specified on the General input page.
Note: By default the Spring elements input page is not visible. This behaviour can be
changed using the Advanced command on the Options menu.
Enter linear spring constants in the Kx, Ky and Kz columns and rotational spring constants in
the Rx, Ry and Rz columns.
The orientation of a spring element is defined by entering a bearing between any two nodes
that do not necessarily need to be connected to the same or other spring elements as well. The
directions of the axes are defined as followed:
A spring element's x-axis is taken in the direction of the orientating nodes.
The y-axis defined in the same way as for a normal beam element, i.e. perpendicular to
spring element in a vertical plane.
The z-axis is taken perpendicular to the x and y-axes using aright-hand rule.
Spring element example:
Spring elements are defined between nodes 16 and 116, 17 and 117 up to 19 and 119. The
spring elements are aligned parallel to the imaginary line joining nodes 3 and 4.
Supports input
Frames require external supports to ensure global stability. Supports can be entered to prevent
any of the three degrees of freedom at a node, i.e. translation in the X and Y-directions and
rotation about the Z-axes. You can also define elastic supports, e.g. an elastic soil support, and
prescribed displacements, e.g. foundation settlement.
Enter the node number to be supported in the Node No column. In the next column a
combination of the letters 'X', 'Y' and 'z' can be entered to indicate the direction of fixity. Use
capitals and lowercase to define restraint of translation and rotation respectively, e.g. 'XYz'
means fixed against movement in the X and Y-direction and rotation about the Z-axis.
Note: The use of lowercase for rotational restraints should not be confused with the
convention of using lowercase for local element axes.
If you want to repeat the supports defined on the previous line of the table, you need only enter
the node number, i.e. you may leave the Fixity column blank. If the XYZxyz column is left
blank, the supports applicable to the previous line will be used automatically.
Note: The display of supports can be activated or suppressed by editing the Graphic
options.
Error Checking
The program does a basic check on the structural stability of the frame. If a potential error is
detected, an Error list button will appear.
Note: You cannot define an elastic support and a prescribed displacement at the same node
because it will be a contradiction of principles.
Sign conventions
Tip: For a typical steel frame or roof truss, it may be easiest to define a node at each purlin
position. Roof loads transferred via the purlins can then be entered as nodal loads.
Error checking
The program checks that specified nodes have indeed been defined in the Nodes input table. If
an error is detected, an Error list button will appear.
Sign conventions
Depending on the selected load direction, beam loads are applied parallel to the global axes or
parallel to the local y-axis – the definitions of the global and local axes are given on page 4-35
and 4-35 respectively.
The load direction is entered in the Direction column. Enter a global direction 'X' or 'Y'.
Element loads are applied to the relevant projected length of the elements. Therefore, if a 'Y'
load is entered for a vertical element, for example, the resulting load will therefore be zero.
Note: Positive vertical loads act upward and negative loads act downward.
Error checking
The program checks that element definitions match previously defined elements. If an error is
detected, an Error list button will appear.
Tip: You may leave one or more blank lines between load combination definitions to
improve readability.
Error checking
The program only checks that valid load cases are specified. It has no knowledge of the design
code that will be used in the member design and therefore does not check the validity of the
entered load factors.
Analysis options
Use the General input page to select the analysis mode:
Linear analysis: Basic linear elastic analysis. A linear analysis procedure is typically
performed markedly faster than a plastic analysis. It therefore is recommended that you
verify the basic integrity of the frame input by performing a linear analysis prior to
attempting a plastic analysis.
Plastic analysis: Choose between evaluating the adequacy of the frame as entered or
optimising the section sizes. When optimising, the program will search for a more
economic configuration of sections. The plastic modulus, Zpl, is used as the criterion for
section economy.
Note: The results of an optimising plastic analysis should not be regarded as a final solution.
You should return to the input data and enter the suggested or other preferred sections and
then re-analyse the frame as a final check.
Tip: When working with complicated frames, you may prefer adding one or more zoomed
pictures to the Calcsheets instead of a single cluttered picture. To do this, simply into a
picture and then use the Add to Calcsheets function.
The Crane Gantry Girder Design module can be used to design and optimise multi-span
crane gantry girders with one or two cranes. Girders may be continuous or simply supported.
The program supports multiple combinations of main beams and capping beams, including
standard I-sections, plate girders and box girders.
Design scope
Crane gantry girders are generally constructed from rolled I-beams or welded plate girder, and
channel capping beams are often used to stiffen top flanges. The program checks and optimises
crane gantry girders made of rolled or welded I-sections or box sections with or without
capping beams. One or two simultaneous cranes can be specified.
The design procedure for crane gantry girders is similar to that used for statically loaded
girders. The various loading codes recognise the varying degree of duty of different types of
crane and give parameters for horizontal transverse effects. In the case of heavier duty cranes,
especially, certain aspects of the design and construction may additional special consideration.
Design codes
The program designs plate girders according to the following design codes:
AISC - 1999 LRFD.
BS 5950 - 1990.
BS 5950 - 2000.
CAN/CSA S16.1-94.
CSA S16-01 - 2001.
IS:800 - 2007.
SABS 0162 - 1984 (allowable stress design).
SABS 0162 - 1993 (limit state design).
Symbols
Where possible, the same symbols are used as in the design codes. A list is given below.
A : Cross-sectional area (mm2).
b : Width of capping beam top flange (mm).
bbot : Width of main beam bottom flange (mm).
btop : Width of main beam top flange (mm).
Cw : Warping torsional constant (mm4).
Effective lengths
The codes give guidelines for determining effective length factors for flexural members:
BS 5950: Refer to clause 4.3.5 guidance on factors to use for members in bending. Refer
to clause 4.7.2 and Appendix D for members in compression.
CSA S16.1: Refer to clauses 9.1 to 9.4 and Annexes B and C.
SABS 0162 - 1984: See clause 7.2.2 for flexural members. Refer to clause 8.2.1 and
Appendix E for compression members.
SABS 0162 - 1993: Same as for CSA S16.1.
General parameters
Various design parameters, some of which depend on the code used, should be entered.
Note: The program does not include the effects of horizontal force due to acceleration,
braking or force exerted on end stops.
Design options
Two design approaches are available:
You can choose to evaluate the capacity of entered beam sections to carry the specified
loads.
The main beams and capping beam sections can be optimised to obtain the lightest
sections capable of resisting the design loads.
Spans
The data for a typical span comprises a span number, span length, main beam section number
and, if required, capping beam section number.
Crane data
Enter the loading and dimensional data for the cranes. In the case of a single crane analysis,
simply leave the information for the second crane blank.
Capacity : The rated lifting capacity of crane (T, i.e. 10 kN units).
Class : The crane class designates it’s type of use:
Tip: If the exact value of the crab weight is not known, a value of 15% of the capacity of the
crane will usually be a reasonable estimate.
The Plate Girder Design module can be used to design I-shaped welded plate girders. The
program checks the behaviour of girders under specified loading and gives guidance regarding
bearing and intermediate stiffeners.
Design scope
Welded plate girders can often be effectively and economically used as flexural sections. Modern
mechanised manufacturing and automated welding techniques have simplified the production of
plate girders greatly, boosting their popularity.
The program is capable is designing I-shaped sections with identical or different top and
bottom flanges. You can also make the section properties vary along the length of the girder to
model a tapered element.
Tapered sections
CSA S16.1 - M89 and SABS 0162 - 1993 do not cover the design of tapered sections. You can
however choose to use the approach given by BS 5950 - 1990 to design tapered elements.
Design codes
The program designs plate girders according to the following design codes:
AISC - 1999 LRFD.
BS 5950 - 1990.
BS 5950 - 2000.
CAN/CSA S16.1-94.
CSA S16-01 - 2001.
4-78 Plate Girder Design
SABS 0162 - 1984 (allowable stress design).
SABS 0162 - 1993 (limit state design).
Symbols
Where possible, the same symbols are used as in the design codes. A list is given below.
Design parameters
Various design parameters need to be set when designing a plate girder:
Effective lengths
The effective length of a member depends on the degree of restraint to be expected at each end
of the member. The program assumes that the effect of axial compression is relatively small
and hence uses the full bending capacity for bending about the major axis.
However, the program allows you to specify positions of restraints for lateral torsional
buckling of the compression flange. You can apply a different effective length factor to each
unsupported length, e.g. different factors for a cantilever end and internal continuous lengths.
Guidelines given in the codes include:
BS 5950 - 1990: Refer to clause 4.3.5 guidance on factors to use for members in bending.
Refer to clause 4.7.2 and Appendix D for members in compression.
CSA S16.1 - M89: Refer to clauses 9.1 to 9.4 and Annexes B and C.
SABS 0162 - 1984: See clause 7.2.2 for flexural members. Refer to clause 8.2.1 and
Appendix E for compression members.
SABS 0162 - 1993: Same as for CSA S16.1 - M89.
The program automatically calculates the above factors and restrict their values to the
minimum and maximum values specified.
General parameters
Various design parameters, some of which depend on the code used, should be entered:
The shape of a flexural member's bending moment diagram influences its lateral torsional
stability. The design codes use different design factors to accommodate this phenomenon.
See page 4-82 for more details.
The entered support width is used to calculate local buckling and crushing of the girder's
web at every support.
Specify whether the program should calculate and add the girder's own weight in the
analysis.
You can choose to make either end of the girder pinned (simply supported), fixed (built-in)
or free (cantilevered).
Enter an axial force, with a positive force denoting compression (kN or kip).
Note: Although the program allows you to enter an axial force, it does not check for
buckling under axial load. The effect of axial compression is assumed to be so small as not
to cause a reduction in the moment capacity for bending about the major axis.
Sections
You can define a variety if I-section by entering the dimensions for the web and top and
bottom flanges. If different grades of steel are used for the flanges and web, you should enter
the appropriate yield strengths for each. Each section should be given a unique number for easy
reference when defining the girder.
Note: CSA S16.1 - M89 and SABS 0162 - 1993 do not cover the design of tapered sections.
When designing such elements, the program gives the option to use the weakest portion of
such elements or to design of them using the approach given by BS 5950 - 1990.
Loads
Applied loads may comprise distributed loads, point loads and moments. Positive forces and
moments are taken to work downward and anti-clockwise respectively:
Wleft : Distributed load intensity (kN/m or kip/ft) applied at the left-hand starting
position of the load. If you do not enter a value, the program will use a value of
zero.
Wright : Distributed load intensity (kN/m or kip/ft) applied on the right-hand ending
position of the load. If you leave this field blank, the value is made equal to
Wleft, i.e. a uniformly distributed load is assumed.
P : Point load (kN or kip).
M : Moment (kNm or kipft).
a : The start position of the distributed load, position of the point load or position
of the moment (m or ft). The distance is measured from the left-hand edge of
the girder. If you leave this field blank, a value of zero is used, i.e. the load is
taken to start at the left-hand edge of the beam.
b : The end position of the distributed load, measured from the start position of the
load (m or ft). Leave this field blank if you want the load to extend up to the
right-hand edge of the girder.
Lateral supports
Specify the positions of lateral support by entering the unsupported lengths. A unique effective
length factor can also be entered for each length. Refer to page 4-69 for more details.
Note: The program always draws the specified lateral supports on the top flange. During the
analysis, however, these positions are taken to define lateral supports of the compression
flange, whether it is the top or bottom flange that is actually in compression.
The design output shows the complete interaction formulae, with the zero values for bending
moments about the minor axis. If required, the output equations can be edited to include
bending about the minor axis. To edit an equation, select it in the calcsheet, right-click it and
choose Edit.
5
Steel Connection Design
The steel connection design modules can be used for design of common welded and bolted
steel connection.
The PROKON suite includes several design modules for typical steel connections.
Shear connections
Bolt groups and weld groups can be designed for eccentric in-plane shear.
Moment connections
The following types of moment transmitting connections can be designed:
Stiffened and unstiffened column base plates.
Bolted and welded beam-column connections with or without haunches.
Bolted or welded apex connections with or without haunches.
Simple connections
Simple beam to column connections that do not transmit moments:
Web angle cleat connections.
Flexible end plate connections.
Fin plate connections.
The Base Plate Design module designs column base plates subjected to axial force and
bi-axial moment. Both stiffened or unstiffened base plates can be designed. Base plates can
bear on concrete or grout or can be supported on studs. Detailed drawings can be generated for
editing and printing using the PROKON Drawing and Detailing System, Padds.
Symbols
Where possible, the same symbols are used as in the design codes:
General design parameters
a1 : Distance from the left edge of the base plate to the centre line of the
bolts (mm).
a2 : Distance from the right edge of the base plate to the centre line of the
bolts (mm).
a3 : Distance from the bottom edge of base plate, as shown on the screen, to the
centre line of the bolts (mm).
a4 : Distance from the top edge of base plate, as shown on the screen, to the centre
line of the bolts (mm)
bg : Bolt grade, e.g. 4.8.
B : Width of the column flange (mm).
D : Overall depth of the column (mm).
fcu : Cube strength of bedding concrete or grout (MPa).
L : Length of the base plate (mm).
L1 : Distance from the left edge of the base plate to the column flange (mm).
Studs : Enter 'Y' if the bolts are used as studs, i.e. the base plate transmits all tension
and compressions forces to the bolts. Enter 'N' to transmit compression forces
to the bedding concrete or grout.
W : Width of the base plate (mm).
W1 : Distance from the top edge of the base plate, as shown on the screen, to the
corner of the column flange (mm).
Stresses, forces and related entities
C : Design compression force in the connection (kN).
Column dimensions
To read a column section from the section database, select the section type and choose a
profile. For non-standard sections such as plate girders, you can enter the relevant dimensions.
Tip: To move the column to the centre of the base plate, use the Centralise Column
function.
Tip: You can embed the Data File in the calcsheet for easy recalling from Calcpad.
Generating a drawing
Based on your initial input and the design results, initial values are chosen for the dimensions.
Change the values to suite your special requirements.
Required information:
Drawing file name: Name of
the Padds drawing file.
Drawing scale to use.
Connection properties:
Plate thickness.
Stiffener size.
Weld sizes.
Bolt and hole sizes and
quantities.
Press Generate to create a
Padds drawing with the entered
settings.
The moment connection design modules are suitable for the design of the following
connections:
Beam-column connection, BeamCol: Beam connected to the flange of a column.
Apex connection, Apex: Symmetrical beam apex with end plates.
Design scope
The moment connection design modules can analyse connections that transmit shear, moment
and axial force. Only forces in the plane of the connection are considered, i.e. vertical shear,
axial compression or tension and in-plane moment. The connections may be bolted or welded.
The following assumptions are made:
The centre lines of the connecting beams or beam and column are in the same plane.
All bolt holes are normal clearance holes.
Bolts have threads in their shear plane.
Connections are deep enough for each section’s flanges to resist the prevailing
compressive and tensile forces.
Compressive forces in the flanges and stiffeners are transmitted through the welds and not
through bearing.
Codes of practice
The following codes are supported:
AISC - 1993 LRFD.
BS5950 - 1990.
BS5950 - 2000.
CAN/CSA S16.1-94.
Eurocode 3 - 1992.
IS:800 - 2007.
SABS0162 - 1984 (allowable stress design).
SABS0162 - 1993.
SANS 10162 - 2005.
Sign conventions
Design loads are the forces transmitted by the right-hand side beam onto the connection:
A positive axial force is taken as a compression force.
A positive moment corresponds to a tensile force in the top flange of the beam.
Downward shear is taken as positive.
Tip: Positive loads on the connection correspond to the directions of forces in a typical
single bay portal frame subjected to dead and live load.
List of symbols
Where possible the same symbols are used as in the design codes. The meanings of the
symbols are clear from their use in the design output.
Prying action
In moment connection, prying action can be prevalent. The prying forces and method of failure
depend on the layout of the design, the thickness of the plate or flange in question and the
strength of the bolts.
A yield line analysis method is used to calculate three resistance values for each relevant
portion of the connection:
Plate yielding at the web and the bolts.
Plate yielding at the web and bolt failure.
Bolt failure only.
The smallest of the three resistance values is taken to be the ultimate resistance.
Moment Connection Design 5-17
Input
The moment connection design modules use a similar procedure for data entry:
Members: Set the connection type and properties of the beams or beam and column.
Setting: Select the connection type and main design parameters.
Loads: Enter the loads applied to the connection.
Members
Define the type of connection and the design parameters:
Define the connection type by selecting an end plate configuration, e.g. no end plate, end
plate flush at the top and bottom of the beam or extending at the tope and/or bottom.
Beam and column designations.
Inclination of the beam.
Haunch depth and length. If either value is zero, no haunch is used.
Settings
Use Settings to set the bolt, weld and member material properties:
Select between elastic and plastic
analysis of bolts in tension. The
analysis mode determines the
distribution of the bolt forces. See
page 5-17 for detail.
Enter a bolt type, grade and
diameter. For high strength
friction grip bolts, additional
information needs to be supplied
with regards to the analysis
method.
Enter the strength properties of the
beam, column and connection
members.
Specify the weld strength.
Note: If you need to modify the available bolt grades or bolt sizes, edit the General
Preferences from the Settings menu in Calcpad.
Note: All entered loads should be ULS loads. The corresponding SLS loads are obtained by
dividing the entered ULS loads by the SLS factor. The SLS factor should thus be set equal
to the relevant ULS load factor divided by the SLS load factor.
Tip: For a table summarising the design results, go to the Calcsheet page.
Note: Several valid design solutions are possible for any particular connection. The
optimised results calculated by the programs should be regarded as one such solution.
Tip: You can embed the Data File in the calcsheet for easy recalling from Calcpad.
The Hollow Section Connection Design module does a complete design of welded structural
hollow section connections. The connecting members may transmit axial force and can be
circular, square or rectangular hollow sections. I-sections and H-sections can also be used for
the main chord.
Design codes
The program designs according to recommendations given in Annex K of Eurocode 3 - 1992.
Symbols
Where possible, the same symbols and sign conventions are used as in the design codes:
Section dimensions
bi : Width of a section (mm or inches).
hi : Height of a section (mm or inches).
hw : Web height of an I-section or H-section (mm or inches).
i : Section number. The main chord is identified by i = 0 and the left, right and
centre chords by i = 1 to 3 respectively.
ro : Radius between the web and flange of an I-section or H-section (mm or
inches).
ti : Thickness of a section, i.e. wall thickness of a hollow section or flange
thickness of an I-section or H-section (mm or inches).
tw : Web thickness of an I-section or H-section (mm or inches).
Joint geometry
g : The clear gap between bracing as measured member on the chord surface (mm
or inches). A negative value denotes an overlap.
Symmetry : Enter 'Y' to make an X-joint symmetric, i.e. mirrored about the main chord. If
you enter 'N', bracing members continue along their axes to the other side of
the main chord.
X-joint : Enter 'Y' to put bracing elements on both sides of the main chord, i.e. an X-
joint. This option can only be used in combination with K, N and T joints
where a circular hollow section is used as the main chord. Enter 'N' for bracing
members on one side of the main chord only.
Units of measurement
Both Metric and Imperial units of measurement are supported. When changing from one
system of units to another, the program automatically converts all input data.
Tip: Use the 3D rendering option to view and rotate the connection in 3D.
Tip: The Data File embedded in the calcsheet can be used for easy recalling of the design
from Calcpad.
The shear connection design modules are suitable for the design of the following connections:
Bolt Group Design, Boltgr: Eccentrically loaded bolt groups.
Weld Group Design, Weldgr: Eccentrically loaded weld groups.
Design codes
The programs support the following design codes:
AISC - 1999 LRFD.
BS 5950 - 1990.
BS 5950 - 2000.
CAN/CSA S16.1 - 94.
Eurocode 3 - 1992.
IS:800 - 2007.
SABS 0162 - 1984 (allowable stress design).
SABS 0162 - 1993.
Symbols
Where possible, the same symbols are used as in the design codes:
Bolt group geometry
d : Bolt Size.
a1 : Horizontal bolt spacing
a2 : Vertical bolt spacing
nr : Number of rows of bolts in the group.
nc : Number of columns.
Applied loads
F : Force.
x : Force horizontal eccentricity
y : Force vertical eccentricity
: Force angle
Units of measurement
Both Metric and Imperial units of measurement are supported. In addition, you can also choose
between units within the selected system, e.g. between mm and cm.
Analysis principles
The program designs bolt groups and fillet weld groups subjected to eccentric shear using
either linear or non-linear strength relationships.
Linear analysis
Eccentrically loaded fastener groups are usually analysed by considering the group areas as an
elastic cross-section subjected to direct shear and torsion. Assuming elastic behaviour, the
group's centre of rotation is taken as the group's centroid. The deformation of each fastener is
then assumed proportional to its distance from the assumed centre of rotation.
The elastic method has been popular because of its simplicity and has been found conservative.
Salmon and Johnson1 quotes the ratio between actual strength and service loads to be in the
range of 2.5 to 3.0.
Non-linear analysis
The non-linear method, also called plastic analysis or instantaneous centre of rotation method,
assumes that the eccentric load causes a rotation as well as a translation effect on the fastener
group. The translation and rotation is reduced to a pure rotation about a point defined as the
instantaneous centre of rotation.
1
C. G. Salmon and J. E. Johnson, "Steel Structures, Design and Behaviour", Third Edition
(1990), Harper Collins Publishers.
Shear Connection Design 5-35
Similar to the linear method, the deformation of each fastener is taken proportional to its
distance from the instantaneous centre of rotation. The load in each fastener is however
determined using the non-linear strength expression proposed by Fisher2 and used by
Crawford and Kulak3:
Ri Rult 1 e 10 0.55
The relationship assumes a bearing-type connection and ignores slip. The coefficients 10 and
0.55 were experimentally determined. For the given experimental setup, the maximum
deformation, , at failure was about 0.34 inches (8.6 mm).
Salmon and Johnson1 conclude that the plastic analysis method is the most rational approach
to obtain the strength of eccentric shear connections.
Rnorm 1.0181 e 3.4
0.55
2
J. W. Fisher, "Behaviour of Fasteners and Plates with Holes", Journal of the Structural
Division, ASCE, 91, STD6 (December 1965).
3
S. F. Crawford and G. L. Kulak, "Eccentrically Loaded Bolted Connections", Journal of the
Structural Division, ASCE, 97, ST3 (March 1971).
R Ru 0.5sin 1.0
1.5
where
Ru = Ultimate strength of a fillet weld loaded with longitudinal shear
R = Resistance of a fillet weld when the loading angle equals .
The relationship was determined empirically and implies the resistance in a weld element will
vary between 1.0Ru for longitudinal shear and 1.5Ru for transverse shear.
4
D. F. Lesik and D. J. L. Kennedy, "Ultimate Strength of Eccentrically Loaded Fillet Welded
Connections", Structural Engineering Report 159, Department of Civil Engineering, University
of Alberta
Shear Connection Design 5-37
Input
The definition of bolt groups and weld groups follow the same basic pattern. However, the
geometry of weld groups is entered using a slightly more complex method of polygon
definition.
Note: If the Code column is left blank, relative coordinates are used.
The X/Radius and Y/Angle columns are used for entering coordinates, radii and angles:
X : Absolute or relative X-coordinate. Values are taken positive to the right and
negative to the left.
Radius : Radius of a circle or an arc.
Y : Absolute or relative Y coordinate. Values are taken positive upward and
negative downward.
Angle : Angle that an arc is extending through.
Note: If the X/Radius or Y/Angle column is left blank, a zero value is used.
Weld generation
Click the 'standard' shapes for
quick generation of welds.
Enter the required dimensions
and orientation angle. Press
Add to input to append the
shape to the bottom of the
table. The default values of X,
Y and ß are set to the ending
values of the last weld
segment.
Tip: You can embed the Data File in the calcsheet for easy recalling from Calcpad.
The simple connection design modules are suitable for the design of the following connections:
Double Angle Cleat Connection Design, Cleat: Web cleat connections.
End Plate Connection Design, Endplate: Flexible end plate connections.
Fin Plate Connection Design, Finplate: Fin plate connections.
Design scope
The simple connection design modules can analyse connections that transmit end shear and
axial force only. A designed connection has negligible resistance to rotation and is thus
incapable of transmitting significant moments at ultimate limit state.
The following assumptions are made:
The centre lines of the beam and column are in the same plane.
The connection transmits end shear only.
Bolts have normal clearance holes.
All bolts have threads in their shear planes.
Codes of practice
The following codes are supported:
AISC - 1993 LRFD.
BS5950 - 1990.
BS5950 - 2000.
CAN/CSA S16.1 - 94.
Eurocode 3 - 1992.
IS:800 - 2007.
SABS0162 - 1984 (allowable stress design).
SABS0162 - 1993 (limit state design).
Units of measurement
Both Metric and Imperial units of measurement are supported.
List of symbols
Where possible the same symbols are used as in the design codes. The meaning of the symbols
should be clear from their use in the design output.
Members
Define the connection orientation and profile to use for each member:
Select a connection type by clicking the Member orientation buttons.
The column and the beam can be set to I or H-sections.
The definition of the connecting member depends on the type of connection:
Double angle cleat connection: Select an angle section and enter the cleat length.
Fin plate and end plate connections: Enter a plate height, width and thickness.
Define the relative element positions by entering the spacing between the column and
beam and the vertical position of the cleat or connecting plate.
Tip: Click the Auto size and Auto spacing buttons for quick input of workable dimensions.
Design parameters
Select the connection shear
analysis method and define the
fastener and member material
properties:
Select between linear and
non-linear analysis of bolts
in shear. For a detailed
explanation of the analysis
methods, refer to page 5-35.
Enter a bolt type, grade and
diameter. For high strength
friction grip bolts, additio-
nal information needs to be
Connections
The layout of the bolts on the
connecting member is defined
by entering their number and
spacing.
In the case of angle cleats, the
connections to the beam and
column are defined indepen-
dently.
View connection
To verify that you have defined
the connection geometry as you
intended, you can view it from
several angles:
Dimensioned elevations are
an easy way to check bolt
spacings and the spacing
between the members.
Use the 3D view to verify
the overall layout and check
that bolts are far enough
from webs and flanges. You
can rotate a 3D view and
use the View point and
View plane controls as
described in Chapter 2.
Tip: You can embed the Data File in the calcsheet for easy recalling from Calcpad.
6
Concrete Design
The concrete design modules can be used for the design of reinforced and pre-stressed concrete
beams and slabs, columns, column bases and retaining walls.
Several concrete design modules are included in the PROKON suite. These are useful tools for
the design and detailing typical reinforced and pre-stressed concrete members.
Column design
Rectangular Column Design and Circular Column Design offer rapid design and detailing
of simple short and slender columns. Columns with complicated shapes can be designed using
the General Column Design module.
Substructure design
Use the Column Base Design and Retaining Wall design to design and detail typical bases
and soil retaining walls.
Section design
Two modules, Concrete Section Design and Section Design for Crack width, are available
for the quick design of sections for strength and crack width requirements.
The Continuous Beam and Slab Design module is used to design and detail reinforced
concrete beams and slabs as encountered in typical building projects. The design incorporates
automated pattern loading and moment redistribution.
Complete bending schedules can be generated for editing and printing using Padds.
Design scope
The program designs and details continuous concrete beams and slabs. You can design
structures ranging from simply supported single span to twenty-span continuous beams and
slabs. Cross-sections can include a mixture rectangular, I, T and L-sections. Spans can have
constant or tapered sections.
Entered dead and live loads are automatically applied as pattern loads during the analysis. At
ultimate limit state, moments and shears are redistributed to a specified percentage.
Reinforcement can be generated for various types of beams and slabs, edited and saved as
Padds compatible bending schedules.
Design codes
The following codes are supported:
ACI 318 - 1999.
ACI 318 - 2005.
AS3600 - 2001.
BS 8110 - 1985.
BS 8110 - 1997.
CP65 - 1999.
Eurocode 2 - 1992.
Eurocode 2 - 2004.
HK Concrete - 2004.
IS:456 - 2000.
SABS 0100 - 2000.
Reinforcement bending schedules are generated in accordance to the guidelines given by the
following publications:
General principles: BS 4466, BS 8666 and SANS 282.
Guidelines for detailing: 'Standard Method of Detailing Structural Concrete' published by
the British Institute of Structural Engineers.
Note: No checks are made for the slenderness limits of columns or beam flanges.
Pattern loading
At ultimate limit state, the dead and live loads are multiplied by the specified ULS load
factors (see page 6-14). Unity load factors are used at serviceability limit state. The following
load cases are considered (the sketch uses the load factors applicable to BS8110):
All spans are loaded with
the maximum design load.
Odd numbered spans (spans
1, 3, 5, etc.) are loaded with
the minimum design dead
load and even numbered
spans (spans 2, 4, etc.) with
the maximum design
ultimate load (dead plus
live load).
Even numbered spans are
loaded with the minimum
design dead load and odd
numbered spans loaded
with the maximum design
ultimate load.
Note: The case where any two adjacent spans are loaded with maximum load and all other
spans with minimum load, as was the case with CP 110 - 1972 and SABS 0100 - 1980, is
not considered.
The following are special considerations with pertaining to design using SABS 0100 - 1992:
SABS 0100 - 1992 suggests a constant ULS dead load factor of 1.2 for all pattern load
cases. In contrast, the BS 8110 codes suggest a minimum ULS dead load factor of 1.0 for
calculating the minimum ultimate dead load. The program uses the more approach given
by the BS 8110 codes at all times, i.e. a ULS load factor of 1.0 for minimum dead load and
the maximum load factor specified for maximum dead load.
Moment redistribution
Ultimate limit state bending moments are redistributed for each span by adjusting the support
moments downward with the specified percentage. If the method of moment redistribution is
set to 'optimised', the design moments are further minimised by redistributing span moments
upward as well.
Downwards redistribution
The downward distribution
method aims to reduce the
hogging moments at the
columns without increasing
the sagging moments at
midspan. The redistribution
of moments and shear forces
procedure is performed as
follows:
1. The maximum hogging
moment at each column
or internal support is
adjusted downward by
the specified maximum
percentage.
2. The corresponding span
moments are adjusted
Optimised redistribution:
The optimised distribution procedure takes the above procedure a step further by upward
distribution of the span moments. The envelopes for the three pattern load cases are
redistributed as follows:
1. The maximum hogging moment at each internal support is adjusted downward by the
specified percentage. This adjustment affects the moment diagram for the load case where
the maximum design load is applied to all spans.
2. The relevant span moments are adjusted accordingly to maintain static equilibrium.
3. The minimum hogging moment at each internal support is subsequently adjusted upward
to as close as possible to the reduced maximum support moment, whilst remaining in the
permissible redistribution range. A second load case is thus affected for each span.
4. The relevant span moments are adjusted in line with this redistribution of the column
moments to maintain static equilibrium.
5. For each span, the moment diagram for the remaining third load case is adjusted to as near
as possible to the span moments obtained in the previous step. The adjustment is made in
such a way that it remains within the permissible redistribution range.
6. Finally, the shear force envelope is adjusted to maintain static equilibrium.
7. The following general principles are applied when redistributing moments:
8. Equilibrium is maintained between internal and external forces for all relevant
combinations of design ultimate load.
9. The neutral axis depth is checked at all cross sections where moments are redistributed. If,
for the specified percentage of moment redistribution, the neutral axis depth is greater than
the limiting value of (ßb0.4)d, compression reinforcement is added to the section to
sufficiently reduce the neutral axis depth.
10. The amount of moment redistribution is limited to the specified percentage. The maximum
amount of redistribution allowed by the codes is 30%.
Note: The exact amount of moment redistribution specified is always applied, irrespective
of the degree of ductility of the relevant sections. Where necessary, ductility is improved by
limiting the neutral axis depth. This is achieved by adding additional compression
reinforcement.
Elastic deflections
Short-term elastic deflections are calculated using un-factored SLS pattern loading. Gross un-
cracked concrete sections are used.
Long-term deflections
Long-term deflections are determined by first calculating the cracked transformed sections:
1. The full SLS design load is applied to all spans to obtain the elastic moment diagram.
2. The cracked transformed sections are then calculated at 250 mm intervals along the length
of the beam. The results of these calculations are tabled in the Crack files on the
View output pages.
Note: The calculation of the cracked transformed section properties is initially based on the
amount of reinforcement required at ULS. However, once reinforcement is generated for
beams, the actual entered reinforcement is used instead. You can thus control deflections by
manipulating reinforcement quantities.
Next, the long-term deflection components are calculated by numerically integrating the
curvature diagrams:
1. Shrinkage deflection is calculated by applying the specified shrinkage strain.
Unsymmetrical beams and unsymmetrical reinforcement layouts will cause a curvature in
the beam.
2. The creep deflection is calculated by applying the total dead load and the permanent
portion of the live load on the beam. The modulus of elasticity of the concrete is reduced
in accordance with the relevant design code.
3. The instantaneous deflection is calculated by applying the transient portion of the live load
on the transformed crack section.
4. The long-term deflection components are summed to yield the total long-term deflection.
Note: When calculating the curvatures for integration, elastic moments are used together
with cracked transformed sections, which implies plastic behaviour. Although this
procedure is performed in accordance with the design codes, the use of elastic moments
together with cracked sections in the same calculation is a contradiction of principles. As a
result of this, long-term deflection diagrams may show slight slope discontinuities at
supports, especially in cases of severe cracking.
The design procedures for flat slabs and coffer slabs are described in more detail on page 6-38.
Parameters input
Enter the following design parameters:
fcu : Characteristic strength of concrete (MPa).
fy : Characteristic strength of main reinforcement (MPa).
fyv : Characteristic strength of shear reinforcement (MPa).
Redistr : Percentage of moment redistribution to be applied.
Method : Method of moment redistribution, i.e. downward or optimised. For more
information, refer to page 6-8.
Cover top : Distance from the top surface of the concrete to the centre of the top steel.
Cover bottom: Distance from the soffit to the centre of the bottom steel.
DL factor : Maximum ULS dead load factor.
LL factor : Maximum ULS live load factor.
Note: The ULS dead and live load factors are used to calculate the ULS design loads. The
ULS dead and live loads are then automatically patterned during analysis. Refer to page 6-7
for more information.
Density : Concrete density used for calculation of own weight. If the density filed is left
blank, the self-weight of the beam/slab should be included in the entered dead
loads.
LL perm : Portion of live load to be considered as permanent when calculating the creep
components of the long-term deflection.
: The thirty-year creep factor used for calculating the final concrete creep strain.
cs : Thirty-year drying shrinkage of plain concrete.
Note: Creep and shrinkage of plain concrete are primarily dependent on the relative
humidity of the air surrounding the concrete. Where detailed calculations are being made,
stresses and relative humidity may vary considerably during the lifetime of the structure and
appropriate judgements should be made.
Sections input
You can define rectangular, I, T, L and inverted T and L-sections. Every section comprises a
basic rectangular web area with optional top and bottom flanges.
The top levels of all sections are aligned vertically by default and they are placed with their
webs symmetrically around the vertical beam/slab centre line. The web and/or flanges can be
move horizontally to obtain eccentric sections, for example L-sections. Whole sections can
also be moved up or down to obtain vertical eccentricity.
Section definitions are displayed graphically as they are entered. Section cross-sections are
displayed as seen from the left end of the beam/slab.
Note: There is more than one way of entering a T-section. The recommended method is to
enter a thin web with a wide top flange. You can also enter wide web (actual top flange)
with a thin bottom flange (actual web). The shear steel design procedure works with the
entered web area, i.e. Bw × D, as the effective shear area. Although the two methods produce
similar pictures, their shear modelling is vastly different.
Spans input
Sections specified on the Sections input page are used here with segment lengths to define
spans of constant or varying sections.
Tip: When using varying cross sections on a span segment, the section definitions are
interpreted literally. If a rectangular section should taper to an L-section, for example, the
flange will taper from zero thickness at the rectangular section to the actual thickness at the
L-section. If the flange thickness should remain constant, a dummy flange should be defined
for the rectangular section. The flange should be defined marginally wider, say 0.1mm, than
the web and its depth made equal to the desired flange depth.
Supports input
You can specify simple supports, columns below and above, fixed ends and cantilever ends. To
allow a complete sub-frame analysis, columns can be specified below and above the beam/slab.
If no column data is entered, simple supports are assumed.
The following input is required:
Sup no : Support number, between 1 to 2'. Support 1 is the left-most support.
C,F : The left-most and right-most supports can be freed, i.e. cantilevered, or made
fixed by entering 'C' or 'F' respectively. By fixing a support, full rotational
fixity is assumed, e.g. the beam/slab frames into a very stiff shaft or column.
D : Depth/diameter of a rectangular/circular column (mm). The depth is measured
in the span direction of the beam/slab.
B : Width of the column (mm). If zero or left blank, a circular column is assumed.
H : Height of the column (m).
Tip: For the sake of accurate reinforcement detailing, you can specify a width for simple
supports at the ends of the beam/slab. Simply enter a value for D and leave B and H blank.
In the analysis, the support will still be considered as a normal simple support. However,
when generating reinforcement bars, the program will extend the bars a distance equal to
half the support depth past the support centre line.
Tip: You may leave the Support input table blank if all supports are simple supports.
Loads input
Dead and live loads are entered separately. The entered loads are automatically patterned
during analysis. For more detail on the pattern loading technique, refer to page 6-7.
Distributed loads, point loads and moments can be entered on the same line. Use as many lines
as necessary to define each load case. Defined loads as follows:
Case D,L : Enter 'D' or 'L' for dead load or live load respectively. If left blank, the previous
load type is assumed. Use as many lines as necessary to define a load case.
Span : Span number on which the load is applied. If left blank, the previous span
number is assumed, i.e. a continuation of the load on the current span.
Note: A portion of the live load can be considered as permanent for deflection calculation.
For more detail, refer to the explanation of the Parameters input on page 6-14.
Analysis procedure
Two separate analyses are performed for SLS and ULS calculations.
Tip: After having generated reinforcement for a beam, the long-term deflections will be
recalculated using the actual reinforcement.
Deflections
The elastic deflection envelope
represents the deflections due to
SLS pattern loading.
The long-term deflection diagram
represents the behaviour of the
beam/slab under full SLS
loading, taking into account the
effects of shrinkage and creep:
The green line represents the
total long-term deflection.
The shrinkage deflection is
shown in red.
The creep deflection (long-term
deflection due to permanent loads)
is given by the distance between the
red and blue lines.
The distance between the blue and
green lines represents instantaneous
deflection due to transient loads.
Note: Long-term deflections in beams are influenced by reinforcement layout. Initial long-
term deflection values are based on the reinforcement required at ultimate limit state. Once
reinforcement has been generated for a beam, the long-term deflections will be based on the
actual reinforcement instead.
Steel diagrams
Bending and shear reinforcement
envelopes are given for ULS
pattern loading. The bending
reinforcement diagram sows
required top steel above the zero
line and bottom steel below.
Detailing parameters
The detailing parameters set the rules to be used by the program when generating
reinforcement:
Beam/slab type: Different detailing rules apply to different types of beams and slabs:
Tip: To force the program to use a specific bar diameter, you can enter the same value for
both the minimum and maximum diameters.
Note: The default bar types used for main bars and stirrups, e.g. mild steel or high tensile,
are determined by the yield strength values entered on the Parameters input page – refer to
page 6-14 for detail. High tensile steel markings, e.g. 'T' or 'Y', will be used for specified
values of fy and fyv exceeding 350MPa.
Stirrup shape code: Preferred shape code to use for stirrups. Valid shape codes include:
BS 4466 and BS 8666: 55, 61, 77, 78 and 79.
Note: For beams and ribs, the minimum stirrup percentage should not be taken less than
100% of nominal shear reinforcement.
Loose method of detailing: The envisaged construction technique can be taken into
account when detailing reinforcement:
With the 'loose method' of detailing, also referred to as the 'splice-bar method', span
reinforcement and link hangers are stopped short about 100 mm inside each column
face. This is done at all internal columns were congestion of column and beam
reinforcement is likely to occur. The span bars and stirrups are often made into a cage,
lifted and lowered between supports. For continuity, separate splice bars are provided
through the vertical bars of each internal column to extend a lap length plus 100 mm
into each span. Top bars will extend over supports for the required distance and
lapped with nominal top bars or link hangers. Allowance is made for a lap length of
40· and a 100 mm tolerance for the bottom splice bars that are acting in compression.
Alternatively, where accessibility during construction allows, the 'normal' method of
detailing usually yields a more economical reinforcement layout. This method allows
bottom bars to be lapped at support centre lines. Top bars will extend over supports
Note: The 'normal' method of detail may give rise to congested reinforcement layouts at
beam-column junctions, especially on the bottom beam/slab layer. Reinforcement layout
details at such points should be checked.
Generating reinforcement
Use the Generate reinforcing to have the program generate bars according the detailing
parameters.
Note: The aim of the automatic reinforcement generation function is to achieve a reasonable
optimised reinforcement layout for any typical beam or slab layout. More complicated
layouts will likely require editing of the generated reinforcement as described in the text that
follows. Very complicated layouts may require more detailed editing using Padds.
Editing reinforcement
You can modify the generated reinforcement to suite your requirements by editing the
information on the Main reinforcing, Stirrups, Shear reinforcing and Sections pages.
Main reinforcing
The main reinforcement bars are defined as follows:
Bars: The quantity, type and diameter of the bar, example '2T20' or '2Y16'. The bar
defined at the cursor position is highlighted in the elevation.
Mark: An alphanumerical string of up to five characters in length, example 'A', '01'
or 'A001'.
Shape code: Standard bar shape code. Valid shape codes for main bars include 20, 32, 33,
34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39 and 51.
Span: The beam/slab span number.
Offset: Distance from the left end of the span to the start point of the bar (m). A negative
value makes the bar start to the left of the beginning of the span, i.e. in the previous span.
Length: Length of the bar as seen in elevation (m).
Hook: If a bar has a hook or bend, enter 'L' or 'R' to it on the left or right side. If this field
is left blank, an 'L' is assumed.
Layer: Position the bar in the top, middle or bottom layer. Use the letters 'T', 'M' or 'B'
with an optional number, e.g. 'T' or 'T1' and 'T2'.
Stirrups
Define stirrup layouts as follows:
Stirrup number: Enter a stirrup configuration number. Configuration numbers are used
on the Shear reinforcing input page (see page 6-32) to reference specific configuration. If
left blank, the number applicable to the previous row is assumed, i.e. an extended
definition of the current configuration.
Section number: Concrete cross section number as defined on the Sections input page
(see page 6-33). If left blank, the number applicable to previous row in the table is used.
Bars: Type and diameter of bar, example 'R10'.
Mark: Any alphanumerical string of up to five characters in length, e.g. 'SA1', '01' or
'S001'.
Shape code: Standard double-leg bar shape code. The following shape codes can be used:
BS 4466 and B S8886: 55, 61, 77, 78 and 74.
SANS 282: 55, 60, 72, 73 and 74.
Bars are automatically sized to fit the section web. The first stirrup entered is put against the
web sides. Subsequent stirrups are positioned in such a way that vertical legs are spaced
equally.
Tip: Open stirrups, e.g. shape code 55, can be closed by entering a shape code 35.
The diagrams for required and entered shear reinforcement are superimposed. The required
steel diagram takes into account shear enhancements at the supports.
Sections
Cross-sections can be generated anywhere along the length of the beam/slab to show the main
and shear steel layout:
Label: The cross-section designation, e.g. 'A'.
Span no: The beam/slab span number.
Offset: The position of the section, given as a distance from the left end of the span (m).
Sections are displayed on the screen and can be used to check the validity of steel entered at the
different positions. Stirrup layouts defined on the Stirrups input (see page 6-30) rely on
appropriate section positions specified. All specified sections will be included in the final
bending schedule.
Bending schedule
The Bending schedule input page is used generate a complete Padds compatible bending
schedule. The parameters allow flexibility in the bending schedule creation, e.g. you can have
the details of a beam/slab on a single bending schedule or split it onto more than one schedule
to improve clarity. Each bending schedule can then be given a unique name and the associated
spans entered.
The following information should be entered:
File name: The name of the Padds drawing and bending schedule file
First span: For clarity, a beam/slab with many spans can be scheduled put on more than
one bending schedule. Enter the first span number to be included in the bending schedule.
Last span: Enter the last span number to be included in the bending schedule.
Note: When combining a drawing and schedule on the same page, the number of schedule
lines is limited to a maximum of twenty-four in Padds. Using more lines will result in the
drawing and schedule being printed on separate pages.
Use the Generate schedule function to create and display the Padds bending schedule.
Note: The bottom left block is reserved for your company logo and should be set up as
described in the Padds User's Guide.
Finally, combine the beam drawing and schedule onto one or more pages using the Title Block
and Print button on the bending schedule window.
Tip: You can embed the Data File in the calcsheet for easy recalling from Calcpad.
Note: If the own weight is modelled using a density, you should account for the increased
loading by either increase the density value by 12.5% or increasing the applied dead load.
The program will analyse the panel and generate a column strip, 1500 mm wide, and a middle
strip 4500 mm wide.
Reinforcement layout
Careful combination of the column and middle strips generated above, should yield a
reasonably economical reinforcement layout:
For typical internal strips (strip A), use the generated column strip (CA) and middle
strip (MA).
For the column strip over the external row of columns, use no less than the column strip
reinforcement (CB) generated for the external strip (strip B).
For the column strip over the first row of internal columns, use no less than the column
strip reinforcement (CC) generated for the first internal strip (strip C).
The first middle strip from the edge (MC/MB) can be conservatively taken as the worst of
middle strip generated for the first internal strip (MC) and twice that generated for the
external strip (MB).
Note: You should validate the design procedure by checking that, in zones of sagging
moment, the concrete compression zones of coffer ribs fall within the coffer flanges. Zones
of hogging moment should be located inside solid bands.
Captain (Computer Aided Post Tensioning Analysis Instrument) can be used to design and
detail most types of continuous pre-stressed beam and slab systems encountered in typical
building projects. The design incorporates automated pattern loading and moment
redistribution.
Both unbounded systems, e.g. flat slabs, and bonded systems, e.g. bridge decks, can be
designed. Estimates for quantities are calculated and tendon profile schedules can be generated
for use with Padds.
Design scope
The program designs and details continuous pre-stressed concrete beams and slabs. You can
design structures ranging from simply supported single span to twenty-span continuous beams
or slabs.
Cross-sections can include a mixture rectangular, I, T and L-sections. More complex sections,
e.g. box bridge decks, can be modelled with the aid of the section properties calculation
module, Prosec. Spans can have constant or tapered sections.
Entered dead and live loads are automatically applied as pattern loads during the analysis. You
can also enter individual load cases and group them in load combinations. At ultimate limit
state, moments and shears are redistributed to a specified percentage.
Pre-stressed tendons can be generated to balance a specified percentage of dead load.
Conventional reinforcement can be added to help control cracking, deflection and increase the
ULS capacity.
Tendon profiles can be scheduled and saved as Padds compatible drawings.
Design codes
The following codes are supported:
ACI 318 - 1999.
ACI 318 - 2005.
BS 8110 - 1985.
BS 8110 - 1997.
CP65 - 1999.
SABS 0100 - 2000.
Reinforcement bending schedules are generated in accordance to the guidelines given by the
following publications:
Report No 2 of the Joint Structural Division of SAICE and ISA (JSD), 'Design of Pre-
stressed Concrete Flat Slabs'.
Technical Report 25 of the Concrete Society, published in 1984.
Attached torsional members are treated in accordance with ACI 318 - 1989.
Note: No checks are made for the slenderness limits of columns or beam flanges.
Column stiffness
BS 8110 and SABS 0100 - 2000 assume that columns are rigidly fixed to slabs over the whole
width of the panel. If the ultimate negative moment at an outer column exceeds the moment of
resistance in the adjacent slab width, the moment in the column should be reduced and the
sagging moment in the outer span should be increased to maintain equilibrium.
In ACI 318 - 1989, on the other hand, allowance is made for the reduction of column stiffness
due to torsion. Report 2 of the JSD adapts a similar column stiffness reduction approach. The
program incorporates this approach by allowing you to optionally enable attached torsional
members.
Note: When the approach to include the attached torsional members is followed, column
heads will also be taken into account in the column stiffness.
Pattern loading
At ultimate limit state, the dead and live loads are multiplied by the specified ULS load
factors (see page 6-70). Unity load factors are used at serviceability limit state. The following
load cases are considered (the sketch uses the load factors applicable to BS8110):
All spans are loaded with the
maximum design load.
Odd numbered spans (spans
1, 3, 5, etc.) are loaded with
the minimum design dead
load and even numbered
spans (spans 2, 4, etc.) with
the maximum design ultimate
load (dead plus live load).
Even numbered spans are
loaded with the minimum
design dead load and odd
numbered spans loaded with
the maximum design ultimate
load.
The following are special considerations with pertaining to design using SABS 0100 - 1992:
SABS 0100 suggests a constant ULS dead load factor of 1.2 for all pattern load cases. In
contrast, the BS 8110 codes suggest a minimum ULS dead load factor of 1.0 for
calculating the minimum ultimate dead load. The program uses the more approach given
by the BS 8110 codes at all times, i.e. a ULS load factor of 1.0 for minimum dead load and
the maximum load factor specified for maximum dead load.
The South African loading code, SANS 10162, prescribes an additional load case of
1.5×DL. This load case is not considered during the analysis – if required, you should
adjust the applied loads manually. In cases where the dead load is large in comparison
with the live load, e.g. lightly loaded roof slabs, increasing the entered dead load or
increasing the ULS dead load factor can incorporate this load case. This adjustment
applies to cases where 1.5×DL > 1.2×DL + 1.6×LL or, in other words, LL < 19%. Using
an increased dead load factor of 1.4 instead of the normal 1.2 will satisfy all cases except
where 1.5×DL > 1.4×DL + 1.6×LL or, in other words, LL < 6%×DL.
Moment redistribution
Ultimate limit state bending moments are redistributed for each span by adjusting the support
moments downward with the specified percentage. If the method of moment redistribution is
set to 'optimised', the design moments are further minimised by redistributing span moments
upward as well.
The moment envelopes are calculated for pattern loading and then redistributed using the
procedures explained in the following text.
Code requirements
The JSD Report 2 recommends that the maximum moment redistribution should not
exceed 20%.
Downwards redistribution
The downward distribution method aims to reduce the hogging moments at the columns
without increasing the sagging moments at midspan. The redistribution of moments and shear
forces procedure is performed as follows:
Optimised redistribution:
The optimised distribution procedure takes the above procedure a step further by upward
distribution of the span moments. The envelopes for the three pattern load cases are
redistributed as follows:
11. The maximum hogging
moment at each internal
support is adjusted
downward by the
specified percentage.
This adjustment affects
the moment diagram for
the load case where the
maximum design load is
applied to all spans.
12. The relevant span
moments are adjusted
accordingly to maintain
static equilibrium.
13. The minimum hogging
moment at each internal
support is subsequently
adjusted upward to as
close as possible to the
reduced maximum
support moment, whilst
remaining in the
permissible
redistribution range. A
second load case is thus
affected for each span.
14. The relevant span
moments are adjusted in
line with this redis-
tribution of the column
Note: As would be the case in typical pre-stressed sections, the program assumes that all
sections have adequate ductility to allow moment redistribution. The actual ductility of
sections is not verified.
Note: The program uses load balancing only for the purpose of generating tendons.
Since long-term losses are not known beforehand, a 15% loss of pre-stress is assumed. Further,
the generation procedure that tendons are stressed to 70% of their ultimate tensile
strength (UTS).
The details of the tendon generation procedure are explained in the following text.
The tendon force, T, required to produce the balanced load Wbal is given by
drape
b1 b3 / 2 b2Length L R
Length
The tendon force required to produce the balanced load Wbal is then given by
Further, the corresponding vertical offset for the start of the radius, yw, is given by
xw 2
yw
2R min
b b yw
arctan 3 1
Length x w
The tendon force required to produce the balanced load Wbal is then given by
1.15Wbal
Treq
sin
Further, the corresponding vertical offset for the start of the radius, yw, is taken as
xw 2
yw
2R min
The tendon force required to produce the balanced load Wbal is then given by
1.15Wbal
Treq
16d1 16d 2
3 Length 3 Length xw
where
2(b1 b2 )
d1
3
2(b3 y w b2 )
d2
3
Further, the corresponding vertical offset for the start of the radius, yw, is taken as
xw 2
yw
2R min
The tendon force required to produce the balanced load Wbal is then given by
1.15Wbal
Treq
16d 2 16d 2
3 Length x
w
where
2(b1 y w b2 )
d1
3
2(b3 y w b2 )
d2
3
Pre-stress losses
In the following text, an explanation as given for the various components of pre-stress losses:
Friction losses.
Wedge-set.
Long-term losses.
where
a dif a 2 a1
These values are used to determine the position of the lowest point on the parabola, X, and are
derived from the basic parabolic equations describing the tendon profiles. The position of the
lowest point is at midspan if adif is equal to zero, otherwise it is calculated as
p
x
2a dif
where
p m 2 a dif n
If x 0, then the vertical position of the left inflection point, c1, is given by
a1 L
c1 else c1 is zero.
X
If L X then the vertical position of the right inflection point, cs, is given by
a2 R
c2 else c2 is zero.
Length X
Pe Poe( k ) Length
where
Po = Applied tendon force
= Friction coefficient of the tendon against the sheath
= Cumulative angle of curvature over length
k = Friction coefficient for unintentional variation form specified profile ('wobble' in
sheath)
The position of the end of the left minimum radius, xwL, is given by
x wL 0 otherwise.
Corresponding to this
x wL 2
y wL
2R min
Similarly, the position of the start of the right minimum radius, xwR, is given by
Corresponding to this
x wR 2
y wR
2R min
where
Lfric = Portion over which the losses occur.
Wedge-set
As soon as the stressing jacks are
released, a phenomenon known as
'wedge-set' or 'wedge pull-in' occurs.
In typical building slabs, the tendons
normally pull in by about 5mm to
10 mm before the tendons grip onto
the wedges in the anchor head. The
influence on the tendon force is
significant.
Because of frictional losses, the effect of wedge-set is to reduce the effective pre-stress over a
limited length of tendon only. This length, labelled l w, is calculated by considering the average
force loss over the entire length of the tendon:
Pbegin Pend
m
Total tendon length
d ws ApsEs
lw
m
where
Aps = Area of tendons
Es = Modulus of elasticity of tendons
ds = Wedge-set
The tendon force profile can then be adjusted by reducing the tendon force at the live anchor
by 2Plossws and taking the negative pre-stress loss gradient up to the position of wedge-set
influence, lw.
Long-term tosses
The average steel strain in all the tendons is given by
( Pspanbegin Ps panend )
st
2 Es Aps
This summation is carried out over all spans for all tendons.
The creep strain is estimated as
Pavg
creep
Ac E c
where
Pavg = Average pre-stressing force
Ac = Concrete area
Ec = Concrete modulus of elasticity
= Creep factor
The percentage total losses can be calculated as
100( shrinkage creep )
% Loss %relaxation
Es Aps
where
shrinkage = Shrinkage strain
creep = Strain due to creep
where
adi f a3 a1
These values are used to determine the position of the lowest point on the parabola, X, and are
derived from the basic parabolic equations describing the tendon profiles. The position of the
lowest point is at midspan if adif is equal to zero, otherwise it is calculated as
p
X
2a dif
where
p m2 adif n
If L = 0 then W1 = 0.
The central portion of the equivalent tendon load is calculated by using a length lcalc. The
distance lcalc is measured from the lowest point of the parabola to the nearest inflection point.
If the left inflection point is nearest to the lowest point, then
lcalc X L
Else, if the right inflection point is nearest to the lowest point, then
lcalc Length X R
If R = 0 then W3 = 0.
If the value of X is equal to zero, it implies that the tendon is horizontal at the beginning or end
of the span. If the value of L or R is equal to zero, it means that there is no reverse portion of
the parabola. In such a case a point load is calculated which acts downwards at the support.
If a tendon is stopped off away from the neutral axis, a point moment is generated in the slab.
The magnitude of this moment is given by:
M t Ptendon etendon
where
etendon = Tendon eccentricity measured from the section neutral axis.
( Pbegin Pend ) R
P3 P4 1
LengthPend
Pend b3
P4
b32 R 2
Note: Tensile concrete stresses are not considered when generating tendon profiles. The pre-
stressing is considered as an external load with a load balancing effect. Typical bridge
design code checks for class 1, 2 and 3 structures should be done in an iterative way by
manually checking the stress diagrams.
Permissible Tension
Loading Permissible
Condition Compression
Bonded Un-bonded
Transfer
The allowable stresses tabled above apply to post-tensioned flat slab design. Different values
may apply to the design of other types of members. Refer to the relevant design code for
allowable stresses for class 1, 2 and 3 pre-tensioned and post-tensioned members.
Code guidelines
Deflection can generally be controlled in the preliminary design by limiting span to depth
ratios. Report 2 of the JSD gives the following guidelines for flat slabs where at least half of
the dead plus live load is balanced by pre-stress:
Light 40 to 48
Heavy 28 to 36
Elastic deflections
Short-term elastic deflections are calculated using un-factored SLS pattern loading. Gross un-
cracked concrete sections are used.
Long-term deflections
Long-term deflections are determined by first calculating the cracked transformed sections:
3. The full SLS design load is applied to all spans to obtain the elastic moment diagram.
4. The cracked transformed sections are then calculated at 250 mm intervals along the length
of the beam. The results of these calculations are tabled in the Crack files on the
View output pages.
Note: The calculation of the cracked transformed section properties is initially based on the
amount of reinforcement required at ULS. However, once reinforcement is generated for
beams, the actual entered reinforcement is used instead. You can thus control deflections by
manipulating reinforcement quantities.
Note: When calculating the curvatures for integration, elastic moments are used together
with cracked transformed sections, which implies plastic behaviour. Although this
procedure is performed in accordance with the design codes, the use of elastic moments
together with cracked sections in the same calculation is a contradiction of principles. As a
result of this, long-term deflection diagrams may show slight slope discontinuities at
supports, especially in cases of severe cracking.
Note: Because the additional reinforcement is calculated using stress considerations, the
suggested values are normally conservative. In the final analysis, you should check that the
beam/slab has adequate strength at ultimate limit state.
Moment capacity
The moment capacity is calculated using general flexural theory. The tendon strain at ultimate
limit state is given by
pb pe pa
where
pe = Strain due to tendon pre-stress after losses
pa = Additional strain due to applied loading
The strain due to pre-stress is determined from the stress-strain curve. If the pre-stress is within
the elastic limit, the strain is given by
f pe
pe
Es
The additional strain, pa, is determined by considering the change in concrete strain at the
level of the tendon. The concrete strain distribution resulting from the effective pre-stress force
is shown as a dashed line in the figure.
where
Concrete prestress
e at the level of the tendons
Ec
where
1 and 2 = Bond coefficients
1 1.0 0.5
2 1.0 0.1
and
pb pe pa
dx
pe 1 a 2 cu
x
Therefore
k1 f cu bd 2 cu
f pb
A ps 2 cu pb pe 1 c
The values of fpb and pb are solved by iteration using the stress-strain curve to subsequently
yield the neutral axis depth, x.
The ultimate moment of resistance is then calculated as
M u f pb Aps (d k2 x)
The calculated ULS capacity envelopes for bending moment and shear force incorporate all
tendons and additional reinforcement entered. Strain is calculated on the assumption that plane
sections remain plane and concrete and steel stresses are then calculated correspondingly.
Note: The secondary moments, or a portion thereof, caused by pre-stressing may optionally
be included in the ULS calculations. Refer to page 6-70 for information on specifying the
percentage of secondary moment to be included in the analysis.
Linear shear
The linear shear checks performed by the program are done according to the provisions of
codes using the procedure described below.
An analysis is done on the sub-frame with only the equivalent tendon loads applied. The
minimum fibre stress as a result of the tendon forces is then calculated as
Ptendons M
f pt
Aconcrete Z
The section modulus, Z, is taken at the top for negative bending and at the bottom for positive
bending.
The cracking moment is then calculated as
0.8 f pt
Mo
Z
The section is considered as cracked in areas where the ultimate moment exceeds the cracking
moment.
where
ft = Concrete tensile strength
= 0.24 f cu
Ptendons Ptendonsz f
= for flanged sections
Aconcrete I
zf = Distance from the neutral axis to the junction of the flange and the web of the
section which falls inside the compression zone
In areas that are cracked, the shear capacity s given by
f pe M oV
Vcr (1-0.55 )vc bw d
f pu M
where
f pe Ptendons
f pu No of tendons UTStendon
The value of vc is calculated by taking into account the total area of pre-stressing tendons and
unstressed steel.
In areas that are cracked, the shear capacity Vcap is the minimum of Vco and Vcr calculated
above.
The shear forces are reduced by the vertical components of the tendon forces if this was
specified. Where the shear force V is less than 0.5 × the shear capacity Vcap, no shear
reinforcement is required. Shear reinforcement must be supplied in zones where
(Vcap + 0.4bwd) V 0.5Vcap:
Asv 0.4 bw
Sv 0.87 f yv
where
dt = Depth to the bottom reinforcement or tendons about which the stirrups are taken.
Linear shear is normally not a problem in flat slabs, but comes into play if ribbed slabs and
beams are analysed. For flat slabs, punching shear is normally the main shear design criterion.
Note: The factor 1.05 is derived from 1.5M as given by the codes, with a 30% reduction
allowed if the equivalent frame method with pattern loading has been used in calculating the
moments.
If the edge lies parallel with the X-axis, then M = Mty and x = yb. Similarly M = Mtx and x = xb
for the edge parallel to the Y-axis.
For a corner column, the enhanced shear force is given by
Veff 1.25V
The effective shear force is then adjusted by the vertical components of the tendon forces as
specified. The shear capacity is subsequently checked for each perimeter and reinforcement
calculated.
The shear capacity on a specific perimeter is given by
Vcap vc ucrit d
where
ucrit = Critical perimeter
d = Effective slab depth
The value of vc is calculated for both the x and y-directions and the average of the two values
used. If Veff exceeds Vcap, shear reinforcement is calculated as
Veff vc ucrit d 0.4ucrit d
Asv
0.87 f yv 0.87 f yv
The shear reinforcement represents vertical links to be placed in slabs deeper than 200 mm.
Parameters input
The following general parameters are required for analysis and design:
fcu: Characteristic 28day strength of concrete (MPa).
fy: Characteristic strength of additional un-tensioned reinforcement (MPa).
fyv: Characteristic strength of shear reinforcement (MPa).
fci: Characteristic strength of concrete at transfer of pre-stress (MPa).
Ec: Concrete modulus of elasticity (kPa).
Est: Modulus of elasticity of unstressed steel (kPa).
Density: Concrete density used for calculation of own weight.
Note: Own weight is automatically added to the dead load with the 'auto load combination'
mode selected and to the first load case with the 'user load combination' mode selected –
refer to page 6-82 for more detail on the load combination modes.
Note: In the automatic load combination mode, the ULS load factors are used with the
patterned dead and live loads. The load factors are ignored when using the user load
combination mode. Refer to page 6-82 for more detail on specifying your own load
combinations. The procedure of automated pattern loading is explained on page 6-43.
Note: Creep and shrinkage of plain concrete are primarily dependent on the relative
humidity of the air surrounding the concrete. Where detailed calculations are being made,
stresses and relative humidity may vary considerably during the lifetime of the structure and
appropriate judgements should be made.
Es: Modulus of elasticity of tendon (kPa). This value is typically set to 195E6 kPa.
Minimum radius: The minimum radius to use for harped tendons at change of slope (m).
This value is ignored when using parabolic tendons.
The top levels of all sections are aligned vertically by default and they are placed with their
webs symmetrically around the vertical beam/slab centre line. The web and/or flanges can be
move horizontally to obtain eccentric sections, for example L-sections. Whole sections can
also be moved up or down to obtain vertical eccentricity.
Note: In the sub-frame analysis, the centroids all beam segments are assumed to be on a
straight line. Vertical offsets of sections are used when calculation of tendon eccentricities
and has no other effect on the design results.
Section definitions are displayed graphically as they are entered. Section cross-sections are
displayed as seen from the left end of the beam/slab.
The following dimensions should be defined for each section:
Sec no: The section number is used on the Spans input page to identify specific sections
(see page 6-77).
Bw: Width of the web (mm).
6-74 Pre-stressed Beam and Slab Design
D: Overall section depth, including any flanges (mm).
Bf-top: Width of optional top flange (mm).
Hf-top: Depth of optional top flange (mm).
Bf-bot: Width of optional bottom flange (mm).
Hf-bot: Depth of optional bottom flange (mm).
Y-offset: Vertical offset the section (mm). If zero or left blank, the top surface is aligned
with the datum line. A positive value means the section is moved up.
Web offset: Horizontal offset of the web portion (mm). If zero or left blank, the web is
taken symmetrical about the beam/slab centre line. A positive value means the web is
moved to the right.
Flange offset: Horizontal offset of both the top and bottom flanges (mm). If zero or left
blank, the flanges are taken symmetrical about the beam/slab centre line. A positive value
means the flanges are moved to the right.
Note: There is more than one way of entering a T-section. The recommended method is to
enter a thin web with a wide top flange. You can also enter wide web (actual top flange)
with a thin bottom flange (actual web). The linear shear steel design procedure works with
the entered web area, i.e. Bw × D, as the effective shear area. Although the two methods
produce similar pictures, their linear shear modelling is vastly different.
Spans input
Sections specified on the Sections input and User sections input pages are used here with
segment lengths to define spans of constant or varying sections.
Spans are defined by specifying one or more span segments, each with a unique set of section
properties. The following data should be input for each span:
Span no: Span number between 1 and 20. If left blank, the span number as was applicable
to the previous row is used, i.e. another segment for the current span.
Section length: Length of span or span segment (m).
Sec No Left: Section number to use at the left end of the span segment.
Tip: When using varying cross sections on a span segment, the section definitions are
interpreted literally. If a rectangular section should taper to an L-section, for example, the
flange will taper from zero thickness at the rectangular section to the actual thickness at the
L-section. If the flange thickness should remain constant, a dummy flange should be defined
for the rectangular section. The flange should be defined marginally wider, say 0.1mm, than
the web and its depth made equal to the desired flange depth.
Supports input
You can specify simple supports, columns below and above, fixed ends and cantilever ends. To
allow a complete sub-frame analysis, columns can be specified below and above the beam/slab.
If no column data is entered, simple supports are assumed.
The following input is required:
Sup no: Support number, between 1 to 2'. Support 1 is the left-most support.
Tip: For the sake of accurate reinforcement detailing, you can specify a width for simple
supports at the ends of the beam/slab. Simply enter a value for D and leave B and H blank.
In the analysis, the support will be considered as a normal simple support. However, when
generating reinforcement bars, the program will extend the bars a distance equal to half the
support depth past the support centre line.
Code: A column can be pinned at its remote end by specifying 'P'. If you enter 'F' or leave
this field blank, the column is assumed to be fixed at the remote end.
Tip: You may leave the Support input table blank if all supports are simple supports.
Note: The program will not check the validity of a column head in relation to column. It is
possible, for example, to define an unpractical circular column head for a rectangular
column.
Distributed loads, point loads and moments can be entered on the same line. Use as many lines
as necessary to define each load case. Defined loads as follows:
Case D,L: Enter 'D' or 'L' for dead load or live load respectively. If left blank, the previous
load type is assumed. Use as many lines as necessary to define a load case.
Span: Span number on which the load is applied. If left blank, the previous span number
is assumed, i.e. a continuation of the load on the current span.
Wleft: Distributed load intensity (kN/m) applied at the left-hand starting position of the
load. If you do not enter a value, the program will use a value of zero.
Wright: Distributed load intensity (kN/m) applied on the right-hand ending position of the
load. If you leave this field blank, the value is made equal to Wleft, i.e. a uniformly
distributed load is assumed.
P: Point load (kN).
M: Moment (kNm).
Pre-stressed Beam and Slab Design 6-81
a: The start position of the distributed load, position of the point load or position of the
moment (m). The distance is measured from the left-hand edge of the beam. If you leave
this field blank, a value of zero is used, i.e. the load is taken to start at the left-hand edge of
the beam.
b: The end position of the distributed load, measured from the start position of the
load (m). Leave this field blank if you want the load to extend up to the right-hand edge of
the beam.
Note: A portion of the live load can be considered as permanent for deflection calculation.
For more detail, refer to the explanation of the Parameters input on page 6-70.
Note: If you enter a concrete density on the Parameters input page, the own weight of the
beam/slab is automatically calculated and included with the dead load.
Note: No load combinations need be entered if the automatic load combination mode is
selected.
As many lines as necessary may be used to input combinations of the various load cases:
Load Combination: Name of the load combination. If this field is left blank, the load
combination is taken to be the same as for the previous row in the table.
Load Case: Number or name of the load case.
ULS Factor: Load factor with which the load case should be multiplied for the ultimate
limit state.
SLS Factor: Load factor with which the load case should be multiplied for the
serviceability limit state.
Tendon profiles are displayed one set at a time, where a set is defined as one or more tendons
with the same profile and force distribution. The following parameters define the profile for
each span:
L: Left offset of tendon inflection point (parabolic) or slope change (harped) from left end
of span (m).
R: Right offset of tendon inflection point or slope change from right end of span (m).
b1: Distance from top surface to tendon centre line at left end of the span (mm).
Tip: The values of L and R are normally taken is the greater of span divided by and 250mm
for parabolic cables and span divided by four for harped cables.
Tip: Even if you want to specify your own tendon profile, it is nearly always easier to allow
the program to generate the tendon profiles and then edit them, delete some or add more
tendon groups.
The following parameters are required to define the column and slab geometry:
A: Column dimension in longitudinal direction (mm). If a column below was originally
input, its D value will be used as default.
B: Column dimension in transverse direction (mm). If a column below was originally
input, its B value will be used as default.
C: Column head dimension in longitudinal direction (mm). Leave this field blank if there
is no column head.
D: Column head dimension in the transverse direction (mm). Leave this field blank if there
is no column head.
Deffx: Effective depth for reinforcement orientated in the X-direction (mm).
Deffyx: Effective depth for reinforcement orientated in the Y-direction (mm).
For the calculation of the effective shear force Veff, the program detects internal, edge and
corner columns as follows:
Internal column: Both edges further than 5deff from the column centre.
Edge column: One edge closer than 5deff from the column centre.
Corner column: Two edges closer than 5deff from the column centre.
Note: Irrespective of the selected loading combination mode, the program will assume that
pattern loading would have been applied. The program therefore automatically reduces the
entered values for Mtx and Mty by 30%. Refer to BS 8110 - 1997 clauses 3.7.6.2 and 3.7.6.3
and SABS 0100 - 1992 clauses 4.6.2.2 and 4.6.2.3 for detail.
UDL: Uniform ultimate load in the region of the column (kN/m). The shear force is
reduced by the portion of load within each perimeter considered.
Pcx: The pre-stressing force in the longitudinal direction deemed to have a shear relieving
effect (kN). The value will default to the total pre-stressing force of all tendons. This may
be accurate for banded tendons. However, for tendons spaced further apart, only those
passing through the shear perimeters should be considered. The vertical component of the
entered total pre-stressing force is deducted from the effective shear force.
Pcy: The pre-stressing force in the transverse direction deemed to have a shear relieving
effect (kN). This value must be entered manually.
Slope-X: Average slope of tendons in X-direction crossing the punching shear perimeters.
The slope is used to calculate the vertical component of the pre-stress relieving the
effective shear force. The program will base the initial value on the generated tendon
profiles.
Slope-Y: Average slope of tendons in Y-direction crossing the punching shear perimeters.
The value must be entered manually.
Note: Although the program performs a uni-directional analysis for bending moment,
deflections, etc, bi-directional effects are included in the punching shear design procedure.
6-88 Pre-stressed Beam and Slab Design
Tip: For orthogonally stressed slabs, it is recommended that you design one direction, e.g.
the banded direction, and record the relevant punching shear values. On analysing the other
direction, you can enter these parameters for the Y-direction entered for complete
bi-directional punching shear checks.
Note: When calculating the shear resistance Vc, both bonded and un-bonded tendons are
considered.
Note: The amount of conventional reinforcement can be taken as the average (minimum for
unsymmetrical reinforcement) amount passing through the perimeter on the left and the
right (as seen on the screen) of the column. For an edge or corner column, the amount
should be taken equal to the amount passing through the perimeter on the span side.
Analysis procedure
Two separate analyses are performed for SLS and ULS calculations.
Tip: After having generated reinforcement for a beam, the long-term deflections will be
recalculated using the actual reinforcement.
Deflections
The elastic deflection envelope
represents the deflections due to
SLS pattern loading. The long-
term deflection diagram
represents the behaviour of the
beam/slab under full SLS
loading, taking into account the
effects of shrinkage and creep:
The green line represents the
total long-term deflection.
The shrinkage deflection is
shown in red.
Note: Long-term deflections in beams are influenced by reinforcement layout. Initial long-
term deflection values are based on the reinforcement required at ultimate limit state. Once
reinforcement has been generated for a beam, the long-term deflections will be based on the
actual reinforcement instead.
Crack widths
In the calculation of crack
widths, the program takes into
account all bonded tendons and
also any additional
reinforcement that has been
entered. The crack spacing is
calculated on the assumption
that all the bars and bonded
tendons are spaced equally
across the widest portion of the
section.
Un-bonded tendons are ignored
when calculating crack widths.
If too few bars or bonded
tendons are present, rotations in
the sections will be high and
unrealistic values of deflection
will result. The program will
give a warning when this occurs.
Tip: You can embed the Data File in the calcsheet for easy recalling from Calcpad.
Fesd (Finite Element Slab Design) can perform linear elastic plate bending analyses of
two-dimensional concrete slab structures. Reinforcement can be calculated from moments
transformed using the Wood and Armer equations.
To design concrete membranes, use the Space Frame Analysis module instead.
Note: This module is no longer developed or supported, and was removed from the program
toolbar in PROKON version 2.4. However, for the sake of users that purchased this module
in the past, it is still access via the Program menu. To analyse and design flat slabs, the
recommended procedure is to use shell finite elements in the Frame Analysis module. See
Chapter 3 for more information.
Sign conventions
Slab input is done using the global axes. The analysis output is given in a mixture of global
axis and local axes values.
Global axes
The global axis system is nearly exclusively used when entering slab geometry and loading.
Global axes are also used in the analysis output for deflections and reactions.
The global axes are defined as follows:
For the sake of this definition, the
X-axis is chosen to the right.
The Y-axis always points vertically
upward.
Using a right-hand rule, the Z-axis points out of the screen.
Note: Unlike some other 3D programs that put the Z-axis vertical, this program takes the
Y-axis vertical.
Local axes
Note: To assist you in evaluating shell element stresses, stress contour diagrams show
orientation lines at the centre of each shell element. An orientation line indicates the
direction the direction (not axis) of bending or plane stress. In a concrete shell, the
orientation line would indicate the direction of reinforcement resisting the particular stress.
Units of measurement
The following units of measurement are supported:
Element layout
Consider a typical continuous flat concrete slab supported on columns or walls. To ensure
accurate modelling of curvature, a minimum of about four elements should be used between
bending moment inflection points. This translates to a minimum of about eight elements per
span in both directions.
Using more elements per span often does not yield a significant improvement in analysis
accuracy. In addition, the particular finite element formulation yields its most accurate results
when the element thickness does not greatly exceed its plan dimensions.
For a typical concrete slab with a thickness of about one-tenth or one-fifteenth of the span
length, a reasonable rule of thumb is to make the plan dimensions of the shell elements no
smaller than the thickness of the slab. In other words, use a maximum of about ten to fifteen
elements per span.
Concrete design
Fesd can perform reinforced concrete design for shell elements. The Wood and Armer
equations are used to transform the bending and torsional stresses to effective bending
moments in the user-defined x' and y'-directions.
Note: The Space Frame Analysis modules can design shells for in-plane stresses as well.
Refer to Chapter 3 for detail.
Alternative methods of generating slab analysis input are discussed on page 6-117.
Tip: The Graphics options and 3D rendering function can also be accessed using the buttons
next to the displayed picture.
Views: You can save the current viewpoint and graphic display options. The current
view's name is displayed on the picture. To re-use a saved view, click the view name
on the picture to drop down a list of saved views. A detailed explanation is given
in Chapter 2.
The functions described above can also be used when viewing output. Contour diagrams, for
example, are drawn as polygons. You can therefore use the Graphics options setting for
polygons to change their appearance. Views defined during input are also available when
viewing output and vice versa.
General input
The General input page handles several important analysis parameters.
Wizards
The wizards are suitable for the
rapid generation of complete
input files for some typical slabs.
Input generated this way can
optionally be appended to
existing data – you can therefore
repeatedly use the wizards to
generate complicated structures.
Finite Element Slab Analysis 6-103
Note: The program is not limited to modelling only those slabs generated by the parametric
modules. Any general two-dimensional slab can be treated. The parametric modules merely
serve to simplify input of typical slabs.
Own weight
The own weight of the frame can be calculated using the entered cross-sectional areas and
member lengths. If you specify a load case, the own weight is calculated and added to the other
loads of that case.
The following are points of importance:
By default, the own weight of the frame is set to not be included in the analysis. Be sure to
select the appropriate load case for own weight or, alternatively, to include the frame's
own weight in the values of the loads entered.
The list of load cases from which you can select is based on the load cases defined on the
Point loads and Shell loads input pages. You may thus prefer to specify the own weight
load case only after completing all other input for the frame. However, you can also enter
the own weight load case at the start of the frame input process in which case you may
ignore the warning message (that the load case does not exist).
Tip: If you wish to use own weight in its own separate load case, you can do so by defining
an empty load case. You can enter a zero load at any node number, for example, and then
select that load case as the one to use for own weight.
Title
Enter a descriptive name for the frame. It should not be confused with the file name you use
when you save the input data.
You are allowed to skip node numbers to simplify the definition of the slab. You may also
leave blank lines in the input to improve readability. If a node number is defined more than
once, the last definition will be used.
The X-coordinate of node 4 is left blank. Therefore, node 4 is put at the coordinate
(0,14.614).
The No of is set to '2', meaning that two additional nodes must be generated.
Setting Increment to '7' means that the node numbers are incremented by seven.
Therefore, node 4 is copied to node 11 and node 11 is copied to node 18.
The values in the X-inc and Z-inc columns set the distance between copied nodes. The
coordinates 4 to 18 are spaced at 1.140 m and 0.472 m along the X and negative Z-axis
respectively. The coordinates of the additional nodes are thus (1.140,14.142) and
(2.280,13.670).
An alternative method to generate equally spaced nodes is to use the Inc to End option. This
method allows you to define two nodes and then generate a number of nodes in-between:
Use the same procedure as above to define the first node's coordinates.
Set the values of X-inc and Z-inc to the total co-ordinate difference to the last node and
enable the Inc to End option. The last node's coordinates are then first calculated and the
specified number of intermediate nodes then generated.
Block generation
A group of nodes can be repeated by entering a 'B' in the No column followed by the first and
last table row numbers in which the nodes were defined. Separate the row numbers with a '–'.
Block generation example:
The nodes defined in rows 11 to 26 are copied twice. Node numbers are incremented by thirty for
each copy. The X and Z-coordinate increments are 10 m and zero respectively.
To copy one row only, simply omit the end row number, e.g. 'B10' to copy row 10 only.
The block generation function may be used recursively. That means that the rows specified
may themselves contain further block generation statements.
Tip: To move a group of nodes to a new location without generating any new nodes, set the
No-of to '1' and Inc to '0'.
Arc generation
A group of nodes can be repeated on an arc by entering an 'A' in the No column, followed by
the start and end row numbers. Enter the centre of the arc in the X and Z columns and use the
X-inc column to specify the angle increment.
Example:
Rotating nodes
To rotate a group of existing nodes without generating any new nodes, use the arc generation
function and set the No-of to '1' and Increment to '0'.
Deleting nodes
Nodes can be deleted by entering a special X-coordinate of '1E-9' or by entering 'Delete' in the
Inc to end column. This can be especially handy if you have generated a large group of nodes
and then need to remove some of them again.
Example:
Note: Quadrilateral elements generally yield more accurate analysis results than triangular
elements. Refer to page 6-99 for more detail.
Error checking
The program checks for duplicate elements and nodes not connected to elements. It also checks
that a group number is assigned to each element. If an error is detected, an Error list button
will be displayed.
The element enclosed by nodes 15, 16, 26 and 25 are copied ten times with a node number
increment of three, i.e elements (18,19,29,28), (21,22,32,310 etc.
Block generation
A group of elements can be repeated by entering a 'B' in the No column. Then enter the first
and last table row numbers in which the elements were defined, separated with a '–'.
Block generation example:
All elements defined in rows 5 to 7 will be copied ten times with a node number increment of
twelve. The copied elements will use the same thickness and material properties as the original
elements.
To copy one row only, simply omit the end row number, e.g. 'B5' to copy row 5 only.
The block generation function may be used recursively. The group of lines referenced may thus
contain block generation statements.
Tip: When entering a complicated slab it may help to leave a few blank lines between
groups of elements. Not only will it improve readability, but it will also allow you to insert
additional elements at a later stage without upsetting block and arc generations.
Supports input
Slabs require external supports to ensure global stability. Supports can be entered at nodes to
prevent any of the three degrees of freedom associated with plate bending, i.e. translation in the
Y-direction and rotation about the X and Z-axes. You can also define elastic supports and
prescribed displacements, e.g. foundation settlement.
Enter the node number to be supported in the Node No column. In the next column a
combination of the letters 'Y', 'x' and 'z' can be entered to indicate the direction of fixity. Use
6-112 Finite Element Slab Analysis
capitals and lowercase to define restraint of translation and rotation respectively, e.g. 'Yxz'
means fixed against movement in the Y-direction and rotation about the X and Z-axes.
Note: The use of lowercase for rotational restraints should not be confused with the
convention of using lowercase for local element axes.
Tip: To enter a simple support with no moment restraint, one would typically enter a 'Y'.
If you want to repeat the supports defined on the previous row of the table, you need only enter
the node number, i.e. you may leave the Fixity column blank. If the Yxz column is left blank,
the supports applicable to the previous row will be used automatically.
Skew supports
The rotational supports 'x' and 'z' can be made skew by entering a value in the Angle column.
This feature may be useful when modelling slabs with rotational support perpendicular to skew
edges.
Prescribed displacements
Use the X, x, and z columns to enter prescribed displacements and rotations. Being a global
support condition, the effect of the prescribed displacement is added once only to the analysis
results of each load case and load combination. Optionally enter a 'P' in the P/S column to
designate the values as prescribed displacements.
Elastic supports
Elastic supports, or springs, are defined by entering spring constants in the X, x, and z
columns. The spring constant is defined as the force or moment that will cause a unit displace-
ment or rotation in the relevant direction. Enter an 'S' in the P/S column to indicate that an
entered value is a spring constant rather than a prescribed displacement. If you leave the P/S
column blank, the entered values are taken as prescribed displacements.
Tip: The effect of a column above or below the slab can be modelled by entering their
bending stiffnesses as rotational spring supports about the x and z-axes. From simple elastic
theory, the rotational stiffness of a column that is fixed at the remote end is given as 4EI/L.
The stiffness of a column that is simply supported at the remote end is equal to 3EI/L.
Error Checking
The program does a basic check on the structural stability of the slab. If a potential error is
detected, an Error list button will appear.
Note: You cannot define an elastic support and a prescribed displacement at the same node
because it will be a contradiction of principles.
Note: The display of supports can be enabled by editing the Display Options.
To define a load case, type a descriptive name for each load case in the Load Case column.
Use up to six characters to describe each load case. If the load case name is not entered, the
load case applicable to the previous row in the table is used.
Error checking
The program checks that specified nodes have indeed been defined in the Nodes input table. If
an error is detected, an Error list button will appear.
Shell loads
Distributed loads can be applied on shell elements. Enter a load case description in the Load
case column followed by the relevant element numbers in the Shell numbers column. The
program automatically assigns numbers to all shell elements in the sequence they are defined
on the Shells input page.
Note: Positive vertical loads act upward and negative loads act downward.
Error checking
The program checks that the entered element numbers are valid. If an error is detected, an
Error list button will appear.
Tip: You may leave one or more blank lines between load combination definitions to
improve readability.
Wizards
A number of typical frames can be input by entering a number of parameters. The Wizards do
most of the data input. See page 6-103 for detail on the wizards.
Graphical input
In some situations, it may be easier to define a slab's geometry graphically. With Padds you
can draw a slab and then generate a slab analysis input file.
Tip: You may sometimes find it quicker to hatch an area with a line pattern and then
vectorise the hatch to turn it into normal lines.
4. Use the Generate input command on the Macro to display the drawing conversion
options. Choose the Fesd and press OK to start the conversion procedure.
5. Close Padds.
Analysis options
Note: Shell bending stresses are taken about the x and y-axes. In contrast, the Wood and
Armer bending moments are given in the x' and y'-directions.
The Rectangular Slab Panel Design module designs rectangular flat slab panels with a variety
of edge supports. The program should best be used for designing slabs with approximately
rectangular panel layouts. You can use the Space Frame Analysis or Finite Element Slab
Design module to analyse slabs with irregular panel layouts and openings.
Design scope
The program designs rectangular reinforced concrete flat slab panels. Design loads include
own weight, distributed and concentrated dead and live loads. Slab edges can be made free,
simply supported or continuous.
Bending moment is transformed to include torsional moment using the Wood and Armer
equations. Reinforcement is calculated using the normal code formulae.
Irrespective the selected design codes, long-term deflections are estimated in accordance with
clause 9.5.2.3 of ACI318 - 1992
Codes of practice
The following codes are supported:
ACI 318 - 1999.
ACI 318 - 2005.
AS3600 - 2001.
BS 8110 - 1985.
BS 8110 - 1997.
CP65 - 1999.
Eurocode 2 - 1992.
Eurocode 2 - 2004.
HK Concrete - 2004.
IS:456 - 2000.
SABS 0100 - 2000.
Units of measurement
Both Metric and Imperial units of measurement are supported.
Slab geometry
dx : Effective depth for reinforcement in the longer span direction, i.e. parallel to
the X-axis (mm or in).
dy : Effective depth for reinforcement in the shorter span direction, i.e. parallel to
the Y-axis (mm or in).
h : Overall slab depth (mm or in).
Lshort : Length of the short side of the slab, taken parallel to the Y-axis (m or ft).
Llong : Longer side length of the slab, taken parallel to the X-axis (m or ft).
Material properties
fcu : Concrete cube strength (MPa or psi).
fy : Reinforcement yield strength (MPa or psi).
ε : Time factor for long-term deflection
: Poisson's ratio, typically equal to 0.2.
: Unit weight of concrete (kN/m³ or lb/ft³)
Applied loads
WADL : Additional distributed dead load (kN/m² or kip/ft²).
WLL : Additional distributed dead load (kN/m² or kip/ft²).).
PDL : Additional dead point load (kN or kip).
PLL : Additional live point load (kN or kip).
Design output
Abotx : Bottom steel parallel to the X-axis (mm²/m or in²/ft).
Atopx : Top steel parallel to the X-axis (mm²/m or in²/ft).
Aboty : Bottom steel parallel to the Y-axis (mm²/m or in²/ft).
Atopy : Top steel parallel to the Y-axis (mm²/m or in²/ft).
Long-term deflections
The program estimates long-term deflections by adjusting the stiffness of the slab based on the
level of cracking. The use of a time factor ε for estimating creep behaviour, is based on the
approach by ACI 318 – 1999 clause 9.5.2.3.
Typical values for ε are:
12 months 1.4
6 months 1.2
3 months 1.0
Instantaneous 0.0
Note: The calculated long-term deflections are not exact and should be considered a
reasonable estimate only.
Reinforcement calculation
The finite element analysis yields values for bending stresses about the X and Y-axes and
torsional stresses. Due to the practical difficulties involved in reinforcing a slab to resist
torsion, the Wood and Armer equations are used to transform the bending and torsional
stresses to effective bending moments in the X and Y-directions.
Note: In cases where pattern loading is important, e.g. continuous slabs, it is suggested that
the calculated bottom reinforcement be increased by about fifteen percent.
Own weight is modelled by entering a value for the unit weight. The own weight is
automatically added to each load case entered.
For the ultimate limit state calculations, the own weight, additional dead load and dead
point loads are multiplied by the entered dead load factors. All live loads are similarly
multiplied by the live load factor.
Tip: You can use the mouse to click on the slab picture and stretch its dimensions.
Supports input
The corners of the slab are supported vertically at all times. The edges can be supported using
the following codes:
Displacement: To support an edge in the vertical direction, i.e. simply supported. A typical
example would be a slab simply supported on a masonry wall that provides no rotational
support.
Rotation: To restrain rotation about an axis parallel to the slab edge, i.e. continuous. This
could be a reasonable model for a slab panel supported on columns if it is continuous with
one or more adjacent panels.
Displacement and rotation: The support conditions can be used together to support an edge
vertically and prevent rotation, e.g. a continuous slab resting on a wall.
Note: Edges that are made continuous are given zero rotation during the analysis. This could
be a reasonable assumption provided that the adjacent panel has a similar flexural stiffness.
Where adjacent spans differ significantly in terms of span length and thickness, spans
should be modelled individually with continuous supports. Differences in the negative
moments on the continuous edges should then be redistributed manually according to the
relative stiffness of each panel.
Tip: You can embed the Data File in the calcsheet for easy recalling from Calcpad.
Note: The bottom left block is reserved for your company logo and should be set up as
described in the Padds User's Guide.
Finally, combine the beam drawing and schedule onto one or more pages using the Title Block
and Print button on the bending schedule window.
The concrete column design modules are suitable for the design of the following column types:
Rectangular Column Design, RecCol: Solid rectangular columns of which the larger
column dimension does not exceed four times the smaller dimension.
Circular Column Design, CirCol: Solid circular columns where the simplified design
approach applicable to rectangular columns may be applied.
General Column Design, GenCol: Columns of any general shape and columns with
openings.
All column design modules can design reinforced concrete columns subjected to bi-axial
bending. Bending schedules can be generated for editing and printing using the PROKON
Drawing and Detailing System, Padds.
Design scope
The column design modules design reinforced concrete columns subjected to axial force and
bi-axial bending moment.
The following conditions apply to the design of rectangular and circular columns:
The design codes give simplified procedures for designing columns of which the ratio of
the larger to the smaller dimension does not exceed 1:4.
The procedure used for the design of rectangular columns is applied to the design of
circular columns.
The reinforcement layout is assumed to be symmetrical.
Reinforcement bending schedules can be generated for designed columns. Schedules can be
opened in Padds for further editing and printing.
Codes of practice
The following codes are supported:
ACI 318 - 1999.
ACI 318 - 2005.
AS3600 - 2001.
BS 8110 - 1985.
BS 8110 - 1997.
CP65 - 1999.
Eurocode 2 - 2004.
HK Concrete - 2004.
IS:456 - 2000.
SABS 0100 - 2000.
Units of measurement
Both Metric and Imperial units of measurement are supported.
Effective lengths
ßx : Effective length factor for bending about the X-axis
ßy : Effective length factor for bending about the Y-axis
Material properties
fcu : Concrete cube strength (MPa or psi).
fy : Reinforcement yield strength (MPa or psi).
Es : Modulus of elasticity of reinforcement (GPa or ksi).
Applied loads
Mx top : Moment about the X-axis applied at the top end of the column (kNm or kipft).
If left blank, a value of zero is used. A positive moment is taken anti-
clockwise.
Mx bot : Moment about the X-axis applied at the bottom (kNm or kipft).
My top : Moment about the Y-axis applied at the top (kNm or kipft). A positive moment
is taken anti-clockwise.
My bot : Moment about the Y-axis applied at the bottom (kNm or kipft).
Design output
Ac : Gross concrete area (mm² or in²).
Ascx : Area of vertical reinforcement to resist the effective design moment about
the X-axis (mm² or in²).
Ascy : Area of vertical reinforcement to resist the effective design moment about the
Y-axis (mm² or in²).
b' : Effective depth to reinforcement in shorter direction of rectangular
column (mm or in).
h' : Effective depth to reinforcement in longer direction of rectangular
column (mm or in).
Lex : Effective length for bending about the X-axis (m or ft).
Ley : Effective length for bending about the X-axis (m or ft).
Madd : Additional moment about the design axis of a circular column (kNm or kipft).
Madd x : Additional slenderness moment about the X-axis due to the column deflection
(kNm or kipft).
Madd y : Additional moment about the Y-axis (kNm or kipft).
Mmin x : Minimum design moment for bending about the X-axis (kNm or kipft).
Mmin y : Minimum design moment about the Y-axis (kNm or kipft).
Mx : Design moment about the X-axis for rectangular column (kNm or kipft).
My : Design moment about the X-axis for rectangular column (kNm or kipft).
M' : Design moment (kNm or kipft).
M'x : Effective uniaxial design moment about the X-axis for rectangular
column (kNm or kipft).
M'y : Effective uniaxial design moment about the Y-axis for rectangular
column (kNm or kipft).
Note: The column design modules automatically calculate the effective length factors in
relation to the specified end conditions. You may however manually adjust the effective
length factors if necessary.
h
All lo 60b Lo 60b and b
Maximum 4
Slenderness 100 b2 h
Cantilevers lo 60 b lo 25b and b
h 4
Note: In the above expressions for maximum slenderness, h and b are taken as the larger
and smaller column dimensions respectively.
Geometry input
The RecCol and CirCol modules have been simplified for the design of rectangular and
circular columns. Entering a column's geometry input in either of these modules is therefore
straightforward.
Tip: You can use the mouse to click on the column pictures and stretch certain dimensions,
e.g. the column length.
Note: Bar positions and diameters do not need to be entered when using RecCol and
CirCol.
The X/Radius/Bar dia and Y/Angle columns are used for entering coordinates:
X : Absolute or relative X coordinate (mm or in). Values are taken positive to the
right and negative to the left.
Y : Absolute or relative Y coordinate (mm or in). Values are taken positive upward
and negative downward.
You do need to close the polygon – the starting coordinate is automatically used as the ending
coordinate. If two polygons intersect, the geometry of the last polygon takes preference and the
previous polygon is clipped. A hole in a structure can, for example, be entered on top of
previously entered shapes.
Tip: You can leave blank lines between polygons/bars to improve readability.
If convenient, e.g. to simplify loading input, the column can be rotated by entering an angle.
Note: RecCol allows the bracing and end fixities to be set independently for bending about
the X and Y-axis.
You can use as many lines as necessary to define a load case – all values applicable to a
specific load case are added together.
Note: The design procedure for bi-axially bent slender columns tend to be conservative due
to he codes' allowance for additional moment about both the X and Y axes.
Note: Given the differences in the design procedures described above, GenCol will not
yield identical results to RecCol and Circular Column Design modules when designing
simple rectangular or circular columns.
Tip: You can embed the Data File in the calcsheet for easy recalling from Calcpad.
Note: The bottom left block is reserved for your company logo and should be set up as
described in the Padds User's Guide.
Finally, combine the column drawing and schedule onto one or more pages using the Title
Block and Print command on the bending schedule window.
The Retaining Wall Design module is used to analyse retaining walls for normal soil and
surcharge loads or seismic load conditions. Various types of walls can be considered, including
cantilever, simply supported and propped cantilever walls.
Padds compatible bending schedules can also be generated for designed walls.
Design scope
The program can design most conventional retaining walls, including cantilever, simply
supported and propped cantilever walls. Both static and seismic load conditions are supported.
Analyses are performed using either the Coulomb or the Rankine theory.
Walls can be made to slope forward or backwards and the wall thickness can vary with height.
Toes may optionally be included. Line loads, point loads and distributed loads can be placed on
the backfill. A water table can be defined behind the wall. If required, the soil pressure
coefficients can be adjusted manually.
Padds compatible bending schedules can be generated for designed walls.
Codes of practice
The following codes are supported:
ACI 318 - 1999.
ACI 318 - 2005.
AS3600 - 2001.
BS 8110 - 1985.
BS 8110 - 1997.
CP65 - 1999.
Eurocode 2 - 1992.
Eurocode 2 - 2004.
HK Concrete - 2004.
IS:456 - 2000.
SABS 0100 - 2000.
Wall geometry
At : Wall thickness at the top (m).
Ab : Wall thickness at the bottom (m).
B : Horizontal base dimension in front of the wall (m).
C : Depth of the base (m).
D : Horizontal base dimension at back of the wall (m).
F : Depth of the shear key (m).
H1 : Total wall height (m).
H2 : Height of soil in front of the wall (m).
H3 : Height from top of wall to soil level at back of wall (m).
Hr : Height of the support point from the top of the wall for a simply supported or
propped cantilevered wall (m).
Hw : Height of water table, measured from the top of wall (m).
x : Inclination of the wall (m).
xf : Position of the shear key, measured from the front of the base (m).
xL : Position of the line load, measured from the front edge of the wall (m).
xP : Position of the point load, measured from the front edge of the wall (m).
ß : Angle of soil behind wall (°).
Material properties
fcu : Concrete cube compressive strength (MPa).
fy : Reinforcement yield strength (MPa).
: Angle of friction between wall and soil (°). Must be zero if Rankine theory is
specified.
: Angle of internal friction (°).
: Poisson’s ration for the soil. The plane strain value should be used rather than
the triaxial value – see geometry and loads input.
Design parameters
DLfact : Ultimate limit state dead load factor.
LLfact : Ultimate limit state live load factor.
Pmax : Design bearing pressure at serviceability limit state (kPa)
SFOvt : Allowable safety factor for overturning at serviceability limit state.
SFSlip : Allowable safety factor for slip at serviceability limit state.
Design output
As1 : Flexural reinforcement in the wall (mm2).
As2 : Flexural reinforcement in the back part of the base (mm 2).
As3 : Flexural reinforcement in the front part of the base (mm2).
Ac1 : Compression reinforcement in the wall (mm2).
Ac2 : Compression reinforcement in the back part of the base (mm2).
Ac3 : Compression reinforcement in the front part of the base (mm2).
Ds : Density of soil (kN/m3).
K : Active pressure coefficient, including seismic effects.
Ka : Active pressure coefficient.
Kp : Passive pressure coefficient.
Kps : Passive pressure coefficient including seismic effects.
M1 : Maximum ultimate moment in the wall (kNm).
M2 : Maximum ultimate moment in back part of the base (kNm).
M3 : Maximum ultimate moment in front part of the base (kNm).
Pfac : Pressure factor used for Terzaghi-Peck pressure distribution diagram.
General assumptions
The following assumptions are applicable to the analysis:
A unit width of the wall is considered.
Predominantly active soil pressures are assumed to act on the right-hand side of the wall
Predominantly passive pressures are present on the left-hand side of the wall.
Soil pressure, soil weight and wall self-weight are taken as dead loads.
Applied distributed loads, line loads and point loads are considered to be live loads.
If a water table is specified behind the wall, a linear pressure distribution is used along its
depth. The pressure applied on the bottom of the base is varied linearly from maximum at
the back, to zero at the front.
Point loads are distributed along the depth of the soil. In contrast, line loads are taken
constant in the transverse direction of the wall.
Note: This manual does not attempt to explain the applicable theories in detail, but merely
highlights some aspects of their application. For more detail, reference should be made to
specialist literature.
Seismic analysis
The program uses the Okabe-Monobe equations, based on the Coulomb wedge theory, to
calculate revised active and passive pressure coefficients. The seismic portion of the active
pressure is assumed to act at 60% of the soil height behind the wall, effectively increasing the
lever arm of the soil pressure.
The densities of the materials are also adjusted by multiplying with (1-kv). An upward
acceleration therefore effectively decreases the stabilising effect of the wall and soil weight.
Live loads can be optionally included in a seismic analysis. If included, live loads are applied
with the same pressure coefficients as for dead loads.
Seepage modelling
When a water table is modelled, seepage can optionally be allowed below the wall. If seepage
is allowed, hydrostatic pressure is modelled as follows:
The pressure behind the wall is taken as zero on the level of the water table and then
linearly increased with depth.
At the front of the wall, the pressure is taken as zero at ground level and linearly varied
with depth.
The hydrostatic pressure below the base is varied linearly between the values calculated
behind and in front of the wall. If seepage is not allowed, the hydrostatic pressure in front
of the wall or below the base is taken as zero.
*
Soil Mechanics in Engineering Practice, Third Edition, by Karl
Terszaghi, Ralph B. Peck and Gholamreza Mesri, published by Wiley-Interscience
Retaining Wall Design 6-161
Input
Use the input tables to enter the wall geometry, loading and general design parameters.
Note: For suggestions on modelling saturated soil and submerged conditions, refer to page
6-159.
Checking stability
Stability against overturning of
the wall is checked by assuming
rotation about the lower front
corner of the base. If a shear key
is used and it is located within
one quarter of base width from
the front, the program also
checks for rotation about the
bottom of the shear key.
Design results
The design output gives the
following values at ultimate limit
state:
Bending moment diagrams (kNm).
Required reinforcement in the base and wall (mm 2).
Maximum shear stress in the wall, v, and concrete shear capacity, vc (MPa).
Note: None of the optimisation functions considers all design criteria. It is therefore
possible that after optimising the value of B, for example, the safety factor for slip is
exceeded. You may thus need to alternate optimisation functions to arrive at a workable
solution.
Tip: You can embed the Data File in the calcsheet for easy recalling from Calcpad.
Note: The bottom left block is reserved for your company logo and should be set up as
described in the Padds User's Guide.
Finally, combine the beam drawing and schedule onto one or more pages using the Title Block
and Print button on the bending schedule window.
The Column Base Design module is used to design and optimise rectangular column bases.
Padds compatible bending schedules can be generated for designed bases.
Design scope
The program designs rectangular concrete column bases subjected to vertical force and bi-axial
bending moment. The program designs the base at ultimate limit state for bending moment and
shear.
The program also verifies the stability requirements for overturning and bearing pressure.
Stability checks can be performed at ultimate limit state or using the working force method.
Refer to page 6-176 for details.
Reinforcement bending schedules can be generated for designed bases. Schedules can be
opened in Padds, for further editing and printing.
Codes of practice
The following codes are supported:
ACI 318 - 1999.
ACI 318 - 2005.
AS3600 - 2001.
BS 8110 - 1985.
BS 8110 - 1997.
CP65 - 1999.
Eurocode 2 - 1992.
Eurocode 2 - 2004.
HK Concrete - 2004.
IS:456 - 2000.
SABS 0100 - 2000.
Units of measurement
Both Metric and Imperial units of measurement are supported.
Geometry input
Enter the base and column dimensions, omitting the values for the either column if only one
column is used. A column is positioned at the centre of the base unless non-zero values are
entered for E and/or F.
Tip: You can use the mouse to click on the base pictures and stretch certain dimensions,
e.g. the base thickness and column sizes.
Loads input
Enter one or more load cases. The following should be kept in mind:
All loads are applied at the centre of the columns. A column is positioned at the centre of
the base unless values for E and/or F are entered.
For detail on the sign conventions used for loads, refer to page 6-174.
Load factors
Each load has two load factors:
LFovt: Load factor to use for overturning stability check.
LFULS: Load factor to use for calculating bending moment, shear and reinforcement at
ultimate limit state analysis.
Own weight of the base is considered as a separate load case. Load factors for own weight is
entered in the geometry input table.
Note: Although overturning is also considered an ultimate limit state, the ULS abbreviation
is used to designate the strength ultimate limit state.
For more detail on calculating the safety factor for overturning at ultimate limit state, refer to
page 6-178.
Stability checks
Stability values for overturning, slip and bearing pressure are calculated at both ultimate limit
state and serviceability limit state. The following general principles apply:
Overturning: When considering overturning at ultimate limit state, the applied loads are
multiplied by the entered load factors for overturning to calculate the ratio of destabilising
to stabilising effects. At serviceability limit state calculations are performed using the
entered un-factored working loads.
Slip: At ultimate limit state, all forces are multiplied by their ULS load factors. The safety
factor for slip is calculated by dividing the resisting passive soil pressure and friction by
the horizontal forces causing slip. The same calculation is performed at serviceability limit
state using un-factored forces.
Bearing pressure: Entered loads are multiplied by their respective ULS load factors before
calculating the bearing pressure. The un-factored loads are used at serviceability limit
state.
Note: With careful manipulation of the load factors for overturning, you can manipulate the
program to evaluate overturning stability at ultimate limit state or using the working loads
method. Refer to page 6-176 for more information.
Reinforcement calculation
The loads are multiplied by the specified load factor to obtain the ultimate design loads. The
design forces, including the base self weight and weight of the soil cover, are used to calculate
the ultimate bearing pressure below the base. The program calculates the bending moments in
the base and uses the normal code formulae to obtain the required reinforcement. Nominal
reinforcement is also calculated where applicable.
Linear shear
When considering
linear shear, lines are
considered at a
distance equal to the
base depth in front of
each face of the
column. The
contribution of the
soil pressure block
outside the lines is
then used to calculate
the shear stress.
Punching shear
For punching shear, shear perimeters are considered at one and a half time the base thickness
from the column faces.
Various combinations as for internal, edge and corner columns are considered.
Design results
Results of stability checks:
Bearing pressure beneath the base. The 3D pressure diagram is shown in elevation.
Safety factor for overturning.
Safety factor for slip.
Note: Stability checks are performed at ultimate limit state (modern limit state approach)
and serviceability limit state (older working load approach). Depending of your way of
working and the design code used, you may prefer to use only one or both sets of results.
Note: When optimising the base dimensions A and B, the base thickness is kept constant
and no shear checks are performed. Where necessary, the base thickness should be adjusted
manually.
Tip: You can embed the Data File in the calcsheet for easy recalling from Calcpad.
Note: The bottom left block is reserved for your company logo and should be set up as
described in the Padds User's Guide.
Finally, combine the beam drawing and schedule onto one or more pages using the Title Block
and Print button on the bending schedule window.
The Section Design for Crack width can be used to design reinforced concrete sections to
meet specific crack requirements. Both beam and slab sections can be designed for the
combined effects of axial tension, bending moment and temperature.
Design scope
The program can determine reinforcement layouts to contain cracks. Both rectangular beam
and slab sections can be designed to resist the effects of axial tension, bending moment and
temperature and the combination thereof. Temperature effects are also included to evaluate
early cracking and long-term thermal cracking.
Shrinkage
Concrete shrinkage due to hydration is accounted for by a combination of the thermal
expansion coefficient and the restraint factor. The design method employed by the codes is
ideally suited for non-temperate regions like Europe.
Reinforcement type
Concrete cracking has traditionally been correlated with the prevailing tensile steel stress.
Eurocode 2 - 1984 also takes account of the type of reinforcement, i.e. bond between concrete
and reinforcement.
Codes of practice
Design calculations are done according to BS 8007 - 1987 and Eurocode 2 - 1992.
Units of measurement
Both Metric and Imperial units of measurement are supported.
List of symbols
The design code symbols are used as far as possible:
Section dimensions
bt : Width of the section (mm or in).
h : Overall height of the section (mm or in).
he : Effective surface zone depth (mm or in).
Material properties
fcu : Concrete cube strength (MPa or psi).
Applied loads
R : Restraint factor.
T1 : Hydration temperature difference (°C).
T2 : Seasonal temperature variation (°C).
: Thermal expansion coefficient of concrete (m/m per °C or in/in per °C).
TSLS : The tensile force on the full section at serviceability limit state (kN or kip).
TULS : The tensile force on the full section at ultimate limit state. (kN or kip).
MSLS : Serviceability limit state moment (kNm or kipft).
MULS : Ultimate limit state moment (kNm or kipft).
Ro critical : The minimum percentage of reinforcement to be supplied.
Design output
Ast : Area of suggested reinforcement layout. (mm² or in²).
fst : Tensile stress in reinforcement (MPa or psi).
Mu : Ultimate moment capacity of section (kNm or kipft).
TU : Ultimate tensile capacity of surface zone (kN or kip).
The seasonal temperature variation, T2, is used to calculate long term thermal cracking:
If movement joints are provided as per Table 5.1 of the code, the seasonal variation
can normally be set equal to zero when considering early cracking only.
The seasonal temperature variation should always be considered for long-term thermal
cracking in combination with the applied moments and tensile forces.
Section OPC content (kg/m3)
Thickness (mm) 325 350 400
300 15 17 21
500 25 28 34
The restraint factor describes the amount of restraint in the system. The factor varies
between 0.0 to 0.5. For more detail, refer to Figure A3 of the code.
Tip: A higher restraint factor generally gives rise to more severe cracking. Therefore, when
in doubt, use a restraint factor of 0.5.
Enter a value for Ro critical, i.e. the minimum percentage of reinforcement to be supplied.
The value applies to the gross concrete section of the surface zone. The program gives a
default value of 100 · fct / fy, where fct is the three-day tensile strength of the immature
concrete. For more detail, refer to paragraph A.2 of the code.
Up to four sets of bars are calculated for slab sections. Each set has a different diameter and
spacing to comply with the crack width requirements. A fifth column is provided where you
could enter a bar configuration of choice.
For beams, up to four sets of bars are calculated. Each set of bars consists of a number of bars
of not more than two different diameters. The bar diameters are chosen to not differ by more
than one size.
Tip: You can embed the Data File in the calcsheet for easy recalling from Calcpad.
The Concrete Section Design module is a simple utility for designing concrete sections for
combined bending, shear and torsion. Rectangular and T-sections are accommodated.
Design scope
The program performs reinforced concrete design of rectangular and T-sections to resist
bending moment, shear and torsion.
Codes of practice
The following codes are supported:
ACI 318 - 1999.
ACI 318 - 2005.
AS3600 - 2001.
BS 8110 - 1985.
BS 8110 - 1997.
CP65 - 1999.
Eurocode 2 - 1992.
Eurocode 2 - 2004.
HK Concrete - 2004.
IS:456 - 2000.
SABS 0100 - 2000.
List of symbols
The design code symbols are used as far as possible:
Section dimensions
B : Width of the web (mm).
Bf : Width of the flange (mm).
Dct, Dcb : Distance from the top or bottom face to the centre of the steel (mm).
H : Overall height of the section (mm).
Hf : Depth of the flange (mm).
Design output
As : Bottom steel required for bending (mm2).
A's : Top steel required for bending (mm2).
Anom : Nominal flexural reinforcement (mm2).
Asv : Required shear reinforcement (mm2/mm).
Asvn : Nominal shear reinforcement (mm2/mm).
Mu : Ultimate moment capacity for bottom reinforcement only (kNm).
v : Shear stress (MPa)
vc : Allowable shear stress (MPa).
vt : Torsional shear stress (MPa).
Tip: You can use the mouse to click on the picture and stretch certain section dimensions,
e.g. flange width or overall depth.
Note: The suggested reinforcement configurations are given as guidelines only. You can use
the tabled values for required reinforcement to determine rebar layouts more suitable to your
requirements.
Tip: You can embed the Data File in the calcsheet for easy recalling from Calcpad.
The Punching Shear Design module designs flat slabs for punching shear at edge, corner or
internal columns. Only reinforced concrete slabs are designed – to design pre-stressed concrete
slabs for punching shear, use the Pre-stressed Beam/Slab Design module, Captain, instead.
Design scope
The program designs reinforced concrete flat slabs for punching shear at edge, corner and
internal columns.
Codes of practice
The following codes are supported:
ACI 318 - 1999.
ACI 318 - 2005.
AS3600 - 2001.
BS 8110 - 1985.
BS 8110 - 1997.
CP65 - 1999.
Eurocode 2 - 1992.
Eurocode 2 - 2004.
HK Concrete - 2004.
IS:456 - 2000.
SABS 0100 - 2000.
Units of measurement
Both Metric and Imperial units of measurement are supported.
List of symbols
The design code symbols are used as far as possible:
Slab geometry
A : Horizontal column dimension, as shown on the screen, or diameter of circular
column (mm or in).
B : Vertical column dimension, as shown on the screen (mm or in).
Material properties
fcu : Concrete cube compressive strength (MPa of psi).
fy : Yield strength of flexural reinforcement (MPa or psi)
fyv : Yield strength of shear reinforcement (MPa or psi).
Slab reinforcement
Asx1-4 : Average area of main steel parallel to the X-axis crossing each of the four
perimeters (mm² or in²). The first perimeter denotes the innermost perimeter.
Asy1-4 : Average area of main steel parallel to the Y-axis crossing each of the four
perimeters (mm² or in²).
Design output
Asv : The total area of stirrups to be provided within 1.5Deff inside a perimeter (mm²
or in²).
Ucrit : Length of critical perimeter (mm or in).
vc : Allowable punching shear stress (MPa or kip).
Vc : Shear force capacity at a stress of vc (MPa of psi).
Veff : The effective shear force as a function of Vt, Mtx and Mty (kN or kip).
Applied loads
Mtx : Ultimate bending moment about the X-axis (kNm or kipft).
Mty : Ultimate bending moment about the Y-axis (kNm or kipft).
Vt : Ultimate vertical load on column (kN or kip).
Shear capacity
The program calculates the shear capacity in the X and Y-directions, vcx and vcy, based on the
main reinforcement in those directions and the average effective depth. The design shear
capacity, vcx, is then taken as the average of the values in the X and Y-direction.
Circular columns
Given modern design trends, e.g. the approaches by ACI 318 - 1995 and Eurocode 2 - 1992,
the use of circular perimeters seems a more rational approach to evaluating punching shear for
circular columns. The program recognises this and uses the following design approach for
checking punching by circular columns:
As in the case of a rectangular column, the shear capacity vc is taken as the average of vcx
and vcy. Put differently, one could consider an imaginary square shear perimeter when
determining vc.
The shear force capacity, Vc, is calculated using the actual circular perimeter. The shorter
circular perimeter (compared to a rectangular perimeter) yields a lower (conservative)
shear force capacity.
Note: If the ultimate moments, Mtx and Mty, do not incorporate pattern loading, their values
should be increased by 30% to ensure a correct analysis.
For each perimeter, the allowable stress, vc, is taken as the weighted average of the values
calculated for the X and Y-directions, using the flexural reinforcement ratio for the
respective directions. Refer to page 6-204 for more detail.
The required shear reinforcement for each perimeter is then calculated using the normal
code formulae. The calculated reinforcement should be supplied within a distance
1.5 · Deff inside the relevant perimeter.
Tip: You can embed the Data File in the calcsheet for easy recalling from Calcpad.
7
Timber Design
The timber design module can be used to design timber members in frames and trusses.
The PROKON suite includes a module that is suitable for design of timber members in frames
and trusses. A suite of timber connection design modules is planned.
The timber member design module, Timsec, is used to check and optimise timber members
subjected to a combination of axial and biaxial bending stresses, e.g. beams, frames and
trusses.
The program primarily acts as a post-processor for the frame analysis modules. It also has an
interactive mode for the quick design or checking of individual members without needing to
perform a frame analysis.
Design scope
The timber member design module can design timber and glued laminated timber load bearing
members. Timsec currently has the following limitations:
Only rectangular sections bent about their major or minor axes can be designed.
Design of tapered and haunched sections is not supported.
Design codes
The program designs timber members according to the following allowable stress design
codes:
BS 5268 - 1991.
SABS 0163 - 2001.
Units of measurement
Timsec supports Metric units of measurement only.
Symbols
Where possible, the same symbols are used as in the design codes:
Dimensions
B : Section breadth (mm).
D : Section depth (mm).
L/r : Slenderness ratio.
Leff : Effective length (m).
Design parameters
Ke : Factor with which the member length is multiplied to obtain the effective
length for lateral torsional buckling. Refer to page 7-8 for detail.
Kx : Factor with which the member length is multiplied to obtain the effective
length for buckling about the x-x axis of the member. Refer to page 7-9 for
more detail.
Modification factors
k1 to k5 : Stress modification factors for SAB 1063 - 1989.
K1 to K14 : Stress and dimensional modification factors for BS 5268. Refer to page 7-11
for detail.
Stresses
fb : Allowable bending stress (MPa).
fc : Allowable compression stress (MPa).
ft : Allowable tension stress (MPa).
sb : Actual bending stress (MPa)
sc : Actual compression stress (MPa)
st : Actual tension stress (MPa)
Sign conventions
Member design is done in the local element axes. Bending about the x-x axis corresponds to
strong axis bending and bending about the y-y axis to weak axis bending.
Design parameters
Different design parameters can be set for each group of elements designed:
No lateral support 2
Effective length
Type of beam span Position of applied load
factor, Ke
The effective length factor may conservatively be taken as 1.92 for all situations.
Effective
End condition
length factor
Considering a typical plane timber truss, the effective length Lx relates to in-plane buckling. For
struts where rotational fixity is provided by the connection, e.g. two or more fasteners, a value
between 0.70 and 0.85 is usually appropriate. Where rotation at the joints are possible, e.g. single
bolted connection, a value of 1.0 would normally be applicable.
For a typical plane truss, the effective length Ly relates to buckling out of the vertical plane.
This phenomenon can often govern the design of the top and bottom chords of a truss that can
buckle in a snakelike 'S' pattern, giving an effective length equal to unrestrained length. Lateral
restraints are normally provided to reduce this effective length. For example, with braced
purlins connected to the top chord of the truss, the effective length could be taken equal to the
purlin spacing.
The effective length Le relates to lateral torsional buckling of a member about its weak axis.
The length depends on the spacing and type of restraint of the member's compression edge.
Using an effective length factor Ke of 1.92 would be conservative for all cases.
BS 5268 – 1991:
K1 : Modification factor by which the geometrical properties of timber in the dry
condition should be multiplied to obtain values for the wet exposure condition.
If applicable, you should manually adjust section sizes for the wet exposure
condition.
K2 : Modification factor to be applied to dry stresses and moduli (Tables 9 through
13 and 15 of the code) to obtain values for the wet exposure condition. The
same K2 factor is applicable to bending and tension while a different factor is
applicable to compression.
K3 : Modification factor for duration of loading. Values from Table 17 of the code
are summarised below:
Duration of load K3
Note: Since load duration factor may differ for different loads on the structure, you should
divide the relevant loads with this factor at the analysis stage.
Tip: You may use the factor for load sharing to include any other modification factors
that are not applicable to standard timber sections, e.g. factors applicable to glued
laminated timber.
Duration of load Cf
Tip: You may use the factor for load sharing to include any other modification factors
that are not applicable to standard timber sections, e.g. factors applicable to glued
laminated timber.
k3 : Stress modification factor for the type of structure. The value may be taken as
1.10 where the consequences of failure are small. For other structures a value
of unity should be used.
k4 : Modification factor for quality of fabrication. If the fabricated member
complies with an SABS specification, the value may be taken as 1.05.
k5 : Stress modification factor for moisture content. If the moisture content in a
compression member may occasionally exceed 20%, use a value of 0.75.
Slenderness limits
BS 5269 (clause 15.4) and SABS 0163 (clause 6.4.4) specify similar slenderness ratios for
members in compression. The slenderness limit for compression is taken as 180 in most cases.
For tension members, a maximum slenderness ratio of 250, as specified by BS 5268, is
generally used.
When launching Timsec, the slenderness limits given by the selected design code will be used by
default. You are free to alter the maximum slenderness ratio for each individual load case or
combination if required. For example, in the case where a member is carrying self-weight and
wind load only, the codes allow the maximum slenderness ratio for compression members to be
increased to 250.
The following text gives details of the design techniques and also explains how the database of
timber grades and sections sizes can be customised.
Note: For a task list to be re-used with a modified frame, a reasonable degree of
compatibility is required. Tasks that reference specific laterally supported nodes, for
example, will require modification if relevant node numbers have changed.
Design steps
Working through the input and design pages, the interactive design procedure can be broken up
into the following steps:
The Input page: Choose a design approach, set the design parameters and enter the
element loads.
The Design page: Evaluate the design results. More detail is given on page 7-26.
The Calcsheet page: Accumulate design results to print or send to Calcpad. See page 7-28
or detail.
The text that follows describe the use of the programs for reading and post-processing frame
analysis results. Information regarding interactive design is given on page 7-21.
The appearance of the Input page determined by your selection of the mode of operation:
If you choose to read and post-process the results of the frame analysis modules, you will
use the Input page to define design tasks.
Defining tasks
To define design tasks, you have to select or enter the following information:
1. Select the timber grade to use
2. Select the members to be designed.
3. Enter the design parameters and select the section dimensions to use.
4. Select the load cases to be considered and enter the maximum slenderness ratios.
To save a task, enter a Task title and click Add task. Once added to the task list, a task will be
automatically performed when you go to the Calcsheet page. Define as many tasks as
necessary to design the frame in the required detail.
Deleting tasks
To remove a task from the list, first select the task and then click Delete task. To save the
complete task list to disk, use the Save commands on the File menu.
Note: Saving the task list with File | Save also saves the intermediate nodes and effective
lengths entered in the Members page.
Note: To modify the available section sizes for the selected timber grade, click Edit Timber
Grades (F5). Refer to page 7-15 for details.
Tip: In the frame analysis modules you can also select to analyse load combinations only.
The analysis output will then be more compact due to the omission of individual load case
results.
You are free to modify the slenderness limit for each individual load case or combination as
required. In the case where uplift due to wind is dominant, for example, you may be able to set
a higher slenderness limit. Refer to page 7-11 for more detail.
The profile of the members to evaluate is chosen using the Profile (F5) function. On opening
the Design page, the lightest section will be chosen for each member. Lighter or heavier
sections of the same profile can then be browsed as required.
Consolidation of members
With the addition of each internal node, the relevant node is 'removed' by joining the two
adjacent members into a single member. The table of members is continuously updated to
show the new member layout.
The program uses the following guidelines to when joining members at an internal node:
For the automatic selection of internal nodes, adjoining members must have the same
section.
Only members with an included angle greater than 100° (where 180° corresponds to a
perfectly straight member) are joined.
Where members of different sections intersect, the larger section defines the main member
that should be joined.
Where two or more members intersect, the internal node is taken to belong to one of the
intersecting members only. The chosen member will be the straightest member or, if the
same, the first in the table of members.
Note: The list of internal nodes and effective length factors are automatically saved when
you save the task list. See page 7-18 for detail.
Tip: You can quickly find a member in the table by pressing Ctrl+F. Enter the member
name by referring to one or both of its end node numbers.
Viewing results
The complete interaction formulae are displayed for the critical load case of the first member of
the first design task. Individual calculations have 'OK' and 'FAIL' remarks to indicate success or
failure.
To view the results of another task, member, section or load case:
Use the Up and Down buttons to move up or down the list of available options. Tasks and
load cases are listed in the order of definition. Sections are ordered by mass. Alternatively
click the item, i.e. sections, and use the Up and Down arrow keys.
Alternatively click the relevant input box and select an item from the list that drops down.
Note: The level of detail of the information added to the Calcsheet can be set using the
Settings function on the Input page. Refer to page 7-20 for detail.
8
General Applications
The general analysis modules can be used to calculate section properties, wind pressures on
buildings and evaluate drainage systems of building roofs.
The PROKON suite includes a number of simple analysis tools to simplify everyday
calculations. These include:
Section Properties Calculation: For the calculation of bending and torsional properties of
any generalised section.
Wind Pressure Analysis: For determining the free stream velocity pressure on a building.
Gutter Design: Use this module to design a drainage system for a roof by sizing a gutter,
outlet and down pipe.
You can use the Section Properties Calculation module, Prosec, to calculate the bending,
shear and torsional properties of any arbitrary section. The section can be solid or have one ore
more openings. A section is assumed to be made of one material; for a composite section, you
have to enter equivalent sizes based on modular ratios.
Scope
Prosec can be used to calculate the properties of any arbitrary section. The section can be solid
or have openings. For bending property calculation, the program uses a simple technique of
division into smaller trapezoidal sub-sections, and adding up the properties of all the sub-
sections. The program uses the Prandtl membrane analogy to determine the shear and torsional
section properties, including the shear centre, St. Venant torsional constant and torsional
warping constant.
Sign convention
A simple Cartesian sign convention applies:
X-coordinates are taken positive to the right and negative to the left.
Y-coordinates are taken positive upward and negative downward.
Angles are measured clockwise.
Units of measurement
All input and output values are used without a unit of measurement. Whether you define a
section using sizes for millimetres, metres, inches or feet, the output will effectively be given
in the same unit of measurement.
You can optionally specify a unit of measurement using the Analysis Settings option on the
Input page, and that unit will then be used in the output.
List of symbols
Below is a list of symbols used for the bending and torsional section properties:
Bending properties
A : Area of the cross section.
Ixx, Iyy : Second moment of inertia about X and Y-axis.
Ixy : Deviation moment of inertia.
Iuu, Ivv : Second moment of inertia about major axis and minor axis.
Ir : Polar moment of inertia
8-6 Section Properties Calculation
Ang : Anti-clockwise angle from the X-axis to the U-axis.
Zxx : Elastic section modulus in relation to the top or bottom edge.
Zyy : Elastic section modulus in relation to the left or right edge.
Zuu : Minimum section modulus in relation to the U-axis.
Zvv : Minimum section modulus in relation to the V-axis.
Zplx, Zply : Plastic modulus about X and Y-axis.
Xc : Horizontal centroid position measured from the leftmost extremity of the
section.
Yc : Vertical centroid position measured from the bottom most extremity of the
section.
rx, ry : Radius of gyration about the X or Y-axis.
ru, rv : Radius of gyration about the U or V-axis.
Xpl : Horizontal distance from leftmost extremity to centre of mass.
Ypl : Horizontal distance from topmost extremity to centre of mass.
Perim : Outside perimeter
V : Void ratio = 1 - A / (width × depth)
Г : Section efficiency factor = Ixx / (A × yt × yb)
Torsional properties
: Shear stress.
Ashear : Effective shear area in X or Y direction
X : Horizontal position of shear centre from the leftmost extremity of the section.
Y : Vertical position of shear centre from the bottom of the section.
J : St. Venant torsional constant.
Shear centre : X and Y coordinates of shear centre, xo and y
ßx : Mono-symmetry constant ßx = 1/Ixx∫(x2y + y3)dA - 2yo
Zt : Torsional modules.
Cw : Warping torsional constant.
To define a section, enter one or more shapes (polygons) that define its outline and any
openings.
Entering a section
The Code column is used for categorise the data that follows in the next columns:
'+' : The start of a new polygon or circle. An absolute reference coordinate must be
entered in the X/Radius and Y/Angle columns.
'–' : Start of an opening. An absolute reference coordinate must be entered in the
X/Radius and Y/Angle columns.
'R' : Indicates a line drawn with relative coordinates.
'L' : Indicates a line drawn with absolute coordinates.
'A' : An arc that continues from the last line or arc. The arc radius and angle are
entered in the X/Radius and Y/Angle columns respectively. The angle is
measured clockwise from the previous line or arc end point.
'C' : A circle with the radius entered in the X/Radius column.
'B' : Bulge altitude to apply to the previous line, changing it to an arc segment.
Enter the bulge altitude in X/Radius column. A positive bulge value
corresponds to an upward bulge for a line drawn from left to right.
Tip: If the Code column is left blank, relative coordinates are used.
The X/Radius and Y/Angle columns are used for entering coordinates, radii and angles:
X : Absolute or relative X-coordinate. Values are taken positive to the right and
negative to the left.
Radius : Radius of a circle or an arc.
Y : Absolute or relative Y-coordinate. Values are taken positive upward and
negative downward.
Angle : Angle that an arc is extending through.
Note: If the X/Radius or Y/Angle column is left blank, a zero value is used.
Note: The starting point of a polygon is also used as the ending point and the polygon is
closed automatically. It is therefore not necessary to re-enter the starting coordinate to close
a polygon.
Rotating a section
To rotate an entered section by a set angle, click on Settings.
Note: The torsional properties can only be calculated for a single contiguous section. You
may use several shapes to define an outline and one or more openings for the section, but
the section must be contiguous if you require torsional analysis results.
Tip: If an arc is to start at a certain angle, simply precede it with a short line at that angle.
Entering a circle
A circle is defined by entering the centre point followed by its radius in the next line:
Entering an opening
An opening is defined exactly like any other shape, with the exception that it is entered as a
negative shape:
Define the start position of the polygon by setting the Code to '–' and entering the absolute
coordinate in the X/Radius and Y/Angle columns.
Define lines, arcs or a circle by entering the relevant points as described in the examples
above.
Examples
A number of examples are available on the Help menu to illustrate the input functions:
Simple square rectangular section
T-section that shows the use of relative X and Y-coordinates.
Circular tube that illustrates the use of circles and entering an opening.
Bridge deck with two openings.
Rail section that uses several circular arcs.
To calculate the bending section properties, or shear and torsional section properties, display
the Properties or Shear and torsion page respectively.
To calculate the bending properties, or shear and torsional section properties, click the
Bending Properties or Torsion Properties buttons respectively.
Analysis settings
Click Settings to adjust the analysis settings applicable to the bending and torsional analyses:
Rotation angle: Enter an angle
if you wish to calculate the
bending properties for a rotated
section.
Poisson ratio: The ratio
influences the torsional shear
stress distributions in a section.
It therefore also has an effect on
the position of the shear centre
and warping torsion constant.
Aluminium 0.16
Concrete 0.20
Steel 0.30
Number of equations: For determination of the torsional section properties, the finite
difference mesh is sized to yield approximately the specified number of equations. More
equations will take longer to solve, but may yield better accuracy, especially when
analysing thin-walled sections.
Units: Entering the units of measurement is optional – the calculated section properties are
always given in the same units as the input. However, when you do enter the units of
measurement, relevant units will be displayed in the output. This may be useful to interpret
the order of unit of a specific section property, e.g. mm3 versus mm4.
For calculating the shear and torsional section properties, the program uses a finite difference
analysis method:
The analysis routine uses Prandtl membrane analogy for determining the Y and X-shear
stresses and J, the St. Venant torsional constant.
The shear stress distributions in the Y and X-directions are determined for a unit load
applied in the Y-direction. The shear centre is then calculated by considering the moment
of shear stresses about the centre of mass.
The torsional constant, J, is taken as twice the volume below the membrane. The
maximum slope of the membrane then gives the torsional modulus. The maximum
torsional shear stress is obtained by dividing the torsional moment with the torsional
modulus Zt.
Warping torsion is evaluated by using the relationship between shear and axial
deformation from classical elastic theory. The shear deformation is obtained from the pure
torsion analysis. The warping constant, Cw, is then determined from the longitudinal
displacements.
Ui U 0.dA
(2)
2
External work :
V2
Ue
2GAs (3)
From 1 and 2:
1
2G
Ui xy 2.dA
(4)
From 3 and 4:
1
As
xy .dA
1
Stresses In Plates and Shells, by Ansel Ugural, published by McGraw-Hill
2
Theory of Elasticity, by Stephen P. Timoshenko and J.N. Goodier, published by
McGraw-Hill
Section Properties Calculation 8-17
Calcsheet
The section property calculations can be grouped on a calcsheet for printing or sending to
Calcpad. Various settings can be made with regards to the inclusion of design results and
pictures.
Tip: You can embed the Data File in the calcsheet for easy recalling from Calcpad.
Wind Pressure Analysis calculates free stream velocity pressures, wind loads on various
building geometries, and frictional effects on cladding materials.
Scope
The program calculates the free stream velocity pressure applicable to a building structure, and
then considers the internal and external pressure coefficients for the given building geometry to
calculate the design wind loads on the walls and roof.
Design codes
The following codes of practice are supported:
CP3 - 1972.
SABS 0160 - 1989.
Units of measurement
The program support metric and imperial units of measurement.
List of symbols
The code symbols are used as far as possible:
k : Pressure coefficient that depends on altitude.
Cpe : External pressure coefficient
Cp, : Internal pressure coefficient
Qz : Free stream velocity pressure (kPa).
V : Regional wind speed (m/s).
vz : Characteristic wind speed at a height z (m/s)
Environmental parameters
Enter the following parameters to define the environment:
Mean return period: A return period to indicate the importance of the structure.
Terrain category: An indication of the likely exposure of the structure to wind loading. A
higher value denotes increased shielding and lower wind pressures.
Terrain Description
Category
1 Open terrain
2 Outskirts of towns
4 City centres
Regional wind speed: The design wind speed for a fifty-year return period for the location
of the building (m/s or ft/s). Refer to the relevant design code for regional values.
Class Description
A Structural component
B Structure as a whole
Building geometry
Enter the following parameters to define the building geometry:
Type of roof: Double-pitched or mono-pitched roof.
Plan dimensions: Building length and width (m or ft).
Wall dimensions: Eaves and apex heights (m or ft).
Wind direction to consider for analysis: 0°, 90° or 180°.
Wall permeability
Define the wall permeability (for calculation of internal pressure coefficient Cpi) by selecting
the option that best describes the permeability of the wall. Alternatively enter a custom Cpi
value.
The Gutter Design module analyses gutters and down pipes to drain roof of building
structures for specified rain intensities and durations.
Scope
The program can evaluate roof drainage systems subjected to intense short duration rains. It
takes into account the shape of the gutter, the outlet into which the gutter discharges and the
pipe-work that conveys the flow to below.
Note: Gutters and down pipes may normally be omitted for roofs with area of 6 m 2 or less
and no other area drains onto it (clause NC.5).
Design code
The program is based on the requirements of BS 12056-3 - 2000.
Units of measurement
The program supports both Metric and Imperial units of measurement.
List of symbols
The code symbols are used as far as possible:
B : Width of the gutter at its top (mm or in).
Br : Width of roof from gutter to ridge (m or ft).
Bs : Width of the gutter at its base (mm or in).
H : Overall gutter depth (mm or in).
Hr : Height of roof from gutter to ridge (m or ft).
Lr : Length of roof to be drained at the position of the gutter (m or ft).
Tx1 : Horizontal offset the start of the ridge of the roof (m or ft). Leave blank or
enter zero for a rectangular roof area.
TLr : Length of the roof at the ridge (m or ft). Enter the same value as for Lr for a
rectangular roof area.
x1 : Position of the start of the gutter along the length of the roof (m or ft).
x2 : Position of the gutter end (m or ft).
yd : Sloped depth of a trapezium-shaped gutter (mm or in).
Storm characteristics
Enter the following parameters to define the storm:
Return period (years): This parameter is used as a measure of the security of an
acceptable degree of damage. A return period of between five and fifty years is normally
used for typical situations. For higher risk scenarios, a value of one and a half times the
expected life of the building and higher should be used. Refer to the code for detail.
Two minute M5 rainfall (mm): This quantity is defined as the expected rainfall in a two
minute period during a one in five year storm. Press 2 Minute M5 Rainfall Constants to
display regional data for the United Kingdom and South Africa. Refer to the code or other
relevant hydrological data for regions not listed.
Design duration (1 to 10 minutes): The M5 rainfall is adjusted for the actual duration in
accordance with Table NB.1 of the code.
Roof layout
Define the roof layout by entering the
roof and downpipe dimensions.
Roof dimensions
The roof being drained can have a rectangular or trapezoidal layout:
Width of roof from gutter to ridge, Br.
Length of roof to be drained at the position of the gutter, Lr.
Horizontal offset the start of the ridge of the roof. Leave blank or enter zero for a
rectangular roof area, Tx1.
Length of the roof at the ridge. Enter the same value as for Lr for a rectangular roof
area, TLr
Height of roof from gutter to ridge, Hr.
Gutter and wind characteristics
Position of the start of the gutter along the length of the roof, x1. Leave blank or enter zero
if the gutter extends for the whole length of the roof.
Position of the gutter end, x2. Enter the same value as for Lr if the gutter extends for the
whole length of the roof.
Downpipes
Define one or more downpipes using the following parameters:
Position of the downpipe from, measured from the edge of the roof (m or ft).
The type of outlet influences the flow collected from the gutter (code clause 5.4). The
following types of outlets can be specified:
Gutter and Down pipe Design 8-31
Type 1: Outlet with sharp corners.
Type 2: Outlet with rounded corners.
Type 3: Outlet with tapered edges not exceeding 45° with the vertical.
Breadth to width ratio: Use a unity value for square and circular down pipes.
Width: The larger dimension of the down pipe. Use the diameter in the case of a circular
down pipe.
Rectangular: Indicate if the downpipe is rectangular or circular.
Drop box: Indicate if the downpipe has a box receiver or sump increases the drainage
capacity before overtopping.
Additional inflow
If draining one or more other roofs into this gutter, enter the location (measured from the
start of the roof) (m or ft) and the equivalent drainage areas (m 2 or ft2) for each.
9
Masonry Design
The masonry design section contains modules for the analysis of reinforced masonry beams
subjected to pure bending and unreinforced masonry walls subjected to axial compression and
out of plane bending about two axes.
The masonry section design module, MasSec, is mainly used for the design
of members such as lintels and masonry that span large openings in walls.
MasWall, on the other hand is ideally suited for the design of wall panels and
bearing walls.
Code of practice support is currently limited to SABS 0164-1992.
Characteristic compression strengths for masonry units are calculated based
on unit geometry, nominal strengths and tables in the abovementioned code
of practice.
All the masonry modules provide a detailed Calcsheet on design
methodology and results, i.e. a complete record of the design is generated
automatically.
Design scope
The masonry section design module verifies the resistance of a reinforced
masonry beam at a critical section. It is assumed that the loads imposed on
the beam causes uniaxial bending and a shear force only.
The following limitations apply:
No direct support for composite action, e.g. masonry beam and
prestressed a lintel.
No support for doubly reinforced sections.
Design codes
The program designs masonry sections according to the following codes of
practice:
SABS 0164 - 1992.
Units of measurement
MasSec supports both Metric and Imperial units.
Symbols
Where possible, the same symbols are used as in the codes of practice:
Dimensions
b : Section breadth (mm).
d : Effective depth, i.e. distance from the compression face to the
tension steel centroid (mm).
z : Moment lever arm (mm).
Design parameters
As : Tension steel area (mm²).
mm : Partial material safety factor for the masonry unit.
ms : Partial material safety factor for the reinforcement.
Lmax1,2 : Limiting lengths due to stability considerations (m).
Stresses
fy : Ultimate tensile strength of the tension steel (Mpa).
fyy : Ultimate tensile strength of the shear steel (Mpa).
fnom : Nominal compression strength of the masonry unit (MPa).
fk : Characteristic compression strength of the masonry unit
(MPa), i.e. the strength of the unit in a beam or wall,
dependence on unit aspect ratio removed.
fv : Shear stress due to Vu (MPa).
fv’ : Adjusted shear stress (MPa), modified based on the shear
span.
fbr : Bond resistance (MPa).
fbu : ULS bond stress due to Vu (MPa).
Design parameters
Stresses
Manufacturers usually quote a nominal compression strength for the masonry
units that they provide. This nominal strength is derived from a simple
crushing test.
Due to the variability in masonry unit dimensions, this nominal strength
cannot be used as the actual crushing strength of the unit. Values from
crushing tests are very sensitive to aspect ratio and this dependence must be
removed from the strength parameter.
This can be by testing a small, standard, wall panel to failure and using
equations provided in the applicable code of practice to determine
characteristic compression strength for the unit.
Alternatively, most codes of practice also provide tables of characteristic
strengths versus aspect ratio and nominal strengths.
In MasSec, any one of the two approaches can be used.
General input
The masonry unit to be used in the beam is completely defined by the first
table on this page. The three available unit types and associated input
parameters are tabulated below:
Solid unit Width, Length, Height, Joint size
Width, Length, Height, Joint size
Hollow unit
Shell thickness*, % solid material
Width, Length, Height, Joint size
Hollow grouted unit
Shell thickness*, % solid material
*This parameter is only used for the graphical output.
Two cases of bending failure are presented on the diagram and the minimum
chosen as the section strength in bending:
1) Compression failure – Over-reinforced beam, masonry ruptures in
compression before the steel yields.
2) Tension failure – Under-reinforced beam, steel yields before the masonry
ruptures in compression.
Other design checks are tabulated with action effect (loading) versus the
resistance effect (strength). Steel required and provided is tabulated in the left
bottom corner of the tab.
Note: The Calcsheet is not saved with the rest of the input when the file is
saved. All changes to the Calcsheet will then be lost. To edit the Calcsheet
output, send it to the CalcPad where it can be edited and saved.
Design scope
The masonry wall design module verifies the resistance of an unreinforced
masonry wall, subjected to one of the following loads:
In plane axial loading (Bearing walls)
Out of plane loading, causing biaxial plate bending (Wall panels)
The following limitations apply:
Currently no support for combined loading, i.e. bending and
compression.
No support for reinforced walls.
Design codes
The program designs unreinforced masonry walls according to the following
codes of practice:
SABS 0164 - 1992.
Units of measurement
MasSec supports both Metric and Imperial units.
Symbols
Where possible, the same symbols are used as in the codes of practice:
Dimensions
t : Wall thickness (mm).
h : Wall height (mm)
ex : Calculated or actual eccentricity (mm).
Design results
Design parameters
mm : Partial material safety factor for the masonry unit.
R : Slenderness ratio
Z : Section modulus (mm³)
ea : Additional eccentricity due to slenderness (mm).
et : Total eccentricity (mm).
em : Design eccentricity (mm), maximum of et and ex.
: Capacity reduction factor
teff : Effective wall thickness (mm)
heff : Effective wall thickness (mm)
Stresses
fnom : Nominal compression strength of the masonry unit (MPa).
fk : Characteristic compression strength of the masonry unit
(MPa), i.e. the strength of the unit in a beam or wall,
dependence on unit aspect ratio removed.
fkx perp : Flexural tensile strength perpendicular to the bedding joints
(MPa).
fkx par : Flexural tensile strength parallel to the bedding joints (MPa).
Eccentricities
Actual load eccentricity is assumed to vary from ex at the top of the wall to
zero at the bottom, subject to additional eccentricity due to slenderness
effects.
Stresses
Manufacturers usually quote a nominal compression strength for the masonry
units that they provide. This nominal strength is derived from a simple
crushing test.
Due to the variability in masonry unit dimensions, this nominal strength
cannot be used as the actual crushing strength of the unit. Values from
crushing tests are very sensitive to aspect ratio and this dependence must be
removed from the strength parameter.
This can be by testing a small, standard, wall panel to failure and using
equations provided in the applicable code of practice to determine
characteristic compression strength for the unit.
Alternatively, most codes of practice also provide tables of characteristic
strengths versus aspect ratio and nominal strengths.
In MasWall, any one of the two approaches can be used. Similarly flexural
tensile resistances parallel and perpendicular to the bed joints can be
specified or left to MasWall for calculation.
General input
The masonry unit to be used in the beam is completely defined by the first
table on this page. The three available unit types and associated input
parameters are tabulated below.
Solid unit Width, Length, Height, Joint size
Width, Length, Height, Joint size
Hollow unit
Shell thickness*, % solid material
Width, Length, Height, Joint size
Hollow grouted unit
Shell thickness*, % solid material
*This parameter is only used for the graphical output.
Similar rotational fixities can be specified for the vertical edge(s) of the wall.
MasWall also supports vertical stiffeners between the wall edges. These
stiffeners can be either piers (small columns) or intersecting walls. Once
vertical stiffeners have been selected, they need to be dimensioned as well.
The table on this page defines the type, geometry and edge restraint of the
masonry wall panel.
The following wall types are supported:
Single leaf - Single leaf of masonry
Collar jointed - Double leaf of masonry, where the small void
between the two leaves of masonry is filled with mortar or concrete
Cavity - Double leaf of masonry, with a void between the two
leaves.
Wall height, length and cavity size (if required) can be entered on this page.
Edge restraints can be specified for each edge individually as free, simple or
fixed.
This page provides a tabular and diagrammatic summary of the design. The
two resistance moments are shown on the diagram.
Other design checks are tabulated with action effect (loading) versus the
resistance effect (strength).
Note: The Calcsheet is not saved with the rest of the input when the file is
saved. All changes to the Calcsheet will then be lost. To edit the Calcsheet
output, send it to the CalcPad where it can be edited and saved.