THE HANDBOOK ON

SOLIDS CONTROL &

WASTE MANAGEMENT

4th EDITION
Published by Brandt / EPI ™
 1st Edition © 1982
2nd Edition © 1985
3rd Edition © 1995
4th Edition © 1996

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in

any form without permission in writing from the publisher.

Printed in the U.S.A.

 PREFACE

This Handbook was written by the Technical Services staff of Brandt/EPI

to provide a basic understanding of effective mechanical removal of drilled
solids and management of drilling wastes. Based on sound theoretical con-
cepts, this Handbook is a practical working tool. It is designed for use by
anyone needing to optimize drilling efficiency: drilling engineers, supervi-
sors, tool pushers, mud engineers, derrick hands, service personnel and
others.

This 4th edition of the Handbook provides updated sections on equip-

ment and techniques, and includes new information on waste processing
systems, including downhole injection, solidification/ stabilization, water
clarification, and other site remediation techniques. We would appreciate
any suggestions for improving future editions of the Handbook. Please
address your comments to:

Brandt/EPI Technical Group

P.O. Box 2327
Conroe, TX 77305

TEL: (713) 756-4800

FAX: (713) 756-8102

Thanks,

Mike Montgomery
Manager, Technical Group
Brandt/EPI

i
ii
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE
1.0 DRILLING MUD AND MUD SOLIDS .....................................................1.1
1.1 Functions of Drilling Mud ............................................................................1.1
1.2 The Nature of Drilled Solids ........................................................................1.2
1.3 Properties of Drilling Mud ...........................................................................1.4
1.4 Types of Drilling Muds.................................................................................1.8

2.0 BENEFITS OF SOLIDS REMOVAL BY MECHANICAL SEPARATION .....2.1

2.1 Reduced Total Solids ....................................................................................2.1
2.2 Reduced Dilution Requirements ..................................................................2.2

3.0 MECHANICAL SOLIDS CONTROL AND RELATED EQUIPMENT .........3.1

3.1 Particle Classification and Cut Point............................................................3.3
3.2 Separation by Vibratory Screening ..............................................................3.6
3.3 Shale Shakers ..............................................................................................3.14
3.4 Mud Cleaners/Conditioners........................................................................3.21
3.5 Separation by Settling and Centrifugal Force............................................3.28
3.6 Sand Trap ....................................................................................................3.29
3.7 Hydrocyclones ............................................................................................3.30
3.8 Desanders....................................................................................................3.33
3.9 Desilters.......................................................................................................3.35
3.10 Decanting Centrifuge..................................................................................3.38
3.11 Auxiliary Equipment...................................................................................3.43
3.12 Unitized Systems.........................................................................................3.48
3.13 Rig Enhanced Systems................................................................................3.49
3.14 High Efficiency Solids Removal Systems...................................................3.50
3.15 Basic Arrangement Guidelines...................................................................3.51

4.0 BRANDT/EPI™ PRODUCTS AND SERVICES ........................................4.1

Company Profile..........................................................................................................4.1
4.1 Scope of Services..........................................................................................4.1
4.2 Business Relationship...................................................................................4.1
4.3 Certification...................................................................................................4.1
4.4 Personnel Resources.....................................................................................4.2
Products and Services .................................................................................................4.2
4.5 Linear Motion Shakers..................................................................................4.3
ATL-1000 .......................................................................................................4.3
ATL-1200 .......................................................................................................4.3
LCM-2D .........................................................................................................4.4
ATL-CS...........................................................................................................4.4
LCM-2D/CM2 ................................................................................................4.5
ATL Drying Shaker........................................................................................4.5
SDW-25 Drying Shaker.................................................................................4.6
ATL-16/2 Mud Conditioner...........................................................................4.6
ATL-2800 Mud Conditioner ..........................................................................4.7
LCM-2D Mud Conditioner ............................................................................4.7
4.6 Orbital Motion Screen Separators ................................................................4.7
Tandem Screen Separator ............................................................................4.7
Standard Screen Separator ...........................................................................4.8
Mud Cleaners ................................................................................................4.8

iii
 4.7 Screen Panels................................................................................................4.9
BlueHexSM 3HX Screen Panels .....................................................................4.9
Pinnacle™ Screen Panels .............................................................................4.9
PT Screen Panels ........................................................................................4.10
Hook-Strip Screen Panels...........................................................................4.10
4.8 Hydrocyclone Units ....................................................................................4.10
Desanders....................................................................................................4.10
Desilters.......................................................................................................4.11
4.9 Centrifuges ..................................................................................................4.11
SC-1 Decanting Centrifuge .........................................................................4.11
SC-4 Decanting Centrifuge .........................................................................4.12
HS 3400 High Speed Decanting Centrifuge ..............................................4.12
SC 35HS High Speed Decanting Centrifuge..............................................4.12
HS 5200 High Speed Decanting Centrifuge ..............................................4.13
Roto-Sep Perforated Rotor Centrifuge .......................................................4.13
4.10 Dewatering Units ........................................................................................4.14
4.11 Filtration Units ............................................................................................4.14
4.12 Vacuum Degassers......................................................................................4.15
4.13 Mud Agitators..............................................................................................4.15
4.14 Portable Rig Blowers ..................................................................................4.15
4.15 Integrated Systems......................................................................................4.16
Closed Loop Processing Systems ...............................................................4.16
Coiled Tubing (CT) Processing Systems....................................................4.17
Trenchless Technology Processing Systems..............................................4.17
Live Oil Systems..........................................................................................4.17
4.16 Remediation Management Services ...........................................................4.17
4.17 Technical & Engineering Services..............................................................4.18

APPENDICES
Glossary .....................................................................................................................A.2
Mud Solids Calculations
Standard Calculations..................................................................................................B.1
Field Calculations to Determine Total Solids Discharge...........................................B.4
Field Calculations to Determine High and Low Gravity Solids Discharge ..............B.5
Solids Control Performance Evaluation .....................................................................B.6
Method for Comparison of Cyclone Efficiency .......................................................B.10
Mud Engineering Data
Conversion Constants and Formulas..........................................................................C.1
Density of Common Materials ....................................................................................C.2
Hole Capacities ...........................................................................................................C.3
Pounds per Hour Drilled Solids — Fast Rates ..........................................................C.4
Pounds per Hour Drilled Solids — Slow Rates.........................................................C.5
Solids Content Chart ...................................................................................................C.6
Equipment Selection
Pre-well Project Checklist...........................................................................................D.1
Screen Cloth Comparisons .........................................................................................D.2
Brandt/EPI Equipment Specifications........................................................................D.3
Selecting Size and Number of Agitators ....................................................................D.7
Brandt/EPI™ Sales & Service Locations ....................................................................D.8

iv
1.0 DRILLING MUD AND MUD SOLIDS
Mud is the common name for
drilling fluid. While it is outside the
scope of this handbook to offer a
detailed discussion of drilling fluids,
a brief outline of the general char-
acteristics of drilling mud is
included to establish the basic rela-
tionships between drilling mud and
solids control.
Similarly, any discussion of solids
control would be incomplete with-
out establishing an understanding
of the nature of mud solids — their
size, shape and composition.
1.1 FUNCTIONS OF
DRILLING FLUID
The mud system in a drilling
operation performs many important
functions. Among these are:
1. Carry the drilled solids from
the bottom of the hole to the
surface.
2. Support the wall of the hole.
3. Control pressure within the for-
mation being drilled.
4. Cool the bit and lubricate the
drill string.
5. Clean beneath the bit.
6. Suspend cuttings while circula-
tion is interrupted (e.g., during
trips).
7. Secure accurate information
from the well (cuttings sam-
ples, electric logs, etc.).
8. Help support the weight of the
drill string.
9. Transmit hydraulic horse-
power to the bit.
10. Allow removal of cuttings by
the surface system.
Of the ten functions listed, the fol-
lowing are generally considered
most important:
1. Drilling mud moves the forma-
tions’ solids cut by the drill bit
from the bottom of the hole to
the surface. Removal of cut-
tings from the wellbore is
essential in order to continue
drilling.
2. Drilling mud must withstand
the pressure exerted by the
formations exposed in the
hole. The pressure exerted by
the mud against the formations
helps the driller control the
pressure created by the gas, oil
and water that are exposed
while drilling, thus reducing
the potential for costly
blowouts.
3. Drilling mud protects and sup-
ports the walls of the wellbore.
The mud has a plastering effect
on the walls of the hole and
helps prevent the walls from
caving in, causing an enlarged
hole or leading to stuck pipe.
1.1
 These problems significantly
increase drilling expense and
time.
4. Drilling mud cools the bit and
lubricates the drill string. This
function is important in drilling
because it increases the useful
life of bits and the drill string.
Drilling mud is obviously a major
factor in the success of any drilling
program, and the key to any effec-
tive mud system is good solids
control.
1.2 THE NATURE OF
DRILLED SOLIDS
Mud solids include particles that
are drilled from the formation,
material from the inside surface of
the hole and materials that are
added to control the chemical and
physical properties of the mud,
such as weight material. Drilled
solids’ particles are created by the
crushing and chipping action of
rotary drill bits. Additional solids
enter the well bore by sloughing
from the sides of the open hole.
The unit of measurement general-
ly used to describe particle size is
the micron (µ). A micron is one
thousandth (0.001) of a millimeter,
or approximately 0.00003973 of an
inch. To relate this unit of measure-
ment in more familiar terms, Figure
1-1 provides a list of common items
and their size in microns.
1.2
ITEM DIAMETER IN MICRONS
Cement Dust (Portland) 3-100 µ
Talcum Powder 5-50 µ
Red Blood Corpuscles 7.5 µ
Finger Tip Sensitivity 20 µ
Human Sight 35-40 µ
Human Hair 30-200 µ
Cigarette (diameter) 7520 µ
One inch 25,400 µ
Figure 1-1
Micron Size Range of Common Materials
Although individual mud solids
can range in size from less than
one micron to larger than a human
fist, the average particle size is less
than 35–40 microns, too small to be
seen with the human eye.
Note: The various sizes of solids
particles in a particular drilling
mud are referred to as the mud’s
cuttings, sand, silt or clay content.
This content is important to remem-
ber because solids control practices
will affect the average particle size
and the concentration of solids in
specific size ranges which may
greatly affect mud properties and
drilling operations.
Mud solids may be conveniently
grouped according to micron size
range, but unfortunately not with-
out introducing some element of
confusion. The API Committee on
Standardization of Drilling Fluid
Materials, in API Bulletin 13C pub-
lished in 1974, recommended
certain terminology for mud solids
particle size in an attempt to mini-
mize this confusion. This new
terminology has not yet, however,
gained universal acceptance.
 The more commonly used classifi- Abrasiveness of mud solids is
cations shown in Figure 1-2, determined by particle shape and
cuttings, sand, silt and clay (or col- hardness. Drilled solids come in
loidal size) will be used throughout various shapes such as round, nee-
this handbook, as they are the most dle shaped, platelets, cubic, etc. To
readily recognized in the field. be destructive, particles must be
These terms will refer to size classi- sharper and harder than the materi-
fication only, not to material al they are to abrade. Figure 1-3
composition. illustrates the degradation of drilled
CLASSIFICATION PARTICLE SIZE
solids in a mud system. The main
(Diameter in Microns) body of the particle becomes less
Cuttings Larger than 500 µ
abrasive with wear as the most
Sand 74-500 µ
Silt 2-74 µ
abrasive corners continue to
Clay Smaller than 2 µ degrade down through the silt size
Figure 1-2 to approximately 15–20 microns.
Common Field Terminology of Particle Size

Note: Drilled solids can originate

from sand, limestone, shale or other
formations, but their classification
in regard to solids control usually
depends on particle size since their
specific gravity is assumed to be
approximately 2.6.
It is important to note that com-
mercial solids (such as barite or
bentonite added for weight and vis-
Figure 1-3
cosity) are also affected by solids Mechanical Degradation of Drilled Solids
control equipment, according to
size. Most barite particles are in the Particles smaller than 15–20
same size group as silt (2–74 microns have much less abrasive
microns); bentonite particles are effect on drilling equipment. Barite
grouped with clay (smaller than 2 particles, which are not as hard as
microns). most drilled solids, are generally
From the time they enter the well less abrasive than similarly-sized
until they reach the surface, drilled drilled solids. Other weighting
solids particles are continuously materials, such as hematite, are
reduced in size by abrasion with generally harder and more abrasive
other particles and by the grinding than barite.
action of the drill pipe. Specific surface area, as it relates

1.3
to various shapes and sizes of
solids, is another important con-
cept. Specific surface area refers to
the surface area per unit of weight
or volume. Figure 1-4 lists examples
that show surface area greatly
increases per unit of mass: 1) as
particle size decreases, and 2) as
particles become less spherical in
shape.
EQUIVALENT SPHERICAL
PARTICLE DIAMETER TYPE
(Microns) PARTICLES
5.0 µ Glass Spheres
5.0 µ Crushed Quartz
1.0 µ Glass Spheres
1.0 µ Crushed Quartz
0.1 µ Glass Spheres
0.1 µ Crushed Quartz
Figure 1-4
Effect of Particle Size and Shape on Surface Area
Surface area adsorbs or “ties-up”
water. The more surface area, the
more water adsorbed. As the parti-
cle size decreases toward the
colloidal size, the relative effect of
the water coating increases. The
specific surface area has a pro-
nounced effect on viscosity, as
Figure 1-5 illustrates. The higher the
relative specific surface area, the
greater is the viscosity. Formations
Figure 1-5
Effect of Specific Surface Area on Viscosity
composed of clays that easily dis-
perses into the mud produce
relatively more viscosity increase and
will have “wetter” separations in
removal by equipment than forma-
tions that produce larger sized solids.
Bentonite disperses easily into col-
loidal solids and also absorbs much
more water than most solids types.
Hence bentonite builds viscosity at
relatively low concentrations.
SQUARE FEET
PER POUND Viscosity and other mud properties
2,345
are discussed in Section 1.3 of this
3,435
11,725
Handbook.
17, 160
117,250 1.3 PROPERTIES OF
171,500
DRILLING MUD
The ability of a drilling fluid to
perform its functions depends on
various properties of the mud, most
of which are measurable and are
affected by solids control.
DENSITY (MUD WEIGHT)
Density is a measure of the weight
of the mud in a given volume, and
is frequently referred to as mud
weight. The instrument used to
measure density is the mud balance
(see Figure 1-6). The instrument
consists of a constant volume cup
with a lever arm and rider calibrat-
ed to read directly the density of
the fluid in lbs/gal (water = 8.33
lbs/gal) and pressure gradient in
psi/1000 ft (water = 433 psi/1000 ft)
or pounds per cubic foot (water =
62.4 lbs/ft).

1.4
 Figure 1-6 Mud Balance

The density of the mud is related its viscosity. Viscosity is routinely

to the specific gravity of the fluid. measured with a Marsh Funnel and
Specific gravity is the ratio of a Mud Cup at the drilling site (see
materials density to the density of Figure 1-7). The person measuring
water. Pure water has a specific the viscosity fills the funnel with a
gravity of 1.0. A material twice as sample of mud and allows it to
dense as water would have a spe-
cific gravity of 2.0. A material half
as dense as water would have a
specific gravity of 0.5. Low gravity
solids have an average specific
gravity of 2.6. The solids are 2.6
times the weight of the same vol-
ume of water.

VISCOSITY
Viscosity measures the mud’s
resistance to flow as a liquid and is
one of the key physical properties
of mud. Increasing the amount of
solids or exposed surface area in a
mud increases its resistance to flow
as a liquid and therefore increases Figure 1-7 Marsh Funnel and Cup

1.5

Figure 1-8 Rotational Viscometer (VG Meter)
flow through the tip of the funnel
container while measuring the time
in seconds that it takes to fill the
mud cup to the one quart level.
The funnel viscosity recorded is in
seconds per quart. Internationally,
funnel viscosity is recorded in sec-
onds per thousand ccs or seconds
per liter.
PLASTIC VISCOSITY
A mud’s Plastic Viscosity is the por-
tion of a mud’s flow resistance
caused by the mechanical friction
between the suspended particles
and by the viscosity of the continu-
ous liquid phase. In practical terms,
plastic viscosity depends on the
size, shape, and number of parti-
cles. For example, as the amount of
drilled solids in a mud increases,
the plastic viscosity also increases.
Plastic viscosity is measured with a
1.6
rotational viscometer (Figure 1-8)
and is expressed in centipoise
(grams per centimeter-second).
YIELD POINT
Yield point is the part of flow resis-
tance that measures the positive
and negative inter-particle, or
attractive, forces within a mud.
Yield point is measured with a
viscometer and expressed in
lbs/100 ft 2. Internationally, yield
point is sometimes measured in
dynes/cm2.
GEL STRENGTH
Gel Str ength is a function of a
mud’s inter particle forces and gives
an indication of the amount of gela-
tion that will occur after circulation
ceases and the mud remains static
for a period of time. Typically, gel
strengths are reported for initial and
10-second gel strength. A large
deviation of these two figures may
indicate progressive gels, that is,
gelation structures that gain
strength over time. Gel strength is
also measured with a viscometer
and expressed in lbs/100 ft 2 .
Internationally, gel strength is
sometimes measured in dynes/cm2.
SOLIDS CONTENT
The solids content is the volume
percentage of the total solids in the

Figure 1-9 Retort (Mud Still)
mud. To determine the solids con-
tent of a mud containing weight
material, a mud container in the
retort is filled with a measured vol-
ume of mud (see Figure 1-9). The
mud is then heated to boil off the
liquid. The percentage of the liquid
distilled off is measured in a glass
cylinder and subtracted from 100%.
The difference is the percentage of
solids by volume contained in the
drilling mud and is recorded as per-
centage solids. The total solids from
the retort and mud weight are used
to calculate the low and high gravi-
ty solids content.
If the mud does not contain oil or
weight material, such as barite or
hematite, the low gravity solids can
be determined without a retort by
weighing the mud and referring to
a solids content chart.
SAND
Sand is any particle larger than 74
microns when referring to solids
control separation. Therefore, the
sand content of a mud is simply the
amount of solids too large to pass
through a US Test Sieve 200-mesh
screen. This is determined with a
sand content set (see Figure 1-10)
by washing a mea-
sured amount of
mud through the
200-mesh screen in
the kit. The
amount of solids
that does not pass
through the screen
is measured as
percentage by vol-
ume and is
recorded as per-
Figure 1-10
cent sand. Sand Content Set
FILTRATION
Filtration and wall-cake building
are actions that the drilling mud
carries out through and on the
walls of the hole. Some formations
allow the liquid in the mud to seep
into them, leaving a layer of mud
solids on the wall of the hole. This
layer of mud solids is called filter
cake or wall-cake. The filter cake
builds up a barrier and reduces the
amount of the liquid that enters the
formation and is lost from the mud.
This process is referred to as filtra-
tion, or fluid loss. The instrument
used to measure the fluid loss due
to filtration is a filter press (see
Figure 1-11).
1.7

Figure 1-11 Filter Press
The person using the filter press
places a mud sample in the instru-
ment on top of a piece of filter
paper and brings the pressure up to
100 pounds per square inch. The
amount of fluid flowing from the
sample in 30 minutes is measured
in milliliters. The mud filtration
property is recorded in units of
cubic centimeters (ccs) or milliliters
(ml) per 30 minutes. Examination of
the filter paper will indicate how
the solids will plaster the wall of
the hole and affect fluid loss. The
cake thickness is recorded in units
of 1/32s of an inch.
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
Chemical Properties is a broad
category, including measurements
of pH, alkalinity, chlorides, calcium
1.8
content, salt content, and other
properties that affect drilling mud
performance. Some of these chemi-
cal properties can be controlled
through various mud additives that
thicken, thin, precipitate, disperse,
emulsify, lubricate or otherwise
adjust the mud depending on spe-
cific drilling needs. For example,
caustic soda can be added to some
saltwater mud in order to maintain
a high pH level; it makes disper-
sants more effective and reduces
corrosion. Chemical changes such
as these are used to fine tune
drilling muds.
1.4 TYPES OF
DRILLING MUDS
Drilling fluids are generally cate-
gorized as “water-base” or “oil-
base”, and as “weighted” or
“unweighted” muds.
Water-base Muds contain water as
the liquid phase and are used to
drill most of the wells in the world
because they are relatively simple,
expense is usually reasonable, and
water is commonly available in
most places.
Oil-base Mud contains either nat-
ural oil or synthetic oil as the
continuous liquid phase and is used
for maximum hole protection. Oil-
base mud and synthetic oil mud are
usually much more expensive than
water-base mud and therefore are
only used when there is a specific
need, such as to keep the hole disposal may require sophisticated
from swelling or caving in, or to solids control techniques. System
reduce friction and prevent stuck recommendations for specific appli-
pipe in very crooked or high angle cations are covered in detail in
holes. Either water-base or oil-base Chapter 4.
mud can be used as “weighted” Here is a list of the most common
mud. mud types, followed by a brief
Weighted Mud refers to any mud description of each type:
which has barite or barite substi- I. Water-Base Mud (WBM)
tutes added to increase density. A. Spud Mud
These muds normally have a densi- B. Natural mud
ty greater than 10.0 lbs/gal. The C. Chemically-Treated Mud
solids in weighted mud consist of 1. Lightly Treated Chemical
drilled solids from the hole, plus Mud
barite, plus commercial clays added 2. Highly Treated Chemical
Mud
to control fluid loss and viscosity.
3. Low Solids Mud
Unweighted Mud refers to any 4. Polymer Mud
mud which has not had barite 5. Calcium Treated Mud
added. This mud type normally has D. Saltwater Mud
a density of less than 10.0 lbs/gal. 1. Sea Water Mud
The solids in unweighted mud con- 2. Saturated Salt Mud
sist of drilled solids from the hole, II. Oil-Base Mud (OBM)
plus commercial clays. A. “True” Oil Base
Solids control techniques will vary B. Invert Emulsion
considerably depending on the type C. Synthetic (SBM)
of mud being used. For example,
with many unweighted water-base SPUD MUD
muds, the loss of fluids along with Spud Mud is used to start the
the drilled solids may be economi- drilling of a well and continues to
cally insignificant, allowing simple be used while drilling the first few
solids control techniques. In the hundred feet of hole. Spud mud is
case of mud that contains expen- usually an unweighted water-base
sive chemical additives and/or mud, made up of water and natural
barite, especially oil-base mud, solids from the formation being
sophisticated solids control tech- drilled. It may contain some com-
niques must be utilized to minimize mercial clay, added to increase
overall costs. In addition, environ- viscosity and improve wall-cake
mental costs of haul-off and building properties.

1.9
NATURAL MUD
Natural Mud (sometimes called
“native” mud) is usually unweight-
ed water-base mud which contains
mostly drilled solids. Some ben-
tonite and small amounts of
chemicals may be used to improve
filter cake quality and help prevent
hole problems. This mud is often
the next mud type used after spud
mud. Often, natural mud is used to
drill the first few thousand feet of
hole, where only minor hole prob-
lems are expected.
CHEMICALLY TREATED MUD
Chemically Treated Mud is water-
base mud which contains chemicals
to control physical and chemical
properties. Bentonite is usually
added to help control viscosity and
fluid loss. Barite (weight material)
may be added to increase density.
This mud is used where more
severe hole problems are expected,
in order to prevent these problems.
Lightly Treated Chemical Mud is
usually unweighted water-base
mud. It is used where minor hole
problems are expected, such as
sloughing or caving of the walls of
the hole.
Highly Treated Chemical Mud is
usually weighted, water-base mud
that contains larger amounts of
chemicals, bentonite, additives, and
barite to maintain strict control of
viscosity, fluid loss, chemical prop-
1.10
erties, and density. Chemical muds
are often treated with lignosul-
fonates or lignite and are therefore
commonly called “lignosulfonate
mud” or “lignite” mud.
These muds are used where mod-
erate to severe hole problems are
expected or high down-hole pres-
sures occur. Of all the water-base
mud types, these are the most
expensive to maintain. As mud den-
sity is increased and potential hole
problems (such as stuck drill pipe)
become more of a risk, the removal
of drilled solids by mechanical
solids control equipment becomes
increasingly important.
Low Solids Muds are water-base
mud containing less than ten per-
cent (10%) drilled solids; 1–5% is a
normal range. Generally speaking,
the lower the solids content in the
mud, the faster the bit will drill.
Low solids muds are usually
expensive to maintain because the
solids, chemical, and fluid loss
properties have to be kept very
close to prescribed levels. It is
absolutely essential that all solids
removal equipment operate at max-
imum effectiveness in order to
maintain the desired low level of
solids at a reasonable cost.
Polymer Muds are special types of
low solids mud which contain syn-
thetic materials, polymers, designed
to control viscosity and fluid loss.
Polymers are very expensive and
often difficult to screen when a
high viscosity fluid is used.
Calcium Treated Muds are special
water-base muds, usually weighted,
which have lime or gypsum added.
Calcium Treated Muds are normally
used to prevent shale type forma-
tions from swelling or sloughing –
problems which could lead to stuck
pipe or a ruined hole.
SALTWATER MUD
Saltwater Muds contain a high
concentration of salt. They may be
weighted or unweighted.
Sea Water Muds contain sea water
as the continuous phase and, usual-
ly, only sea water is used for
dilution. They may be weighted or
unweighted. These muds are used
offshore and in bay areas where
fresh water is not readily available.
When sea water mud is being
used, only sea water should be
used to rinse or wash the screens in
solids control equipment.
Saturated Salt Muds (sometimes
called brine fluids) contain as much
salt as can be dissolved in the water
phase. This mud type is often used
to drill through salt formations so
the fluid will not dissolve the salt
formation. If fresh water mud is
used, greatly enlarged holes would
result, usually leading to hole trou-
ble.
It is important to be aware of the
use of salt mud because screen
blinding can occur when salt dries
and cakes on the solids control
equipment. Fresh water may be
used to clean the screens, but it
must be used very carefully
because too much fresh water can
upset the chemical balance of this
mud.
“TRUE” OIL-BASE MUD
“True” Oil-base Mud contains a
liquid phase with ninety to ninety-
five percent (90–95%) diesel oil and
five to ten percent (5–10%) water
emulsified within the oil. These
muds often use asphaltic type mate-
rials suspended in the liquid for
controlling viscosity and fluid loss.
“True” oil-base muds provide good
hole protection, especially in shale
type formations, and also increase
drill string lubrication.
INVERT EMULSION MUD
Invert Emulsion Mud is oil-base
mud in which the liquid phase is
sixty to ninety percent (60–90%)
diesel oil with ten to forty percent
(10–40%) water emulsified within
the oil. An invert mud can be for-
mulated with mineral oil or other
low environmental risk oil substi-
tutes when needed. In this mud,
water and chemicals are used to-
gether to control viscosity and fluid
loss. Invert emulsion muds provide
good hole protection and are the
most commonly used oil mud.
1.11
SYNTHETIC OIL MUDS
The term “Synthetic-Based Mud”,
or SBM, describes any oil-base mud
that has a synthesized liquid base.
Some common synthetic base fluids
include linear alphaolefins (LAO),
straight internal olefins (IO), polyal-
phaolefins (PAO), vegetable oils,
esters, and ethers. This base fluid is
then combined with viscosifiers,
weighting material, and other addi-
tives to produce a stable, useful
drilling fluid.
SBMs share several advantages
with traditional oil-base muds,
including excellent wellbore stabili-
ty, improved drilling rates, good
hole cleaning, excellent cuttings
integrity, and reduced torque.
SBMs also provide additional health
and safety benefits — higher flash
points, lower vapor production, and
1.12
reduced eye and respiratory irrita-
tion. The major benefit of SBMs
over traditional OBMs is the
reduced environmental impact of
cuttings and liquid mud. Currently,
SBMs and cuttings meet U.S. off-
shore environmental requirements
and may be discharged under
WBM protocols.
SBMs are expensive, $200–400
/bbl., depending on the oil/water
ratio. Proper solids removal and liq-
uid recovery techniques must be
used to maintain desired fluid prop-
erties and drilling rate, and to
control mud maintenance costs.
The alternatives to mechanical
solids control — dilution and whole
SBM additions — are prohibitively
expensive when compared to the
cost of proper solids control equip-
ment.
2.0 BENEFITS OF SOLIDS REMOVAL BY
MECHANICAL SEPARATION
INTRODUCTION
Of all the problems that could
conceivably occur during the
drilling of a well, mud contamina-
tion from drilled solids is a
certainty. The volume and type of
solids present in drilling mud exert
a considerable influence over mud
treating costs, drilling rates,
hydraulics, and the possibility of
differential sticking, kicks, and lost
returns. Solids control is one of the
most important phases of mud con-
trol — it is a constant issue, every
day, on every well. If drilled solids
can be removed mechanically, it is
almost always less expensive than
trying to combat them with chemi-
cals and dilution.
The primary reason for using
mechanical solids control equip-
ment is to remove unwanted drilled
solids particles from the mud in
order to prevent drilling problems
and reduce mud and waste costs,
thereby reducing overall drilling
costs. The benefits of solids
removal by mechanical separation
can best be seen in terms of two
outcomes: 1) reduced total mud
solids and 2) reduced dilution
requirements.
2.1 REDUCED TOTAL
SOLIDS
The presence of large amounts of
drilled solids in a drilling mud usu-
ally spells trouble for the drilling
operation. These solids adversely
affect the performance characteris-
tics of the mud and can lead to a
multitude of costly hole problems.
Drilled solids decrease the life of
a mud pump’s parts and thus, can
decrease drilling efficiency due to
lost time for pump repairs.
Continued recirculation of drilled
solids produces serious mud prob-
lems because recirculated solids
will gradually be reduced in size.
The smaller the solids become, the
more they negatively influence mud
properties and hydraulic perfor-
mance. The greatest impact of the
solids is seen in reduced ROP. The
higher the drilled solids content,
the lower the penetration rate.
If mud solids are not properly
controlled, the mud’s density can
increase above its desired weight
and the mud can get so thick that it
becomes extremely difficult or even
impossible to pump.
Since the earliest days of the oil-
field, drillers have been trying to
combat high solids content through
the use of settling pits. However,
2.1
some drilled solids are so finely
ground that they tend to remain in
suspension. This results in
increased mud viscosity and gel
strength which, in turn results in
larger particles also remaining in
suspension. Thus, the approach of
removing cuttings through settling
alone is of limited practical value.
Solids control equipment was
developed in order to more effec-
tively remove unwanted solids from
drilling mud. A variety of devices
(which will be discussed in detail in
Chapter 3 of this handbook) are
available which mechanically sepa-
rate the solids particles from the
liquid phase of the mud. Thus the
driller, depending on the particular
situation and equipment used, can
regulate to a fine degree the
amount and size of solids particles
that are removed or maintained in
any given drilling mud.
Such control of mud solids through
mechanical separation allows the
mud to perform its drilling-related
functions and avoids the downhole
problems caused by excessive solids
contamination. Effective solids con-
trol permits viscosity and density to be
kept within desired levels, dramati-
cally increases the life of pump parts
and drill bits, and promotes faster
penetration — all of which decrease
the time and expense of drilling.
2.2
2.2 REDUCED DILUTION
REQUIREMENTS
A common method of trying to
offset the build-up of drilled solids
is the addition of more liquid. This
is known as dilution and does not
remove cuttings but reduces (or
dilutes) their concentration in a
drilling mud, thereby reducing the
percent of total solids in the mud.
However, it is important to note
that dilution is expensive. Every
barrel of dilution water (or oil)
added requires an additional
amount of chemicals, barite or
other materials in order to maintain
desired mud properties. The lower
the drilled solids content to be
maintained, the greater the dilution
required. In the case of an oil-base
mud, oil must be used for dilution
— which can become extremely
expensive.
It should be noted that chemical
treatment alone will ultimately
result in high solids content and
uncontrollable mud properties. The
most effective approach is to use
mechanical solids control equip-
ment to remove as much of the
drilled solids as possible before
they are incorporated into the mud
system and then treat what is left
with appropriate amounts of chemi-
cals and dilution.
Effective solids removal by
mechanical separation can maintain
a minimum solids level in drilling
mud and greatly reduce the need
for dilution. Reducing the need to
dilute the mud can drastically
decrease the cost of having to pur-
chase mud products such as weight
material (barite) and chemicals.
These materials are expensive —
mud costs can be 10% of the total
cost of drilling a well.
The Dilution Ratio Chart (Figure
2-1) can be used indirectly to
approximate the amount of dilution
that can be eliminated by use of
solids removal equipment. For
example, suppose a drilling engi-
neer required that no more than 5%
solids were to be maintained in an
unweighted mud. The chart shows
that at 5%, each barrel of mud
would contain about 45 pounds of
drilled solids. If solids control
equipment were removing 1 ton
(2000 lbs) of solids per hour, then
the equipment would save 2000 ÷
MUD WEIGHT DRILLED
(LBS/GAL) SOLIDS
TO BE PERCENT BY
MAINTAINED VOLUME
45 = 44 barrels of dilution per hour.
If the chemicals and additives were
worth only $10 per barrel, the mud
treating costs would be reduced by
approximately $440 per hour! Over
the life of a drilling operation, $440
per hour adds up to a very signifi-
cant cost savings.
The same procedure can be used
to show reduced dilution require-
ment in weighted mud. When
heavily — weighted muds (16–18
lbs/gal) are being used, drilling
usually proceeds more slowly and
less drilled solids are removed per
hour. However, if approximately 5%
drilled solids are allowed in the
mud, then each barrel of mud still
contains roughly 44 pounds of
drilled solids.
Therefore, if the solids control
equipment were removing even a
pencil-sized stream of solids which
would amount to 44 pounds per
POUNDS OF BBLS OF WATER
2.6 SPECIFIC GRAVITY REQUIRED TO DILUTE
SOLIDS PER 1 TON SOLIDS AND
BARREL OF MUD MAINTAIN MUD WEIGHT

8.5 1.2 11 182

8.6 2.0 18 111
8.7 2.7 25 80
8.8 3.5 32 63
8.9 4.2 38 53
9.0 5.0 45 44
9.1 5.7 52 38
9.2 6.4 59 34
9.3 7.2 66 30
9.4 8.0 73 27
9.5 8.7 79 25
9.6 9.4 86 23
9.7 10.2 93 22
9.8 11.0 100 20
9.9 11.7 107 19
10.0 12.4 114 18

Figure 2-1 Dilution Ratio Chart

2.3
hour, then 44 ÷ 44 = 1 barrel of
dilution saved per hour. With the
high cost weighted mud (usually a
minimum of $30 per barrel), the
solids removal equipment would be
saving at least $30 per hour. Over
an average operation of 20 hours
per day, this represents a savings of
approximately $600 per day. If the
maximum amount of drilled solids
were reduced to 3%, the cost savings
would double to approximately
$1200 per day.
The expense of the dilution liquid
is a major factor in considering the
advantages of reduced dilution
requirements. Oil is obviously
much more costly than water, but
water also can be expensive if it
has to be trucked into a remote
drilling location.
The disposal of “waste” mud can
also be a significant factor in overall
dilution costs. Heavy reliance on
dilution to control solids content
can result in the addition of so
much extra liquid that the volume
of mud exceeds the capaci-
ty of the active mud pits.
When this happens, whole
mud (including all of the
expensive additives) must
be discarded into waste or
reserve pits.
Appropriate use of solids
control equipment in place
of dilution lessens the vol-
ume of the mud system and
can usually eliminate the
2.4
discarding of excess mud. The size
of the active and waste pits them-
selves can be reduced due to
smaller capacity requirements.
Instead of throwing away valuable
mud additives, these can be sal-
vaged and returned to the active
mud system.
If properly used, solids control
equipment can virtually eliminate
waste liquid mud through a “closed
mud system”. In such a system the
liquid phase can be recycled —
which can be critical in special
applications such as when using
oil-base or polymer muds, especial-
ly offshore, or where environmental
concerns prohibit disposal of liquid
waste materials. In these cases the
cost of hauling the liquid waste
away for disposal is also avoided.
Solids removal by mechanical sep-
aration can achieve the benefits of
low solids content and at the same
time significantly reduce the many
costs associated with dilution.
DRILLED SOLIDS
3.0 MECHANICAL SOLIDS CONTROL AND
RELATED EQUIPMENT
INTRODUCTION
The goal of modern solids control
systems is to reduce overall well
costs by prompt, efficient removal
of drilled solids while minimizing
the loss of liquids. Since the size of
drilled solids varies greatly — from
cuttings larger than one inch in
diameter to sub-micron size — sev-
eral types of equipment may be
used depending upon the specific
situation. The fundamental purpose
for solids removal equipment is just
that — remove drilled solids. The
end result is reduced mud and
waste disposal costs.
To reach this goal, each piece of
equipment will remove a portion of
the solids, either by screening or
centrifugal force. Each type of
equipment is designed to economi-
cally separate particles of a
particular size range from the liq-
uid. Also to operate effectively,
each type of equipment must be
sized, installed, operated, and main-
tained properly.
The efficiency of the solids con-
trol system can be evaluated by
comparing the final volume of mud
accumulated while using the equip-
ment to the volume of mud that
would result if drilled solids were
controlled only by dilution. The
overall results of solids removal can
be monitored by the use of flow
meters to determine the actual mud
volume built.
The efficiency of solids removal
equipment and/or systems used can
be evaluated in two ways:
1) Efficiency of drilled solids
removal,
2) Efficiency of liquid conservation.
The greater percentage of drilled
solids removed, the higher the
removal efficiency. The higher the
solids fraction of the waste stream,
the better. Both aspects should be
considered.
For example, a desilter usually
does well at removing solids but at
the cost of significant losses of liq-
uid; sometimes 80% of the volume
of the waste stream will be liquid.
By contrast, a properly operating
shale shaker or centrifuge typically
removes 1 barrel or less of mud
with each barrel of solids. Most
remaining equipment delivers a
lesser degree of dryness than do
the shakers or centrifuges.
Most solids control systems
include several pieces of equipment
connected in series. Each stage of
processing is partly dependent
upon the previous equipment func-
tioning correctly so as to allow the
next stage to perform its role.
3.1
Should one piece of equipment fail,
the equipment downstream will
soon lose efficiency or fail com-
pletely.
The first piece of equipment used
to separate the solids from the mud
is usually a vibrating screen or
series of screens. The cuttings that
are larger than the mesh openings
are removed by the screen but
carry an adhered film of mud. The
screen mesh should be sized to
prevent excessive losses of whole
mud over the end screen.
The second step is to remove the
sand-sized, silt sized and larger clay
particles that were not removed in
the shakers by using hydrocy-
clones. Hydrocyclones with a cone
diameter of 6 to 12 inches are
called desanders, and hydrocy-
clones with a cone diameter of less
than 6 inches are called desilters.
These units should normally be
sized to process 125% of the maxi-
mum flow rate used to drill.
Sometimes a screen is used below
a hydrocyclone to “dry-out” the
3.2
cone’s discharge to minimize the
loss of fluid. The hydrocyclone and
vibrating screen device is called a
mud cleaner or mud conditioner. If
a location must be “pitless”, then
the screens are essential to mini-
mize the liquid waste volume.
The final step may be to remove
the ultrafine silt and clay-sized
solids with the use of a decanting
centrifuge. On a weighted mud,
two centrifuges may be used in
series: the first to salvage barite, the
second to remove fine solids and
reclaim the valuable liquid phase.
3.1 PARTICLE SIZE
AND CUT POINT
Modern drilling rigs may be
equipped with many different types
of mechanical solids removal
devices depending on the applica-
tion and requirements of a particular
project. Each device has a specific
function in the solids control
process. Equipment commonly uti-
lized and the effective removal range
for each are listed in Figure 3-1.
 Figure 3-1 Particle Diameter and Ideal Equipment Placement
CUT POINT
Notice the removal range, or Cut
Point, is given as a range of the
particle size removed. Mechanical
solids control equipment classifies
particles based on size, shape, and
density. It is typical to refer to parti-
cles as being either larger than the
cut point of a device (oversize) or
smaller than the cut point (under-
size).
Figure 3-2 shows a typical cut
point curve. The cut point curve
represents the amount of solids of a
given size that will be classified as
either oversize or undersize.
Particles to the right of the cut point
curve, in the area labeled “A”, rep-
3.3
 Figure 3-2 Typical Cut Point Curve
resent the removed, oversize solids.
Particles to the left of the curve, in
the area labeled “B”, represent the
undersize solids returned with the
whole mud.
Particular interest is given to three
points along the cut point curve,
the D50, the D16, and the D84. Given
these three points, the removal
characteristics of screens, hydrocy-
clones, or other devices can be
compared.
The D50, or median cut point, is
the point where 50% of a certain
size of solids in the feed stream will
be classified as oversize and 50% as
undersize. The D16 and D84 are the
3.4
points where 16% and 84%, respec-
tively, of the solids in the feed
stream will be classified as oversize.
These two points are statistically
significant because they are one
standard deviation from the D50 in a
normal distribution. An “ideal” clas-
sifier (the dashed line) would show
very little difference between the
D50, D16 and D84.
Separation Efficiency is a measure
of the D50 size relative to the num-
ber of undersize particles that are
removed or oversize particles that
are not removed. The higher the
separation efficiency, the lower the
 Figure 3-3 Separation Curve
false classification. An example will
assist in understanding this concept.
Figure 3-3 shows the cut point
curves for two screens, each with
the same D50. Curve No.1 is almost
vertical with a small tail at each
end. This results in a very sharp,
distinct cut point. Almost all parti-
cles larger than the cut point are
rejected, with very few undersize
solids. Almost all particles smaller
than the cut point are recovered,
with very few oversize particles
included.
Curve No. 2 is an S-shaped curve
with a large tail at each end. Even
though the D50 is the same as for
Curve No.1, the D16 and D84 are very
different. Many solids larger than
the D50 are returned with the under-
size solids and many solids smaller
than the D50 are discarded with the
oversize solids.
If curves number 1 and 2 in
Figure 3-3 illustrate typical removal
gradients for two different types of
oilfield shale shakers screens, we
can draw conclusions about separa-
tion performance. The area between
the curves marked “A” represents
solids Screen No.1 removes and
Screen No. 2 returns. Likewise, the
area marked “B” represents solids
recovered by Screen No.1, but dis-
carded by Screen No. 2.
This is not to say that Screen No.1
3.5
is “better” than Screen No. 2, or
vice versa; it simply illustrates that
two devices with similar “cut point”
(as measured by the D50 alone) may
perform very differently. As an
example, consider solids removal
from a weighted drilling fluid using
vibrating screens.
An effective solids control pro-
gram for weighted mud should
remove as many undesirable, sand-
sized solids as practical, while
retaining most of the desirable, silt-
sized barite particles. Referring back
to Figure 3-3, Screen No. 2 would
return all the sand in area “A” that
Screen No.1 would catch, and
Screen No. 2 would remove the silt-
size material in area “B” (including
all weighting material) that Screen
No.1 would recover.
Therefore, in a weighted mud,
Screen No. 2 would not perform as
well as Screen No.1. Further, if the
area to the right of both curves
(representing total mass solids
removal) were calculated, Screen
No.1 could prove superior in terms
of mass solids removal.
As shown by this example, it is
important to view “cut point” as a
continuous curve, rather than a sin-
gle point. This concept is equally
true with screens, hydrocyclones,
centrifuges, or any other separation
equipment — the relative slope and
shape of the cut point curve are
more important than a single point
on the curve.
3.6
3.2 SEPARATION BY
SCREENING
One method of removing solids
from drilling mud is to pass the
mud onto the surface of a vibrating
screen. Particles smaller than the
openings in the screen pass
through the holes of the screen
along with the liquid phase of the
mud. Particles too large to pass
through the screen are thereby sep-
arated from the mud for disposal.
Basically, a screen acts as a “go–no
go” gauge: Either a particle is small
enough to pass through the screen
opening or it is not.
The purpose of vibrating the
screen in solids control equipment
is to transport the cuttings off the
screen and increase the liquid han-
dling capacity of the screen. This
vibrating action causes rapid sepa-
ration of whole mud from the
oversized solids, reducing the
amount of mud lost with the solids.
For maximum efficiency, the
solids on the screen surface must
travel in a predetermined pattern —
spiral, elliptical, orbital or linear
motion — in order to increase par-
ticle separation efficiency and
reduce blockage of the screen
openings. The combined effect of
the vibration and the screen sur-
faces result in the separation and
removal of oversized particles from
drilling mud.
SCREENING SURFACES
Screening surfaces used in solids
control equipment are generally
made of woven wire screen cloth,
in many different sizes and shapes.
The following characteristics of
screen cloth are important in solids
control applications.
Screens may be constructed with
one or more Layers. Non-layered
screens have a single layer, fine-
mesh, screen cloth (reinforced by
coarser backing cloth) mounted on
a screen panel. These screens will
have openings that are regular in
size and shape. Layered screens
have two or more fine mesh screen
cloths, usually of different mesh
(reinforced by coarser backing
cloth), mounted on a screen panel.
These screens will have openings
that vary greatly in size and shape.
To increase screen life, especially
in the 120–200 mesh range, manu-
facturers have incorporated two
design changes:
1) A coarse backing screen to
support fine meshes, and
2) Pre-tensioned screen panels.
The most important advance has
been the development of preten-
sioned screen panels. Similar panels
have been used on mud cleaners
since their introduction, but earlier
shakers did not possess the engi-
neering design to allow their use
successfully. With the advent of
modern, linear-motion shakers, pre-
tensioned screen panels have
extended screen life and justified
the use of 200-mesh screens at the
flowline. The panels consist of a
fine screen layer and a coarse back-
ing cloth layer bonded to a support
grid (Figure 3-4). The screen cloths
are pulled tight, or tensioned, in
both directions during the fabrica-
tion process for proper tension on
every screen. The pre-tensioned
panel is then held in place in the
bed of the shaker.
Figure 3-4 Pretensioned Screen
Today, fine screens may be rein-
forced with one or more coarse
backing screens. The cloth may
also be bonded to a thin, perforat-
ed metal sheet. This extra backing
protects the fine screen from being
damaged and provides additional
support for heavy solids loads. The
screens equipped with a perforated
plate may be available with several
sizes options for the perforation to
allow improved performance for a
given situation.
Most manufacturers limit them-
selves to one support grid opening
3.7
size to reduce inventory and pro-
duction costs. The opening size is
typically 1” for maximum mechani-
cal support. Brandt / EPI™ provides
screen panels with a variety of
openings to allow rig personnel to
choose the desired mechanical sup-
port and total open area (translating
to more liquid flow), depending on
the application.
Mesh is defined as the number of
openings per linear inch. Mesh can
be measured by starting at the cen-
ter of one wire and counting the Figure 3-5 Eight Mesh Screen
number of openings to a point one
inch away. Figure 3-5 shows a sam- Tensile Bolting Cloth. Both of these
ple 8 mesh screen. A screen are square mesh weaves, differing
counter is useful in determining in the diameter of wire used in
screen mesh (see Figure 3-6). their construction.
Market grade cloths use larger
SCREEN CLOTH diameter wires and are more resis-
There are several types of wire tant to abrasion and premature
cloth used in the manufacture of wear. Tensile bolting cloths use
oilfield screens. The most common smaller diameter wire and have a
of these are Market Grade and higher Conductance. Since screen

Figure 3-6 Screen counter and Magnified View of Screen mesh

3.8

Figure 3-7 One-half Inch Opening
selection is a compromise between
screen life, liquid capacity, and par-
ticle separation, both types are in
wide use.
OPENING SIZE
Size of Opening is the distance
between wires in the screen cloth
and is usually measured in fractions
of an inch or microns. Figure 3-7
shows a screen with a 1/2 inch
opening.
Screens of the same mesh may
have different sized openings
depending on the diameter of the
wire used to weave the screen
cloth. Smaller diameter wire results
4 Mesh: .080 Wire
46.2% Open Area
Figure 3-8 Percent of Open Area
in larger screen openings, with larg-
er particles passing through the
screen. The larger the diameter of
the wire, the smaller the particles
that will pass through the screen.
Remember, it’s the size of the open-
ings in a screen, not the mesh
count, that determines the size of
the particles separated by the
screen. Also, normally the larger the
diameter of the wire used in the
weaving process, the longer the
screen cloth will last.
PERCENT OPEN AREA
Percent Open Area is the amount
of the screen surface which is not
blocked by wire. The greater the
wire diameter of a given mesh
screen, the less open space
between the wires. For example, a
4 mesh screen made of thin wire
has a greater percent of open area
than a 4 mesh screen made of thick
wire (see Figure 3-8).
The higher the percent of open
area of a screen the greater its theo-
retical throughput. Open area can
4 Mesh: .072 Wire 4 Mesh: .063 Wire
50.7% Open Area 56.0% Open Area
3.9
be increased for a given mesh by
using smaller diameter wire, but at
the sacrifice of screen life. The
choice of any particular screen cloth
therefore involves a compromise
between throughput and screen life.
Calculating the percent open area
for layered screens is difficult and
inaccurate. This is due to the ran-
dom and wide variety of openings
present. Conductance of a screen is
an experimental measure of the
flow capacity of a screen. The high-
er the conductance of a screen, the
greater its flow capacity.
SHAPE OF OPENING
Shape of Opening is determined
by the screen’s construction.
Screens with the same number of
horizontal and vertical wires per
inch produce square-shaped open-
ings and are referred to as Square
Mesh screens. Screens with a differ-
ent number of horizontal and
vertical wires per inch produce
SQUARE MESH
Figure 3-9 Shape of Opening
3.10
oblong — or rectangular — shaped
openings and are referred to as
Rectangular (or Oblong) Mesh
screens. This is illustrated in Figure
3-9.
Use of a single number in refer-
ence to a screen usually implies
square mesh. For example, “20
mesh” usually identifies a screen
with 20 openings per inch in either
direction. Oblong mesh screens are
generally labeled with two num-
bers. For example, a 60 x 20 screen
has 60 openings per inch in one
direction and 20 openings per inch
in the other direction.
It has become common industrial
practice to add the two dimensions
of an oblong mesh screen and refer
to the sum of the two numbers as
the mesh of the screen.
For example, a 60 x 20 mesh
screen is often called an “oblong
80” mesh. This screen has oblong
openings measuring 1040 x 193
microns, much larger than the
OBLONG MESH

OBLONG MESH SQUARE MESH
B-20 S-16
B-40 S-30
B-60 S-40
B-80 S-50
B-100 S-60
B-120 S-80
Figure 3-10 Equivalent Screen Sizes
square openings of a “square 80”
mesh screen (177 x 177 microns).
The “oblong 80” will allow much
larger, irregularly-shaped particles
to pass through its openings than
the 80 x 80 square mesh screen.
EQUIVALENT SCREEN MESH
Screen manufacturers now com-
pare different types of screen
through charts, such as the one
shown in Figure 3-10. The oblong-
mesh screens listed in the left-hand
column remove similar sized solids
as the square-mesh screens listed in
the right-hand column. These
screens are referred to as “equiva-
lent”. In actual field use, the
conductance and screen life of the
oblong mesh screens is noticeably
higher than the equivalent square
mesh screen, but the shape of the
cut point curve discussed earlier is
not as sharp or distinct.
In a similar fashion, a layered
screen will often be designated by
a single number, e.g. “layered 210”
mesh. This implies a screen with
openings smaller than a “square
200” mesh screen (74 x 74
microns). However, the actual
opening size and shape of a lay-
ered screen is a combination of the
multiple screen layers and will pro-
duce a wide variety of opening
sizes and shapes. Therefore, the
“layered 210” mesh screen will
remove some solids smaller than 74
microns, but will also allow some
particles larger than 74 microns to
pass through the screen openings.
SCREEN PLUGGING
AND BLINDING
Screen Plugging and Blinding,
while present to some degree on
rig shakers fitted with coarser
screens, is most frequently encoun-
tered on fine screen shakers. If the
mesh openings plug with near-size
particles or if the openings become
coated over, the throughput capaci-
ty of the screen can be drastically
reduced and flooding of the screen
may occur.
Plugging can often be controlled
by adjusting the vibratory motion or
deck angle, but sometimes requires
changing screens to a coarser or
finer mesh. A coarser screen should
be used only as a temporary solu-
tion until the particular formation
responsible for near-size particle
generation is passed. Changing to a
finer mesh screen often presents a
better, more permanent solution.
Screen blinding is caused by
3.11
sticky particles in viscous mud coat-
ing over the screen openings or by
the evaporation of water from dis-
solved solids or from grease and
requires a screen wash-down to
cure. This wash-down may simply
be a high pressure water wash, a
solvent (in the case of grease, pipe
dope or asphalt blinding), or a mild
acid soak (in the case of blinding
caused by hard water). Stiff brush-
es should not be used to clean
fine screens because of the fragile
nature of fine mesh screen cloth.
Screen life of fine mesh screens
varies widely from design to
design, even under the best of con-
ditions, because of differences in
operating characteristics. Screen life
can be maximized by following
these general precautions:
• Keep screens clean.
• Handle screen carefully when
installing.
• Keep screens properly ten-
sioned.
• Do not overload screens.
• Do not operate shakers dry.
SCREEN CAPACITY
Screen Capacity, or the volume of
mud which will pass through a
screen without flooding, varies
widely depending on shaker model
and drilling conditions. Drilling rate,
mud type, weight and viscosity, bit
type, formation type, screen mesh —
all affect throughput to some degree.
3.12
Drilling rate affects screen capacity
because increases in drilled solids
loading reduce the effective screen
area available for mud throughput.
The mesh of the screen in use is also
directly related to shaker capacity
because, in general (but not always),
the finer a screen’s mesh, the lower
its throughput. Increased viscosity,
usually associated with an increase
in percent solids by volume and/or
increase in mud weight, has a
markedly adverse effect on screen
capacity. As a general rule, for every
10% increase in viscosity, there is a
2–5% decrease in throughput capaci-
ty. Figure 3-11 shows the
relationship of mud weight, viscosity,
and screen mesh on shaker capacity.
Figure 3-11 Shaker Capacity v. Mud Weight,
Viscosity, and Screen Mesh
Mud type also has an effect on
screen capacity. Higher viscosities
generally associated with oil-base
and invert emulsion mud usually
result in lower screen throughput
than would be possible with a water-
base mud of the same mud weight.
Some mud components such as syn-
thetic polymers also have an adverse
effect on screen capacity. As a result,
no fine mesh screen can offer a stan-
dard throughput for all operating
conditions.
Due to the many factors involved
in drilling conditions, mud charac-
teristics and features of certain
models, capacities on fine screen
shakers can range from 50 to 800
GPM. Multiple units, most common-
ly dual or triple units, can be used
for higher throughput requirements.
Cascade shaker arrangements, with
scalping shakers installed upstream
from the fine screen shakers, can
also increase throughput.
THREE-DIMENSIONAL
SCREEN PANELS
To increase screen capacity with-
out increasing the size or number
of shale shakers, three-dimensional
screen panels are available. The
design of these 3-D, Pinnacle™
shaker screens:
• Provides even distribution of
fluid across the screen surface
• Eliminates unwanted fluid loss
near the screen edges
• Improves dryness of solids dis-
charge
• Allows the use of finer screens
3-D screen panels increase the
usable screen area of a screen
panel by corrugating the screen sur-
face, similar to the surface of a
pleated air filter or oil filter. 3-D
screen panels are most effective
when installed as the submerged,
feed-end screen on linear-motion
shakers to take full advantage of
the additional screen area. Past the
fluid end point, a three-dimensional
screen tends to “channel” the
drilled solids and increases solids
bed depth and the amount of liquid
carried off the screen surface.
Using a flat screen at the discharge
end of the shaker eliminates chan-
neling, increases cuttings dryness,
and decreases fluid loss.
STANDARDIZATION
Standardization of screen cloth
designations has been recommend-
ed by the API committee on
Standardization of Drilling Fluid
Materials, in API RECOMMENDED
PRACTICE 13E (RP13E), THIRD
EDITION, MAY 1, 1993. The pur-
pose for this practice is to provide
standards for screen labeling of
shale shaker screen cloths. The pro-
cedures recommended for labeling
allow a direct comparison of sepa-
ration potential, the ability to pass
fluid through a screen, and the
amount area available for screen-
ing.
The API screen labeling includes
of the following:
3.13
1. Manufacturer’s designation;
2. Separation Potential and
3. Flow Capacity.
The Manufacturer’s designation
contains the individual company’s
procedures for naming their
screens. It may include the type of
screen panel, composition and
other data required by the manufac-
turer.
The API separation potential is
reported in the terms of three “Cut”
points. The term “Cut” point is not
the same as the traditional cut
point. The “Cut” point allows a
ranking of a screen’s separation
potential that can be used to com-
pare screen performance. Three
values (D50, D16, and D84) imply the
opening sizes and variation in
opening size of the screen.
Flow capacity is the rate at which
a shaker can process mud and
solids. Under constant conditions, a
shale shaker has a flow capacity
that depends upon screen conduc-
tance and area. The area available
for screening is the net unblocked
area, in square feet, available for
fluid passage through the screen
panel. Conductance defines the
ease of passage of a fluid through a
piece of wire cloth. Conductance is
calculated from the mesh count and
wire diameters of the screen.
Transmittance is the product of
conductance times panels area.
3.14
These designations give the end
user a more accurate assessment of
solids removal capability and liquid
throughput capacities of competi-
tive screens.
3.3 SHALE SHAKERS
The first line of defense for a prop-
erly maintained drilling fluid has
been, and will continue to be, the
shale shaker. Without proper screen-
ing of the drilling fluid during this
initial removal step, reduced effi-
ciency and effectiveness of all
downstream solids control equip-
ment on the rig is virtually assured.
The shale shaker, in various
forms, has played a prominent role
in oilfield solids control schemes
for several decades. Shakers have
evolved from small, relatively sim-
ple devices capable of running only
the coarsest screens to the models
of today. Modern, high-perfor-
mance shakers of today are able to
use 100 mesh and finer screens at
the flowline in most applications.
This evolutionary process has
taken us through three distinct eras
of shale shaker technology and per-
formance as shown in Figure 3-12.
These eras of oilfield screening
development may be defined by
the types of motion produced by
the machines:
• Elliptical, “unbalanced” design
• Circular, “balanced” design.
• Linear, “straight-line” design

Figure 3-12 Shale Shakers
The unbalanced, elliptical motion
machines have a downward slope
as shown in Figure 3-12, A. This
slope is required to properly trans-
port cuttings across the screen and
off the discharge end. However, the
downward slope reduces fluid
retention time and limits the capaci-
ty of this design. Optimum
screening with these types of shak-
ers is usually in the 30–40 mesh
(400–600 micron) range.
The next generation of machine,
introduced into the oilfield in the
late 1960s and early 1970s, pro-
duces a balanced, or circular,
motion. The consistent, circular
vibration allows adequate solids
transport with the basket in a flat,
horizontal orientation, as shown in
Figure 3-12, B. This design often
incorporates multiple decks to split
the solids load and to allow finer
mesh screens, such as 80–100
square mesh (150–180 micron)
screens.
The newest technology produces
linear, or straight-line, motion,
Figure 3-12, C. This motion is
developed by a pair of eccentric
shafts rotating in opposite direc-
tions. Linear motion provides
superior cuttings conveyance and is
able to operate at an uphill slope to
provide improved liquid retention.
Better conveyance and longer fluid
retention allow the use of 200
square mesh (74 micron) screens.
Today, shale shakers are typically
separated into two categories: Rig
Shakers and Fine Screen Shakers.
RIG SHAKERS
The rig shaker is the simpler of
two types of shale shakers. A rig
shaker (also called “Primary Shale
Shaker” or “Coarse Screen Shaker”)
is the most common type of solids
control equipment found on drilling
rigs. Unless it is replaced by a fine
screen shaker, the rig shaker should
be the first piece of solids control
equipment that the mud flows
through after coming out of the
hole. It is usually inexpensive to
operate and simple to maintain.
3.15
 MUD TANK
(POSSUM BELLY)
MOTOR
BELT
GUARD
LIQUID and FINE
SOLIDS
DISCHARGE
CHUTE
Figure 3-13 Rig Shaker components
Standard rig shakers generally
have certain characteristics in com-
mon (see Figure 3-13):
• Single rectangular screening
surface — usually about 4’ x 5’
in size. Some designs have uti-
lized dual screens, dual decks
and dual units in parallel to
provide more efficient solids
separation and greater
throughput. Depending on the
particular unit and screen mesh
used, capacity of rig shakers
can vary from 100–1600 GPM
or more.
• A low-thrust horizontal vibrator
mechanism, using eccentric
weights mounted above, or
central to, the screen basket.
• Vibration supports to isolate
the screen basket from its skid.
3.16
VIBRATOR ASSEMBLY
SCREEN
BASKET
ASSEMBLY
COARSE SOLIDS DISCHARGE
• Skid with built-in mud box
(sometimes called a “possum
belly”) and a bypass mecha-
nism.
• Method of tensioning screen
sections.
Screen sizes commonly used with
rig shakers range from 10 to 40
mesh. Figure 3-14 shows the parti-
cle sizes separated by these mesh
screens. In this graph the area to
the left of each line represents
solids which are smaller than that
mesh size. These would pass
through the screen and would not
be removed. The area to the right
of each line represents solids that
are larger than the mesh size and
would be removed from the mud.
In Figure 3-14, the area to the
 Figure 3-14 Particle Removal by Rig Shaker Screens
right of the 10 mesh line is con-
fined, because it is limited by the
size of the page. In actual usage,
this area is unlimited. This means
that a 10 mesh screen will remove
all particles larger than 1910
microns — it doesn’t matter if they
are the size of BBs, marbles or
baseballs — they will be removed
and discarded by a 10 mesh screen.
Rig shakers are generally ade-
quate for top hole drilling and for
shallow and intermediate depth
holes when backed up by other
solids control equipment. For deep-
er holes and when using expensive
mud systems, fine screen shakers
are preferred.
FINE SCREEN SHAKERS
The fine screen shaker is the
more complex and versatile of the
two types of shale shakers. Fine
screen shakers remove cuttings and
other larger solids from drilling
mud, but are designed for greatly
improved vibratory efficiency over
simple rig shakers. They are con-
structed to vibrate in such a way
that they can use screens as fine as
150–200 mesh and still give reason-
able screen life.
They are versatile pieces of equip-
ment and can operate on all types
of mud. Figure 3-15 shows the
range of particle sizes separated by
the screens commonly used with
fine screen shakers.
A fine screen shaker can be
installed on the rig in one of four
ways:
1. Instead of the conventional rig
shaker for use from top hole to
total depth, if it is of a design
capable of using coarse
screens as well as fine screens.
3.17
 Figure 3-15 Fine Screen Shaker Particle Separation
2. Placed in series with the rig
shaker by tapping into the flow
line with a “Y”, thus keeping
the rig shaker available as a
“scalping shaker”.
3. Replacing the rig shaker after
top hole is completed.
4. Downstream from the rig shak-
er to accept fluid after it passes
through the coarse screen
shaker (requires secondary
pump).
Because fine screen shakers have
a wide variety of designs, they have
few characteristics in common. The
various designs are differentiated by
screen orientation and shape,
screen tensioning mechanism,
placement and type of vibrator and
other special features.
Screen Orientation and Shape
refers to the arrangement of the
3.18
screen or screens in the unit.
Screens are usually rectangular and
may be single screens or multiple
screens placed in series or in paral-
lel, as shown in Figure 3-16.
Single deck, single screens (Figure
3-16 A & B) are the simplest design,
with all mud passing over one
screen of uniform mesh. This type
of shaker requires efficient vibrator
mechanisms to function properly
under all possible drilling condi-
tions and requires high throughput
(Conductance) per square foot of
screen cloth.
Units with screens placed in par-
allel (Figure 3-16 C, D & E) have
two or more screen sections acting
as one large screen so that no cut-
tings can fall between them. All
screen sections should be the same
mesh, since the coarsest mesh sec-
tion determines the unit’s screening
ability.
 Shakers with screens stacked in
series (Figure 3-16 F) have a coarse
screen above a finer screen, with the
finer screen being the controlling
mesh size. The operating theory is
that the top screen will remove
some of the cuttings from the mud
to take part of the load off the bot-
tom screen and thereby increase
overall screening efficiency.
SCREEN TENSIONING
MECHANISMS
Shakers are designed to use either
a hookstrip or a rigid panel screen.
Hook strip screens are made with-
out a rigid frame and can
prematurely fail if installed and
allowed to operate with uneven
tension. The shaker manufacturer’s
instructions for screen installation
should be followed, but the follow-
ing steps may apply:
• Inspect the supports and ten-
Figure 3-16 Shaker Screen Configurations
sion rails to be sure they are in
good condition and clean
• Position the panel on the deck
and inspect the screen to be
sure it lays flat
• Install both rails loosely to the
hookstrip
• Push one side of the screen
against the positioning blocks,
if present; and fully tighten the
screen against these blocks
• Evenly tighten the tension bolts
on the other side
• Torque to the manufacturer’s
recommended setting
Rigid panel screen installation
should proceed as per the manufac-
turer’s instructions. Panel screens
can usually be installed or replaced
much quicker than a hookstrip
screen since the cloth is already
pretensioned and the mechanical
devices lock the panel with much
less manual effort.
3.19
VIBRATOR MECHANISMS
Vibrator Mechanisms vary widely
in design and placement and great-
ly affect the throughput efficiency
of fine screen shakers. Most mod-
ern shakers utilize linear motion
vibration with the vibrator mecha-
nism mounted above the screen
bed. One important advantage of
linear motion is positive con-
veyance of cuttings across the
screen surface even when the sur-
face is at a positive angle. This
generally allows the use of an
uphill sloped screen deck, greatly
increasing throughput capacity and
cuttings dryness.
Most vibrators are electrically
operated, although a few are
hydraulically operated. In some
units the vibration-inducing eccen-
tric weights are separated from the
drive motor, while in others the
eccentric weights and motor form
an integral assembly. In some units,
the nature of the vibratory motions
can be easily modified to take
advantage of specific solids-convey-
ing characteristics, but most units
have a fixed vibratory motion.
MAINTENANCE
Because of their greater complexi-
ty and use of finer mesh screens,
fine screen shakers generally
require more attention than rig
shakers. Nonetheless, their more
effective screening capabilities
3.20
more than justify the higher operat-
ing cost. This is especially true
when expensive mud systems are
used.
Besides periodic lubrication, fine
screen shakers require the same
minimum maintenance as rig shak-
ers while making a trip:
• Wash down screens.
• Check screen tension.
• Shut down shaker when not
drilling to extend screen life.
• Dump and clean possum belly.
In addition, frequent checks must
be made for screen plugging and
blinding, screen flooding and bro-
ken screens. All will occur more
frequently on fine screen shakers
than on coarse mesh rig shakers.
GENERAL GUIDELINES
General rules in operating shale
shakers — whether coarse screen
rig shakers or fine screen shakers
— which have not already been
mentioned, include the following:
• Use the finest mesh screen
capable of handling the full
volume from the flow line
under the particular drilling
conditions. This will reduce
solids loading on downstream
hydrocyclones and screens,
improving their efficiency.
Several screen changes, nor-
mally to progressively finer
mesh screens over the course
 of the hole, are quite common.
• Large cuttings which settle in
the mud box (possum belly) of
the shaker should never be
dumped into the mud system.
(Dump them into the sump or
waste pit.)
• Except in extenuating circum-
stances (such as the presence
of lost circulating material), all
mud should be screened. This
includes make-up mud hauled
in from other locations.
• Unless water sprays are
absolutely necessary to control
screen blinding, water should
not be used on the screen sur-
face while drilling. Water
sprays tend to wash smaller
cuttings through the screen
which would otherwise be
removed by their clinging to
larger particles (piggy-back
effect).
For a more complete analysis of
different types of screens and shak-
ers, ask your local Brandt / EPI™
representative for copies of the lat-
est Product Bulletins.
3.4 MUD CLEANERS AND
MUD CONDITIONERS
In many cases, combinations of
vibratory screening and settling/
centrifugal force are used together
to provide an effective separation.
The most familiar combination sep-
arator is the Mud Cleaner or Mud
Conditioner (Figure 3-17).
Mud cleaners were developed in
the early 1970s to remove fine
drilled solids from weighted mud
without excessive loss of barite and
fluid. They have also proved valu-
able tools in closed systems and
other “dry” location” applications.
These devices use a combination of
desilting hydrocyclones and very
fine mesh vibrating screens
(120–400 mesh) to remove fine
drilled solids while returning valu-
able mud additives and liquids back
to the active mud system.
Traditional mud cleaners use mul-
tiple 4” or 5” cyclones, mounted
over a vibrating screen, and are
able to effectively process 400–600
GPM. The process capacity is limit-
ed by screen capacity and its ability
to discard “dry” solids. With the
introduction of linear motion vibrat-
ing screens, the capacity of the
mud cleaner screen has been great-
ly increased. This, in turn, allows
the use of additional hydrocyclones
and higher, overall process capaci-
ties.
The combination of hydrocy-
clones and linear-motion vibrating
screens is called a Mud Conditioner
to differentiate these machines from
earlier mud cleaners. Mud condi-
tioners often combine both
desander and desilter cones mount-
ed above the screen deck to take
3.21
 full advantage of the higher process
capacity, usually 1000–1500 GPM,
and reduce the overall size and
weight of the unit, when compared
to mud cleaners.
After removal of large cuttings
with a shaker, feed mud is pumped
into the mud cleaner/conditioner’s
hydrocyclones with a centrifugal
pump. The overflow from the
cyclones is returned to the mud
system. Instead of simply discarding
the underflow, the solids and liquid
exiting the bottom of the cyclones
are directed onto a fine screen.
Drilled solids larger than the screen
openings are discarded; the remain-
ing solids, including most barite in
a weighted system, pass through
the screen and are returned to the
mud system.
The cut point and amount of mass
solids removed by a mud cleaner/
conditioner depends primarily on
the mesh of the fine screen used,
Figure 3-18. Since there are many
designs of mud cleaners/condition-
ers available, performance and
economics will vary with machine
and drilling variables.

APPLICATIONS
Mud cleaners/conditioners should
be considered in these applications:
1. Whenever the application
requires finer screens than the
existing shaker can handle
Figure 3-17 Mud Cleaners and Mud Conditioners
2. Unweighted OBM

3.22
 Figure 3-18
Particle Removal by Mud Cleaner Screens
3. Expensive polymer systems
4. When the cost of water is high
5. Unweighted WBM with high
disposal costs and/or environ-
mental restrictions
6. When use of lost circulation
material requires bypassing the
shaker
7. Workover and completion fluid
Mud cleaners/conditioners are
simply a bank of hydrocyclones
mounted over a fine-mesh screen.
In many instances (even with mod-
ern fine screen shakers), a finer
separation is required than can be
provided with existing shakers. The
question to answer becomes how
to achieve the necessary level of
screening at the lowest cost. The
alternatives are:
1) Add additional similar shakers
to handle the flow rate, 2) Replace
the existing shakers with more effi-
cient units or 3) Add a mud
cleaner/conditioner downstream
from the existing shakers.
Any of these may be correct, but
a thorough study of the capital cost
(the actual cost of new equipment,
plus transportation, rig modifica-
tions, and installation) and the
operating cost (screens and other
expendables, plus fuel) is necessary
3.23
to make the proper choice. Also,
because of the cut points produced
by some “modern” layered screens,
the use of mud cleaner/condition-
ers may be indicated downstream
of linear motion shakers.
Salvage of the liquid phase of an
unweighted drilling mud often cost-
justifies use of a mud cleaner/
conditioner when the fluid phase of
the mud or disposal is expensive.
Compared to desanders and desil-
ters, whose cyclone underflow may
be as much as 15 bbl/hr or more,
mud cleaners/conditioners can
achieve efficient solids removal
while returning most liquid back to
the active mud system. Use of ultra-
fine screens (200 to 325 mesh)
significantly improves solids control
in any high-value fluid system.
An increasingly important applica-
tion of mud cleaners/conditioners is
the removal of drilled solids from
unweighted water-base mud in
semi-dry form. This system is com-
monly used in areas where
environmental restrictions prohibit
the use of earthen reserve pits, and
expensive vacuum truck waste dis-
posal from steel pits is the
alternative. The mud cleaner/condi-
tioner is used to discard drilled
solids in semi-dry form which is
classified as legal landfill in most
areas and is subject to economical
dry-haul disposal techniques (dump
truck or portable waste containers).
3.24
When used for this purpose, the
screen underflow from the mud
cleaner/conditioner is often divert-
ed to a separate steel waste pit for
vacuum truck disposal. This may
seem counterproductive, but since
a vacuum truck can only carry a
limited amount of sand because of
the over-the-road weight restric-
tions, whenever a vacuum truck
must haul normal full-flow desilter
waste, the waste must be diluted
with rig water to reduce density.
The operator is then billed for the
haulage of a vacuum truck load
comprised largely of rig water. On
the other hand, since most of the
solids are removed in semi-dry
form by the mud cleaner/condition-
er screen, the remaining solids in
the screen underflow are dilute
enough to be hauled away without
watering them back. Vacuum truck
loads often can be reduced to a
small fraction of those required
with full-flow desilting.
This approach to dry-solids dis-
posal can be carried further by
using a centrifuge with a mud
cleaner/conditioner to form a
“closed” system which eliminates
discarding of any fluid. These sys-
tems are being used increasingly in
areas where liquid mud waste must
be hauled a significant distance and
is subject to a high disposal fee.
In a closed system, underflow
from the mud cleaner/conditioner
screen is diverted to a holding tank
and then centrifuged, which results
in disposal of very fine, semi-dry
solids and return of liquid to the
active system. Such a system virtu-
ally eliminates the need for reserve
pits, minimizes dilution, eliminates
vacuum truck services for disposal
of liquid mud, and meets environ-
mental constraints when drilling
within ecologically sensitive areas.
One special mud cleaner/condi-
tioner application is the use of a
double-deck unit for salvage of
coarse lost circulation material
(LCM). Usually when running LCM,
the shale shaker is bypassed and
drilled solids build up rapidly in the
mud, necessitating a high level of
dilution and new mud. Use of a
two-deck mud cleaner/conditioner
allows salvage of the LCM while
minimizing the increase in solids
content.
Within the mud cleaner/condi-
tioner, a coarse top screen is used
to pre-screen the mud and remove
the lost circulation material. This
material is discharged back into the
active system for recirculation
downhole. The drilled solids, mud
additives and liquid phase pass
through the top screen onto the
lower, finer mesh screen, where the
drilled solids are separated out and
discarded. The cleaned mud then
flows back into the mud system
and is re-blended with the salvaged
lost circulation materials.
Another mud cleaner/conditioner
application is the clean up of
workover and completion fluids. In
order to reduce costs associated
with this expensive task, a mud
cleaner running one or two ultra-
fine screens (200 over 325 mesh)
can be used to remove most of the
solids before they reach cartridge
type filters.
This application can significantly
reduce filter replacement costs,
reduce downtime in changing fil-
ters, and allow larger volumes of
fluid to be cleaned at a faster rate.
INSTALLATION
Installation of the mud
cleaner/conditioner is made down-
stream of the shale shaker and the
degasser. The same pump used to
feed the rig’s desander or desilter is
often reconnected to feed the mud
cleaner/conditioner when weight
material is added. (Most mud clean-
er/conditioners are designed to also
function as desilter on unweighted
mud by rerouting the cone under-
flow or by removing or blanking off
the screen portion of the unit. The
mud cleaner/conditioner may then
be used to replace or augment the
rig’s desilter during top hole
drilling.)
Follow these guidelines when
installing mud cleaner/conditioners
to allow peak efficiency:
3.25
• Size the mud cleaner/condi-
tioner cyclones to process
110–125% of the full circulating
flow rate.
• Take the mud cleaner/condi-
tioner suction from the
compartment receiving fluid
processed by the degasser
(Weighted Muds).
• When using mud conditioners
that have both desander and
desilter cones, use a separate
feed pump for the desander
cones and another feed pump
for the desilter cones. The
desander cone suction should
be from the degasser discharge
compartment. The desilter
cone suction should be from
the desander discharge com-
partment.
• Keep all lines as short and
straight as possible.
• Install a guard screen with
approximately 1/2” openings at
the suction to prevent large
trash from entering the unit
and plugging the cones.
• Position the mud cleaner/con-
ditioner on the pit high
enough so the overflow mani-
fold will gravity-feed fluid into
the next downstream com-
partment at an angle of
approximately 45°.
• Avoid vertical overflow dis-
charge lines from hydrocyclones.
3.26
GENERAL GUIDELINES
To operate mud cleaner/condi-
tioners at maximum efficiency,
remember these fundamentals:
• Operate mud cleaners/condi-
tioners continuously on the full
circulating volume to achieve
maximum drilled solids
removal.
• Operate mud cleaners/condi-
tioners within the limits of the
screen capacity. A mud clean-
er/conditioner with a cyclone
throughput of 800 GPM is of
little value if the cone under-
flow exceeds the screen
capacity, resulting in flooding
and high mud additive losses.
• Feed the cone underflow to the
screen at a single point.
Multiple feed points on the
screening surface minimize use
of the available screen area
and reduce overall capacity
and efficiency.
• Screen throughput is reduced
by increased solids content and
viscosity. The cyclone under-
flow plays a critical role in
overall mud cleaner/condition-
er efficiency. It is often
desirable to modify the perfor-
mance characteristics of the
cones to decrease the amount
of ultra fines in the cone under-
flow. This minimizes near-size
screen plugging and barite loss
due to “piggy-backing”.
• Do NOT judge screen efficien-
cy simply on the basis of
cuttings dryness or color. The
total amount of drilled solids in
the discarded material, along
with the ratio of barite to
drilled solids, must be deter-
mined to correctly evaluate
economic performance.
• A technique for measuring and
calculating these values is
given in Appendix B of this
handbook. (Note: This tech-
nique is also important when
using 100–mesh, or finer,
screens on shakers since these
screens can also remove apprecia-
ble amounts.)
• Select the number of cones to
be operated and the particular
mesh screen to be used
according to drilling condi-
tions. As a general rule, use
the finest mesh screen possible
(to process the full circulating
rate) and size the number of
cones accordingly.
In some instances, a number of
cones will have to be blanked off in
order for the desired screen mesh to
be used. This may involve an experi-
mental determination of the number
of cones and screen mesh to opti-
mize performance. In some cases,
more than one mud cleaner/condi-
tioner will be needed. The following
example illustrates the point:
Earlier mud cleaner designs with
12–16 cones over a single screen
bed have not proven to be practi-
cal: the ultra-fine mesh screens
simply cannot handle the under-
flow volume from the cones.
One exception to this is the mud
conditioner; a linear-motion shaker
coupled with a manifold of proper-
ly designed hydrocyclones yields a
high-performance Mud Cleaner/
Conditioner with sufficient capacity
for even the largest drilling rigs.
Follow these general guidelines
for correct mud cleaner/conditioner
operation:
• Run the mud cleaner/condi-
tioner continuously while
drilling and for a short period
of time while making a trip for
“catch-up” cleaning.
• Start up the shaker portion of the
mud cleaner/conditioner before
engaging the feed pump(s).
• Shut down the feed pump(s)
before turning off the vibrating
screen portion of the mud
cleaner/conditioner. Permit the
screen to clear itself, then rinse
the screen with water or oil
sprays before shutting down
the screen portion of the unit.
• For peak efficiency, operate
the cones with a spray rather
than a rope discharge. This is
just as important with a mud
cleaner/conditioner as with
desilters and desanders.
3.27
• Check cones regularly for bot-
tom plugging or flooding, since
a plugged cone allows solids
to return to the mud system. If
a cone bottom is plugged,
unplug it with a welding rod
or similar tool. If a cone is
flooding, the feed is partially
plugged or the bottom of the
cone may be worn out.
• When a significant amount of
barite is added to increase mud
weight, shut down the mud
cleaner/conditioner for one or
two full circulations. This permits
the fresh barite to thoroughly
mix with the system and reduce
losses over the screen.
• Use low-volume sprays on the
screen surface to reduce
“piggy-backing” only if 1) this
liquid addition to the mud is
permissible, and 2) the resul-
tant reduction in barite discard
outweighs the resultant reduc-
tion in drilled solids discard.
This must be determined
experimentally on a case-by-
case basis.
In some cases, adding a small
stream of cleaned mud from the
hydrocyclone overflow (reflux) pro-
vides the same reduction in
“piggy-backing” without reducing
the overall efficiency of the unit.
3.28
MAINTENANCE
Maintenance of mud cleaners/
conditioners generally combines the
requirements of desilters and fine
screen shakers:
• Periodic lubrication
• Check screen tension
• Inspect the screen to ensure it
is free of tears, holes, and
dried mud before start up
• Shut down unit when not cir-
culating to extend screen life
• Check feed manifold for plug-
ging of cyclone feed inlets
• Check cyclones for excessive
wear and replace parts as nec-
essary
3.5 SEPARATION BY
SETTLING AND
CENTRIFUGAL FORCE
Using vibrating screens to remove
drilled solids from mud uses only
one characteristic of solids particles
— their size. Another factor which
affects separation is particle density.
Solids control devices which take
advantage of both particle size and
particle density speed up the set-
tling process by application of
centrifugal force.
These devices utilize Stoke’s Law
as the basis for their operation.
Stoke’s Law defines the relationship
of factors governing the settling
velocity of particles in a liquid. This
relationship may be stated in its
simplest form as:
• Larger particles (of the same
density) settle more rapidly
than smaller ones.
• High density solids settle
more quickly than low density
ones.
• High acceleration and low vis-
cosity speed up the settling rate.
Settling pits, hydrocyclones, and
centrifuges all utilize this principle
in their operation. Settling pits sim-
ply use the force of gravity to
separate solids. The larger and/or
heavier a solid is, the faster it will
settle through fluid in a settling pit.
There is no way to speed up this
natural settling process other than
reducing the viscosity of the fluid,
or flocculating the solid particles
with the addition of chemicals.
Settling pits are often large and
require closure or remediation. The
reduction in waste mud achieved
through efficient solids control
Figure 3-19 Cutaway View of Sand Trap
greatly reduces the waste water
remediation treatment costs.
3.6 SAND TRAPS
A sand trap (Figure 3-19) is a set-
tling tank, usually the first
compartment of the first pit in the
mud system. A shale shaker would
normally sit on top of the sand trap
and discharge into it.
Sand traps can serve an important
role in solids control by protecting
downstream equipment against the
results of torn shale shaker screens
or by-passed shakers by removing
large particles which could plug
cyclones or other equipment down-
stream. In normal operation they
also play a minor solids removal
role by settling out a portion of the
coarse drilled solids which pass
through the shaker screen.
Normally, sand traps should have
a top weir over which mud can
flow into the next compartment, a
3.29
slanted bottom, and a quick-open-
ing, quick-closing dump valve or
gate so that settled solids can be dis-
charged with minimum fluid loss. In
some highly sensitive environments,
the extra liquids lost from dumping
the sand trap cannot be allowed and
the desander suction is arranged to
allow processing of the sand without
creating a lot of liquid waste.
3.7 HYDROCYCLONES
Hydrocyclones (also referred to as
cyclones or cones) are simple
mechanical devices, without mov-
ing parts, designed to speed up the
LIQUID DISCHARGE
FEED NOZZLE
DRILLING MUD
DRILLING MUD MOVES
INWARD AND UPWARD
AS SPIRALLING VORTEX
SAND AND SILT
(UNDERFLOW)
Figure 3-20 Hydrocyclone
3.30
settling process. Feed energy is
transformed into centrifugal force
inside the cyclone to accelerate par-
ticle settling in accordance with
Stoke’s Law. In essence, a cyclone
is a miniature settling pit which
allows very rapid settling of solids
under controlled conditions.
Hydrocyclones are important in
solids control systems because of
their ability to efficiently remove
particles smaller than the finest
mesh screens. They are also uncom-
plicated devices, which make them
easy to use and maintain.
A hydrocyclone (see Figure 3-20)
CLEANED DRILLING MUD
(OVERFLOW)
VORTEX FINDER
SAND AND SILT, DRIVEN
TOWARD WALL AND
DOWNWARD IN
ACCELERATING SPIRAL
consists of a cylindrical/conical
shell with a small opening at the
bottom for underflow discharge, a
larger opening at the top for liquid
discharge through an internal “vor-
tex finder”, and a feed nozzle on
the side of the body near the cylin-
drical (top) end of the cone.
Drilling mud enters the cyclone
using energy created by a centrifu-
gal feed pump. The velocity of the
mud causes the particles to rotate
rapidly within the main chamber of
the cyclone. Heavy, coarse solids
and the liquid film around them
tend to spiral outward and down-
ward for discharge through the
solids outlet. Light, fine solids and
the liquid phase of the mud tend to
spiral inward and upward for dis-
charge through the liquid outlet.
Design features of cyclone units
vary widely from supplier to suppli-
er, and no two manufacturers’
cyclones have identical operating
efficiency, capacity or maintenance
characteristics.
In the past, cyclones were com-
monly made of cast iron with
replaceable liners and other wear
parts made of rubber or
polyurethane to resist abrasion.
Newer designs are made entirely of
polyurethane, and are less expen-
sive, last longer, and weigh less.
Most well designed oilfield
cyclones operate most efficiently
when 75 feet of inlet head (±5 ft) is
applied to the cone inlet.
Centrifugal pumps must be prop-
erly sized for cones to operate
efficiently. Centrifugal pumps are
constant energy (head) devices
and not constant pressure
devices. Feed head is constant
regardless of mud weight; pres-
sure varies with mud weight.
Although centrifugal pump theory
and sizing exercises are beyond the
scope of this text, if you are not
able to properly size your centrifu-
gal pump to create 75 feet of inlet
head to your set of cyclones, it is
highly recommended that you con-
tact the Technical Services Staff at
Brandt / EPI™ for assistance.
Remember, more errors in hydrocy-
clone applications are made with
centrifugal pumps, rather than with
the cyclones themselves.
The size of oilfield cyclones com-
monly varies from 4” to 12”. This
measurement refers to the inside
diameter of the largest, cylindrical
section of the cyclone. In general
— but not always — the larger the
cone, the coarser its cut point and
the greater its throughput. Typical
cyclone throughput capacities are
listed in Figure 3-21.
Manifolding multiple cyclones in
parallel can provide sufficient
capacity to handle the required cir-
culating volume plus some reserve
as necessary. Manifolding may ori-
ent the cyclones in a vertical
3.31
 CONE
SIZE 4Ó 5Ó 6Ó 8Ó 10Ó 12Ó
(I.D.)

CAPACITY
50Ð75 70Ð80 100Ð150 150Ð250 400Ð500 400Ð500
(GPM)

FEED
PRESSURE 30Ð40 30Ð40 30Ð40 25Ð35 20Ð30 20Ð30
(PSI)

Figure 3-21 Hydrocyclone Capacities

position or nearly horizontal — the a cyclone is to discard maximum

choice is one of convenience, as it
does not affect cyclone perfor-
mance.
The internal geometry of a
cyclone also has a great deal to do
with its operating efficiency. The
length and angle of the conical sec-
tion (and the ratio of cone diameter
to cone length), the size and shape
of the feed inlet, the size of the vor-
tex finder, and the size and
adjustment means of the underflow
opening all play important roles in
a cyclone’s effective separation of
solids particles.
Operating efficiencies of cyclones
may be measured in several differ-
ent ways, but since the purpose of
abrasive solids with minimum fluid
loss, both solids and liquid aspects
of removal must be considered. (A
simple technique for comparing the
efficiencies of two cyclones is given
in Appendix B of this handbook.)
In a cyclone, larger particles have
a higher probability of reporting to
the bottom underflow (apex) open-
ing, while smaller particles are
more likely to report to the top
(overflow) opening. The most com-
mon method of illustrating particle
separation in cyclones is through a
cut point curve.
Figure 3-22 shows the approxi-
mate cut point ranges for cyclones
used with unweighted water-base

CONE
SIZE 4Ó 5Ó 6Ó 8Ó 10Ó 12Ó
(I.D.)

CUT
POINT 15Ð20µ 20Ð25µ 25Ð30µ 30Ð40µ 30Ð40µ 40Ð60µ
(MICRONS)

Figure 3-22 Hydrocyclone Capacities

3.32
mud and operated at 75 feet ±5 feet
of inlet head.
HYDROCYCLONE CUT POINT
Particle separation in cyclones can
vary considerably depending on
such factors as feed head, mud
weight, percent solids, and proper-
ties of the liquid phase of the mud.
Generally speaking, increasing any
of these factors will shift the cut
point curve to the right, increasing
the size of solids actually separated
by the cyclone.
By itself, the cut point does not
determine a cyclone’s overall effi-
ciency because it ignores the liquid
loss rate. The amount of fluid in the
cone underflow is important; if the
solids are too dry, they can cause
“roping” or “dry-plugging” of the
underflow.
In contrast, a cyclone operating
with a spray discharge (see Figure
3-23) gives solids a free path to
exit. A cone operating in spray dis-
charge will remove a significantly
greater amount of solids than a
cone in “rope” discharge.
ROPE DISCHARGE
Hydrocyclones should not be
operated in rope discharge because
it will drastically reduce the cone
separating efficiency. In a rope dis-
charge, the solids become crowded
at the apex, cannot exit freely from
the underflow, and become caught
feed
NO CROWDING CROWDING
AT THE APEX AT THE APEX
SPRAY DISCHARGE ROPE DISCHARGE
Figure 3-23 Spray v. Rope Discharge
by the inner spiral reporting to the
overflow. Solids which otherwise
would be separated are forced into
the overflow stream and returned
to the mud system. This type of dis-
charge can also lead to plugged
cones and much higher cyclone
wear.
While a spraying cyclone appears
to discharge more fluid, the benefits
of more efficient solids removal and
less cone wear outweigh the addi-
tional fluid loss. In cases where a
dry discharge is required, the
underflow from hydrocyclones can
be screened or centrifuged to
recover the free liquid.
3.8 DESANDERS
Desanders are hydrocyclones larger
than 5” in diameter (6”, 8”, 10” or 12”
ID). Generally, the smaller the cone,
the smaller size particles the cone
will separate (see Figure 3-24).
Desanders are primarily used to
3.33
 Figure 3-24
Particle Removal by Desander Cyclones (200 Mesh Screen Included for Comparison)
remove the high volumes of solids
associated with extremely fast
drilling of a large diameter hole.
Desanders are installed down-
stream from the shale shaker and
degasser. The desander removes
sand sized particles and larger
drilled solids which have passed
through the shaker screen and dis-
cards them along with some liquid
into a waste pit. The partially clean
mud is discharged into the next pit
downstream.
INSTALLATION
When installing a desander, follow
these general recommendations:
• Size the desander to process
110–125% of the total mud cir-
culation rate.
3.34
• Keep all lines as short and
straight as possible with a min-
imum of pipe fittings. This will
reduce loss of head on the
feed line and minimize back-
pressure on the overflow
discharge line.
• Do not reduce the diameter of
the overflow line from that of
the overflow discharge mani-
fold.
• Direct the overflow line down-
ward into the next downstream
compartment at an angle of
approximately 45°. The over-
flow discharge line should not
be installed in a vertical posi-
tion — doing so may cause
excessive vacuum on the dis-
charge header and pull solids
 through the cyclone overflow,
reducing the cyclone’s efficien-
cy.
• Keep the end of the discharge
line above the surface of the
mud to avoid creating a vacu-
um in the line.
• Position the underflow trough
to easily direct solids to the
waste pit.
• Install a low equalizer line to
permit backflow into the
desander suction. Operating
desanders at peak efficiency is
a simple matter, since most
desanders are relatively
uncomplicated devices.
Here are a few fundamental prin-
ciples to keep in mind:
• Operate the desander unit at
the supplier’s recommended
feed head (usually around 75
feet). Too low a feed head
decreases efficiency, while
excessive feed head shortens
the life of cyclone wear parts.
• Check cones regularly to
ensure the discharge orifice is
not plugged.
• Run the desander continuously
while drilling and shortly after
beginning a trip for “catch-up”
cleaning.
• Operate the desander with a
spray rather than a rope dis-
charge to maintain peak
efficiency.
MAINTENANCE
Maintenance of desanders normal-
ly entails no more than checking all
cone parts for excessive wear and
flushing out the feed manifold
between wells. Large trash may col-
lect in feed manifolds which could
cause cone plugging during opera-
tion. Preventive maintenance
minimizes downtime, and repairs
are simpler between wells than dur-
ing drilling.
Use of desanders is normally dis-
continued when expensive
materials such as barite and poly-
mers are added to a drilling mud,
because a desander will discard a
high proportion of these materials
along with the drilled solids.
Similarly, desanders are not gener-
ally cost effective when an oil-base
mud is in use, because the cones
also discard a significant amount of
the liquid phase.
3.9 DESILTERS
A desilter uses smaller hydro-
cyclones (usually 4” or 5” ID) than
a desander and therefore generally
removes smaller particles. The
smaller cones enable a desilter to
make the finest particle size separa-
tion of any full flow solids control
equipment — removing solids in
the range of 15 microns and larger
(Figure 3-25). This makes it an
important device for reducing aver-
age particle size and removing
3.35
 Figure 3-25
Particle Removal by Desilter Cyclones (200 Mesh Screen Included for Comparison)
abrasive grit from unweighted mud.
The cyclones in desilter units
operate on the same principle as
the cyclones used on desanders.
They simply make a finer cut, and
the individual cone throughput
capacities are less than desander
cones. Multiple cones are usually
manifolded in a single desilter unit
to meet throughput requirements.
Desilters should be sized to process
110–125% of the full rig flow rate.
INSTALLATION
Installation of desilters is normally
downstream from the shale shaker,
sand trap, degasser and desander,
and should allow ample space for
maintenance. Here are some funda-
mentals for installing desilters:
3.36
• Take the desilter suction from
the compartment receiving
fluid processed by the
desander.
• Do NOT use the same pump to
feed both the desander and
desilter. If both pieces of
equipment are to be operated
at the same time, they should
be installed in series and each
should have its own centrifugal
pump.
• Keep all lines as short and
straight as possible.
• Install a guard screen with
approximately 1/2” openings at
the suction to the desilter to
prevent large trash from enter-
ing the unit and plugging the
cones.
• Position the desilter on the pit
high enough so the overflow
manifold will gravity-feed fluid
into the next downstream com-
partment at an angle of
approximately 45°. Remember
— no vertical overflow dis-
charge lines.
• Keep the end of the discharge
line above the surface of the
mud to avoid creating a vacu-
um in the line.
• Install a low equalizer line for
backflow to the desilter’s suc-
tion compartment.
• Position the underflow trough
to easily direct solids to the
waste pit.
Running a desander ahead of a
desilter takes a big load off the
desilter and improves its efficiency.
If the drilling rate is slow and the
amount of solids being drilled is
only a few hundred pounds per
hour, then the desander may be
turned off (to save fuel and mainte-
nance costs) and the desilter may
be used to carry the total desand-
ing/desilting load. Appendix C
includes a chart to calculate the
pounds per hour of solids generat-
ed for a range of hole size and rate
of penetration.
Operating efficiencies of competi-
tive desilters vary widely according
to differences in design features.
The same technique described in
Appendix B for comparing two
desanders will work to compare the
efficiencies of competing desilters
operating on the same rig.
GUIDELINES
To operate desilters at maximum
efficiency, follow these basic guide-
lines:
• Operate the cones with a spray
discharge. Never operate the
desilter cones with a rope dis-
charge since a rope underflow
cuts cone efficiency in half or
worse, causes cone plugging,
and increases wear on cones.
Use enough cones and adjust
the cone underflow openings
to maintain a spray pattern.
• Operate the desilter unit at the
supplier’s recommended feed
head. This is generally
between 70–80 feet of head.
Too much energy will result in
excessive cone wear.
• Check cones regularly for bot-
tom plugging or flooding, since
a plugged cone allows solids
to return to the mud system. If
a cone bottom is plugged,
unplug it with a welding rod
or similar tool. If a cone is
flooding, the feed is partially
plugged or the bottom of the
cone may be worn out.
• Run the desilter continuously
while drilling and also for a
short while during a trip. The
3.37
 extra cleaning during the trip
can reduce overload conditions
during the period of high
solids loading immediately
after a trip.
MAINTENANCE
A desilter’s smaller cyclones are
more likely than desander cones to
become plugged with oversized
solids, so it is important to inspect
them often for wear and plugging.
This may generally be done
between wells unless a malfunction
occurs while drilling. The feed
manifold should be flushed
between wells to remove trash.
Keep the shale shaker well main-
tained — never bypass the shaker
or allow large pieces of material to
get into the active system.
A desilter will discard an appre-
SCROLL
HOLLOW
SOLIDS DISCHARGE SHAFT
Figure 3-26 Decanting Centrifuge
3.38
ciable amount of barite, because
barite particles fall within the silt
size range. Desilters are therefore
not recommended for use with
weighted mud. Similarly, since
hydrocyclones discard some
absorbed liquid along with the
drilled solids, desilters are not nor-
mally used with oil-base mud,
unless another device (centrifuge or
mud cleaner/conditioner) is used to
“deliquor” the cone underflow.
3.10 DECANTING
CENTRIFUGE
Centrifuges for oilfield applica-
tions were first introduced in the
early 1950s. These early units were
adapted from existing industrial
decanting centrifuges. In the mid-
1960s, a perforated rotor type
machine was developed which
SCROLL FEED CHAMBER
BOWL
WEIRS
FEED PIPE
DRILLING
MUD
LIQUID DISCHARGE
does not perform like a pure
decanter. Commonly called “barite
recovery” centrifuges, these early
designs were limited in capacity
and application. Today, the cen-
trifuge is even more important part
of solids control. In addition, the
increased use of low-solids mud
and environmental dewatering
applications require higher process
volumes, greater clarification and
solids capacity, and additional fine
solids removal.
Equipment selection is decided by
site specific requirements. Proper
system selection is the first step to
effective solids control.
SEPARATION PROCESS
A Decanting Centrifuge is so
named because it Decants, or
removes, free liquid from separated
solids. A decanting centrifuge con-
sists of a conveyor screw inside a
rotating bowl, see Figure 3-26.
Decanting centrifuges operate on
the principle of exposing the
process fluid to increased “G-
forces”, thus accelerating the
settling rate of solids in the fluid. A
rotating bowl creates high G-forces
and forms a liquid pool inside the
bowl.
The free liquid and finer solids
flow toward the larger end of the
centrifuge and are removed through
the effluent overflow weirs. The
larger solids settle against the bowl
wall, forming a layer. These solids
are pushed by a screw conveyor
across a drainage deck, or beach.
Dewatering actually takes place on
the beach, with the decanted solids
discharged through a series of
underflow ports. A gear box
changes the relative speed of the
conveyor to the bowl, causing them
to rotate at slightly different rates.
This speed differential is required
to convey and discharge solids.
The bowl and conveyor are rotat-
ed at speeds between 1500 and
4000 rpm depending on bowl diam-
eter. This rotation develops
centrifugal force sufficient to settle
solids along the inner surface of the
bowl wall. A gearbox is used to
rotate the conveyor and bowl at
slightly different speeds (slower or
faster). This speed differential con-
veys and discharges solids from the
machine.
Mud, (sometimes diluted with
water), is pumped into the convey-
or hub through the feed tube. As
the conveyor rotates, centrifugal
force pushes the feed mud out the
feed ports into the bowl. The
heavy, coarse particles in the mud
are forced against the inner surface
of the bowl, where the scraping
motion of the conveyor blades
moves them toward the solids dis-
charge ports. A drainage deck,
called the beach, is where dewater-
ing of the solids actually takes
3.39
place. The deliquified solids are
then discharged through a series of
underflow ports.
The light, fine solids tend to
remain in suspension in the pools
between the conveyor flights and
are carried out the overflow ports
along with the liquid phase of the
mud. The operating principle is
similar to that of the cyclone, but it
is mechanical rotation rather than
fluid head which induces the cen-
trifugal force required to accelerate
the particle settling rate. Residence
time of fluid in the bowl and a
more “gentle” separation environ-
ment differentiate separation in a
centrifuge from that of a cyclone.
Centrifuges make the finest cut of
any separation device used on the
rig, usually 2–5 microns.
Bowl sizes in common oilfield
applications include diameters of
14”, 15”, 18”, and 24”. Larger 24”
diameter units generally have the
highest liquid throughput and solids
tonnage capacity.
In unweighted mud applications,
feed mud capacity can range from
25–250 gpm, depending on unit
capability and fluid requirements.
Solids tonnage rates range from
1.25 tons/hour to 8 tons/hour.
In weighted mud applications,
feed mud capacity rarely exceeds
25 GPM. Total liquid throughput
may be as high as 40 GPM, includ-
ing dilution liquid. Dilution liquid is
3.40
required to compensate for increas-
ing viscosity, generally associated
with increasing mud weight, in
order to maintain satisfactory sepa-
ration efficiency. The raw mud feed
rate is substantially decreased as
mud weight increases.
In field operation, the decanting
centrifuge is fitted with a housing
over the bowl, liquid and solids
collection hoppers, skid, feed slurry
pump, raw mud and dilution liquid
connections, power source, meters
and controls.
WEIGHTED MUD
APPLICATIONS
The classic application of cen-
trifuges while drilling takes
advantage of their ability to make a
very fine cut — on the order of
5–10 microns — when treating
weighted water-base mud. In this
application, centrifuges are used
intermittently to process a small
portion of the volume circulated
from the well bore to reduce the
amount of colloidal-sized and
improve the flow properties of the
mud. Viscosity can be effectively
controlled by discarding a relatively
small amount of colloidal size solids
and replacing the discarded liquid
with fresh make-up water.
To remove these colloidal solids,
the liquid fraction from the
decanter (or the lighter slurry frac-
tion from the perforated cylinder
centrifuge) is discarded. The sand-
size and silt-size semi-dry solids
fraction from the decanter (or the
heavier slurry fraction from the per-
forated cylinder centrifuge) is
returned to the active system.
Installation of a centrifuge is usual-
ly downstream from all other solids
control equipment. Ideally, suction
for a centrifuge mud feed would be
taken from the same pit or compart-
ment which receives the discharge
from a mud cleaner/conditioner.
The centrifuge underflow (solids)
should be discharged to a well-
stirred spot in the pit for thorough
mixing with whole mud before the
solids have a chance to settle out in
the bottom of the pit. This is espe-
cially important with a decanter,
which discharges damp solids, and
of lesser importance with a perfo-
rated cylinder centrifuge, which
discharges a pumpable slurry. With
either type of machine, the under-
flow discharge should not be too
close to the rig pump suction. The
overflow (liquid/colloidal solids)
gravity-feed down a constantly
sloping chute or pipe to waste.
Sufficient working space should be
provided for routine maintenance
and operating adjustments to the
centrifuge.
Operation of centrifuges in this
application is generally intermittent
rather than continuous. This again
relates to the standard purpose of
the centrifuge — to control viscosi-
ty by removal of colloidal size
particles. Centrifuges should be run
when viscosity reaches the opera-
tor-established maximum, and the
machine’s operation should be
stopped when viscosity reaches the
established minimum.
The maximum and minimum lim-
its should be established as part of
the overall mud program. Viscosity
will normally creep up when cen-
trifuges are shut down due to the
size degradation of mud solids,
hence the need for restarting the
unit. Both over-centrifuging and
under-centrifuging should be avoid-
ed, as the economics of operation
are greatly reduced under these cir-
cumstances.
When centrifuging a weighted
mud, bentonite and chemicals must
be added back to the mud system.
The amount of replacement ben-
tonite may be calculated exactly
from mass balance equations, but a
good rule of thumb is to add about
one sack of bentonite per hour of
centrifuge operation. “Under-cen-
trifuging” simply will not achieve
the desired reduction in viscosity.
Other applications of decanting
centrifuges have become more
important in recent years because of
the decanter’s ability to remove free
liquid from the solids discharge. As
part of a “closed loop”, the decanting
centrifuge is used to dewater the
3.41
under-flow from hydrocyclones and
remove ultra-fine particles from the
active mud system. Multiple cen-
trifuges are not uncommon, operated
either in parallel or in series.
Chemical enhancement (through the
use of coagulants, flocculants, and
other chemicals) is becoming more
popular as an economical way to
reduce dilution requirements and
overall waste volume for haul-off
and disposal.
The main difference of centrifuge
use in these applications versus
their use for viscosity control in
weighted mud is the continuous
use of the centrifuge and the rout-
ing of the two discharge streams.
UNWEIGHTED MUD
APPLICATIONS
In the classic weighted mud appli-
cation the solids discharge
(containing the majority of the
weighting material) is returned to
the mud system. The liquid effluent
(containing the majority of the col-
loidal size solids) is discarded.
As part of a “closed loop”, larger
high capacity (75–250 GPM)
decanting centrifuges (and some-
times standard centrifuges) are used
to maximize fine solids removal.
The coarser solids fraction is dis-
carded in dry form, while the liquid
and colloidal solids fraction is
returned to the mud system.
Decanting centrifuges are becom-
3.42
ing more popular for processing
unweighted oil mud, especially if 1)
the mud has been brought in from
another location and may contain a
large amount of fine drilled solids,
2) slow, hard drilling with a gradual
buildup of ultra-fine solids is antici-
pated or 3) the liquid mud phase is
valuable.
WEIGHTED OIL-BASE
MUD APPLICATIONS
In weighted, oil-base mud applica-
tions, decanting centrifuges are
operated in series. The first unit
returns the coarse solids fraction
(weight material ) to the active sys-
tem, with the light, liquid fraction
being routed to a holding tank (rather
than being discarded as in a classic
weighted mud application). A second
unit, often a higher capacity machine,
strips out the solids and discards
them, returning the effluent to the
active system.
This process is not as effective as
a single unit for viscosity control —
a large portion of the colloidal size
solids are returned to the active
mud system in the effluent stream
of the second unit — but the efflu-
ent stream from the first unit is too
valuable to discard, especially with
synthetic oil muds. Usually the
coarse solids fraction is discarded
and the base fluid is retained for re-
use.
OPERATING PROCEDURES by mechanical solids control equip-
Operating procedures will vary ment.
from model to model, but a few
universal principles apply to almost
MUD GUNS
all centrifuges: For many years Mud Guns (see
• Before starting a centrifuge, Figure 3-27) were used as the sole
rotate the bowl or cylinder by means of agitation. These devices
hand to be sure it turns freely. usually carry mud from a down-
• Start up the centrifuge before stream compartment and spray it at
starting the mud feed pump high velocity into an
and dilution water feed. upstream compart-
• Set the raw mud and dilution ment to keep solids
feed rates according to the suspended.
manufacturer’s recommenda- However, the true
tions (usually variable with mixing effect of mud
mud weight). guns tends to be
• Remember to turn the feed and localized around the
dilution water off before the point where the noz-
machine is stopped. zle spray discharges,
Centrifuges are relatively easy to leaving dead spots in
other areas of the
operate, but they require special
tank. Mud guns also
skills for repair and maintenance.
increase the load on
Rig maintenance of centrifuges is
downstream solids Figure 3-27
limited to routine lubrication and
control equipment, Mud Gun
speed adjustment of the unit.
since each nozzle may add 100—
3.11 AUXILIARY EQUIPMENT 200 GPM of mud into the tank
above and beyond the normal flow
from the well.
AGITATION/MIXING
All compartments in an active MECHANICAL AGITATORS
mud system other than the sand Mechanical Agitators (see Figure
trap must be agitated in order to 3-28) provide more thorough mix-
suspend solids and maintain a con- ing of pits without the problems
sistent mixture throughout the associated with mud guns. Agitators
surface system. Suspension of the use an electric motor to drive
solids prevents their settling and impeller blades which flow the
keeps them in the active mud sys- mud in a pattern throughout the
tem so that they can be separated tank.

3.43

Figure 3-28 Mechanical Agitator
Given proper tank design, agitator
sizing, and impeller placement, this
method of agitation prevents set-
tling, enhances the efficiency of
solids removal devices, and main-
tains a well blended mud system.
DEGASSERS
After passing through a shale
shaker and a sand trap, all drilling
mud should be directed through a
degasser, see Figure 3-29. Degassers
are often essential to the solids
removal process to ensure the
proper performance of hydrocy-
clones used in downstream solids
control devices. The centrifugal
pumps that feed the cyclones have
difficulty maintaining their efficien-
3.44
cy when pumping gas-cut mud, and
the cones will not function properly
if feed head fluctuates or if there is
gas in the incoming mud. Also,
recirculation of gas-cut mud is dan-
gerous and could result in a
blowout, since the density of gas-
cut mud is lighter than the mud
weight that should be maintained in
the well bore.
There are three basic methods of
degassing which can be utilized
separately or in combination. The
three degassing techniques are:
atmospheric, vacuum and cyclonic.
ATMOSPHERIC DEGASSERS
Atmospheric Degassers sit in the
mud tank and consist of an elevat-
ed spray chamber and a submerged
centrifugal pump. The gas-cut mud
is pumped to the spray chamber at
high velocity through a disc valve.
The mud strikes the inside wall of
the spray chamber with enough
force to drive most of the
entrapped gas out of the mud. The
removed gas is usually discharged
to atmosphere at pit level and the
degassed mud returned to the
active system. These devices are
simple to operate and maintain, but
their effectiveness is often limited
by the ability of the centrifugal
pump to handle gas-cut mud. A
second method of degassing is pro-
vided by the use of a vacuum.
 Figure 3-29 Degassers
VACUUM-TYPE DEGASSERS
Vacuum-type Degassers separate
gas bubbles from drilling mud by
spreading the gas-cut mud into thin
layers and then drawing off the
gases with a vacuum pump. The
mud is usually thinned by flowing it
over a series of baffles or plates.
Vacuum degassers are normally
skid-mounted and installed on top
of the mud tanks.
Some models incorporate more
than one degassing technique with-
in a single unit. For example, one
degasser spreads the mud into thin
sheets through centrifugal force,
sprays the mud onto an impact
shield for residual gas separation,
and draws off the gases with a vac-
uum pump.
INSTALLATION
Actual placement of the degasser
and related pump will vary with the
design of the degasser, but these
recommendations may be used as a
general rule:
• Install a screen in the inlet pipe
to the degasser to keep large
3.45
 objects from being drawn into
the degassing chamber. Locate
the screen about one foot
above the pit bottom and in a
well-agitated spot.
• There should be a high equal-
izer line between the suction
and discharge compartment.
The equalizer should be kept
open to allow backflow of
processed mud to the suction
side of the degasser.
• Route the liquid discharge pipe
to enter the next compartment
or pit below mud level to pre-
vent aeration.
• Install the gas discharge line to
safely vent the separated gas to
atmosphere or to a flare line.
Maintenance of degassers varies
considerably depending on make
and model. In general, the follow-
ing guidelines apply:
• Check to make sure the suction
screen is not plugged.
• Routinely lubricate any pumps
and other moving parts and
check for wear.
• Keep all discharge lines open
and free from restrictions, such
as caused by solids buildup
around valves.
• If the degasser utilizes a vacu-
um, keep it at the proper
operating level, according to
the manufacturer’s recom-
mended range for the mud
weight and process rate.
3.46
• Check all fittings for air leaks.
• If the unit uses a hydraulic sys-
tem, check it for leaks, proper
oil level, and absence of air in
the system.
DRYING SHAKERS
A drying shaker, or dryer, is a
vibrating screen separator used to
remove free liquid from cuttings
prior to discharge and recover the
liquid for re-use. Drying shakers are
usually installed to process the cut-
tings discharged from primary
scalping and/or fine screen shakers.
A typical drying shaker is a linear-
motion, multi-screen unit, with a
feed hopper in place of the tradi-
tional back tank. Drying shakers are
optimized to provide maximum
retention time and cuttings dryness.
Large hole sizes or high penetration
rates may require more than one
drying shaker to provide acceptable
cuttings dryness and liquid recovery.
Shale shakers are often the cause
of excess mud loss during drilling
operations, primarily due to screen-
ing too fine for drilling conditions
and the design of some shakers.
This mud loss can greatly increase
mud costs and site clean-up costs,
especially when oil-base muds,
OBM, or synthetic-base muds, SBM,
are used. One characteristic of SBM
is the increased amount of liquid
retained on the cuttings, compared
to WBM or conventional OBM.
The drying shaker is designed to
expose wet drilled cuttings to an
additional vibrating screen surface
and separate some of the bound
liquid coating the surface of the
solids. The liquid is then returned
to the active system or transferred
to a storage tank for future use.
DRYING SHAKER DESIGN
The first drying shakers were
“high-G” units, operating at 6.5 to 8
Gs. Prevalent thinking was that the
additional impact force provided by
the higher G-force would improve
cuttings dryness. Recent field stud-
ies indicate this is not necessarily
true.
Oil content on cuttings is primari-
ly a function of retention time on
the screen surface and the exposure
of the cutting to the vibrational
force of the shaker. The G-force
greatly affects the speed at which
cuttings move from the feed end of
the screen surface to the discharge
end. At 4 Gs, the conveyance rate is
close to 1 inch per second, while at
7 Gs the conveyance rate is about 5
inches per second.
Given a screen length of 24 inch-
es and operation at 4 Gs, a cutting
will take approximately 24 seconds
to travel from the feed end of the
screen to the discharge end.
Increasing the G-force to 7 G’s
reduces the exposure time to 6 sec-
onds and will actually increase the
amount of oil remaining on the cut-
tings!
Since the amount of oil remaining
on the cutting is a function of expo-
sure time, screen deck length and
deck angle will greatly influence
cuttings dryness. Screen deck
length determines the distance a
cutting must travel prior to dis-
charge and deck angle influences
retention time — the longer the
screen deck and the steeper the
deck angle, the greater the reten-
tion time. However, longer screen
decks may not fit the available
space and too steep a deck angle
will result in cuttings grinding and
unacceptable build-up of fine
solids.
Field tests indicate the optimum
dryer design provides about 4–5 Gs
of force, with a deck design that is
flat at the feed end to reduce cut-
tings grinding and maximize
usable screen area. The discharge
screens should be sloped uphill at
2.5° to 5° to increase retention time
and maximize cuttings dryness.
INSTALLATION
• Locate the drying shaker(s) at a
lower level from the main lin-
ear shakers and other solids
control equipment. Feed to
the drying shaker should be
through open hopper sized to
eliminate solids build-up or
plugging. Cuttings should be
3.47
 evenly deposited as close to
the feed end of the drying
shaker as possible to maximize
usable screen area and cuttings
dryness.
• Provide slides or conveyors to
direct “dry” cuttings to solids
collection bins or discharge
chutes
• Supply a flooded pump suction
in the liquid collection tank for
transfer by pump to the desired
storage or processing tank.
• The mesh of the screens on the
drying shaker should be close
to, or finer than, the screens
on the main shakers to prevent
the re-introduction of separat-
ed solids to the active system.
* Use three-dimensional, Pin-
nacle™ screen panels at the
feed end of the dryer to usable
increase screen area. The mid-
dle screen panel may be either
a 3-D or flat panel, depending
on deck angle and desired
fluid end point. The discharge
end screen should be a flat
screen panel to minimize cut-
tings bed depth and maximize
liquid recovery.
• Adjust screen deck angle
design to properly convey
solids, reduce liquid loss, and
prevent cuttings grinding.
• The liquid recovered from the
drilled cuttings will contain
base fluid, plus any solids finer
3.48
than the screen mesh of the
drying shaker. The recovered
liquid should be processed
through a decanting centrifuge
to remove ultra-fine solids
before the mud is returned to
the active system or storage
tank. In some installations, the
decanting centrifuge may be
eliminated, but only after care-
ful consideration of cuttings
size and their effect on fluid
properties.
3.12 UNITIZED SYSTEMS
Since 1976, several solids control
manufacturers have developed
complete packages of skid-mounted
solids control devices, including all
supporting tanks, piping, pumps,
motors and accessories. These “uni-
tized” systems maximize solids
control efficiency, ease transporta-
tion and installation, and often
provide a very high efficiency sys-
tem for ecologically sensitive
drilling sites.
Components of unitized systems
can vary depending on manufactur-
er and the particular drilling
application, but most include one
or more of the basic separation
devices installed in series: fine
screen shaker, degasser, desander,
desilter, mud cleaner/conditioner,
and centrifuge. Desilting require-
ments are usually met by blanking
off the screens on the mud clean-
 Figure 3-30 Brandt/EPI™ ISCS unitized System
er/conditioners and operating them
as desilters as appropriate. Sand
traps and agitators are also standard
equipment in most units (See
Figure 3-30).
In well-designed systems, all
pieces of equipment, including
pumps and motors, are properly
sized to provide the greatest degree
of efficiency in the smallest amount
of space. Piping is engineered for
optimum fluid handling with the
shortest practical suction and dis-
charge lines.
Normally the only installation
required for these units is to feed
the flow line from the well into the
shale shaker, connect a discharge
line from the unitized system into
the rig suction pit, and make the
electrical and water connections.
The suction pit remains a necessary
part of the surface system in order
to provide mud volume capacity
and as a place for mixing-in mud
additives.
3.13 RIG ENHANCED
SYSTEMS
Recent advances in shaker design,
along with the custom requirements
of operators and increasing empha-
sis on environmental impact, have
created another type of system —
the Rig-Enhanced System. Like the
unitized systems, Rig-Enhanced
Systems (RES) are designed so all
pieces of equipment, including
pumps and motors, are properly
sized to provide the greatest degree
of efficiency in the smallest amount
of space. However, RESs utilize as
much of the existing rig equipment
and tanks as possible to simplify
installation, reduce equipment cost,
and allow further customization of
a system for a specific application.
Suppliers of both systems com-
monly provide 24 hour on-site
service for all components in the
system, which greatly improves
overall efficiency and simplifies
maintenance procedures from the
driller’s standpoint. Considering the
3.49
importance of solids control in
deep drilling and the growing con-
cern over environmental impact of
mud waste disposal, these systems
will be used more often in the
future.
3.14 HIGH EFFICIENCY
SOLIDS REMOVAL
SYSTEMS
The goal of high efficiency solids
removal systems, often called
“closed loop” systems, is to limit
waste discharge to disposable solids
and clear water. These systems
combine the equipment found in
Section 3.12 with chemically-
enhanced solids removal and
specialized solids handling tech-
niques. The water is often recycled
on location for building new mud,
as rig wash water, or used for irri-
gation. A “closed loop” system
often includes multiple shale shak-
ers and centrifuges to achieve a
high efficiency of performance in
the large upper hole sections of the
well where wastes and circulating
volumes are the greatest.
Enhanced solids removal is
accomplished with chemical addi-
tion to “pre-treat” the fluid prior to
screening or centrifugation. Pre-
treatment can include pH
adjustment, flocculation/coagula-
tion, or similar treatment.
Solids handling techniques
include washing cuttings to remove
excess chlorides or residual oil,
3.50
solidification, or cuttings discharge
into water tight containers for trans-
port to approved waste facilities.
In addition to their primary goal,
“closed loop” systems minimize
drilled solids remaining in the
drilling fluid. This reduces dilution
requirements, waste volume, and
drilling problems. Therefore,
“closed loop” systems have many
applications other than environ-
mental ones.
The benefit of a “closed loop”
system comes from increased solids
removal efficiency with unweighted
fluids, including clear brines, and
reduced discharge volume with
weighted fluids. This performance
has proven extremely effective in
environmentally sensitive areas or
whenever cuttings and liquid mud
must be hauled from the location
prior to disposal. This system pro-
vides best results when combined
with constant, on-pit attention and
supervision. Solids Removal
Efficiency of 75–95% is typical, with
a 50–55% Solids Discharge
Concentration.
Proper installation and operation
are equally important. Here are a
few guidelines to keep in mind:
• Fines stay with the liquid; that
is, the smallest particles (col-
loidal sized) usually remain
with the liquid phase of the
mud, while the larger particles
— sand, cuttings, etc. — are
removed from the liquid.
• Size each piece of full-flow
solids control equipment,
except the centrifuges, to han-
dle 110–125% of circulating
volume (in order to handle
backflow within compartments,
volume from mud guns, etc.).
• Always use the finest mesh
screen possible that will meet
throughput and screen life
requirements.
• Often when a solids control
device fails to perform, as it
should, the cause is improper
installation, not equipment
malfunction.
• Install equipment in proper
sequence: as the mud moves
downstream, each device
removes progressively smaller
particles. Never try to make a
single device remove all parti-
cle sizes — it is better to allow
each device to remove its par-
ticular size range within an
overall solids control system.
• Each piece of solids control
equipment should discharge
into the next compartment
downstream from where its
suction is taken.
• All compartments other than
the sand trap should be agitat-
ed, preferably by mechanical
agitators.
• Keep all piping as short and
straight as possible.
• Never install a 90° elbow or
valve within 5 feet of suction
of a centrifugal pump, as this
will drastically reduce the life
of the pump.
• For maximum efficiency,
cyclones should emit a spray
discharge rather than a rope
discharge.
• Use only as many cones on a
mud cleaner/conditioner as
required to meet flow capacity,
in order to extend screen life
and to avoid flooding the
screen.
• Remember size constraints and
possible sloshing and spillage
in rough seas when designing
offshore systems.
• Special winterizing measures
— a shed around the pits,
drains in pumps, steam lines,
etc. — may be required in
areas of extreme cold in order
to ensure proper functioning of
the solids control equipment.
• Size it, install it, operate it
RIGHT!
3.15 BASIC ARRANGEMENT
RULES
Mechanical solids control is the
most cost-effective method to con-
trol drilled solids. The benefits of
proper solids control are discussed
in detail in Section 2. Proper solids
control requires:
• Proper planning before the
well begins
3.51
• Proper selection, installation,
and operation of available
equipment
• Routine monitoring of fluid
properties to optimize perfor-
mance
• Sequential Treatment – It fol-
lows from previous recom-
mendations that the solids con-
trol equipment should be
arranged so that each piece of
equipment removes succes-
sively finer solids.
• Compartment Mixing – To pro-
vide a uniform solids load to
the equipment each compart-
ment, except the sand trap,
should be well stirred. If mud
guns are used they should be
arranged so that no flow
bypasses the solids control
equipment. Agitators are
preferable.
• Arrangement – Each piece of
solids control equipment must
be arranged so that the suction
is taken from a compartment
upstream of the discharge
compartment, i.e., there must
be a wall or division with an
equalizer opening between the
suction and discharge, even if
it is boards placed in the tank
temporarily.
3.52
• Upstream Flow Through
Equalizer – If the flow into the
suction compartment is greater
than the rate of flow processed
by the equipment, then mud is
flowing downstream through
the equalizer. In other words,
the flow through compartment
equalizers should always be
from the discharge to the suc-
tion. If it is not then mud is
bypassing the equipment.
• Dedicated Feed Pumps –
Manifolding pumps and equip-
ment so that multiple
configurations are available
depending on valve positions
is always a mistake. There
should be only one button to
push to begin the pump and
the discharge valve opened
slowly to begin operation of
the solids control unit.
• Use a separate centrifugal
pump for each hydrocyclone
device (do not use the same
pump for more than one piece
of equipment).
Equipment selection is decided by
site-specific requirements. Proper
system selection is the first step to
effective solids control.
4.0 Equipment and Services for Solids Control and
Waste Management
COMPANY PROFILE
4.1 Scope of Services:
Brandt/EPI™ specializes in the
design, manufacture, and service of
solid/liquid separation systems,
related equipment, and site remedi-
ation services for exploration,
production, and industrial applica-
tions. We have the technical
expertise to provide engineering
services, system design and opera-
tion, and proprietary technologies
to our clients throughout the world.
For over 20 years, Brandt/EPI per-
sonnel have been providing
industry with solid solutions to sep-
aration and remediation problems.
Our diversified experience and
proven track record allow us to
offer a wide range of project capa-
bilities including:
Equipment and Systems
Vibrating Screen Separators
Hydrocyclone Separators
Centrifugal Separators
Dewatering Units
Filtration Units
Integrated Systems
Other Products
Technical and Engineering
Services
Equipment
Recommendations
On-site Technical Support
Pilot Studies
Project Proposals
Process Recommendations
Project Installation and
Start-Up
System and Equipment
Design
Site Remediation Services
Bioremediation
Dewatering Systems
Landfarming
Pond Closures
Slurrification and Injection
Sludge Fixation
Soil/Sand washing
Waste minimization
Water Treatment
4.2 Business Relationships:
We believe in long-term partner-
ships with clients and vendors, and
place strict emphasis on providing
cost-effective products and services
to meet the needs of our clients,
regulatory agencies, our employees,
and the community. Emphasis on
quality and innovative solutions has
established Brandt/EPI as a perfor-
mance-oriented company with
strong bottom-line focus.
4.3 Certifications:
Quality products and services are
our priority. Through its parent
4.1
company, Brandt/EPI maintains
several corporate certifications
including ISO 9001, API, ASME,
DNV, Gos-Standard and Gosgor-
technadzor.
4.4 Personnel Resources:
Brandt/EPI has established a rep-
utation for professional, consistent,
safe performance and innovative
solutions to client needs. Our pro-
fessionals are experienced in
solid/liquid separations, site reme-
diation, design engineering,
petroleum geology, chemical pro-
cessing, environmental law, and
finance. This expertise provides the
ability to offer a wide variety of
products and services, a positive
working environment, and the
financial capabilities to develop
long-term relationships with clients,
suppliers, and sub-contractors.
Brandt/EPI and its affiliated com-
panies have over 400 operations
and technical support personnel
strategically located in local service
centers throughout the world.
Many personnel hold industry certi-
fications in HAZWOPER, Process
Safety, Offshore Operations, H2S,
and CPR. Brandt/EPI also maintains
a wide network of technical experts
through participation in industry
4.2
organizations such as the American
Petroleum Institute, Society of
Petroleum Engineers, American
Institute of Chemical Engineers,
American Association of Drilling
Engineers, International Association
of Drilling Contractors, National
Utility Contractors Association, and
others.
PRODUCTS AND SERVICES
Brandt/EPI specializes in
field-proven separation systems for
a variety of applications. These
include exploration and production,
petrochemical, stone dewatering,
pulp and paper, clay processing,
and municipal sludge. High-perfor-
mance screen separators,
hydrocyclones, and centrifuges are
available as separate units or as
components of custom-designed
systems. Brandt/EPI also provides
quality replacement screen panels
with a wide range of screen cloth
for all screen units. Brandt/EPI pro-
vides a full range of site
remediation services through our
own operations and in partnership
with Remediation Management,
Services, Inc. We have successfully
closed over 1,000 surface pits to
Louisiana Rule 29-B standards or
better in over eighteen years of site
remediation.
 system (-5° to +5°), and screen
changes are quick with the exclu-
sive screen latches. A single-
motor/sealed gearbox drive system
reduce downtime and maintenance
costs. The ATL-1000 is only 93”
from end to end, but has a full 35.8
sq.ft. of screen area. Multiple units
can be used to increase capacity.

Figure 4-1 ATL-1000 Linear Motion Screen Separator

ATL-1200 Screen Separator
Designed for smaller drilling rigs
4.5 Linear Motion Screen
Separators and workover units, the ATL-1200
combines the performance of the
ATL-1000 Separator with a lower
ATL-1000 Screen Separator weir height in a single, compact
The ATL-1000 combines a tandem unit that routinely out-performs
screen arrangement and linear larger shakers. The flat (no crown)
motion with a ramp-slope screen screen deck reduces liquid loss
deck and flat Blue Hex SM screen down the sides of the screens and
panels (38-450 mesh) to maximize maximizes usable screen area. The
solids separation in a single, com- ramp-slope design allows the feed
pact unit that routinely end screens to be operated down-
out-performs larger shakers. The hill with the discharge end screens
flat (no crown) screen deck reduces flat for maximum conveyance of
liquid loss down the sides of the sticky solids. With the feed end
screens and maximizes usable
screen area. The ramp-slope design
allows the feed end screens to be
operated downhill with the dis-
charge end screens flat for
maximum conveyance of sticky
solids. With the feed end screens
flat, the discharge end screens tilt
uphill to improve cuttings dryness
and increase capacity without the
excessive pool depths found with
other designs. Deck angle is easily
Figure 4-2 ATL-1200 Linear Motion Screen Separator
adjusted with the pinned jacking

4.3
screens flat, the discharge end
screens tilt uphill to improve cut-
tings dryness and increase capacity
without the excessive pool depths
found with other designs. Deck
angle is easily adjusted with the
pinned jacking system (-5° to +5°),
and screen changes are quick with
the exclusive screen latches. A sin-
gle-motor/sealed gearbox drive
system reduce downtime and main-
tenance costs. The ATL-1200
measures only 93” from end to end,
but has a full 25.0 sq.ft. of screen
area. Multiple units can be used to
increase capacity.
LCM-2D Screen Separator
The LCM-2D Separator (patent
pending) is designed for maximum
screening efficiency from 30 to 250
mesh, higher process volumes, and
minimum maintenance. The ramp-
slope screen deck provides a
horizontal feed screen and an
inclined discharge screen for maxi-
mum solids separation without the
excessive pool depths found on
Figure 4-3 LCM-2D Linear Motion Screen Separator
4.4
other designs. The adjustable angle
(+5° to -10°), 33.7 sq.ft. screen deck
includes a unique dewatering
screen panel and a small-footprint
design. The dual Vibra-motor drive
system is simple, efficient, and
requires no maintenance. Multiple
units may be used to increase
capacity.
Figure 4-4 ATL-CS Cascade Screen Separator
Linear Motion
Cascade Screen Separators
ATL-CS Cascade Separator
The ATL-CS is designed to screen
fine, sticky clays at high flowrates
in a single, modular unit. Typically
constructed from corrosion-resistant
stainless-steel, the ATL-CS combines
the fine screening ability of a sin-
gle-deck ATL-1200 with the circular
motion of the proven Tandem
Screen Separator into a unit with
the lowest weir height of any high-
performance cascade separator.
The ATL-CS provides a total of 65
sq.ft. of screen area and uses
rugged hook-strip screens on the
scalping decks and Blue Hex SM
screen panels on the lower deck to
improve efficiency and reduce
screen costs. Multiple units may be
used to increase capacity. If
desired, combination stainless/car-
bon steel or full carbon steel
construction are available.
Figure 4-5
LCM-2D Cascade Linear Motion Screen Separator
LCM-2D Cascade Separator
The LCM-2D Cascade (patent
pending) combines the fine screen-
ing ability and simplicity of the
LCM-2D with a circular motion
scalping shaker to screen fine,
sticky clays at high flowrates in a
single, modular unit. The LCM-2D
Cascade uses the same screens on
the upper scalping deck and the
lower linear unit to reduce screen
inventories and costs. Total screen
area is 56.3 sq.ft. Multiple units may
be used to increase capacity.
Linear Motion Drying Shakers
ATL Drying Shaker
The ATL Drying Shaker is a com-
pact “low-G” drying shaker. The ATL
Dryer has proved to be superior to
larger, “high-G” designs due to
longer retention time on the screen
surface and less liquid retained on
the cuttings. The lower “G” forces
also cause significantly less particle
size degradation of the cuttings.
Cuttings and fluids from the primary
rig shakers are fine screened by an
adjustable linear screen deck result-
ing in drier solids and cleaner
reclaimed base mud. The recovered
fluid is captured in an agitated tank
and is returned to the active system
by an integral centrifugal pump.
Pump operations are automatic and
controlled by a float valve switch
mechanism. If desired, the recovered
fluid may be centrifuged before it is
returned to the active system.
Figure 4-6 ATL Drying Shaker
4.5

Figure 4-7 SDW-25 Drying Shaker
SDW-25 Drying Shaker
In cases where additional screen
area or higher G-forces are desired,
the SDW-25 Dryer provides screen-
ing to 500 mesh. The SDW-25 is a
four-panel version of the proven
family of ATL linear motion separa-
tors, and has 33.3 sq.ft. of screen
area. Deck angle is easily adjusted
with a hydraulic jacking system.
The independent dual-motor drive
system eliminates pulleys, belts, or
gearboxes to simplify operation and
maintenance.
Linear Motion Mud
Conditioners
Mud Conditioners combine the
fine screening ability and small
footprint of Brandt/EPI’s linear
motion separators with Brandt/EPI’s
proven hydrocyclone separators to
remove fine solids from weighted
muds and to minimize waste vol-
umes from unweighted muds. Mud
4.6
Conditioners may be configured as
a two-stage separator with either
desander or desilter cones only, or
as a three-stage separator with both
desander and desilter cones to pro-
vide up to 1500 GPM process
capacity in a single unit. The most
popular models are described here;
other configurations are also avail-
able.
ATL-16/2 Mud Conditioner
The ATL-16/2 Mud Conditioner is
a three-stage separator rated at 1000
GPM. The ATL-16/2 has two
desander cones and sixteen desilter
cones mounted over an ATL-1200
linear motion screen deck. Two
separate feed pumps are used to
provide proper fluid processing
through the cones. The cone under-
flow from both the desander and
desilter may be processed through
a fine mesh, 120-325 mesh, screen
to remove fine solids and minimize
Figure 4-8 ATL-16/2 Mud Conditioner
liquid waste volume. If desired, the
cone underflow may be discarded
directly to waste. Total screen area
is 25.0 sq.ft.
ATL-2800 Mud Conditioner
The ATL-2800 Mud Conditioner is
a two-stage separator rated at 1680
GPM. The ATL-2800 has twenty-
eight desilter cones mounted over
an ATL-1200 linear motion screen
deck. A centrifugal feed pump is
Figure 4-9 ATL-2800 Mud Conditioner
4.6 Orbital Screen
used to provide proper fluid pro-
cessing through the cones. The
cone underflow may be processed
through a fine mesh, 120-325 mesh
,screen to remove fine solids and
minimize liquid waste volume. If
desired, the cone underflow may
be discarded directly to waste. Total
screen area is 25.0 sq.ft.
Figure 4-10 LCM-2D Mud Conditioner
LCM-2D Mud Conditioner
The LCM-2D Mud Conditioner
combines the fine screening ability
and simplicity of the LCM-2D linear
motion separator (patent pending)
with Brandt/EPI’s proven hydrocy-
clone separators to remove fine
solids from weighted muds and to
minimize waste volumes from
unweighted muds. The LCM-2D
Mud Conditioner may be config-
ured with desander and/or desilter
hydrocyclones to provide either
two- or three-stage separations up
to 1680 GPM in a single unit. Total
screen area is 33.7 sq.ft.
Separators
Tandem Screen Separator
The dual-deck Tandem Screen
Separator is designed to process
high volumes between 20 and 120
mesh. The horizontal screen deck
and circular motion provide excel-
lent conveyance of solids,
especially sticky clays. High capaci-
4.7

Figure 4-11 Tandem Screen Separator
ty and efficient separation are
achieved because the top screen
separates large solids from the mud
and improves the separating perfor-
mance and screen life of the
bottom screen. The reliability, low
maintenance requirements and
quiet, dependable operation have
made these machines industry stan-
dards for over 20 years. Tandem
Separators are available in single,
dual, and triple units. Junior units
are available for workover and sim-
ilar operations.
Figure 4-12 Standard Screen Separator
Standard Screen Separator
The single-screen Standard
Separator is designed to process
4.8
low to moderate capacities of mate-
rials requiring coarse screen
separations, 30 to 50 mesh or larg-
er. A rugged, single motor design is
combined with unbalanced, ellipti-
cal motion to provide years of
trouble-free operation. The stan-
dard separator may also be used as
a scalping shaker to reduce equip-
ment costs. Standard Separators are
available in single, dual, and triple
units.
Junior units are available for
workover and similar operations.
Mud Cleaners
Brandt/EPI Mud Cleaners are a
field-proven, two-stage separator
designed to process up to 600 GPM
over a single basket. Their horizon-
tal screen deck and circular motion
provide excellent conveyance of
solids, especially sticky clays. The
reliability, low maintenance require-
Figure 4-13 Mud Cleaners
ments and quiet, dependable oper-
ation have made these machines
industry standards for over 20
years. Mud Cleaners are available in
single or dual units and with one or
two pre-tensioned (PT) screen
decks. Mud Cleaners are available
with 10, 12, 16, or 20 Desilter
Cones.
4.7 Screen Panels
Blue HexSM Screen Panels
Brandt/EPI’s exclusive Blue Hex
screen panels are flat — there is no
crown. This design increases usable
screen area and reduces liquid loss
along the sides of screen panels.
Blue HexSM screen panels
eliminate the leading
Figure 4-14 Blue HexSM Screen Panels
causes of screen failures — screen
flex, propagation of tears, improper
tensioning, blinding and contamina-
tion from process fluids. Blue HexSM
screens are available in single- and
multi-layer configurations. The
wirecloth is factory pre-tensioned
for longer screen life. These screens
use a rigid support frame and grid
to eliminate screen flex and sag.
The result is longer screen life and
more efficient solids separation.
The support grid also prevents
small tears from spreading across
the entire screen surface. When a
tear does occur, it can be easily
repaired with Brandt/EPI’s exclu-
sive screen plugs. Finally, the
bonding process results in a screen
panel that is impervious to degrada-
tion from high temperatures,
chemicals, or oils.
Pinnacle™ Three-dimensional
SM Screen Panels*
Pinnacle™ screen panels offer up
to 40% more screening area without
increasing the overall size of the
screen panel or adding additional
shakers. This concept, similar to the
design of a pleated air filter has
several advantages:
• Provides even distribution of
fluid across the screen surface
• Eliminates unwanted fluid loss
near the screen edges
• Improves dryness of solids dis-
charge
• Allows the use of finer screens,
usually 2–3 mesh sizes finer
The increased usable screen area
of Pinnacle™ screens is best uti-
lized when combined with flat
screen panels on linear motion
shaker with an uphill basket slope.
Pinnacle™ screens may also
improve performance on scalping
shakers and other orbital shakers
4.9
when used in offshore (floater) 4.8 Hydrocyclone Units
applications to reduce the effects of
swell and heave. Pinnacle™ screen Desanders
panels are available for most popu- Available in 500 GPM, 1000 GPM,
lar fine screen shakers in several and 1500 GPM models, Brandt/EPI™
combinations of screen layers and Desanders offer excellent high tem-
mesh size, from 84 mesh to 250 perature tolerance, resistance to
mesh. abrasion, and low-cost replacement.
* Pinnacle is a trademark of Advanced Wirecloth, Inc. They incorporate superior involute
feed entry, preferred flanged design
PT Screen Panels for tight, leak-proof performance,
all-polymer construction, and stan-
PT screen panels are used on
dard Victaulic® connections. These
Brandt/EPI™ Mud Cleaners. This features make them a popular
two-panel screen consists of one or choice for retrofit of existing units.
more layers of fine-mesh screen Each desander cone is 12” diameter
cloth, pretensioned and bonded to with a 2-1/8” diameter, fixed solids
a metal frame for strength and long discharge apex for maximum solids
screen life. PT screens are available removal. 1-3/4” and 1-1/2” apex
sizes are also available. For extreme-
from 80 mesh to 325 mesh, in mar-
ly abrasive conditions, a molded-in
ket grade and tensile bolting cloths. ceramic insert may be specified.
Hook-Strip Screen Panels
Brandt/EPI™ also supplies a full
line of hook-strip screens available
in single-layer or multi-layer config-
urations. Hook-strip screen panels
are available from 8-mesh to 500-
mesh, and may be manufactured
from square-mesh market grade or
tensile bolting cloths, proprietary
oblong or rectangular weaves, and
the latest, high-conductance weaves
for special applications. Urethane
screens, equivalent to 50-140 mesh
cloths are also available. Figure 4-15 Desander

4.10
Desilters
Available to process 60 gpm to
1440 gpm, Brandt/EPI™ Desilters
offer excellent high temperature tol-
erance, resistance to abrasion, and
low-cost replacement. They incor-
porate involute feed entry,
Figure 4-18 Decanting Centrifuge
preferred flanged designs for tight,
leak-proof performance, all-poly-
mer construction, and standard 4.9 Centrifuges
Victaulic® connections. These fea-
Brandt/EPI™ offers several mod-
tures make them the preferred
els of reliable, high-performance
choice for both contractors and
centrifuges to meet your two-phase
operators. Each desilter cone is 4”
liquid/solid separation requirements
diameter with an adjustable solids
— fine solids removal from
discharge apex for maximum solids
unweighted muds, viscosity control
removal. All desilter cones have a
(barite recovery) for weighted
molded-in ceramic insert to reduce
muds, and dual centrifuge systems
wear and extend the life of the
for synthetic oil base muds and
cone.
other critical applications. All
Brandt/EPI™ decanting centrifuges
can be used in both unweighted
and weighted mud applications. All
units feature high capacity contour
bowls, hard-faced conveyor feed
ports and scroll flight tips, hard-
faced solids discharge ports, and
variable pond depth orifices. For
safe operation, all units include
safety shut-down devices, explo-
sion-proof electrics, and heavy-duty
guards over all rotating compo-
Figure 4-16 Desilter
nents.

SC-1 Decanting Centrifuge

Figure 4-17 Desilter Cone The SC-1 centrifuge has an 18” x
28” bowl and is designed primarily
for barite recovery from fluids

4.11
weighing up to 26 ppg. The SC-1
can also process up to 150 gpm of
unweighted muds, removing up to
6 tons per hour (TPH) of low gravi-
ty solids.
SC-4 Decanting Centrifuge
The SC-4 centrifuge has a 24” x
40” bowl and a double-lead con-
veyor designed for maximum solids
tonnage removal (up to 8 TPH)
and process rates up to 250 gpm
for unweighted muds. The SC-4 is
also an excellent dewatering cen-
trifuge and barite recovery
centrifuge due to its 59:1 gearbox.
If desired, an electric back drive to
vary conveyor/bowl speed ratio is
available as an option.
Figure 4-19 HS3400 Centrifuge with Electric Drive
HS3400 High Speed
Decanting Centrifuge
For applications that require
high-speed, high G-force separa-
tions, the HS3400 decanting
centrifuge has become the industry
standard for high-speed perfor-
mance and reliability. The HS3400
has a 14” x 49.5” bowl and is
4.12
designed for ultra fine solids
removal from unweighted muds at
process rates up to 160 GPM and 5
TPH. Top recommended bowl
speed is 3250 RPM. Stainless steel
construction and sintered tungsten
carbide wear tiles provide years of
trouble-free operation.
The HS3400 is available in all-
electric, hydraulic main drive, or
all-hydraulic (main and back drive)
configurations. The all-electric drive
provides simple, reliable perfor-
mance. The hydraulic drive systems
offer additional separation versatili-
ty and flexibility to optimize
solids/liquid separation over a wide
variety of drilling conditions.
Figure 4-20
HS3400 Centrifuge with Hydraulic Drive
SC-35HS Decanting Centrifuge
The SC-35HS decanting centrifuge
is designed for better high-speed
performance, longer life, and less
maintenance than competitive

Figure 4-21 SC-35HS Decanting Centrifuge
designs. Compared to other “high-
speed designs, the SC-35HS
centrifuge’s 15” x 48” contour bowl
and the proprietary gearbox pro-
vide several advantages — higher
“G-forces at a given speed, higher
solids capacity (6 TPH), higher
flowrates (up to 180 GPM), finer
separations, and greater settling
area in a smaller, more compact
footprint. Top recommended speed
is 3,500 RPM. Stainless steel con-
struction and tungsten carbide wear
tiles provide years of trouble-free
operation. The SC-35HS is available
in all-electric, hydraulic main drive,
or all-hydraulic (main and back
drive) configurations.
HS-5200 High Speed
Decanting Centrifuge
The HS5200 is a “third-generation”
high-speed decanting centrifuge
capable of 4000 Gs and 4200 RPM
operation. Based on the proven
HS3400 design, the HS5200 has a
16” x 49.5” contour bowl and high
torque drive system for higher
capacity and sharper separations —
up to 250 GPM and 8 TPH. The
HS5200’s all-hydraulic drive system
can be easily adjusted for optimum
performance in all fluid processing
conditions. Main bowl speed is infi-
nitely variable up to the maximum
4200 RPM, and the bowl/ conveyor
differential is also adjustable
between 1 RPM and 100 RPM.
Stainless steel construction and
tungsten carbide wear tiles along
the entire scroll length provide
years of trouble-free operation.
Figure 4-23 HS-5200 High Speed Decanting Centrifuge
Roto-Sep Centrifuge
The Roto-Sep Centrifuge is a per-
forated rotor design to remove
undesirable fine solids from weight-
ed drilling fluids. The rotating
separation chamber increases solids
settling rate to remove these fine
solids and recover barite with up to
92% efficiency. Available in skid- or
trailer-mounted units, the Roto-Sep
provides slurrified solids, thus
allowing the unit to be located a
4.13
 Figure 4-24 Roto-Sep Centrifuge
distance away from the solids
return tank and simplifying installa-
tion.
4.10 Dewatering Units
Brandt/EPI offers several models
of dewatering units, from simple,
skid-mounted metering pump and
tank modules, to the DWU-250
Dewatering Unit. The DWU-250 is a
self-contained, portable system that
includes all mixing and polymer
aging tanks, metering pumps, pip-
ing and connection points, controls,
and quality check points in a mod-
ular, weatherized container
enclosure. The DWU-250 is used
with one or more decanting cen-
trifuges as part of the Chemically-
Enhanced Dewatering process. The
DWU-250 may be equipped with
Figure 4-25 Self-contained DWU-250
4.14
Figure 4-26 Inside the DWU-250
climatized laboratory and office
areas, including tropic or Arctic
conditions.
4.11 Filtration Units
The Brandt/EPI Super-Flo™ filtra-
tion system is a DE (diatomaceous
earth) unit designed for clear filtrate
quality, faster cycle times, and high-
er efficiency. The unique tubular
elements provide maximum flow in
minimum space; and the more
effective pre-coat and cleaning
cycles increase throughput and
reduce downtime. The Super-Flo
filtration unit is available in electric
or diesel/pneumatic power models.
Figure 4-27 Filtration Unit

Figure 4-28 Vacuum Degasser
impeller blades for complete mixing
action. Their low profile minimizes
headroom requirements and pro-
vides stability and safety. Brandt/
EPI agitators use a single-reduction,
worm/worm gear drive for higher
efficiency, dependable service, and
smooth vibration-free operation.
The Agitator Sizing Chart for
Drilling Muds, another Brandt/EPI
innovation, simplifies proper agita-
tor sizing and selection, and is
located in Appendix D.

4.12 Vacuum Degassers

The DG-5 (500 gpm) and DG-10
(1000 gpm) vacuum degassers have
been rated by an independent
study as the best-performing
degassers for drilling fluid service.
These degassers are compact, low-
profile, and provide maximum
release and removal of entrained
gas by flowing the gas-cut fluid in
very thin sheets across a series of
stacked plates. While an eductor jet
removes the degassed mud, a
rugged, H 2S-rated vacuum pump
provides positive removal of gas.
There is no remixing of mud and
gas as found in other, low-efficien- Figure 4-29 Mud Agitator
cy methods. Interior parts are
treated to resist corrosion. 4.14 Portable Rig Blowers
Brandt/EPI developed these quiet,
4.13 Mud Agitators efficient blowers especially for
Brandt / EPI MA Series mechani- improved comfort and safety on
cal agitators are available from 3 HP drilling rigs. Designed to meet
to 25 HP, with flat or canted applicable OSHA specifications,

4.15

Figure 4-30 Portable Rig Blower
these blowers are used to disperse
potentially dangerous gasses and
bothersome insects. Available in
three sizes — 15,000 cfm, 25,000
cfm, and 40,000 cfm — Brandt/EPI
Blowers move high volumes of air
with minimal noise or vibration. To
ensure safe operation, all blowers
feature non-sparking aluminum
blades, heavy-gauge safety guards
and explosion-proof electrics.
Blowers are available in floor-
mounted, wall-mounted, or hanger-
mounted units.
Figure 4-31 Closed Loop Mud System
4.16
4.15 Integrated Systems
Closed Loop
Processing Systems
All Brandt / EPI™ equipment can
be integrated into systems designed
for specific applications. We have
over 20 years’ experience design-
ing, manufacturing, and operating
systems for “Closed Loop” process-
ing of drilling fluids, dewatering
systems, cuttings wash systems,
product classification systems, and
other waste reduction/management
systems. Brandt / EPI equipment is
currently in service throughout the
world, providing excellent results in
land and offshore installations,
remote areas, processing plants,
in-plant installations, and site reme-
diation projects.
Brandt / EPI Closed Loop Mud
Systems (CLMS) are custom-
designed for your specific
application, based on operational,
environmental, and economic
needs. A typical CLMS may include
one or more primary Screen
Separators, Drying Shakers, Mud
Conditioner, and Decanting
Centrifuge. Dual centrifuge installa-
tions for special applications —
such as weighted oil base muds
and synthetic oil- or water-base
drilling fluids — are also readily
available.
Coiled Tubing (CT)
Processing Systems
CT Processing Systems are
designed for the specific require-
ments of coiled tubing operations,
both drilling and workover. Their
modular design makes it easy to
select the total mud volume, type
and number of fluid processing
equipment, mixing equipment, and
tank configuration. All compart-
ments are mechanically agitated to
prevent settling of weighting mate-
rials and maintain a homogenous
fluid mixture. The integrated
degasser (not shown) is specially
designed to remove large amounts
of entrained gas safely and effec-
tively.
Figure 4-32 Coiled Tubing (CT) Processing System
Trenchless Technology
Processing Systems
Brandt/EPI CLMS are also rapidly
becoming the preferred choice for
Trenchless Technology Mud
Systems. We have successfully com-
pleted over 75 trenchless projects in
North America, ranging from small
diameter fiber-optic cable installa-
tions to large natural gas pipeline
projects. We have also provided
systems and operators for horizon-
tal wells to neutralize underground
contamination plumes and other
environmental remediation projects.
Live Oil Systems
Brandt/EPI offers a proprietary
system to process three-phase
solids/water/oil separations when
drilling underbalanced through pro-
ducing zones. The Brandt/EPI “Live
Oil” System is a modular tank sys-
tem, complete with pressure control
and solids separation equipment.
Water and oil are separated and
recovered in separate tanks for
future re-use or transportation.
4.16 Remediation
Management Services
Remediation Management
Services, a Brandt/ EPI company,
provides a full range of site remedi-
ation services throughout the world.
In over eighteen years of site reme-
diation, we have successfully closed
over 1,000 surface pits to Louisiana
4.17

Figure 4-33 Site Remediation Services
Rule 29-B standards or better.
Techniques available include:
• Closed loop mud systems
• Chemically Enhanced
Dewatering
• Landfarming / landspreading
• Bioremediation
• Cuttings slurrification and
injection systems
• Sludge stabilization and
fixation
• Soil/sand washing
• Surface pit closure
• Waste minimization
• Water treatment
• Construction equipment
• Pump rental
• Water Discharge Permit No. 5259
Each service typically includes all
necessary excavation equipment,
process equipment, tanks, transfer
pumps and related equipment,
chemicals, power source, labor,
onsite testing and analytical data,
site closure, and necessary state or
federal permits, reports, and other
documentation.
4.18
4.17 Technical and
Engineering Services
Brandt/EPI™ offers a full range of
technical and engineering services
to ensure optimum application and
performance of separation and
other, related equipment. These ser-
vices range from periodic, on-site
inspections to complete design pro-
posals and continuous on-site
technical support, depending on
project and client requirements.
Technical and engineering services
include:
• Project pre-planning
• Rig surveys
• Project recommendations
• On-site system operation and
maintenance
• Brandt’s exclusive RECAP™
Report (Removal Efficiency
Cost Analysis Program)
• CAD-based engineering
• PC-based particle size analysis
• Pilot testing
• Technical education and
training
Any Brandt/EPI™ product may be
custom-manufactured to meet your
project requirements. All equipment
can be supplied in full carbon steel,
carbon/stainless steel combination,
or full stainless steel in a variety of
finishes and colors. Explosion-proof
electrical components are standard,
but other styles may be requested.
Call your local Brandt/EPI represen-
tative for a quotation.
 APPENDICES

Glossary ..................................................................................................................A.2

Mud Solids Calculations

Standard Calculations........................................................................................B.1

Field Calculations to Determine Total Solids Discharge.................................B.4

Field Calculations to Determine High and Low Gravity Solids Discharge ....B.5

Solids Control Performance Evaluation ...........................................................B.6

Method for Comparison of Cyclone Efficiency .............................................B.10

Mud Engineering Data

Conversion Constants and Formulas ...............................................................C.1

Density of Common Materials..........................................................................C.2

Hole Capacities .................................................................................................C.3

Pounds per Hour Drilled Solids — Fast Rates ................................................C.4

Pounds per Hour Drilled Solids — Slow Rates...............................................C.5

Solids Content Chart .........................................................................................C.6

Equipment Selection

Pre-well Project Checklist ................................................................................D.1

Screen Cloth Comparisons ...............................................................................D.2

Brandt/EPI™ Equipment Specifications ..........................................................D.3

Selecting Size and Number of Agitators ..........................................................D.7

Brandt/EPI™ Sales & Service Locations ..........................................................D.8

A.1
GLOSSARY
LEGEND
+ API Bul 13C
- API Bul D11
* IADC Mud Equipment Manual
A ANTIFOAM -
ADSORBED LIQUID
The liquid film that adheres to the sur-
faces of solids particles which cannot
be removed by draining, even centrifu-
gal force.
AERATION*
The mechanical incorporation and dis-
persion of air into a drilling fluid
system. If not selectively controlled, it
can be very harmful.
AIR CUTTING
See Preferred Term: AERATION
AIR LOCK
A condition causing a centrifugal pump
to stop pumping due to a ball of air (or
gas) in the impeller center that will not
let liquid enter (usually caused by aera-
tion).
AMPLITUDE +
The distance from the mean position to
the point of maximum displacement. In
the case of a vibrating screen with cir-
cular motion, amplitude would be the
radius of the circle. In the case of
straight-line motion or elliptical motion,
amplitude would be one-half of the
total movement of the major axis of the
ellipse; thus one-half stroke. See relat-
ed term: STROKE.
A.2
A substance used to prevent foam by
greatly increasing the surface tension.
Compare: DEFOAMER.
APERTURE +
An opening. In a screen surface, the
clear opening between wires. See relat-
ed term: MESH.
APEX
See Preferred Term: UNDERFLOW
OPENING.
APEX VALVE
See Preferred Term: UNDERFLOW
OPENING.
API SAND
Solids particles in a drilling fluid that
are too large to pass through a U.S.
Standard 200 Mesh Screen (74 micron
openings). See related term: SAND
CONTENT.
APPARENT VISCOSITY -
The viscosity a fluid appears to have
on a given instrument at a stated rate
of shear. It is a function of the plastic
viscosity and the yield point. See also:
VISCOSITY, PLASTIC VISCOSITY, and
YIELD POINT.
AXIAL FLOW*
Flow from a mechanical agitator in
which the fluid first moves along the
axis of the impeller shaft (usually down
toward the bottom of a tank) and them
away from the impeller.
B lation members connected to the bed.
BACKPRESSURE +
The pressure opposing flow from a
solids separation device. See related
term: DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE.
BALANCE (as a Hydrocyclone)*
To adjust a balanced design hydrocy-
clone so that it discharges only a slight
drip of water at the underflow open-
ing.
BALANCE DESIGN
(Hydrocyclone)
A hydrocyclone designed so it can be
operated to discharge solids when
there are solids to separate, but will
automatically minimize liquid discharge
when there are no separable solids.
BALANCE POINT *
(of a Hydrocyclone)
That adjustment at which exactly no
liquid will discharge at the underflow
opening, yet any greater opening at all
would result in some liquid discharge.
BARITE, BARYTES
Natural barium sulfate, used for
increasing the density of drilling fluids.
The barite mineral occurs in many col-
ors from white through grays, greens,
and reds to black, according to the
impurities. API standards require a min-
imum of 4.2 average specific gravity.
BARREL (API)
A unit of measure used in the petrole-
um industry consisting of 42 U.S.
gallons.
BASKET
That portion of a shale shaker contain-
ing the deck upon which the screen(s)
is mounted; supported by vibration iso-
BEACH
Area between the liquid pool and the
solids discharge ports in a decanting
centrifuge or hydrocyclone.
BED *
Shale shaker support member consist-
ing of mounting skid, or frame with or
without bottom, flow diverters to direct
screen underflow to either side of the
skid and mountings for vibration isola-
tion members.
BENTONITE
A hydratable colloidal clay, largely
made up of the mineral sodium mont-
morillonite, used in drilling fluids to
create viscosity. See related term: GEL.
BLADE
See Preferred Term: FLUTE.
BLINDING +
A reduction of open area in a screen-
ing surface caused by coating or
plugging. See related terms: COATING,
PLUGGING.
BLOWOUT -
An uncontrolled escape of drilling
fluid, gas, oil, or water from the well
caused by the formation pressure being
greater than the hydrostatic head of the
fluid in the hole.
BOTTOM (Cyclone)
See Preferred Term: UNDERFLOW
OPENING.
BOTTOM FLOODING
The behavior of a hydrocyclone when
A.3
the underflow discharges whole mud
rather than separated solids.
BOUND LIQUID
See Preferred Term: ADSORBED LIQ-
UID.
BOWL +
The outer rotating chamber of a
decanting centrifuge.
C A device for moving fluid by means of
CAKE THICKNESS -
The measurement of the thickness of
the filter cake deposited by a drilling
fluid against a porous medium most
often following the standard API filtra-
tion test. Cake thickness is usually
reported in 32nds of an inch. See relat-
ed term: WALL CAKE.
CAPACITY
The maximum volume rate at which a
solids control device is designed to
operate without detriment to separa-
tion. See related terms: FEED
CAPACITY, SOLIDS DISCHARGE
CAPACITY.
CASCADE
Fluid movement on a single deck, mul-
tiple screen sloping shale shaker basket
which flow is parallel to screens.
CAVING *
Caving is a severe degree of sloughing.
See related term: SLOUGHING.
CENTIPOISE (cp)
A unit of viscosity equal to 1 gram per
centimeter-second. The viscosity of
water at 20°C is 1.005 cp.
CENTRIFUGAL FORCE +
That force which tends to impel matter
A.4
outward from the center of rotation.
See related term: G-FORCE.
CENTRIFUGAL SEPARATOR +
A general term applicable to any
device using centrifugal force to short-
en and/or to control the settling time
required to separate a heavier mass
from a lighter mass.
CENTRIFUGAL PUMP
a rotating impeller which spins the
fluid and creates centrifugal force.
CENTRIFUGE
A centrifugal separator, specifically: a
device rotated by an external force for
the purpose of separating materials of
various specific gravities and/or particle
sizes or shapes from a slurry to which
the rotation is imparted primarily by
rotating bowl.
CERAMICS
A general term for heat-hardened clay
products which resist abrasion: used to
extend the useful life of wear parts in
pumps and cyclones.
CHOKE *
An opening, aperture, or orifice used to
restrict a rate of flow or discharge.
CIRCULATION -
The movement of drilling fluid from
the suction pit through pump, drill
pipe, bit, annular space in the hole,
and back again to the suction pit. The
time involved is usually referred to as
circulation time.
CIRCULATION RATE -
The volume flow rate of the circulation
drilling fluid, usually expressed in gal-
lons or barrels per minute.
CLAY-SIZE, CLAY
(Particles)
Any solids particles less than 2 microns
in diameter. Natural clay particles are
commonly (but not limited to) a
hydrous silicate of alumina, formed by
the decomposition of feldspar and
other aluminum silicates. Clay minerals
are essentially insoluble in water but
disperse into extremely small particles
as a result of hydra-small particles as a
result of hydration, grinding, or velocity
effects.
COARSE (Solids) +
Solids larger than 2000 microns in
diameter.
COATING
A condition wherein undersize particles
cover the openings of a screening sur-
face by virtue of stickiness. See related
term: BLINDING.
COLLOIDAL (Solids)
Particles so small that they do not settle
out when suspended in a drilling fluid.
Commonly used as a synonym for
“clay.”
CONE
See Preferred Term: HYDROCYCLONE.
CONTAMINATION
The presence in a drilling fluid of any
foreign material that may tend to harm
the desired properties of the drilling
fluid.
CONTINUOUS PHASE
The fluid phase of a drilling mud,
either water or oil.
CONVEYOR
A mechanical device for moving mater-
ial from one place to another. In a
decanting centrifuge, a hollow hub
with flutes designed to move the
coarse solids out of the bowl.
CROWN
The curvature of a screen deck or the
difference in elevation between its high
and low points.
CUT POINT
A general term for the effectiveness of
a liquid-solids separation device
expressed as the particle size that is
removed from the feed stream at a
given percentage under specified oper-
ating conditions. See related term:
MEDIAN CUT.
CUTTINGS
Small pieces of formation that are the
result of the chipping and crushing
action of the bit. Field practice is to call
all solids removed by the shaker screen
“cuttings,” in spite of the fact that such
solids may include sloughed materials
and may be smaller than the screen
openings.
CYCLONE
See Preferred Term: HYDROCYCLONE.
D
DECANTING CENTRIFUGE +
A centrifuge which continuously
removes solids that are coarse enough
to be separated from their free liquid.
DECK
The screening surface in a shale shaker
basket.
DEFLOCCULATION
Breakup of flocs of gel structures by
use of a thinner or dispersant.
A.5
DEFOAMER -
Any substance used to reduce or elimi-
nate foam by reducing the surface
tension. Compare: ANTIFOAM.
DEGASSER
A device that removes entrained gas
from a drilling fluid.
DENSITY
Matter measured as mass per unit of
volume expressed in pounds per gallon
(lbs/gal), pounds per square inch per
thousand feet of depth (psi/1000 ft.),
grams per liter (g/l), and specific gravi-
ty. Density is commonly referred to as
“weight.”
DESAND
To remove the API sand from drilling
fluid.
DESANDER
A hydrocyclone capable of removing
the API sand (particles greater than 74
microns) from a drilling fluid.
DESILT
To remove most particles larger than
15-20 microns from a drilling fluid.
DESILTER
A hydrocyclone capable of remov-
ing most particles larger than 15-20
microns from a drilling fluid.
DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE
(Hydrocyclone)
The difference between the inlet and
outlet pressures measured near the inlet
and outlet openings of a hydrocyclone.
DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE (Wall)
STICKING
Sticking which occurs because part of
the drill string (usually the drill collars)
A.6
becomes embedded in the filter cake,
resulting in a non-uniform distribution
of pressure around the circumference
of the pipe. The conditions essential for
sticking require a permeable formation
and a pressure differential across the
filter cake and drill string.
DILUENT
Liquid added to dilute or thin a drilling
fluid.
DILUTION
Increasing the liquid content of a
drilling fluid by addition of water or oil.
DILUTION RATIO *
Ratio of volume of dilution liquid to the
volume of raw mud in the feed to a liq-
uid-solids separator.
DILUTION WATER
Water used for dilution of water-base
drilling mud.
DIRECT-INDICATING VISCOMETER
See VISCOMETER, DIRECT INDICAT-
ING.
DISCHARGE SPOUT OR LIP
Extension at the discharge area of a
screen. It may be vibrating or stationary.
DISPERSANT
Any chemical which promotes disper-
sion of particles in a fluid.
DISPERSE *
To separate in component parts.
Bentonite disperses by hydration into
many smaller pieces.
DISPERSION (of Aggregates)-
Disintegration of aggregates. Dispersion
increases the specific surface are of
solids resulting in an increase in viscos-
ity and gel strength.
DIVIDED DECK +
A deck having a screening surface lon-
gitudinally divided by partition(s).
DOUBLE FLUTE +
The flutes or leads advancing simultane-
ously at the same angle and 180° apart.
DRILLED SOLIDS
Formation particles drilled up by the
bit. See related term: LOW SPECIFIC
GRAVITY SOLIDS.
DRILLING IN
The operation during the drilling proce-
dures at the point of drilling into the
producing formation.
DRILLING MUD OR FLUID
A circulating fluid used in rotary drilling
to carry cuttings out of the hole and
perform other functions required in the
drilling operation. See related term:
MUD.
DRILLING OUT
The operation during the drilling proce-
dure when cement is drilled out of the
casing before further hole is made or
completion attempted.
DRILLING RATE
The rate at which hole depth progress-
es, expressed in linear units per unit of
time (including connections) as
feet/minute or feet/hour. See related
term: PENETRATION RATE.
DRY BOTTOM
Referring to a hydrocyclone, an adjust-
ment of the underflow opening that
causes a dry beach, usually resulting in
severe plugging.
DRY PLUG
The plugging of the underflow opening
of a hydrocyclone caused by operating
with a dry bottom.
DYNAMIC
The state of being active or in motion;
opposed to static.
E
EDUCTOR
A device using a high velocity jet to
create a vacuum which draws in liquid
or dry material to be blended with
drilling mud.
EFFECTIVE SCREENING AREA
The portion of a screen surface avail-
able for solids separation.
EFFLUENT
See Preferred Term: OVERFLOW.
ELASTOMER
Any rubber or rubber-like material
(such as polyurethane).
ELEVATION HEAD
The pressure created by a given height
of fluid. See related term: HEAD.
EMULSIFIER or EMULSIFYING
AGENT
A substance used to produce an emul-
sion of two liquids which ordinarily
would not mix.
EMULSION
A substantially permanent mixture of
two or more liquids which do not nor-
mally dissolve in each other. They may
be oil-in-water or water-in-oil types.
EQUIVALENT SPHERICAL
DIAMETER (ESD) +
The theoretical dimension usually
referred to when the sizes of irregularly
shaped small particles are discussed.
A.7
These dimensions can be determined
by several methods, such as: settling
velocity, electrical resistance, and light
reflection. See related term: PARTICLE
SIZE.
F of the hole. See related term: WALL
FEED, or FEED SLURRY
A mixture of solids and liquid entering
a liquid-solids separation device,
including dilution liquid if used.
FEED CAPACITY *
The maximum feed rate that a solids
separation device can effectively han-
dle, dependent upon particle size,
particle concentration, viscosity, and
other variables. See related terms:
CAPACITY, SOLIDS DISCHARGE
CAPACITY.
FEED CHAMBER +
The part of a device which receives the
mixture of diluents, mud and solids to
be separated.
FEED HEAD
The pressure (expressed in feet of
head) exerted by the drilling fluid in a
header. See related term: HEAD.
FEED HEADER +
A pipe, tube, or conduit to which two
or more hydrocyclones are connected
and from which they receive their feed
slurry.
FEED OPENING
See Preferred Term: INLET.
FEED PRESSURE +
The actual gauge pressure measured as
near as possible to, and upstream of,
the inlet of a device.
A.8
FILTER CAKE
The suspended solids that are deposit-
ed on a porous medium during the
process of filtration, such as the stan-
dard API fluid loss test. It may also
refer to the solids deposited on the wall
CAKE.
FILTER CAKE THICKNESS
A measurement of the solids deposited
on filter paper in 32nds of an inch dur-
ing the standard 30-min. API filter test.
This term also refers to the cake
deposited on the wall of a hole.
FILTER PRESS
A device for determining fluid loss of a
drilling fluid.
FILTRATION
The process of separating suspended
solids from their liquid by forcing the
latter through a porous medium. Two
types of fluid filtration occur in a well:
dynamic filtration while circulating, and
static filtration when at rest.
FILTRATION RATE
See FLUID LOSS.
FINE (Solids) +
Particles whose diameter is between
44-74 microns.
FINE SCREEN SHAKER
A vibrating screening device designed
for screening drilling fluids through
screen cloth finer than 40 mesh.
FISHING
Operations on the rig for the purpose
of retrieving sections of pipe, collars,
junk, or other obstructive items which
are in the hole and would interfere
with drilling.
FLIGHT +
On a decanting centrifuge, one full turn
of a spiral helix, such as a flute or
blade of a screw-type conveyor.
FLOCCULATING AGENT
A substance, such as most electrolytes
and certain polymers, that causes floc-
culation.
FLOCCULATION
Loose association of particles in lightly
bonded groups, or non-parallel associa-
tion of clay platelets. In drilling fluids,
flocculation results in thickening gela-
tion.
FLOODING
The effect created when a screen or
centrifuge is fed beyond its capacity.
Flooding may also occur on a screen as
a result of blinding.
FLUID LOSS -
Measure of the relative amount of fluid
loss (filtrate) through permeable forma-
tions or membranes when the drilling
fluid is subjected to a pressure differen-
tial. For standard API filtration-test
procedure, see API RP 13B.
FLUTE
The curved metal blade wrapped
around a shaft as on a screw conveyor
in a centrifuge.
FOAM
A light frothy mass of fine bubbles
formed in or on the surface of a liquid;
usually caused by entrained air or gas.
FORMATION DAMAGE -
Damage to the productivity of a well
resulting from invasion into the forma-
tion by mud particles or mud filtrate.
FREE LIQUID
The layer of liquid that surrounds each
separate particle in the underflow of a
hydrocyclone. The thickness of this
film depends upon the cyclone and the
viscosity of the fluid.
FUNNEL VISCOSITY -
The time, in seconds, for a quart (or
liter) of drilling mud to flow out the
bottom of a Marsh Funnel. Used in the
field as a rough measure of apparent
viscosity. See related terms: MARSH
FUNNEL, APPARENT VISCOSITY.
G
GAS-CUT (Mud)
Drilling fluid containing entrained gas.
GEAR RATIO +
On a decanting centrifuge, the ratio of
the outer bowl speed to the difference
in speed between the outer bowl and
the screw conveyor, normally
expressed as the number of revolutions
of the outer bowl for a given difference
of one complete revolution between the
outer bowl and the screw conveyor.
GEAR UNIT +
On a centrifuge, a reduction device
connected to the rotating bowl and dri-
ving the conveyor at a slightly different
rate.
GEL -
A term used to designate high col-
loidal, high-yielding, viscosity-building
commercial clays, such as bentonite
and attapulgite clays.
GEL STRENGTH
The ability or the measure of the ability
of a colloid to form gels. Gel strength
A.9
is a pressure unit usually reported in
lbs/100 sq. ft. It is a measure of the
same interparticle forces of a fluid as
determined by the yield point under
dynamic conditions.
GEL STRENGTH, INITIAL
The measured initial gel strength of a
fluid is the maximum reading (deflec-
tion) taken from a direct-reading
viscometer after the fluid has been
allowed to sit for 10 minutes.
G-FORCE *
The acceleration of gravity (32.2
ft/sec/sec, 9.8 m/sec/sec). Multiplied
acceleration due to centrifugal force is
usually expressed as 1G, 2G, 3G,
11,000G etc.
GUMBO *
Any relatively sticky shale formation
encountered while drilling.
GUNNING THE PITS
Agitation of the drilling fluid by means
of mud guns.
H heavier solids being separated from the
HEAD
The height (in feet) of a column of
fluid necessary to develop a specific
pressure. Commonly used to refer to
the pressure put out by a centrifugal
pump.
HIGH SPECIFIC GRAVITY SOLIDS
Solids whose specific gravity is greater
than 4.2 which are added to a drilling
fluid specifically to increase mud densi-
ty. Barite is the most common, but
others such as iron oxides are also
used. See related Term: LOW SPECIFIC
GRAVITY SOLIDS.
A.10
HOOK STRIPS +
The hooks on the edges of a screen
section which accept the tension mem-
ber.
HOPPER
See MUD HOPPER.
HORSEPOWER
A measure of the rate at which work is
done. Motor nameplate horsepower is
the maximum steady load that the
motor can pull without damage.
HYDRATION
The act of a substance to take up water
by means of absorption and/or adsorp-
tion; usually results in swelling,
dispersion and disintegration into col-
loidal particles.
HYDROCYCLONE
A liquid-solids separation device which
utilizes centrifugal force to speed up
settling. Drilling fluid is pumped tan-
gentially into a cone and the rotation of
the fluid provides centrifugal force to
separate particles by mass weight - the
light solids and liquid.
HYDROCYCLONE SIZE *
The maximum inside working diameter
of the cone part of a hydrocyclone.
I
INERTIA *
That force which makes a moving parti-
cle tend to maintain its same direction.
INHIBITED MUD -
A drilling fluid having a aqueous phase
with a chemical composition that tends
to retard and even prevent (inhibit)
appreciable hydration (swelling) or dis-
persion of formation clays and shales
through chemical and/or physical
means. See INHIBITOR (mud).
INHIBITOR (mud) -
Substances generally regarded as
drilling mud contaminants, such as salt
and calcium sulfate, are called
inhibitors when purposely added to
mud so that the filtrate from the drilling
fluid will prevent or retard the hydra-
tion of formation clays and shales.
INLET
The opening through which the feed
mud enters a solids control device.
INTERMEDIATE (Solids) +
Particles whose diameter is between
250-2000 microns.
INVERT OIL-EMULSION MUD -
An invert emulsion is a water-in-oil
emulsion where fresh or salt water is
the dispersed phase and diesel, crude,
or some other oil is the continuous
phase. Water increases the viscosity
and oil reduces the viscosity.
L trol mud loss by bridging or plugging
LEAD
In a decanting centrifuge, the slurry
conducting channel formed by the
adjacent walls of the flutes or blades of
the screw conveyor.
LIGNOSULFONATES
Organic drilling fluid additives derived
from by-products of sulfite paper man-
ufacturing process from coniferous
woods. Commonly used as dispersants
and anti-flocculants. In large quantities,
may be used for fluid-loss control and
the shale inhibition.
LIQUID *
Fluid that will flow freely, takes the
shape of its container.
LIQUID-CLAY PHASE
See Preferred Term: OVERFLOW
LIQUID DISCHARGE
See Preferred Terms: OVERFLOW
(Hydrocyclones); UNDERFLOW
(screens).
LIQUID FILM
The liquid surrounding each particle
discharging from the solids discharge of
cyclones and screens. See related term:
FREE LIQUID.
LOST CIRCULATION
The result of whole mud escaping into
a formation, usually in cavernous, fis-
sured, or coarsely permeable beds,
evidenced by the complete or partial
failure of the mud to return to the sur-
face as it is being circulated in the
hole.
LOST CIRCULATION MATERIALS
(LCM)
Materials added to drilling fluid to con-
the lost circulation zone.
LOW SILT MUD
An unweighted mud that has all the
sand and high proportion of the silts
removed and has a substantial content
of bentonite or other water-loss-reduc-
ing clays.
LOW SOLIDS MUDS
Low solids muds are unweighted
water-base muds containing less than
10% drilled solids (1-4% is a normal
range). They are used whenever it is
desirable to increase penetration rate.
A.11
In general, the lower solids content in
a mud, the faster a bit can drill.
LOW SPECIFIC GRAVITY SOLIDS
Drilled solids of various sizes, commer-
cial colloids, salts, lost circulation
materials, i.e., all solids in drilling fluid,
except barite or other commercial
weighting materials. Typical S.G. is 2.6.
M as 30 x 30 (or often 30 mesh) indicates
MANIFOLD (Cyclone)
A piping arrangement through which
liquids, solids or slurries from one or
more sources can be fed to or dis-
charged from a solids separation
device.
MARSH FUNNEL
An instrument used in the field to
determine funnel viscosity of a drilling
fluid. See related term: FUNNEL VIS-
COSITY.
MASS
The effective weight of a particle, con-
sidering both its specific gravity and
particle size.
MECHANICAL AGITATOR
A device used to mix, blend, or stir flu-
ids by means of a rotating impeller
blade.
MEDIAN CUT *
In separating solids particles from a
specific liquid-solids slurry under speci-
fied conditions, the effectiveness of the
separation device expressed as the par-
ticle size that reports 50% to the
overflow and 50% to the underflow.
MEDIUM (solids) +
Particles whose diameter is between
74-250 microns.
A.12
MESH
The number openings per linear inch
in a screen. For example, a 200 mesh
screen has 200 openings per linear
inch.
MESH COUNT
The count is the term most often used
to describe a square or rectangular
mesh screen cloth. A mesh count such
a square mesh, while a designation
such as 70 x 30 mesh indicates a rec-
tangular mesh.
MESH EQUIVALENT
As used in oilfield drilling applications,
the U.S. Sieve number which has the
same size opening as the minimum
opening of the screen in use.
MICRON (µ)
A unit of length equal to one thou-
sandth of a millimeter; used as a
measure of particle size.
MUD
Mud is the term most commonly given
to drilling fluids; used for circulating
out cuttings and many other functions
while drilling a well.
MUD ADDITIVE -
Any material added to a drilling fluid to
achieve a particular purpose.
MUD BALANCE -
A beam-type balance used in determin-
ing mud density. It consists primarily of
a base, graduated beam with constant-
volume cup, lid, rider, knife edge and
counterweight.
MUD BOX
The feed compartment on a shale shak-
er into which the mud flow line
discharges, and from which the mud is
either fed to the screens or is bypassed.
Also called Backtank or Possum Belly.
MUD CLEANER
A solids separation device which com-
bines several manifolded hydrocyclones
and a fine mesh vibrating screen to
remove valuable mud additives and liq-
uids to the active mud system.
MUD CONE
See Preferred Term: HYDROCYCLONE.
MUD ENGINEER -
One versed in drilling fluids whose
duties are to manage, implement, and
maintain the various types of oilwell
mud programs.
MUD FEED +
Drilling fluid, with or without dilution,
for introduction into a liquid-solids sep-
arator.
MUD GUNS
A system of pumps and piping in
which drilling mud is pumped through
nozzles at a high velocity. Used for
mixing, blending and stirring the mud
pits.
MUD HOPPER *
A device used for mixing mud chemi-
cals and other products into a fluid
stream. It usually consists of a mud jet,
an open top hopper, and downstream
venturi.
MUD HOUSE -
A structure at the rig to store and shel-
ter sacked materials used in drilling
fluids.
MUD MIXING DEVICES
The most common device for adding
solids to the mud is by means of the
mud hopper. Some other devices for
mixing are: eductors, mechanical agita-
tors, electric stirrers, mud guns, and
chemical barrels.
MUD PIT -
Earthen or steel storage facilities for the
surface mud system. Mud pits which
vary in volume and number are of two
types: circulating and reserve. Mud test-
ing and conditioning is normally done
in the circulating pit system.
MUD PUMPS
See RIG PUMPS.
MUD SCALES
See MUD BALANCE.
MUD STILL
See RETORT.
N
NEAR SIZE
The material very nearly the size of a
screen opening, generally considered
as plus or minus 25% of the opening.
O
OBLONG
(Mesh)
Screen cloth having more wires per
inch in one direction than in another.
For example, 70 x 30 mesh has 70
wires per inch in one direction and 30
wires per inch in the other direction.
(Also called “rectangular” mesh.)
OIL-BASE MUD
A drilling fluid containing oil as its liq-
uid phase, usually including 1-5%
water emulsified into the system.
A.13
OPEN AREA
See PERCENT OPEN AREA.
OVERFLOW
The discharge stream from a centrifugal
separation device that contains a higher
percentage of liquids than does the
feed.
OVERFLOW HEADER *
In hydrocyclone operation, a pipe into
which two or more hydrocyclones dis-
charge their overflow.
OVERLOAD +
To feed separable solids to a separating
device at a rate greater than its solids
discharge capacity.
OVERSIZE (Solids)
Particles, in a given situation, that can
be separated from the liquid phase by
centrifugal force or which will not pass
through the openings of the screen in
use.
P The property possessed by some
PARTICLE
In drilling mud work, a small piece of
solid material.
PARTICLE SIZE
Particle diameter, usually expressed in
microns. See related term: EQUIVA-
LENT SPHERICAL DIAMETER.
PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION +
The fraction or percentage of particles
of various sizes or size ranges. See
related term: SIEVE ANALYSIS.
PARTICLE SURFACE AREA
See SPECIFIC SURFACE AREA.
PENETRATION RATE
The rate at which the drill bit pene-
A.14
trates the formation, expressed in linear
units, i.e., feet/minute or feet/hour. See
related term: DRILLING RATE.
PERCENT OPEN AREA
Ratio of the area of the screen open-
ings to the total area of the screen
surface.
PERFORATED CYLINDER
CENTRIFUGE +
A mechanical centrifugal separator in
which the rotating element is a perfo-
rated cylinder (the rotor) inside of and
concentric with an outer stationary
cylindrical case.
PERFORATED ROTOR +
The rotating inner cylinder of the per-
forated cylinder centrifuge.
PERMEABILITY
Normal permeability is a measure of
the ability of a formation to allow pas-
sage of a fluid.
PLASTICITY
solids, particularly clays and clay slur-
ries, of changing shape or flowing
under applied stress without develop-
ing shear planes or fractures; that is, it
deforms without breaking.
PLASTIC VISCOSITY
Plastic viscosity is a measure of the
internal resistance to fluid flow attribut-
able to the amount, type, and size of
solids present in a given fluid. When
using a direct-indicating viscometer,
plastic viscosity is found by subtracting
the 300-rpm reading from the 600-rpm
reading.
PLUGGING (Screen Surface)
The wedging or jamming of openings
in a screening surface by particles, pre-
venting passage of undersize material.
See related term: BLINDING.
POLYMER
A synthetic mud additive used to main-
tain viscosity, control fluid loss and
maintain other desirable mud properties.
POLYURETHANE
A high performance elastomer polymer
used in construction of hydrocyclones
for its unique combination of physical
properties, especially abrasion, tough-
ness and resiliency.
POOL
The reservoir or pond of fluid, or slur-
ry, formed inside the wall of
hydrocyclones and centrifuges and in
which classification or separation of
solids occurs due to the settling effect
of centrifugal force.
PORTS +
The openings in a centrifuge for entry
or exit of materials. Usually applied in
connection with a descriptive term, i.e.,
feed ports, overflow ports, etc.
PRESSURE HEAD *
Pressure within a system equal to the
pressure exerted by an equivalent
height of fluid (expressed in feet). See
related term: HEAD.
R
RADIAL FLOW *
Flow from a mechanical agitator in
which fluid moves away from the axis
of the impeller shaft (usually horizon-
tally toward a mud tank wall).
RATE OF PENETRATION
See PENETRATION RATE.
RAW MUD
Mud, before dilution, that is to be
processed by solids removal equip-
ment.
RECTANGULAR OPENING (Screen
Cloth)
See OBLONG MESH.
RETENTION TIME (Screen) +
The time any given particle of material
is actually on a screening surface.
RETENTION TIME + (Centrifugal
Separators)
The time the liquid phase is actually in
the separating device.
RETORT
An instrument used to distill oil, water,
and other volatile material in a mud to
determine oil, water, and total solids
content in volume-percent. Also called
“mud still”.
RHEOLOGY
The science that deals with deforma-
tion and flow of matter.
RIG PUMPS (or Mud Pumps)
The reciprocating, positive displace-
ment, high pressure pumps used to
circulate drilling fluid through the hole.
RIG SHAKER
A general term for a shale shaker using
coarse mesh screen.
ROPE DISCHARGE
The characteristic underflow of a
hydrocyclone operating inefficiently
and so overloaded with separable
solids that not all the separated solids
can crowd out the underflow opening,
causing those that can exit to form a
slow-moving, heavy, rope-like stream.
A.15
(Also referred to as “rope” or “rope
underflow.”)
ROTARY DRILLING
The method of drilling wells that
depends on the rotation of a drill bit
which is attached to a column of drill
pipe. A fluid is circulated through the
drill pipe to flush out cuttings and per-
form other functions.
RPM *
Revolutions per minute.
S The medium containing the openings
SALT-WATER MUDS -
A drilling fluid containing dissolved salt
(brackish to saturated). These fluids
may also include native solids, oil,
and/or such commercial additives as
clays, starch, etc.
SAMPLES -
Cuttings obtained for geological infor-
mation from the drilling fluid as it
emerges from the hole. They are
washed, dried, and labeled as to the
depth.
SAND CONTENT
The sand content of a drilling fluid is
the insoluble solids content retained on
a 200-mesh screen. It is usually
expressed as the percentage bulk vol-
ume of sand in a drilling fluid. This test
is an elementary type in that the
retained solids are not necessarily silica
and may not be altogether abrasive.
SAND TRAP
The first compartment and the only
unstirred compartment in a well-
designed mud system; intended as a
settling compartment to catch large
A.16
solids which may get past the shale
shaker.
SCREEN CLOTH
A type of screening surface, woven in
square or rectangular openings. See
related term: WIRE CLOTH.
SCREENING
A mechanical process which accom-
plishes a separation of particles on the
basis of size, through their acceptance
or rejection by a screening surface.
SCREENING SURFACE
for passage of undersize material.
SCROLL
See Preferred Term: FLUTE.
SETTLING VELOCITY
The velocity a particle achieves in a
given fluid when gravity forces equal
the friction forces of the moving parti-
cle.
SHALE
Stone of widely varying hardness,
color, and compaction that is formed of
clay-sized grains.
SHALE SHAKER
A general term for devices which use a
vibrating screen to remove cuttings and
other large solids from drilling mud.
SHEAR (Shearing Stress)
An action, resulting from applied
forces, which causes or tends to cause
two contiguous parts of a body to slide
relatively to each other in a direction
parallel to their plane of contact - as in
particles within a mud.
SIEVE
See Preferred Term: TESTING SIEVE.
SIEVE ANALYSIS
A measurement of particle size and
percentage of the amount of material in
various particle size groupings. See
related term: PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIB-
UTION.
SILT
Materials whose particle size generally
falls between 2 microns and 74
microns. A certain portion of dispersed
clays and barite falls into this particle
size range as well as drilled solids.
SIZE DISTRIBUTION
See Preferred Term: PARTICLE SIZE
DISTRIBUTION.
SLOUGHING
A situation in which portions of a forma-
tion fall away from the walls of a hole,
as a result of incompetent unconsolidat-
ed formations, high angle of repose,
wetting along internal bedding planes,
or swelling of formations caused by fluid
loss. See related term: CAVING.
SLURRY
A mixture or suspension of solid parti-
cles in one or more liquids.
SOLIDS +
All particles of matter in the drilling
fluid, i.e., drilled formation cuttings,
barite, etc.
SOLIDS CONTENT
The total amount of solids in a drilling
fluid as determined by distillation,
including both the dissolved and the
suspended (or undissolved) solids. The
suspended-solids content may be a
combination of high and low specific
gravity solids and native or commercial
solids. Examples of dissolved solids are
the soluble salts of sodium, calcium,
and magnesium. The total suspended
and dissolved solids content is com-
monly expressed in percent by volume.
SOLIDS DISCHARGE +
That stream from a liquid-solids separa-
tor containing a higher percentage of
solids than does the feed.
SOLIDS DISCHARGE CAPACITY
The maximum rate at which a liquid-
solids separation device can discharge
solids without overloading.
SPECIFIC GRAVITY
The weight of a particular volume of
any substance compared to the weight
of an equal volume of water at a refer-
ence temperature.
SPECIFIC SURFACE AREA
The effective surface area per unit of
weight of some sample or grouping of
particles of matter, usually expressed in
units of area per units of weight such
as square feet per pound, or acres per
pound, square meters per gram, etc. It
can be a valuable indicator of the
amount of liquid certain particles can
attract and retain on their surface.
SPEED +
The frequency at which a vibrating
screen operates, usually expressed in
RPM or CPM; the bowl rpm of a
decanting centrifuge; the rotor rpm of a
perforated cylinder centrifuge.
SPRAY DISCHARGE
The underflow of hydrocyclones when
not overloaded with separable solids.
SPUDDING IN -
The starting of the drilling operations
of a new hole.
A.17
SPUD MUD -
The fluid used when drilling starts at
the surface, often a thick bentonite
lime slurry.
SPURT LOSS *
The flux of fluids and solids which
occurs in the initial stages of any filtra-
tion before pore openings are bridged
and a filter cake is formed.
STROKE
The distance between the extremities
of motion; viz., the diameter of a circu-
lar motion. See related term:
AMPLITUDE.
STUCK -
A condition whereby the drill pipe, cas-
ing, or other devices inadvertently
become lodged in the hole.
SUMP
A pit or tank into which a fluid drains
before recirculation or in which wastes
gather before disposal.
SURGE LOSS
See Preferred Term: SPURT LOSS.
SWABBING
When pipe is withdrawn from the hole
in viscous mud or if the bit is balled, a
low pressure is created below the bit.
T
TENSIONING +
The stretching of the screening surface
within the vibrating frame.
TENSION RING
A rigid hoop surrounding a stretched
screen cloth used for maintaining
screen tension and mounting the
screen to a shaker frame.
A.18
TEST SIEVE
A cylindrical or tray-like container with
a screening surface bottom of standard
aperture.
THINNER -
Any various organic agents (tannins,
lignins, lignosulfonates, etc.) and inor-
ganic agents (pyrophosphates,
tetraphosphates, etc.) that are added to
a drilling fluid to reduce the viscosity
and/or thixotropic properties.
THIXOTROPY -
The ability of a fluid to develop gel
strength with time. That property of a
fluid which causes it to build up a rigid
or semirigid gel structure if allowed to
stand at rest, yet can be returned to a
fluid state by mechanical agitation.
THRUST
The force that pushes on the mud as
on a shale shaker screen.
TOTAL DEPTH (or TD) -
The greatest depth reached by the drill
bit.
TOTAL HEAD *
The sum of all heads within a system
(Total Head = velocity head + pressure
head + elevation head.)
U
ULTRA-FINE (Solids) +
Particles whose diameter is between 2-
44 microns.
UNDERFLOW
(Hydrocyclone)
The discharge stream from centrifugal
separators that contains a higher per-
centage of solids than does the feed.
See general term: SOLIDS DISCHARGE.
UNDERFLOW (Screen)
The discharge stream from a screening
device which contains a greater per-
centage of liquids than does the feed.
UNDERFLOW HEADER +
A pipe, tube, or conduit into which
two or more hydrocyclones discharge
their underflow.
UNDERSIZE (Solids)
Particles that will, in a given situation,
remain with the liquid phase when
subjected to centrifugal force, or will
pass through the openings of the
screen in use.
UNWEIGHTED (Mud)
A drilling fluid which has not had sig-
nificant amounts of high gravity solids
added and whose density and whose
density is generally less than 11 pounds
per gallon.
V
VELOCITY HEAD *
Head (relating to pressure when multi-
plied by the density of the fluid)
created by the movement of a fluid,
equal to an equivalent height of static
fluid.
VENTURI *
Streamlining up to a given pipe size
following a restriction (as in a jet in a
mud hopper) to minimize turbulence
and pressure drop.
V.G. METER
See VISCOMETER, DIRECT-INDICAT-
ING.
VIBRATING SCREEN
A screen with motion induced as an
aid to solids separation.
VISCOMETER, DIRECT-INDICATING -
Commonly called a “V-G meter.” The
instrument is a rotational-type device
powered by means of an electric motor
or handcrank, and is used to determine
the apparent viscosity, plastic viscosity,
yield point, and gel strengths of drilling
fluids. The usual speeds are 600 and
300 rpm. See API RP 13B for opera-
tional procedures.
VISCOSITY -
The internal resistance offered by a fluid
to flow. This phenomenon is attributable
to the attractions between molecules of a
liquid, and is a measure of the combined
effects of adhesion and cohesion to the
effects of suspended particles, and to the
liquid environment. The greater this
resistance, the greater the viscosity. See
related terms: APPARENT VISCOSITY,
PLASTIC VISCOSITY.
VORTEX +
A cylindrical or conical shaped core of
air or vapor lying along the central axis
of the rotating slurry inside a hydrocy-
clone.
VORTEX FINDER
A hollow cylinder extending axially
into the barrel of a hydrocyclone. The
overflow exits from the separating
chamber through the vortex finder, and
the vortex is centered in the hydrocy-
clone by the hole in the vortex finder,
hence the name.
W
WALL CAKE -
The solid material deposited along the
wall of the hole resulting from filtration
of the fluid part of the mud into the
A.19
formation. See related terms: CAKE
THICKNESS, FILTER CAKE.
WALL STICKING
See Preferred Term: DIFFERENTIAL
PRESSURE STICKING.
WATER-BASE MUD
The conventional drilling fluid contain-
ing water as a the continuous phase.
WATER FEED +
Water to be added for dilution of the
mud feed into a centrifugal separator.
See related term: DILUTION WATER.
WEIGHT (Mud Weight)
In mud work, weight refers to the den-
sity of a drilling fluid. This is normally
expressed in lbs/gal or specific gravity.
See related term: DENSITY.
WEIGHT MATERIAL
Any of the heavy solids (specific gravi-
ty of 4.3 or more) used to increase the
density of drilling fluids. This material
is most commonly barite but can be
galena, etc. In special applications,
limestone is also called a weight mater-
ial (even though its specific gravity is
2.6).
WEIGHTED (Mud)
A drilling fluid to which heavy (over
4.3 specific gravity) solids have been
added to increase its density.
WEIGHT UP *
To increase the weight of a drilling
A.20
mud, usually by the addition of weight
material.
WETTING -
The adhesion of a liquid to the surface
of a solid.
WIRE CLOTH +
Screen cloth of woven wire.
WORKOVER FLUID -
Any type of fluid used in the workover
operation of a well.
Y
YIELD
As applied to drilling mud, a term
used to define the quality of a clay by
describing the number of barrels of a
given centipoise slurry that can be
made from a ton of the clay.
YIELD POINT
The resistance to initial flow, represent-
ing the stress required to start fluid
movement. This resistance is due to
electrical charges located on or near
the surfaces of the particles. The values
of the yield point and thixotropy,
respectively, are measurements of the
same fluid properties under dynamic
and static states. The Bingham yield
value, reported in lbs/100 sq. ft, is
determined by the direct-indicating vis-
cometer by subtracting the plastic
viscosity from the 300-rpm reading.
 STANDARD CALCULATIONS

I. MUD VOLUME

• Capacity of annulus in bbl/ft = [(hole size)2 - (pipe OD)2] * 0.00097

• Approximate capacity of hole in bbl/1000 ft = (diameter of hole)2

• Approximate pipe displacement, bbl/100 ft = Weight of pipe (lb/ft) * 0.0364

• Pit volume in cu ft = Length * Width * Depth

• Pit volume in bbl = cu ft

5.6

• Hole volume in bbl = [hole capacity(bpf) * depth(ft)] - pipe displacement (bbl)

• Annular volume in bbl = hole volume - capacity and displacement of drill pipe

• Total Volume = hole volume + pit volume

II. CIRCULATION DATA

• Pump output in bpm = bbl/stroke * strokes/minute

• Annular velocity in fpm = pump output (bpm * 100)

annular volume (bbl/100 ft)

• Bottoms up in minutes = annular volume (bbl)

pump output (bpm)

• Hole cycle in minutes = pump output (bpm * 100)

pump output (bpm)

• Mud cycle in minutes = total volume (bbl)

pump output (bpm)

B.1
III. SOLIDS DETERMINATION

A. Low weight muds without barite

• Percent solids by volume = (mud weight - water weight) * 7.5

• Correct for oil: For each 1% of oil, add 0.1 to % solids by volume

• Correct for NaCl: For each 10,000 ppm salt, deduct 0.3% solids by vol-
ume. Ignore if salt content is less than 10,000 ppm. Convert Cl ppm to
salt ppm (* 1.65)

B. Weighted Muds

• Percent by volume desired solids = (mud weight - 6) * 3.2

C. Drilled Solids Per Foot of Hole

• Barrels per foot = (hole size + washout)2 * 0.00097

• Pounds per foot = bpf * 910.7

IV. SOLIDS CONTROL EVALUATION CALCULATIONS

A. Average specific gravity of solids in WBM

1. Freshwater muds

Sa = (12 * Dm) - Vw
Vs

2. Sa = (12 * Dm) - (Vwc * Sw)

(100-Vwc)

B. Volume percent solids in freshwater muds, without weight-

ing material

Vs = 7.5 * (Dm - 8.34)

OR

7.5 * (Dm - 62.55)

B.2
 C. Volume percent solids in freshwater muds containing
barite, S.G. = 4.2

Vb = (Sa - 2.6) * Vsc * 0.625

Vlg = Vsc - Vb

D. Volume percent solids in freshwater muds containing

hematite, S.G. = 5.0

Vh = (Sa-2.6) * Vsc * 0.417

Vlg = Vsc - Vh

E. Volume percent in muds containing oil > 1% or salt >

10,000 ppm

Vlg = [(Vw * Swc) + (Vo * So) + (Vsc * Shg)] - (100 * Sm)

(Shg - Slg)

F. Bentonite and reactive clay correction

CECa = 7.69 * (MBTm)

Vlg

Vben = Vlg * (CECa - CECds)

(CECben - CECds)

Terms: Sw = Specific gravity of water

CECa = Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC), Swc = Specific gravity of water, corrected
average for chlorides
CECben = CEC of bentonite, typically 60 Vb = Volume percent barite (50% = 50,
CECds = CE of drilled solids, typically 10 not .50)
Cl = Total Chlorides, in mg/l Vh = Volume percent hematite
Dm = Mud density, in ppg Vhg = Volume percent high gravity
MBTm = Methylene Blue Test, in lbs/bbl solids
Sa = Specific gravity of solids, average Vlg = Volume percent low gravity solids
Shg = Specific gravity of high gravity Vs = Volume percent total solids
solids Vsc = Volume percent solids, corrected
Slg = Specific gravity of low gravity for chlorides
solids Vw = Volume percent water
Sm = Specific gravity of mud Vwc = Volume percent water, corrected
So = Specific gravity of oil for chlorides

B.3
Field Calculations to Determine
Total Solids Discharge

Note:
This method is only a quick approximation of solids removal rate and
should be used only for unweighted muds or where quick comparisons
need to be made on a mud system to see what results when conditions
change, i.e., is solids removal rate increasing, decreasing, or staying
the same?

1. Use a one-quart container and wristwatch to determine how many

seconds (R) it takes to collect one quart of slurry from a cyclone
underflow or a screen discharge.
2. Use a mud balance to obtain the density (D) of the slurry in pounds
per gallon.
3. Use the following equations to calculate the rate of solids removed in
pounds per hour.

(D - 8.3) * 1450 = Total Solids Removed in #/hr

R

D = Density of slurry in #/gal.

R = Rate of solids slurry discharge in sec/qt
8.3 = Density of Water

Example:
D = 12.3 #/gal
R = 8 sec

(D - 8.3) * 1450 =
R
(12.3 - 8.3) * 1450 =
8
4 * 1450 = 725 #/hr
8

B.4
Field Calculations to Determine
High and Low Gravity Solids Discharge

1. Use a one-quart container and wristwatch to determine how many

seconds (R) it takes for one quart of solids to be discharged.
2. Use a mud balance to obtain the density (D) of the sand slurry in
pounds per gallon.
3. Retort the sand slurry to determine the volume fraction solids (Vs) and
the volume fraction liquids (V1)
4. Use the following equations to calculate the rate of solids removed in
pounds per hour.
A. Total pounds per hour Solids Removed = [D - (8.34 * V1)] 900
R

B. Average Specific Gravity of Solids = [D - (8.34 * V1)]

(8.34 • Vs)

C. Weight % Low Gravity Solids = 4.3 - ASG

1.6

D. Lbs/hr Low Gravity Solids = Total #/hr solids * weight % LGS

E. Lbs/hr Barite = Total #/hr solids - #/hr LGS

D = Density of solids slurry in #/gal

R = Rate of removal in sec
V1 = Volume fraction liquid

Vs = Volume fraction solids

ASG = Average Specific Gravity

LSG = Low Gravity Solids

B.5
 SOLIDS CONTROL PERFORMANCE EVALUATION

There are several methods used to determine economic performance. This

appendix describes a method to compare the cost of dilution versus
mechanical removal. It utilizes the concept of a dilution factor (the
amount of mud required to maintain a given solids concentration for every
barrel of solids that remain in the mud) to determine dilution require-
ments. This method may be used to determine economic efficiency of any
type of solids control equipment. Note: Effluent is defined as the process
stream returned to the active mud system. The underflow is defined as the
waste stream removed from the mud system and discarded.

Example:

Given:
Feed Rate = 30 gpm
Underflow Density = 17.0 ppg
Feed Density = 10.0 ppg
Effluent Density = 9.0 ppg
Total Low Gravity Solids = 6%
Mud Cost = $15./bbl
Disposal Cost = $10./bbl
Equipment Cost per Day = $600

Determine the economic performance.

Feed Rate, Vf = 30 gpm Effluent Rate, Ve = ?

Feed Density, Df = 10.0 ppg Effluent Density, De= 9.0

Underflow Rate, Vu = ?

Underflow Density, Du = 17.0 ppg

B.6
 1) Determine the Effluent and Underflow Volume Rates.
2) Calculate the Low Gravity Solids Removed per minute.
3) Calculate the equipment effectiveness & cost, compared to dilution
4) Calculate economic benefits

1) Determine the Effluent and Underflow Volume Rates.

Df * Vf = (Du * Vu) + (De * Ve);
& let X = Underflow Rate, Vu

(10.0 * 30) = (17.0 * X) + [9.0 * (30-X)] =

300 = 17X + 270 - 9X
30/8 = X

X = 3.75 gallons per minute

Underflow Rate Volume

(30 - X) = (30 - 3.75) = 26.25 gallons per minute

Effluent Rate Volume

Feed Rate, Vf = 30 gpm Effluent Rate, Ve = 26.25

Feed Density, Df = 10.0 ppg Effluent Density, De= 9.0

Underflow Rate, Vu = 3.75

Underflow Density, Du = 17.0 ppg

B.7
2) Calculate the Low Gravity Solids Removed per minute.

a) Calculate the low gravity solids in the underflow:

Let X = the decimal fraction low gravity solids

17/8.33 = X(2.6) + (1-X)

2.04 = 2.6X + 1 - X
1.04 = 1.6X
X = 1.04/1.6 = .65 or 65% solids in underflow

b) Calculate the low gravity solids removed:

3.75 * .65 = 2.44 gallons of low gravity solids

removed per minute

3) Calculate the equipment effectiveness, compared to dilution

a) Dilution: Assume the 9.0 ppg fluid is the desired fluid. It contains
5% solids. The equivalent dilution required to treat the solids
removed is the volume removed divided by the desired fraction of
solids.

2.44/.05 = 48.8 or 49 gallons per minute dilution

required to match the machines
effectiveness
or (49 gal./min. * 60 min./hr.)/ 42 gal./bbl.
= 70 bbls per hour equivalent dilution

Dilution Cost = Volume * (Mud Unit Cost +

Disposal Unit Cost)

Cost: $ = 70 * ($15 + $10)

$1,750 per hour is Equivalent Dilution Cost

B.8
b) Mechanical Treatment Cost =[Liquid Volume Lost * (Mud Unit Cost +
Disposal Unit Cost)] + Equipment Cost

3.75 X (1-.65) = 1.3 gallons of liquids

removed per minute OR
(1.3 X 60 min/hr)/ 42 gal/bbl = 1.85 bbl/hr liquids removed

Cost: $ = [ 1.85 X ($15 + $10) ] + $600/24

$71.25 = Cost to Remove the LGS

4) Calculate the economic benefits

$ = (cost to remove) - (cost to dilute)

$ = $71.25 - $1,750

$ = $(1,678.75)

$ in ( ) = Savings, Removal compared to Dilution

Therefore, in this example, prompt and continuous removal of drilled

solids will save $1,679 per hour!

B.9
Method for Comparison of
Cyclone Efficiency

Assuming Identical: Mud

Feed Volume
Feed Pressure

Where: D = Density
V = Volume Rate
UF = Underflow

CASE #1: When DUF1 = DUF2 Then higher VUF = Greater Efficiency,
since a greater volume of solids is
being removed at the same
liquid/solids ratio.
CASE #2: When VUF1 = VUF2 Then higher DUF = Greater Efficiency,
since more solids (and less liquid) are
being removed in the same underflow
volume.
CASE #3: When one cone has higher DUF and higher VUF, then that cone
is operating at significantly greater efficiency.

Note: When none of the above conditions occur, or for specific numerical
accuracy, See Appendix A.

B.10
Conversion Constants and Formulas

A. Conversion Constants
Specific Gravity (SG) Water ............................................1.0
1 Gallon of Water ............................................................8.34 lb
1 cu. ft. of Water..............................................................62.4 lb
1 Barrel (42 gallons) of Water.........................................350 lb
100’ Column of Water Exerts Hydrostatic
Pressure of.....................................................................43.3 psi
Clay (SG=2.5)...................................................................875 ppb
Barite (SG=4.3) ................................................................1506 ppb
Calcium Carbonate (SG=2.7) ..........................................945 ppb
1 Barrel (42 Gallons) .......................................................5.6146 cu ft
1 Cubic Foot ....................................................................7.48 gal

B. Conversion Formulas
MULTIPLY BY TO OBTAIN
sp gr (specific gravity) ..............62.4 ............pcf (pounds/cubic feet)
sp gr .............................................8.34 ..........ppg (pounds/gallon)
ppg (pounds/gallon)...................0.052 ........psi/ft
bbl (barrels) .................................0.157 ........m3 (cubic meters)
bbl ..............................................42.0 ............gal
bbl ................................................5.615 ........ft3 (cubic feet)
ft3 (cubic feet) ..............................0.0283 ......m3
ft3 ..................................................7.48 ..........gal
gal (gallons).................................0.00379 ....m3
lb (pounds)..................................0.454 ........kg (kilograms)
miles.............................................1.609 ........km (kilometers)
ft (feet) .........................................0.305 ........m (meters)
in. (inches)...................................2.54 ..........cm (centimeters
psi (pounds/in2)...........................6.895 ........kPa (kilo-Pascals)
psi.................................................0.069 ........bar
psi.................................................0.07 ..........kg/cm2
kg/m.............................................0.01 ..........kP/m
sp gr .......................................1000.0 ............kg/m3
ppg (pounds/gallon) ...............119.8 ............kg/m3
ppg ...............................................0.1198 ......kg/liter
pcf (pounds/cubic feet) ............16.02 ..........kg/m3
ppb (pounds/barrel) ...................2.85 ..........kg/m3
psi/ft ...........................................22.61 ..........kPa/m

C.1
Density of Common Materials

Specific Gravity of Common Materials (Average)

MATERIAL SP GR PPG PPB

Barite 4.3 35.9 1506
Bentonite 2.4 20.0 840
Calcium Carbonate 2.7 22.5 945
Cement 3.2 26.7 1120
Clays, Drilled Solids 2.6 21.7 911
Diesel Oil 0.84 7.0 294
Dolomite 2.9 24.2 1016
Fresh Water 1.0 8.33 350
Galena 6.5 54.1 2272
Gypsum 2.3 19.2 806
Iron 7.8 65.0 2730
Iron Oxide 5.1 42.5 1785
Lead 11.4 95.0 3990
Limestone 2.8 23.3 980
Salt 2.2 18.3 769
Sand (Silica) 2.6 21.7 911

C.2
Hole Capacities

HOLE
DIAMETER CAPACITY CAPACITY
(INCHES) (BPF) (GPF)
4 3/4 .0219 .92
5 5/8 .0307 1.29
5 7/8 .0335 1.41
6 .0350 1.47
6 1/8 .0364 1.53
6 1/4 .0379 1.59
6 1/2 .0410 1.72
6 5/8 .0426 1.79
6 3/4 .0442 1.86
6 7/8 .0459 1.93
7 3/8 .0528 2.22
7 5/8 .0564 2.37
7 3/4 .0583 2.45
7 7/8 .06.2 2.53
8 3/8 .0681 2.88
8 1/2 .0701 2.94
8 5/8 .0722 3.03
8 3/4 .0734 3.12
9 1/2 .0876 3.68
9 5/8 .0899 3.78
9 7/8 .0947 3.98
10 5/8 .1096 4.60
12 1/4 .1456 6.12
13 1/2 .1769 7.43
14 3/4 .2112 8.87
17 1/2 .2973 12.49
26 .6563 27.56

Formula: Volume (Barrels) = (Hole Diameter in Inches)2 * Length in Feet

1029.44

OR (Hole Diameter in Inches)2 * .(Length in Feet) * 0.00097

C.3
Pounds per Hour Drilled Solids — Fast Rates

C.4
Pounds per Hour Drilled Solids — Slow Rates

C.5
C.6

Solids Content Chart

70

SOLIDS CONTENT - % BY VOLUME

60

er
at
50 W
&
lids
y So
avit
40 Gr
w
Lo n
s ing m solid
s
onditio
30 tu maximu Go od C
ten d s in ds
on u
d M sol i ater
s C
o f Fiel inimum d s &W
lid ang
e m oli
So te R ty S
20 i m a G ravi
rox Hig
h
App sing
n t u
onte
l i d sC
10 So

0
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
MUD WEIGHT - LBS/GAL
Pre-well Project Checklist

Well Design: Where is the well being drilled?

What type of well is it — wildcat, development, injection, etc.
What problems are anticipated?

Drilling Program: What are the hole size, casing points, and washout factors?
What is the expected rate of penetration?
What type bit?
What is the mud program?
Are there any environmental restrictions?
What rig is being considered?
Any anticipated hole problems?

Equipment and
Vendor Capability: What size and type of solids need removal?
What equipment is already installed?
What is its process rate and expected removal efficiency?
Are there sufficient mud compartments?
Is the equipment installed properly?
What additional equipment is needed?
What is expected downtime?
What are the power and fuel requirements?
What rig modifications are required?
What is vendor experience and safety record?
Is H&S Plan available?

Logistics: Where is the location?

Where is the local stock/service base?
What on-site spares are required?
How many additional people are required?
Do they need housing or meals?
What personal protective equipment is required?

Environmental
Issues: What are the preferred mud treatment and disposal options?
What are preferred cuttings treatment and disposal options?
Is analytical testing required?

Economics: What is the mud cost?

What is the equipment acquisition and installation cost?
What is the expected operating cost?
What is the expected disposal and site remediation cost?

What are the expected savings?

D.1
Screen Cloth Comparisons
SCREEN SCREEN SEPARATION POTENTIAL, IN µ CONDUCTANCE
CLOTH TYPE DESIGNATION D16 D50 D84 IN KD/MM
MARKET 10x10 1678 1727 1777 49.68
GRADE CLOTH 20x20 839 864 889 15.93
30x30 501 516 531 8.32
40x40 370 381 392 4.89
50x50 271 279 287 2.88
60x60 227 234 241 2.40
80x80 172 177 182 1.91
100x100 136 140 144 1.44
120x120 114 117 120 1.24
150x150 102 105 108 1.39
200x200 72 74 76 0.68
250x250 59 62 63 0.78
325x325 43 44 45 0.44
TENSILE 20 1011 1041 1071 0.93
BOLTING 30 662 681 700 24.33
CLOTH 40 457 470 483 11.63
50 357 368 379 7.94
60 301 310 319 5.60
70 261 269 277 5.25
80 218 224 230 3.88
94 175 180 185 2.84
105 160 165 170 2.77
120 143 147 151 2.51
145 116 119 122 2.03
165 104 107 110 1.86
200 84 86 88 1.49
230 72 74 76 1.30
EXTRA FINE 24 508 715 824 20.69
CLOTH, 38 317 429 528 11.86
3-LAYERED 50 234 324 390 6.77
70 171 234 274 4.73
84 131 181 223 3.62
110 107 151 185 3.00
140 86 118 143 2.38
175 66 95 113 1.86
210 57 81 100 1.67
250 51 72 85 1.45
HIGH 45 270 353 379 9.81
CONDUCTANCE 50 216 274 301 7.66
CLOTH, 60 184 240 267 5.75
3-LAYERED 70 158 208 221 5.01
80 145 186 192 4.08
100 112 142 154 3.00
125 92 120 131 2.53
150 78 107 117 2.15
180 62 85 93 1.82
200 52 69 77 1.55
230 47 60 69 1.27
265 39 50 55 0.96
310 35 45 51 0.82

D.2
 Brandt/EPI Vibrating Screen Separators
MODEL MOTION DECKS SCREENS/ SCREEN DECK TYPE SCREEN SCREEN VIBRATOR G-FORCE WEIR DIMENSIONS WEIGHT, COMMENTS
DECK ANGLE TYPE AREA, SQ FT HEIGHT LXWXH LBS

ATL-1000 L 2 1/3 A O/F H/P 10.8/25 G 4.2 43 93x71x64 4,300 Scalping deck, also avail-
able as drying shaker
ATL-1200 L 1 3 A F P 25 G 4.2 40 93x71x49 4,100 Low profile ATL

ATL-CS C/L 3 1/1/3 F/F/A O/U/F H/H/P 20/20/25 B/G 4.9/4.2 79 93x77x87 8,000 Cascade tandem over ATL

ATL-CS/LP C/L 3 1/1/3 F/F/A O/U/F H/H/P 20/20/25 B/G 4.9/4.2 67 93x77x74 7,750 Low profile cascade shaker

LCM-2D L 1 3 A O P 33.7 C 2.5-6.4 52 120x69x62 5,200 Dewatering deck

(patent pending)
LCM-2D/CS C/L 3 1/1/3 F/F/A O/U/F H/H/P 20/20/33.7 B/C 4.9/2.5-6.4 70 120x80x80 9,385 Cascade version of LCM-2D

LM-3 L 1 3 A O P 33.7 B 4 32 141x69x62 5,000

Tandem C 2 1 F U/U H 20/20 B 4.9 38 79x72x52 2,865 Dual, triple, and quad
available
Standard E 1 1 F U H 20 B 2 36.25 79x64x44 1,800 Dual units available

Motion L = linear, C = circular, E = unbalanced elliptical Screen Type H = hook strip screen, P = pre-tensioned panel
Screens/deck number of screen panels in each deck, beginning with the top deck Screen Area Total screen area, beginning w/ top deck. If Pinnacle® screens are used, multiply area X 1.4
Screen Angle F = fixed, A = adjustable Vibrator B = belt, G = gear box, C = canister direct drive
Deck Type O = overslung screens, U = underslung screens, F = flat G-Force Total acceleration, beginning with the top screen basket.
D.3
D.4
Brandt/EPI Mud Conditioners
ATL-16/2 L 1 3 A F P 25 G 4.2 40 115x77x93 7,500 1000 gpm, three-stage mud
conditioner
ATL-2800 L 1 3 A F P 25 G 4.2 40 122x77x92 7,500 1680 gpm, two-stage mud
conditioner
LCM-2D L 1 3 A O P 33.7 C 2.5-6.4 52 130x80x90 6,335 1000 gpm, three-stage mud
MC conditioner

Brandt/EPI Liquid Recovery Shakers

SCREENS/ SCREEN SCREEN SCREEN WEIR DIMENSIONS WEIGHT,
MODEL MOTION DECKS DECK TYPE AREA, SQ FT VIBRATOR G-FORCE COMMENTS
DECK ANGLE TYPE HEIGHT LXWXH LBS

ATL-Dryer L 1 3 A F P 25 G 4.2 N.A. 93x77x49 7,500 includes liquid recovery

tank and pump
SDW-Dryer L 1 4 A F P 33.3 G 4.2-7.0 N.A. 134x78x66 8,300 includes liquid recovery
tank and pump
Motion L = linear, C = circular, E = unbalanced elliptical Screen Type H = hook strip screen, P = pre-tensioned panel
Screens/deck number of screen panels in each deck, beginning with the top deck Screen Area Total screen area, beginning w/ top deck. If Pinnacle® screens are used, multiply area X 1.4
Screen Angle F = fixed, A = adjustable Vibrator B = belt, G = gear box, C = canister direct drive
Deck Type O = overslung screens, U = underslung screens, F = flat G-Force Total acceleration, beginning with the top screen basket.
 Brandt/EPI Degassers
MODEL TYPE NOMINAL FLOW, VACUUM RANGE BAFFLE AREA, DIMENSIONS, WEIGHT, LBS COMMENTS
GPM INCHES HG SQ. IN LXWXH
DG-5 VJ 500 7-20 - 29 max 9,956 88x54x62 2,390 Rated top performing unit in comparative degasser test
conducted by Amoco Production Research.
DG-10 VJ 1,000 7-20 - 29 max 32,060 100x60-x77 3,900 Similar design to DG-5, larger capacity.
Type VJ = vacuum, emptied by jet pump Drive E = electric, H = hydraulic

Brandt/EPI Hydrocyclones
MODEL DIAMETER, INLET TYPE CONSTRUCTION UNDERFLOW FEET FLOW RATE, COMMENTS
INCHES ADJUSTMENT HEAD GPM

Desander 12.2 Circular involute Poly Fixed, available in 1.5”, 75 495 Three piece cone, available as 1, 2, or 3-cone units,
1.75”, and 2.125” apex upright or canted header configuration
Desilter 3.9 Rectangular Poly w/ ceramic Adjustable 75 66 Two piece cone, available in 4-32 cone units
involute liner 0.125” to 0.69”
D.5
 Brandt/EPI Decanting Centrifuges
D.6

BOWL SIZE, ROTATING SPEED RANGE, GEARBOX BOWL/CONVEYOR RPM/ CAPACITY, MUD DIMENSIONS WEIGHT, LBS
MODEL BOWL TYPE DRIVE COMMENTS
IN ASSY RPM RATIO DIFFERENTIAL G-FORCE WT/GPM LXWXH
SC-1 18x28 Contour CS E 1350-2000 80:1 Fixed/ 1350/466 9.0/150 103x46x32 3,920 Barite recovery, viscosity
double lead 2000/1022 10.0/70.0 control 6 TPH (tons per
17.0/20 hour) solids capacity
CF-1 18x28 Contour CS E 1600-2000 40:1 Fixed/ 1600/654 9.0/90 111x63x61 4,700 Barite recovery, viscosity
single lead 1650/696 12.0/60 control 4 TPH (tons per
2000/1022 16.0/30 hour) solids capacity
18.0/25
SC-2 18x30 Contour CS E 1350-2250 59:1 Fixed/ 1350/466 9.0/150 116x53x61 4,500 Barite recovery, viscosity
double lead 2250/1294 control 6 TPH (tons per
hour) solids capacity
CF-2 24x38 Contour CS E 1400-2000 80:1 Fixed/ 1400/668 9.0/175 130x66x63 7,500 Unweighted muds, dewa-
single lead 2000/1363 12.0/60 tering 6 TPH (tons per
16.0/30 hour) solids capacity
18.0/25
SC-4 24x40 Contour CS E 1150-1950 59:1 Fixed/ 1150/451 9.0/250 135x62x93 7,200 Excellent all-purpose cen-
double lead 1350/621 trifuge, 8 TPH (tons per
1950/1296 hour) solids capacity
HS3400 14x49.5 Contour SS E 1750-4000 52:1 Fixed/ 1750/609 9.0/160 98x69x46 4,100 Rugged high speed
H 1750-4000 Variable single lead 2400/1145 12.0/75 decanter. 5 TPH (tons per
Variable/ 2900/1672 15.0/20 hour) solids capacity
single lead 3500/2435 18.0/10
4000/3181
SC-35HS 15x48 Contour SS E 1750-3250 59:1 Fixed/ 2000/852 9.0/150 120x61x60 6,105 High capacity, high speed
H 1750-3250 Variable single lead 2500/1331 12.0/45 decanter. 6 TPH (tons per
Variable/ 3000/1917 15.0/30 hour) solids capacity
single lead 3250/2100 18.0/20
HS5200 16x49.5 Contour SS H 1750-4000 Variable Variable/ 2000/909 9.0/250 95x69x40 7,720 8 TPH (tons per hour)
single lead 2500/1420 solids capacity
3000/2045
3500/2784
4000/3636
4200/4000
Rotating Assy CS = Carbon steel, SS = Stainless steel Drive E = electric, H = hydraulic
Selection of Agitator Size and Number

Select the right size agitator by first locating the tank width on the right
side of the graph. A recommended impeller diameter is shown across the
left side. This impeller size is correlated to the mud weight and the
required horsepower. Simply follow a horizontal line from the impeller
diameter to the curve showing the heaviest anticipated mud weight. Now
locate the nearest vertical line to the right of this point and note the
required horsepower at the top of the graph.

Example:
Agitators are required for a 10-foot-wide tank, 30 feet long, to maintain
weighting materials in suspension for a 12 lbs/gal mud:

Find the tank width (10 ft) and the recommended corresponding
impeller diameter (36 in) on the graph. Follow a horizontal line from the
impeller diameter to the curve of the given mud weight (12 lbs/gal mud —
use the curve on the next higher mud weight). From the intersection of the
mud weight curve and the impeller diameter, locate the nearest vertical
line to the right and note the horsepower at the top of the graph.

This particular application will require a 7.5-hp size Brandt Agitator for
each 10 feet of tank length — a total of three 7.5-hp agitators.

D.7