Major Foundations of Curriculum Philosophical Foundations of Curriculum: Philosophy provides educators, teachers and curriculum makers with framework

for planning, implementing and evaluating curriculum in school.I helps in answering what schools are for, what subjects are important, how students should learn and what materials and methods should be used. In decision-making, philosophy provides the starting point and will be used for the succeeding decisionmaking. The following four educational philosophies relate to curriculum: 1. Perennialism. The focus in the curriculum is classical subjects, literary analysis and considers curriculum as constant. 2. Essentialism. The essential skills of the 3 R's and essential subjects of English, Science, History, Math and Foreign Language is the focus of the curriculum. 3. Progressivism. The curriculum is focused on students' interest, human problems and affairs. The subjects are interdisciplinary, integrative and interactive. 4. Reconstructionism. The focus of the curriculum is on present and future trends and issues of national and international interests. Educational philosophy lays the strong foundation of any curriculum. A curriculum planner or specialist, implementer or the teacher, school heads, evaluator anchors his/her decision making process on a sound philosophy. (Activity: Compare the four Philosophies of Education based on the aim of education, role of education and curriculum trends. How does a strong belief or philosophy influence curriculum? Historical Foundations of Curriculum. Curriculum is not an old field. Majority of scholars would place its beginning in 1918 with the publication of Franklin Bobbit'sbook."The Curriculum" Philippine education came about from various foreign influences. This can be traced back to the glorious history. Of all foreign educational systems, the American educational system has the greatest influence on our educational system. The following six curriculum theorists contributed their views on curriculum: 1. Franklin Bobbit (1876-1956)- presented curriculum as a science that emphasizes on students' need. 2. Werret Charters (1875 -1952) - considered curriculum also as a science which is based on students' need, and the teachers plan the activities. 3. William Kilpatrick (1871-1965) - viewed curriculum as purposeful activities which are child-centered.

4. Harold Rugg (1886-1960) - emphasized social studies in the curriculum and the teacher plans the lesson in advance. 5. Hollis Caswell (1901-1989) - sees curriculum as organized around social functions of themes, organized knowledge and earner's interests. 6. Ralph Tyler (1902-1994) - believes that curriculum is a science and an extension of school's philosophy. based on students' need and interests. The historical development shows the different changes in the purposes, principles and content of the curriculum. (Question: What are the implications of ever-changing curriculum top teachers?) Psychological Foundations Psychology provides basis for the teaching and learning process. It unifies elements of the learning process and some of the some of questions which can be addressed by psychological foundations. The following are the three major groups f learning theories: 1. Behaviorists Psychology - consider that learning should be organized in order that students can experience success in the process of mastering the subject matter, and thus, method of teaching should be introduced in a step by step manner with proper sequencing of task. (Activity: Discuss the contributions of Edward L. Thorndike, Ivan Pavlov and Robert Gagne to the present views on curriculum) 2. Cognitive Psychology - focus their attention on how individuals process information and how the monitor and manag e thinking. For the cognitive theorists, learning constitutes a logical method for organizing and interpreting learning. Learning is rooted in the tradition of subject matter where teachers use a lot of problem and thinking skills in teaching learning. These are exemplified by practices like reflective thinking, creative thinking, intuitive thinking, discovery learning, etc. (Activity: Discuss the contributions of Jean Piaget, Lev Vygotsky, Howard Gardner, Felder and Silverman and Daniel Goleman to curriculum development. 3. Humanistic Psychology - concerned with how learners can develop their human potential. Based on Gestalt psychology where learning can be explained in terms of the wholeness of the problem and where the environment is changing and the learner is continuously reorganizing his/her perceptions. Curriculum is concerned with the process not the products, personal needs not subject matter; psychological meaning and environmental situations. (Activity: Give the contributions of Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers to the present field of curriculum development.

4. Social Foundations of Education. Schools exists within the social context.Societal culture affects and shapes schools and their curricula. The relationship of curriculum and society is mutual and encompassing. Hence, to be relevant, the curricula should reflect and preserve the culture of society and its aspirations. At the same time, society should also imbibe the changes brought about by the formal institutions called schools. (Question: A school has been using the same old curriculum it has had for the past ten years. Do you think this is a good practice? Why? Why not?)

Source: Curriculum Development by Purita Bilbao, et. al, Loremar Pub., 2008)

Perennial philosophy (Latin: philosophiaperennis "eternal

philosophy", also Philosophiaperennisetuniversalis) is the notion of the universal recurrence of philosophical insight independent of epoch or culture, including universal truths on the nature of reality, humanity or consciousness (anthropological universals). Perennial philosophy is the philosophical concept, which states that each of the world s religious traditions share a single truth. Perennial philosophy asserts that there is a single divine foundation of all religious knowledge, referred to as the universal truth. Each world religion, independent of its cultural or historical context, is simply a different interpretation of this knowledge. World religions including, but not limited to, Christianity, Islam, Judaism, Hinduism, Taoism, Confucianism, Shinto, Sikhism and Buddhism, are all derived from the same universal truth. Although the sacred scriptures of these world religions are undeniably diverse and often oppose each other, each world religion has been formed to fit the social , mental and spiritual needs of their respective epoch and culture. Therefore, perennial philosophy maintains that each world religion has flourished from the foundation of the same universal truth, making these differences superficial and able to be cast aside to find religion s deeper spiritual meaning. According to Huxley, the perennial philosophy is: the metaphysic that recognizes a divine Reality substantial to the world of things and lives and minds; the psychology that finds in the soul something similar to, or even identical with, divine Reality; the ethic that places man's final end in the knowledge of the immanent and transcendent Ground of all being; the thing is immemorial and universal. Rudiments of the perennial philosophy may be found among the traditional lore of primitive peoples in every region of the world, and in its fully developed forms it has a place in every one of the higher religions (The Perennial Philosophy, p. vii).

He also pointed out the method of the Buddha: The Buddha declined to make any statement in regard to the ultimate divine Reality. All he would talk about was Nirvana, which is the name of the experience that comes to the totally selfless and one-pointed. [ ] Maintaining, in this matter, the attitude of a str ict operationalist, the Buddha would speak only of the spiritual experience, not of the metaphysical entity presumed by the theologians of other religions, as also of later Buddhism, to be the object and (since in contemplation the knower, the known and th e knowledge are all one) at the same time the subject and substance of that experience. The Perennial Philosophy and that in the Upanishads: The Perennial Philosophy is expressed most succinctly in the Sanskrit formula, tat tvamasi ('That thou ar t'); the Atman, or immanent eternal Self, is one with Brahman, the Absolute Principle of all existence; and the last end of every human being, is to discover the fact for himself, to find out who he really is. Aldous Huxley According to Karl Jaspers: "Despite the wide variety of philosophical thought, despite all the contradictions and mutually exclusive claims to truth, there is in all philosophy a One, which no man possesses but about which all serious efforts have at all times gravitated: the o ne eternal philosophy, the philosophiaperennis." Perennialists believe that one should teach the things that one deems to be of everlasting importance to all people everywhere. They believe that the most important topics develop a person. Since details of fact change constantly, these cannot be the most important. Therefore, one should teach principles, not facts. Since people are human, one should teach first about humans, not machines or techniques. Since people are people first, and workers second if at all, one should teach liberal topics first, not vocational topics. A particular strategy with modern perennialists is to teach scientific reasoning, not facts. They may illustrate the reasoning with original accounts of famous experiments. This gives the students a human side to the science, and shows the reasoning in action. Most importantly, it shows the uncertainty and false steps of real science. Although perennialism may appear similar to essentialism, perennialism focuses first on personal development, while essentialism focuses first on essential skills. Essentialist curricula thus

tend to be much more vocational and fact-based, and far less liberal and principle-based. Both philosophies are typically considered to be teacher-centered, as opposed to student-centered philosophies of education such as progressivism. However, since the teachers associated with perennialism are in a sense the authors of the Western masterpieces themselves, these teachers may be open to student criticism through the associated Socratic method, which, if carried out as true dialogue, is a balance between students, including the teacher promoting the discussion. In philosophy,

teacher to student. Such disciplines might include Reading, Writing, Literature, Foreign Languages, History, Mathematics, Science, Art, and Music. Moreover, this traditional approach is meant to train the mind, promote reasoning, and ensure a common culture. ==Principles of Essentialism== Essentialism is a relatively conservative stance to education that strives to teach students the knowledge of our society and civilization through a core curriculum. This core curriculum involves such areas that include the study of the surrounding environment, basic natural laws, and the disciplines that promote a happier, more educated living. Other non-traditional areas are also integrated as well in moderation to balance the education. Essentialists' goals are to instill students with the "essentials" of academic knowled ge, patriotism, and character development through traditional (or back-to-basic) approaches. This is to promote reasoning, train the mind, and ensure a common culture for all Americans. Essentialism is the most typically enacted philosophy in American classrooms today. Traces of this can be found in the organized learning centered around teacher and textbooks, in addition to the regular assignments and evaluations typical in essentialist education. [edit] Essentialism as a Teacher-Centered Philosophy The role of the teacher as the leader of the classroom is a very important tenet of Educational essentialism. The teacher is the center of the classroom, so they should be rigid and disciplinary. Establishing order in the classroom is crucial for student learning; effective teaching cannot take place in a loud and disorganized environment. It is the teacher's responsibility to keep order in the classroom. The teacher must interpret essentials of the lear ning process, take the leadership position and set the tone of the classroom. These needs require an educator that is academically well-qualified with an appreciation for learning and development. The teacher must control the students with distributions of rewards. ==History of Essentialism==

essentialism is the view that, for any specific

kind of entity, there is a set of characteristics or properties all of which any entity of that kind must posses s. Therefore all things can be precisely defined or described. In this view, it follows that terms or words should have a single definition and meaning.[1] In simple terms, essentialism is a generalization stating that certain properties possessed by a group (e.g. people, things, ideas) are universal, and not dependent on context. For example, the essentialist statement 'all human beings are mortal'. According to essentialism, a member of a specific group may possess other characteristics that are neither needed to establish its membership nor preclude its membership, but that essences do not simply reflect ways of grouping objects; they also result in properties of the object, as the object can be subjugated to smaller contexts. Anthropology professor Lawrence Hirschfeld gives an example of what constitutes the essence of a tiger, regardless of whether it is striped or albino, or has lost a leg. The essential properties of a tiger are those without which it is no longer a tiger. Other properties, such as stripes or number of legs, are considered inessential or 'accidental'. [2] This view is contrasted with non-essentialism, which states that, for any given kind of entity, there are no specific traits which entities of that kind must possess. Essentialism came under scrutiny and criticism in the mid to late 20th century by the American pragmatist Richard Rorty. Discussion of its possible limitations has taken place among social scientists and biologists as well.

Educational essentialismis an educational philosophy

whose adherents believe that children should learn the traditional basic subjects thoroughly and rigorously. In this philosophical school of thought, the aim is to instill students with the "essentials" of academic knowledge, enacting a back-to-basics approach. Essentialism ensures that the accumulated wisdom of our civilization as taught in the traditional academic disciplines is passed on from

The Essentialist movement first began in the United States in the year 1938. In Atlantic City, New Jersey, a group met for the first time called "The Essentialist's Committee for the Advancement of Education".Their emphasis was to reform the educational system to a rational-based system.

The term essentialist first appeared in the book An Introduction to the Philosophy of Education which was written by Michael John Demiashkevich. In his book, Demiashkevich labels some specific educators (including William C. Bagley) as essentialists." Demiashkevich compared the essentialists to the different viewpoints of the Progressive Education Association. He described how the Progressives preached a hedonistic doctrine of change where as the essentialists stressed the moral responsibility of man for his actions and looked toward permanent principles of behavior (Demiashkevich likened the arguments to those between the Socratics and the Sophists in Greek philosophy). In 1938 Bagley and other educators met together where Bagley gave a speech a speech detailing the main points of the essentialism movement and attacking the public education in the United States. One point that Bagley noted was that students in the U.S. were not getting an education on the same levels as students in Europe who were the same age. A recent branch has emerged within the essentialist school of thought called "neoessentialism." Emerging in the eighties as a response to the essentialist ideals of the thirties as well as to the criticism of the fifties and the advocates for education in the seventies, neoessentialism was created to try to appease the problems facing the United States at the ti me.The most notable change within this school of thought is that it called for the creation of a new discipline, computer science. ===Renowned Essentialists=== William Bagley (1874 1946) was an important historical essentialist. William C. Bagley completed his undergraduate degree at Michigan Agricultural College in 1895. It wasn t until after finishing his undergrad studies that he truly wanted to be a teacher. Bagley did his Graduate studies at the University of Chicago and at Cornell University. He acquired his Ph.D. in 1900 after which he took his first school job a Principal in a St. Louis, Missouri Elementary School Bagley s devotion increased during his work at Montana State Normal School in Dillon, Montana. It was here where he decided to dedicate his time to the education of teachers and where he published The Educative Process, launching his name across the nation. Throughout his career Bagley argued against the conservative position that teachers were not in need of special training for their work. He believed that liberal arts material was important in teacher education. Bagley also believed the dominant theories of education of the time were weak and lacking.

In April 1938, he published the Essentialist's Platform, in which he outlined three major points of essentialism. He described the right of students to a well-educated and culturally knowledgeable teacher. Secondly, he discussed the importance of teaching the ideals of community to eac h group of students. Lastly, Bagley wrote of the importance of accuracy, thoroughness and effort on part of the student in the classroom.

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De-emphasis on textbooks in favor of varied learning resources Emphasis on life-long learning and social skills Assessment by evaluation of child s projects and productions

The curriculum theories

of reconstructionism and

Educational progressivismis the belief that education must

be based on the principle that humans are social animals who learn best in real-life activities with other people. Most progressive educators believe that children learn as if they were scientists, following a process similar to John Dewey's model of learning: 1. Become aware of the problem. 2. Define the problem. 3. Propose hypotheses to solve it. 4. Evaluate the consequences of the hypotheses from one's past experience. 5. Test the likeliest solution. Given this view of human nature, a progressivist teacher desire s to provide not just reading and drill, but also real-world experiences and activities that center on the real life of the students. Typical progressivist slogans are "Learn by Doing!" and "Learn by Discovery." Philosophy Progressive education is a pedagogical movement that began in the late nineteenth century and has persisted in various forms to the present. More recently, it has been viewed as an alternative to the test-oriented instruction legislated by the No Child Left Behind educational funding act. The term "progressive" was engaged to distinguish this education from the traditional curriculum of the 19th century, which was rooted in classical preparation for the university and strongly differentiated by socioeconomic level. By contrast, progressive education finds its roots in present experience. Most progressive education programs have these qualities in common:

perennialism are polar opposites. Reconstructionism focuses on society. They believe that the curriculum should be a method of change and social reform for society. Furthermore, they see the schools as the solution to different social crisis. On the other hand, perennialists believe that the curriculum should focus on the intellect by teaching the classical subjects. In addition, both theories have different views about the roles of the teacher, what subjects should be emphasized, and what knowledge should be imparted to students.

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Emphasis on learning by doing hands-on projects, expeditionary learning, experiential learning Integrated curriculum focused on thematic units Strong emphasis on problem solving and critical thinking Group work and development of social skills Understanding and action as the goals of learning as opposed to rote knowledge Collaborative and cooperative learning projects Education for social responsibility and democracy Integration of community service and service learning projects into the daily curriculum Selection of subject content by looking forward to ask what skills will be needed in future society

Theodore Brameld is considered to be the creator of the term reconstructivism in 1950. He stated that, " reconstructionism is a crisis philosophy, appropriate for a society in crisis, which is the essence of our society and international society today." This theory gained popularity during the progressive educational movement because people became unhappy with what our society was becoming and began calling for reform. There are five goals for education in the reconstructionist philosophy: (1) to examine both the cultural heritage of the society and the rest of civilization, (2) confront controversial issues and discuss them, (3) dedicated to bringing about change within the society, (4) examine the future and the possible future realities, (5) participation of both the students and the teachers in interculturalism. While these goals are good they are also unrealistic. Reconstructionists are often seen as idealistic since their theory is based on a utopian society (Ornstein &Hunkins, 2004, Ch. 4). Students spend the majority of their day with their parents and therefore the impact that a teacher can have in one year of their life is minimal. Even all of their teachers could not completely erase a parent's influence. These goals could only be accomplished if the parents were a part of the effort. Unfortunately, this is not always the case. In order to accomplish their goals reconstructionists believe that the focus of the curriculum should be on the social sciences(Ornstein &Hunkins, 2004). These courses examine culture in economic, political and social aspects. These types of classes would allow for opportunities to discussion on societal issues. However, the sacrifice of other courses could be detrimental to our society. While teaching tolerance and understanding is important, it is equally important to learn math and science. Without having students that focus in these areas we