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Punjabi language
Punjabi Language
, ,Panjb
Spoken in
By a majority: Pakistan India Migrant speakers in: United Kingdom Canada United Arab Emirates Saudi Arabia United States Punjab 88,000,000 (Ethnologue 2005 estimate) [2] 57,129,000 (Encarta) Indo-European
[1]
Language family
Indo-Aryan
North-Western Zone
Punjabi Language
Writing system
Gurmukhi in Punjab (India), Haryana, Delhi and Sikh diaspora Shahmukhi in Punjab (Pakistan) and Sarhad [3] Devanagari in Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Delhi and Jammu Official status
pa pan pan
Punjabi language
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Punjabi ( in Gurmukhi script and in Shahmukhi script), sometimes specified as Eastern Punjabi to distinguish it from Western Punjabi, is an Indo-Aryan language spoken by inhabitants of the historical Punjab region (north western India and in Pakistan). For Sikhs, the Punjabi language stands as the official language in which all ceremonies take place. Punjabi is the most spoken language in Pakistan. According to the Ethnologue 2005 estimate,[1] there are 88 million native speakers of the Punjabi language, which makes it approximately the 12th most widely spoken language in the world. According to the 2008 Census of Pakistan,[4] there are 76,335,300 native Punjabi speakers in Pakistan and according to the 2001 Census of India, there are 29,102,477 Punjabi speakers in India.[5] Punjabi language has many different dialects, spoken in the different sub-regions of greater Punjab. Since the Partition of British India in 1947, the Punjabi spoken in the two countries have deviated from each other, with Pakistani's retaining strong on Persian and Arabic vocabulary through Urdu, and India's relying more heavily on Sanskrit vocabulary through Hindi. The Majhi dialect is Punjabi's prestige dialect. This dialect is considered as textbook Punjabi and is spoken in the historical region of Majha,[6] centralizing in Lahore and Amritsar. Along with Lahnda and Western Pahari languages, Punjabi is unusual among modern Indo-European languages because it is a tonal language.[7] [8] [9] [10]
Punjabi language
History
Punjabi is an Indo-Aryan language like many other modern languages of South Asia. It is a descendant of Sauraseni Prakrit, which was the chief language of medieval northern India.[11] [12] [13] Punjabi emerged as an independent language in the 11th century. The first traces of punjabi language can be found in works of nath yogis(jogis) gorkahnath & charpat nath in 9th & 10th century. The Punjabi literary tradition is popularly seen to commence with Fariduddin Ganjshakar (Baba Farid) (11731266), many ancient Sufi mystics and later Guru Nanak Dev ji, the first Guru of Sikhism. The early Punjabi literature was principally spiritual in nature and has had a very rich oral tradition. The poetry written by Sufi saints has been the folklore of the Punjab and is still sung with great love in any part of Punjab. Between 1600 and 1850, Muslim Sufi, Sikh and Hindu writers composed many works in Punjabi. The most famous Punjabi Sufi poet was Baba Bulleh Shah (16801757), who wrote in the Kafi style. Bulleh Shah practiced the Sufi tradition of Punjabi poetry established by poets like Shah Hussain (15381599), Sultan Bahu (16291691), and Shah Sharaf (16401724). His lifespan also overlapped with the legendary Punjabi poet Waris Shah (17221798), of Heer Ranjha fame. Waris Shah's rendition of the tragic love story of Heer Ranjha is among the most popular medieval Punjabi works. Other popular tragic love stories are Sohni Mahiwal, Mirza Sahiba and Sassi Punnun. Shah Mohammad's Jangnama is another fine piece of poetry that gives an eyewitness account of the First Anglo-Sikh War that took place after the death of Maharaja Ranjit Singh. The linguist George Abraham Grierson in his multivolume Linguistic Survey of India (19041928) used the word "Punjabi" to refer to several languages spoken in the Punjab region: the term "Western Punjabi" (ISO 639-3 pnb) covered dialects (now designated separate languages) spoken to the west of Montgomery and Gujranwala districts, while "Eastern Punjabi" referred to what is now simply called Punjabi (ISO 639-3 pan)[14] After Saraiki, Pothohari and Hindko (earlier categorized as "Western Punjabi") started to be counted as separate languages, the percentage of Pakistanis recorded as Punjabi speakers was reduced from 59% to 44%. Although not an official language, Punjabi is still the predominant language of Pakistan. Modern Punjabi is not the predominant language of the Sikh scriptures (which though in Gurmukhi script are written in several languages).[15] A few portions of Guru Granth Sahib use the Punjabi dialects, but the book is interspersed with several other languages including Brajbhasha, Khariboli, Sanskrit and Persian.[16] Guru Gobind Singh, the last Guru of the Sikhs composed Chandi di Var in Punjabi, although most of his works are composed in other languages like Braj bhasha and Persian. However, in the 20th century, the Punjabi-speaking Sikhs started attaching importance to the Punjabi written in the Gurmukhi script as a symbol of their distinct identity.[15] The Punjabi identity was affected by the communal sentiments in the 20th century. Bhai Vir Singh, a major figure in the movement for the revival of Punjabi literary tradition, started insisting that the Punjabi language was the exclusive preserve of the Sikhs.[17] After the partition of India, the Punjab region was divided between Pakistan and India. Although the Punjabi people formed the 2nd biggest linguistic group in Pakistan after Bengali, Urdu was declared the national language of Pakistan, and Punjabi did not get any official status. The Indian Punjab, which then also included what are now Haryana and Himachal Pradesh, became Hindi-majority. In the 1960s, the Shiromani Akali Dal proposed "Punjabi Suba", a state for Punjabi speakers in India. Paul R. Brass, the Professor Emeritus of Political Science and South Asian Studies at the University of Washington, opines that the Sikh leader Fateh Singh tactically stressed the linguistic basis of the demand, while downplaying the religious basis for the demanda state where the distinct Sikh identity could be preserved.[15] The movement for a Punjabi Suba led to trifurcation of Indian Punjab into three states: Punjab (India), Haryana and Himachal Pradesh.
Punjabi language
Modern Punjabi
In India, Punjabi is one of the 22 languages with official status in India. It is the first official language of Punjab (India). In Pakistan, Punjabi is the most spoken language and is the provincial language of Punjab (Pakistan) the second largest and the most populous province of Pakistan. The famous Punjabi writers from Pakistan include: Shareef Kunjahi Mir Tanha Yousafi Sanawar Chadhar Abid Tamimi Anwar Masood Afzal Ahsan Randhawa Aatish Shaista Nuzhat
The famous Indian Punjabi poets in modern times are: Prof. Mohan Singh Amrita Pritam Balwant Gargi Shiv Kumar Batalvi Surjit Paatar
Geographic distribution
Pakistan
Punjabi is the most spoken language of Pakistan. Punjabi is spoken as first language by over 44.15% of Pakistanis. Punjabis comprise the largest ethnic group in the country. Punjabis are dominant in key institutions such as business, agriculture, industry, government, army, navy, air force, and police which is why about 70% of Pakistanis can understand or speak Punjabi. The Punjabis found in Pakistan are composed of various social groups, castes and economic groups. Muslim Rajputs, Jat, Tarkhans, Dogars, Gujjars, Gakhars, Khatri or Punjabi Shaikhs, Kambohs, and Arains, comprise the main tribes in the north, while Awans, Gilanis, Gardezis, Syeds and Quraishis are found in the south. There are Pashtun tribes like the Niazis and the lodhis, which are very much integrated into Punjabi village life. People in major urban areas have diverse origins, with many post-Islamic settlers tracing their origin to Afghanistan, Persia, Turkey, Arabia and Central Asia.
Punjabi language
Source: [18] In the National Census of Pakistan (1981) Saraiki, Pothohari and Hindko (Before categorized as "Western Punjabi") got the status of separate languages thats why number of Punjabi speakers got decreased.
India
Punjabi is spoken as a native language by over 2.85% of Indians. Punjabi is the official language of the Indian state of Punjab. The Punjabis found in India are composed of various ethnic groups, tribal groups, social groups (caste) and economic groups. Some major sub-groups of Punjabis in India include Ahirs, Arora, Bania, Bhatia, Brahmin, Chamar, Gujjar, Kalals/Ahluwalias, Kambojs, Khatris, Lobanas, Jats, Rajputs, Saini, Sood and Tarkhan. Most of these groups can be further sub-divided into clans and family groups.
Most of East Punjab's Muslims (in today's states of Punjab, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Delhi and Chandigarh) left for West Punjab in 1947. However, a small community still exists today, mainly in Malerkotla, the only Muslim princely state among the seven that formed the erstwhile Patiala and East Punjab States Union (PEPSU). The other six (mostly Sikh) states were: Patiala, Nabha, Jind, Faridkot, Kapurthala and Kalsia.
Punjabi language
Punjabi language
Rank 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
United Arab Emirates 200,000 United States Saudi Arabia Hong Kong 200,000 100,000 100,000
Kingdom of Sarawak 185,000 South Africa Myanmar France Greece Thailand Japan Mauritius Singapore Oman Libya Bahrain Kenya Australia Tanzania Kuwait Germany 30,000 120,000 90,000 80,000 75,000 75,000 70,000 70,000 68,000 65,000 60,000 55,000 50,000 45,000 40,000 35,000
Punjabi language
Punjabi language Jhangochi ( )dialect is spoken in Pakistani Punjab. Jhangochi or Rachnavi is the oldest and most idiosyncratic dialect of the Punjabi. It is spoken throughout a widespread area, starting from Khanewal and Jhang at both ends of Ravi and Chenab to Gujranwala district. It then runs down to Bahawalnagar and Chishtian areas, on the banks of river Sutlej. This entire area has almost the same traditions, customs and culture. The Jhangochi dialect of Punjabi has several aspects that set it apart from other Punjabi variants. This area has a great culture and heritage, especially literary heritage, as it is credited with the creation of the famous epic romance stories of Heer Ranjha and Mirza Sahiba. It is spoken in the Bar areas of Punjab, i.e., areas whose names are often suffixed with 'Bar', for example Sandal Bar, Kirana Bar, Neeli Bar, Ganji Bar and also from Khanewal to Jhang includes Faisalabad and Chiniot. Shahpuri This dialect is spoken in Pakistani Punjab. The Shahpuri language has been spoken by the people of the town Shahpur. This language has been spoken by the people of District Sargodha including Dera Chanpeer Shah, Khushab, Jhang, Mianwali, Attock, parts of Faisalabad (formerly Lyallpur), parts of Dera Ismail Khan, Dera Ghazi Khan, Bahawalnagar, Chakwal, Mianwali, Sargodha, Khushab and Mandi Bahauddin districts. Hindko Classified under Lahnda languages by many linguists; perhaps differs from Punjabi. Hindko dialect is spoken in north west Pakistani Punjab and North-West Frontier Province mainly this dialect is spoken in districts of Peshawar, Attock, Nowshehra, Mansehra, Balakot, Abbottabad and Murree and the lower half of Neelum District and Muzafarabad. Malwi Malwi spoken in the eastern part of Indian Punjab. Main areas are Ludhiana, Moga, Sangrur, Barnala, Faridkot, Patiala, Fatehgarh Sahib, Mansa, Muktsar, Ambala, Bathinda, Ganganagar, Malerkotla, Ropar, Ferozepur. Malwa is the southern and central part of present day Indian Punjab. It also includes the Punjabi speaking northern areas of Haryana, viz. Ambala, Hissar, Sirsa, Kurukshetra etc. Not to be confused with the Malvi language, which shares its name. Doabi Doabi spoken in Indian Punjab. The word "Do Aabi" means "the land between two rivers" and this dialects is spoken between the rivers of Beas and Sutlej. It includes Jalandhar, Nawanshahr, Kapurthala and Hoshiarpur districts. Pwadhi Powadh or Puadh or Powadha is a region of Punjab and parts of Haryana between the Satluj and Ghaggar rivers. The part lying south, south-east and east of Rupnagar adjacent to Ambala District (Haryana) is Powadhi. The Powadh extends from that part of the Rupnagar District which lies near Satluj up to the Ghaggar river in the east, which separates the states of Punjab and Haryana. Parts of Fatehgarh Sahib district, and parts of Patiala districts like Rajpura are also part of Powadh. The language is spoken over a large area in present Punjab as well as Haryana. In Punjab, Kharar, Kurali, Ropar, Nurpurbedi, Morinda, Pail, Rajpura, and Samrala are the areas where the Puadhi language is spoken and the area itself is claimed as including from Pinjore, Kalka to Bangar area in Hisar district which includes even Nabha and Patiala in it. Dogri Although Dogri is generally considered a separate language having its own vocabulary, some sources consider it a dialect of Punjabi. It is spoken by about 3.5 million peoples in the Jammu region of India. Saraiki/Multani Saraiki or Multani is a mixture of jhangochi dialect of Punjabi and Sindhi. Saraiki is the new name, for centuries, Multani was in use. It is now considered a separate language instead of merely a dialect of
Punjabi language Punjabi.Saraiki has various sub-dialects such as Thalochi,Multani,Riasti and Derawali. It is mostly spoken in southern and western districts of Punjab,which comprises Multan, Lodhran, Bahawalpur, Mianwali, Bhakkar, Layyah, Dera Ghazi Khan, Muzaffargarh, Rahim Yar Khan, southern and western parts of Khanewal,southern parts of Bahawalnagar and western parts of Khushab districts. It is also spoken by majority of population of Dera Ismail Khan district in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa ( ) province, kachi plain of Balochistan, northern parts of Sindh, and cities of Hyderabad and Karachi. Saraiki or Multani is also spoken by Hindu who migrated from Pakistan during partition of India. Multanis and Jhangis(people who migrated from Jhang, Multan and areas of Southern Pakistani Punjab) in Delhi speak the language at family gatherings. Though the language is losing it's base in India but community elders have been trying to keep it alive. Dhani The people of Pothohar speak Pothohari dialect. However, the people of Chakwal or the Dhanni area in particular do not speak Pothohari and are ethnologically not regarded as Potoharis. They speak a distinctive Chakwali or Dhanni dialect of Punjabi, which is closer to Shahpuri, a dialect spoken in the Shahpur-Salt Range area and also has a slight element of Saraiki and Pothohari. Punjabi University classification Punjabi University, Patiala, State of Punjab, India takes a very liberal definition of Punjabi in that it classifies Saraiki, Dogri and Pothohari/Pothwari as Punjabi. Accordingly, the University has issued the following list of dialects of Punjabi:[25]
Awankari Banwali Bhattiani Bherochi Chacchi Chakwali Chambiali Chenavri Dhani Doabi Dogri Ghebi Gojri Hindko Jatki Kangri Kachi Lubanki Malwai Majhi Pahari Pothohari/Pindiwali Powadhi Punchi Peshori/Peshawari Rathi Swaen Thalochri Wajeerawadi
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Baar di Boli
Jhangochi
Punjabi language In the aftermath of the independence of Pakistan and subsequent Partition of 1947, some investigators supposed that the Punjabi speakers in new Pakistan might give up their native dialects and adopt one or another "Lahnda" dialect; but this did not occur.[26]
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Classification by Ethnologue
Because of the stature of Ethnologue as a widely accepted authority on the identification and classification of dialects and languages, their divergent views of the geographical distribution and dialectal naming of the Punjabi language merit mention. They designate what tradition calls "Punjabi" as "Eastern Punjabi" and they have implicitly adopted the belief (contradicted by other specialists[27] ) that the language border between "western Panjabi" and "eastern Panjabi" has shifted since 1947 to coincide with the international border.[28]
Examples
English Majhi, Standard Punjabi Ki karda ain?/ki karan deya ain?/ki karda pya ain? Ki kardi ain?/ki karan dayi ain?/ki kardi payi ain? Ki haal ae? Pothohari Dogri Pahari multani doabi
Ka karne uo?
Ke karde o?
ke karende paye o?
ki karda aa?
What are you doing? (masculine to address female) How are you?
Ka karani ay?
Ke karani ae?
ki kardi aa tu?
Keh aal e?
ke aal a?
Do you speak Punjabi? Tusi Punjabi Bol lainde o Punjabii bolne ? uo? Where are you from? Tusi kithon de o?/Tusi kidron aaye o? Tenu/tuanu mil ke bahut khushi hoyi. Tusa kudhr nay aiyo? Tusan milay tay boo khushi oye
Punjabi uburne o? tussan punjabi bol lainde o? Kathe ne o? tussan kithon de o? Tenu/tuanu mil ke bahut khushi thi e.
tuhanu mil k bahut khushi hoyi tera naam ki aa? mera naam aa
Tudda ke naanh ve? Mainda naanh ... eh Tudde gerayenh na ke naanh ve?
My name is ...
Tuade pind/graan da naa ki ae?/ Tuada pind/graan kehda ae? Haanji Nay
Yes No
haanji naa tussan mithaee ghinso? main tenu pyaar karda haan.
hanji nai mitha khaunge tusi? mai tuhanu pyar karda haan. asin cinema gye si. mai kithe jawa
Would you like (to eat) Mithaee lawoge? / some sweets? Mithaee Khawoge? I love you. Main tenu pyaar karda haan.
Punjabi language
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Phonology
Vowels
Front Near-front Central Near-back Back Close Close-mid Mid vowel Open-mid Open a i e u o
The long vowels (the vowels with []) also have nasalized versions.
Consonants
Bilabial Labio- Dental/ Retroflex Palatal Velar Glottal dental Alveolar Nasal Plosive and Affricate voiceless voiceless aspirated voiced Fricative Flap Approximant m p p b (f) n t t d s (z) l j t t d () k k
Tone Punjabi has three phonemically distinct tones that developed from the lost murmured (or "voiced aspirate") series of consonants. Phonetically the tones are rising or rising-falling contours and they can span over one syllable or two, but phonemically they can be distinguished as high, mid, and low. A historical murmured consonant (voiced aspirate consonant) in word initial position became tenuis and left a low tone on the two syllables following it: gho [k] "horse". A stem final murmured consonant became voiced and left a high tone on the two syllables preceding it: mgh [m] "October". A stem medial murmured consonant which appeared after a short vowel and before a long vowel became voiced and left a low tone on the two syllables following it: maghu [m] "to have something lit". Other syllables and words have mid tone.[29]
Writing system
There are several different scripts used for writing the Punjabi language, depending on the region and the dialect spoken, as well as the religion of the speaker. In the Punjab province of Pakistan, the script used is Shahmukhi and differs from the standard Nastalq script as it has four additional letters.[30] The eastern part of the Punjab region, located in India, is divided into three states. In the state of Punjab, the Gurmukh script is generally used for writing Punjabi. Punjabi Hindus, who are mainly concentrated in the neighbouring Indian states such of Haryana and Himachal Pradesh, as well as the national capital territory of Delhi, sometimes use the Devangar script to write Punjabi.[30] While a Punjabi GCSE is available to students in the United Kingdom; its written exam is in Gurmukhi only.
Punjabi language
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Sample text
Example 1
This sample text was taken from the Punjabi Wikipedia article on Amritsar; translated to English and transliterated to Latin. Gurmukhi: , " ", , | - , 67 Shahmukhi: " " 1002 0000003 0000002 | - 76 Transliteration: ammritsar, matlab "amrit d sarvar", panjb, prat d sarhadd shahir he. ih sathn sikkh tram da trmik at sbicrak kndar he. ih d bd karb 2,000,000 shahir at 3,000,000 d karb ammritsar zil vicc 2001 prat jan-sankhi gaan anusr he. is d parshsk mukkh daftar ammritsar zil he. ih prat d panjb pardsh vicc uttar pg he, j ki lhor t 67 kilmar dr he.
Example 2
This sample text was taken from the Punjabi Wikipedia article on Lahore; translated to English and transliterated to Latin. Gurmukhi: , Shahmukhi: Transliteration: lahor pkistn panjb d drul hakmat e. lk git d n karc t bad lahor dj sab t va shahir e. lahor pkistn d sis, rahtal t pa d g e t is la ihn pkistn d dil v kih jnd . lahor dari rv d kan t vasd uhd lk git ikk kar d n e.
Punjabi language
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Dictionaries
Kalra, Surjit S. & Nagi, J.S., EnglishPanjabi Topic Dictionary. DTF Publishers and Distributors, 117 Soho Road, Handsworth, Birmingham B21 9ST. 2009. (Useful for U.K. diaspora). Singh, Maya. The Panjabi dictionary [32]. Lahore: Munshi Gulab Singh & Sons, 1895. Shabdkosh.com: Punjabi to English Dictionary [33] English to Punjabi Dictionary Online translator English to Punjabi, or vice-versa [34] Punjabi Kashmiri Dictionary by Omkar N Koul and Rattan Lal Talashi. Patiala: Language Department. 1998. Pothohari (Northern Lahnda, pahari or Modern panjistani) dictionary by Sharif Shad
Notes
[1] Ethnologue. 15th edition (2005). [2] Languages Spoken by More Than 10 Million People (http:/ / encarta. msn. com/ media_701500404/ Languages_Spoken_by_More_Than_10_Million_People. html). Encarta. [3] S. N. Sridhar; Yamuna Kachru (2008). Language in South Asia. Cambridge University Press. p.128. ISBN9780521781411. [4] According to statpak.gov.pk (http:/ / www. statpak. gov. pk/ depts/ pco/ statistics/ other_tables/ pop_by_mother_tongue. pdf) 44.15% of the Pakistani speaks Punjabi natively. This translates to approximately 76,335,300 Punjabi speakers according to the 2008 census (Total population: 172,900,000). [5] List of Indian languages by number of native speakers, 2001 [6] "Majhi" is a word used with reference to many other places and dialects in north India; these have nothing to do with the Majhi dialect of Punjabi [7] Barbara Lust, James Gair. Lexical Anaphors and Pronouns in Selected South Asian Languages. Page 637. Walter de Gruyter, 1999. ISBN 978-3-11-014388-1. [8] (http:/ / www. omniglot. com/ writing/ gurmuki. htm) [9] Phonemic Inventory of Punjabi (http:/ / www. crulp. org/ Publication/ Crulp_report/ CR02_21E. pdf) [10] Geeti Sen. Crossing Boundaries. Orient Blackswan, 1997. ISBN 978-81-250-1341-9. Page 132. Quote: "Possibly, Punjabi is the only major South Asian language that has this kind of tonal character. There does seem to have been some speculation among scholars about the possible origin of Punjabi's tone-language character but without any final and convincing answer..." [11] India's culture through the ages by Mohan Lal Vidyarthi. Published by Tapeshwari Sahitya Mandir, 1952. Page 148: "From the apabhramsha of Sauraseni are derived Punjabi, Western Hindi, Rajasthani and Gujerati [sic]..." [12] National Communication and Language Policy in India By Baldev Raj Nayar. Published by F. A. Praeger, 1969. Page 35. "...Sauraseni Aprabhramsa from which have emerged the modern Western Hindi and Punjabi." [13] The Sauraseni Pr?krit Language (http:/ / linguistlist. org/ forms/ langs/ LLDescription. cfm?code=psu). "This Middle Indic language originated in Mathura, and was the main language used in drama in Northern India in the medieval period. Two of its descendants are Hindi and Punjabi." [14] Shackle 1970:240 [15] Brass, Paul R. (2005). Language, Religion and Politics in North India. iUniverse. p.326. ISBN9780595343942. [16] The Adi Granth: Or The Holy Scriptures Of The Sikhs by Ernest Trumpp. 2004. ISBN 81-215-0244-6. [17] Punjabis Without Punjabi (http:/ / www. apnaorg. com/ articles/ ishtiaq8/ ) By Ishtiaq Ahmed. The News, 24 May 2008. [18] http:/ / www. statpak. gov. pk/ depts/ pco/ index. html [19] "Punjabi Community". (http:/ / www. publications. parliament. uk/ pa/ cm199900/ cmhansrd/ vo000307/ halltext/ 00307h02. htm) The United Kingdom Parliament. [20] "Punjabi is 4th most spoken language in Canada" (http:/ / timesofindia. indiatimes. com/ Punjabi_is_Canadas_4th_most_top_language/ articleshow/ 2782138. cms). The Times Of India. 14 February 2008. . [21] Pakistan 1998 census Population by mother tongue (http:/ / www. statpak. gov. pk/ depts/ pco/ statistics/ other_tables/ pop_by_mother_tongue. pdf) [22] Indian Census (http:/ / www. censusindia. gov. in/ ) [23] Masica 1991:25 [24] Burling 1970:chapter on India [25] Advanced Centre for Technical Development of Punjabi Language, Literature and Culture (http:/ / www. advancedcentrepunjabi. org/ intro1. asp) [26] Masica 1991:20 [27] e.g., Shackle 1970:240, Panjabi University in India, see below [28] Ethnologue country pages for Pakistan and India; page for Indo-Aryan languages [29] Harjeet Singh Gill, "The Gurmukhi Script", p. 397. In Daniels and Bright, The World's Writing Systems. 1996.
Punjabi language
[30] "Punjabi" (http:/ / www. lmp. ucla. edu/ Profile. aspx?LangID=95& menu=004). University of California, Los Angeles. . Retrieved 20091031. [31] . 9 march 2011. http:/ / www. sify. com/ mobile/ movies/ balle-balle-punjabi-music-is-flavour-of-bollywood-news-national-ldjjEcbhfef. html. Retrieved 9 march 2011. [32] http:/ / dsal. uchicago. edu/ dictionaries/ singh/ [33] http:/ / www. shabdkosh. com/ pa/ [34] http:/ / www. punjabonline. com/ servlet/ library. dictionary?Action=English
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Note 3 Bhatia, Tej K. 2007. Regional languages of South Asia. In: Sridhar and Kachru. Languages in South Asia. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Note 4 Bhatia, Tej K. 2005. Punjabi, Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics, 2nd Edition, pp.291295. Oxford: Elsevier Ltd Note 7 Bhatia, Tej K. Punjabi: A Cognitive-Typological Study. [General Editor: Bernard Comrie], London: Routledge. 2010 [paperback] and 1993. Bhatia, Tej K. 1996. Lexical Anaphors and Pronouns in Punjabi. In: Lexical Anaphors and Pronouns in Selected South Asian Languages, Barbara Lust et al. (eds.), 637-714. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
References
Burling, Robbins. 1970. Man's many voices. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. Ethnologue. Indo-Aryan (http://www.ethnologue.org/show_family.asp?subid=90032) Classification of 219 languages that have been assigned to the Indo-Aryan grouping of the Indo-Iranian branch of the Indo-European languages. Ethnologue. Languages of India (http://www.ethnologue.org/show_country.asp?name=IN) Ethnologue. Languages of Pakistan (http://www.ethnologue.org/show_country.asp?name=PK) Grierson, George A. 19041928. Grierson's Linguistic Survey of India (http://www.joao-roiz.jp/LSI/). Calcutta. Masica, Colin. 1991. The Indo-Aryan languages. Cambridge Univ. Press. Rahman, Tariq. 2006. The role of English in Pakistan with special reference to tolerance and militancy. In Amy Tsui et al., Language, policy, culture and identity in Asian contexts. Routledge. 219240. Shackle, C. 1970. Punjabi in Lahore. Modern Asian Studies, 4(3):239267. Available online at [[JSTOR (http:// www.jstor.org/stable/311495)]].
Further reading
Punjabi Phrasebook on Wikitravel (http://wikitravel.org/en/Punjabi_phrasebook) Bhatia, Tej. 1993 and 2010. Punjabi : a cognitive-descriptive grammar. London: Routledge. Series: Descriptive grammars. Gill H.S. [Harjit Singh] and Gleason, H.A. 1969. A reference grammar of Punjabi. Revised edition. Patiala, Punjab, India: Languages Deparmtent, Punjab University. Shackle, C. 1972. Punjabi. London: English Universities Press. Chopra, R. M., Perso-Arabic Words in Panjabi, in: Indo-Iranica Vol.53 (14).
Punjabi language
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External links
Learn how to read Gurmukhi, muharni and count in Gurmukhi/punjabi (http://www.muharni.com) englishtopunjabi.com (http://www.englishtopunjabi.com) Write in Punjabi using English keyboard.
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License
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