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Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research

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Image of Vietnam held by US tourists: Initial inquiry

Tran-tuan-Hung , Ingrid E. Schneider & William C. Gartner
a b a a b

Department of Forest Resources, University of Minnesota, USA Department of Applied Economics, University of Minnesota, USA

Available online: 02 Feb 2007

To cite this article: Tran-tuan-Hung, Ingrid E. Schneider & William C. Gartner (2006): Image of Vietnam held by US tourists: Initial inquiry, Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research, 11:2, 147-159 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10941660600727509

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Asia Pacic Journal of Tourism Research, Vol. 11, No. 2, June 2006

Image of Vietnam Held by US Tourists: Initial Inquiry

Tran-tuan-Hung1 , Ingrid E. Schneider1 and William C. Gartner2
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2

Department of Forest Resources, University of Minnesota, USA Department of Applied Economics, University of Minnesota, USA

Global tourism, although affected by international terrorism events and contagious disease, remains relatively robust and still performs important economic and social functions. Asian nations can and should take the potential of foreign tourists seriously. One nation of particular interest is Vietnam. However, the image of Vietnam as a tourist destination is assumed to be relatively unknown, especially among US tourists. Given the critical nature of image as it relates to marketing and development, this is a serious void. The purpose of this project was to examine the image of Vietnam among the attractive US market. Utilizing a combined quantitative and qualitative approach, an on-site questionnaire to US tourists revealed they are mature, afuent and well educated. Factor analysis of quantitative items revealed four key elements in Vietnams image: world heritage sites; atmosphere and attractions; service value; and quality. Content analysis of open-ended questions supported and extended this image by describing Vietnams unique attributes as the world heritage sites, an exciting experience and positive emotion. Common elements included the food, friendly people and beauty. Utilizing this approach, it is possible to conduct a competitor evaluation. Implications for marketers and developers are presented. Key words: Vietnam, image, continuum analysis, resource-based tourism

Introduction
Global tourism, although affected by international terrorism events and contagious disease, remains relatively robust, has shown the ability to recover from negative impacts and still performs important economic and

social functions. The world tourism barometer demonstrates that global tourism has improved after the 11 September 2001 terrorist attacks and the following years SARS epidemic (WTO, 2003). The Pacic Asia region has emerged as a strong region of tourism growth, where international arrivals

E-mail: tran0266@umn.edu

ISSN 1094-1665 print/ISSN 1741-6507 online/06/020147 13 # 2006 Asia Pacic Tourism Association DOI: 10.1080/10941660600727509

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Tran-tuan-Hung et al. recognized as a safe and friendly destination (Vietnam Optimistic, 2003). In 2003, the Vietnam National Administration of Tourism cooperated with tourist companies and provincial tourist departments to organize tourist fairs (in Ha-Noi and Da-Nang cities), festivals (in Nha-Trang and Sa-pa cities) and sports-related tourism. Also, Vietnam has invited many European, Australian and Japanese correspondents and tourist companies to participate in familiarization trips and has launched new publicity campaigns (Tong Cuc Du Lich, 2003a; VnExpress, 2003). Possessing historical, cultural and natural resources, Vietnamese tourism offers numerous products to US tourists. Historical attractions include the remaining citadel of ancient royal dynasties, Hue Imperial City (world heritage site), a mythical one-pillar pagoda and the battleeld of Dien-Bien-Phu (relating to the French occupation), McNamara electronic fence, and the Cu-Chi tunnels. Moreover, the current reconstruction of the

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to Northeast Asia increased by 3% and to Southeast Asia by 5.2% (PATA Region, 2002). Asian nations can and should take the potential of foreign tourists seriously. One nation of particular interest is Vietnam. Vietnam, located in Southeast Asia, has a population of 78,685,800 in an area of 329,241 km2. The Vietnamese economy is historically based on agricultural and maritime products. Recent cultural and societal achievements indicate the stability and serious orientation of Vietnamese development, which includes tourism. Several contextual factors create a rich tourism destination in Vietnam: the historical and cultural extent of 4,000 years of civilization; 3,260 km of seashore; 246,931 km of territory covered with hills and mountainous forest; and a moderate climate. Although the numbers of recorded foreign tourists are smaller than found in neighboring Thailand and Malaysia, they reect a constant increase of 11.5% since 2000 (Table 1). Vietnam is externally

Table 1 Viet-Nams Top 5 International Tourist Markets 1 2 3 4 5

The Main Tourist Markets of Vietnam

1999 China 484,102 USA 210,377 Taiwan 173,920 Japan 113,514 France 86,026

2000 China 626,476 Taiwan 212,370 USA 208,642 Japan 152,755 Cambodia 124,557

2001 China 672,846 USA 230,470 Japan 204,860 Taiwan 200,061 France 99,700

2002 China 724,385 Japan 279,769 USA 259,967 Taiwan 211,072 France 111,546

Source: Tong Cuc Du Lich (2003b).

Image of Vietnam Held by US Tourists historical Ho-Chi-Minh trail also promises historic tours especially for US veterans. Regarding the cultural base for tourism, the stamp of Vietnam civilization is manifested through a large collection of typical temples, the ancient town of Hoi-An, and My-Son sanctuary of Cham people (both world heritage sites). Vietnamese tourism is focusing on traditional festivals as a comparative tourism advantage. Handicraft villages such as Bat-Trang porcelain, Duy-Xuyen silk, NguHanh-Son stone, or Dong-Nai artistic articles provide tourists with plenty of cultural markers to take as souvenirs. Natural resources offer many beautiful scenes throughout the land of Vietnam, such as Hai-Van pass, Ha-Long bay and Phong NhaKe Bang National Park (both the latter are world heritage sites). Beaches are abundant and easily accessible. With an interlacing system of rivers and canals in the Mekong delta, tourists can take a sampan trip to watch scenes of Vietnamese activities and view bird species in many sanctuaries. Others destinations include Ba-Na resort, where tourists can inspire themselves with the fresh air at an altitude of 500 m, or Vam-Sat forest and Binh-Chau hot spring, which the World Tourism Organization has recently certied as world sites of sustainable ecotourism. An attractive market for Vietnam is the USA. In 2002, the US travel services market was US$157 billion. Thus, the number of US tourists represents an important potential market for many international destinations (Euromonitor International, 2003). For Vietnam, however, its image as a potential tourist destination is relatively unknown, especially among US tourists. Although Blaine et al. (1995) proposed image research for Vietnam in the mid-1990s, it was never conducted. Given the critical nature of image for marketing and development, this is a serious void. Thus, this research will advance

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destination image research by extending existing work (Choi et al., 1999; Hui & Wan, 2003) to Vietnam. Further, Vietnamese marketers can use the information to develop tourism to the US market and to understand how Vietnam compares with some of its regional competitors.

Dening Image
Based on various disciplines and objectives, many denitions of destination image have emerged. Amongst them, one focus is the overall impression of an object. An early denition of image was given by Hunt, who stated that the (state) tourism image is the impression that a person or persons hold about a state in which they do not live in (as cited in Gartner & Hunt, 1987, p. 15). Based on this foundation, Fridgen (1984) established the concept of tourism image as a spiritual representation of thing or place through instrumental investigations. Beyond that, because image can describe the total impression of an entity, Dichter (1985) suggested scholars should specically pay attention to overall impression. Thus, although projected from the perception of the subject itself, image is an overall impression of an object. Similarly, Milman & Pizam (1995) dened destination image as the visual or mental impression that people hold from a place or even an experience. Thus, tourism image is inuenced by individuals perception of alternative possibilities and viability of such perception (Kim, 1998, p. 341). Image has another interpretation that rests in the concepts of cognition and affection. In differentiating attitudinal tendencies with image construct, Mazursky & Jacoby (1986) dened image as a set of cognitions and/or effects that are inferred from ongoing perceptions and/or memory inputs attaching to a

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Tran-tuan-Hung et al. organic, induced and autonomous formation agents. Following Gunn and Jenkins, an organic image consists of what a person has accumulated from past travel experiences. Fakeye & Crompton (1991) concurred, and stated that the organic image is an awareness of place that emerged before the interference of destination promoters; but since the order of information cannot be controlled, an organic image, based on visitation or information received from acquaintances who have visited the destination, may be completely different from any pre-trip induced images held. Because image(s) held lead to anticipated experiences, the destination decision stage is reached after taking into consideration time, money and value constraints. By directly integrating and experiencing the destination, a person opens all senses that inuence the creation of a pure organic image. During recall, evaluation and discussion with others on the same trip, a reconstructed image is formed based on synthesized experiences. Hence, destination image may remain similar or completely different from the rst pre-trip image(s) held. Some researchers refer to an organic image formed from actual visitation as reproductive image (Denis, 1991, p. 34), where Phelps (1986) named it as primary in nature. Whatever terms are used to describe the resulting destination image formed from visitation, it is an organic image.

phenomenon. Thus, image is a perceptive phenomenon formed through the subjects interpretation, whether reasoned (cognitive) or emotional (affective) (Dobni & Zinkhan, 1990). Similarly, in the domain of behavioral geography, Jenkins (1999) also implied that the concept of image included all the associated impressions and knowledge (cognition), emotions (affection), values and beliefs. These elements inuence image positively and negatively, with negative images being an obvious challenge to attracting tourists (Schneider & Sonmez, 1999). Another conceptual approach to tourism image is the emphasis on the composite nature of the image construct. A denition of image that many scholars refer to is Cromptons (1979, p. 18), where image is dened as a set or sum of beliefs, ideas, and impressions that people have of a place or object. Clearly, the image processes to a mental construction (remembrances and imaginations) of events [or] objects that have [occurred] or might be encountered (Woods, 1981, p. 196). Compared with the focus on cognition and affection, and particularly on overall impression, this composite approach is more focused on the individuals level of knowledge and experience. Similar in concept composite but different in object from Crompton, Gartner (1993) and MacKay & Fesenmaier (1997) afrmed tourism image as a composite of various products (attractions) with their attributes woven into a total impression.

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Image Structure Image Theory

Based on the literature of Gunn (1972), Jenkins (1999) and Gartner (1993), image theory provides a basis for this research. Gartners seven-stage theory represents how images are built, modied and conceived as Image structure includes the product (e.g. quality), the hosts attitude (e.g. communication) and the environment (e.g. facilities) (Milman & Pizam, 1995) of a destination. As a result, both simple and complex image structures have evolved.

Image of Vietnam Held by US Tourists Image structure ranges from unidimensional to multidimensional. Gartner & Hunt (1987) suggested that perception is the most grounded dimension to establish image structure. Beyond a unidimensional structure, other scholars identify image with two psychological areas: cognition and affect (Assael, 1981; Hanyu, 1993; Russell et al., 1989; Russell & Pratt, 1980; Zimmer & Golden, 1988). However, Echtner & Ritchie (1991, 1993) suggested that three dimensions exist: (1) the place image (attribute versus holistic); (2) functional (tangible) and the psychological (abstract) characteristics; and (3) common or unique features of the place. Functional here is understood as observable or measurable characteristics (e.g. price, climate), while psychological refers to less tangible characteristics (e.g. atmosphere, romance of setting). Also, the functional characteristics may be common (that is, comparable to other destinations, e.g. type of hotels, climate) or unique (that is, dened as icon and special events, e.g. pyramid, national music festival). Similarly, psychological characteristics may be common or identied as abstract attributes (e.g. friendliness, notoriety or beauty of landscape), or unique or determined as emotional attributes (e.g. feelings associated with religious or historical places and destinations (Jenkins, 1999)). Both categories and aspects form the third image dimension. In short, this model consists of three dimensions containing attribute/holistic, functional/ psychological and unique/common images.

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Image Measurement
Researchers have utilized various methods to assess destination image. The majority of researchers traditionally used an attribute list to measure the functional elements of destina-

tion such as attractions, facilities, etc. (Echtner & Ritchie, 1991, 1993). Quantitative approaches use standardized instruments and are easy to manage (Pizam & Mansfeld, 1999). Most of these statistical procedures involve bivariate methods of t-test and correlation or multivariate methods of factor analysis, cluster analysis, analyses of variance (ANOVAs) and multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVAs). Structured methodologies have been, traditionally, the choice of image researchers, from which the measures for the cognitive and affective image of destination are easily derived. Gartner (1996), in relating scale techniques to factor analysis, also discussed that they hold a function of data-reduction and allow for image exploration. Meanwhile, Baloglu & Brinberg (1997) and Walmsley & Young (1998) argued that the semantic differential scaling methods have been preferable for measuring affective image. In contrast, qualitative approaches allow for liberal descriptions and enable the capture of the holistic components of image (Pizam & Mansfeld, 1999). Data for qualitative assessments are usually collected from focus groups, in-depth interviews, or open-ended questionnaires. As a free-form description of image measurement, the success of this approach depends upon the verbal and/or writing skills of the individuals participating in the study, their knowledge of the product, and their willingness to provide multiple responses (Pizam & Mansfeld, 1999, p. 215). Another tool for this unstructured approach is the continuum analysis proposed by Echtner & Ritchie (1991), which Choi et al. (1999) successfully adapted and other researchers replicated (e.g. Hui & Wan, 2003). A combined approach of quantitative and qualitative assessment that uses factor analysis and continuum analysis was deemed most

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Tran-tuan-Hung et al. The second section contained a quantitative subset of 24 items adapted from Choi et al. (1999) and Hui & Wan (2003). A seven-point Likert scale, rating from one, strongly disagree, to seven, strongly agree, measured the functional and psychological attributes of image. For instance, respondents dened their levels of disagreement or agreement that cultural activities are available or Vietnam is not a good place for shopping. To capture the functional, psychological, holistic and unique components of Vietnamese tourism, the third section adapted three open-ended questions proposed by Echtner & Ritchie (1993). These questions allow participants to list words freely about Vietnams images or characteristics, atmosphere or mood, and distinctive or unique attractions. The fourth section included six socio-demographic questions: state of residence, sex, age, education and annual income. Intention to return was also queried.

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useful in this research (Choi et al., 1999; Hui & Wan, 2003). This approach allowed the authors to incorporate functional-psychological attributes from the attribute list with functional-psychological holistic images, and common and unique components from openended questions. Utilizing this approach, several image factors should emerge, offering a three-dimensional view of image that is more complete than either method utilized alone. Further, this will also allow for image comparisons between competing regional tourism destinations.

Methods Questionnaire Development

Both quantitative and qualitative responses appear necessary to measure accurately destination image (Echtner & Ritchie, 1993). Therefore, in light of Choi et al. (1999), Schneider & Sonmez (1999), Sonmez & Sirakaya (2002) and Hui & Wan (2003), an on-site questionnaire for US tourists to Vietnam was developed. The on-site questionnaire allows the current, organic image of Vietnam to be captured. As US tourists are in the act of visitation, they are not inuenced by other sources in the postvisitation phase (i.e. complex image). The questionnaire was pre-tested with a group of potential visitors and several questions were reworded to ease comprehension. The nal questionnaire consisted of four sections with a total of 16 main questions. The rst section contained six questions on general travel experiences. The questions focused on the number of trips abroad, number of trips to Asia and Vietnam, and year of the rst trip to Vietnam. In addition to travel purpose, the primary information source prior to the current trip was queried.

Sample and Sampling

Questionnaires were distributed to a convenient sample of US tourists in Vietnam from January 2003 to April 2004. As the tourist season in Vietnam is from September to May, the timing of the survey was optimal. Trained and cooperating tour guides in Da-Nang city (Central Vietnam) presented self-administered questionnaires to 100 US tourists in Vietnam on the last day of their guided tours. All visitors asked to complete the questionnaires complied with the request (n 100). Notably, these guides were not associated with a particular guiding company and could be solicited by any tourist company, thus reducing any dependency bias. The voluntary nature of the questionnaire was explained prior to the US tourists invitation to participate in the research. To enhance

Image of Vietnam Held by US Tourists the probability of responses, an incentive of US$1 was included when the questionnaire was distributed.

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Data Analysis
Using SPSS software, data were entered, cleaned and analyzed. Descriptive and factor analyses were used to assess image scores quantitatively. The 24 Likert scale image questions were analyzed using principal components and varimax rotation to reduce the large number of variables to a smaller set of factors, allowing a better representation of the Vietnamese image dimensions underlying the initial variables. Following Hair et al. (1995), statements with factor loadings less than 0.40 and cross loadings were dropped from the list and only factors with eigenvalues 1 or higher were selected. Factor reliability was determined to be acceptable with a Cronbachs alpha value of 0.60 or greater. The open-ended responses listing images, mood and attraction evaluations were content analyzed. Specically, these variables are categorized by holistic, functional/psychological and common/unique images, computed by percentage, and are displayed according to a framework adapted from Choi et al. (1999) and Hui & Wan (2003). Dual coders created the codes that were combined in a continuum analysis to present a three-dimensional image of Vietnamese tourism (Jenkins, 1999).

more than half the respondents were female (53%; Table 2). Half (50%) of the participants were 60 or more years of age. US visitors were, overall, highly educated, as 22.4% had attended graduate school and 42.9% held a graduate degree. Similarly, visitors were afuent, as 60% indicated annual

Table 2

Prole of Respondents Frequency Percentage

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Results Respondents
US visitors were mature, afuent and had graduate education experiences. Slightly

Sex (n 100) Female Male Age (n 100) 23 29 30 39 40 49 50 59 60 and over Level of education (n 98) Technical school Some college College degree Graduate school Graduate degree Annual income (n 90) Less than US$25,000 US$25,000 49,999 US$50,000 74,999 US$75,000 99,999 US$100,000 124,999 US$125,000 149,999 US$150,000 and more

53 47 6 10 5 29 50

53 47 6 10 5 29 50

1 9 24 22 42

1 9.2 24.5 22.4 42.9

6 5 15 10 20 14 20

6.7 5.6 16.7 11.1 22.2 15.6 22.2

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Tran-tuan-Hung et al. world heritage sites; atmosphere and attractions; service value; and quality (Table 3). Factor 1 was named world heritage sites because it specically consisted of three items: world heritage sites are authentic; world heritage sites are worth visiting; and world heritage sites are unique (a 0.77). Factor 2 represented the atmosphere and attractions of Vietnamese tourism with three items: Vietnamese are friendly; historical places are accessible; and cultural activities are available (a 0.60). Two items, guides are competent and prices are reasonable, were incorporated under factor 3, service value (a 0.74). Finally, factor 4, quality, included two items: tours are fair price-value; and hotels are good quality (a 0.60). The summed means of each factor was above 5.0, which indicated that US tourists had a positive image of Vietnam.

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incomes between US$100,000 and more than US$150,000. Respondents had considerable travel experience abroad, as indicated by their recent travel. In the last 3 years, 50% of the US tourists had engaged in outbound travel from one to four times and 37% from ve to nine times. However, almost all visitors (97%) indicated that this was their rst trip to Vietnam. The primary reason to visit Vietnam, as indicated by 80% of respondents, was to experience its history culture. The majority of US visitors indicated a high likelihood of returning (62.7%).

Factor Analysis of Vietnams Image Attributes

Four factors emerged during the process of factor analysis. These factors were named:

Table 3 Factor Name and Attributes

Factor Analysis of Vietnams Image Attributes Xa 5.98 5.90 6.32 5.76 5.90 6.47 5.91 5.44 6.06 6.02 6.06 5.50 5.41 5.55 SD Factor Loading

a
0.77

Eigenvalue 3.91

Factor 1: World Heritage Sites World heritage sites are authentic World heritage sites are worth visiting World heritage sites are unique Factor 2: Atmosphere and Attractions Vietnamese are friendly Historical places are accessible Cultural activities are available Factor 3: Service Value Guides are competent Prices are reasonable Factor 4: Quality Tours are fair price-value Hotel are good quality
a

0.99 0.90 1.25 0.85 0.97 1.21 1.25 1.13 1.60 1.31

0.80 0.78 0.76 0.60 0.77 0.74 0.72 0.74 0.85 0.82 0.60 0.83 0.74 1.32 1.44 1.70

Measured on a scale where 1 strongly disagree and 7 strongly agree.

Image of Vietnam Held by US Tourists

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Three Continuums Destination Image

of

Vietnams

Based on Jenkinss (1999) image denitions, the upper portion of the table presents the functional and psychological attributes (Table 4). Notable ratings include world heritage sites are worth visiting (6.32), competent guides (6.02), historical sites are accessible (5.91), friendly Vietnamese (6.47), prices are reasonable (6.06) and world heritage sites are authentic (5.90). Among them, the interest of world heritage sites and friendliness of the Vietnamese were evaluated most highly. As mean scores of all items were higher than 5.0, they reected a positive image for Vietnam. Generally, Vietnam is understood and afrmed as a tourism destination through the images of its people and natural resources. Regarding the atmosphere or mood experienced in Vietnam, the dynamic society of Vietnam with its busy, crowded trafc features seemed to be the norm as Vietnam is a small nation with considerable population. Cultural diversity appeared to play a major role in attracting tourists. Finally, the functional/psychological and unique/common components of Vietnams image are indicated in the last two portions of the table. Unique attributes for Vietnam included the world heritage sites, an exciting experience and positive emotion. Common elements included popular spots such as museums or markets, Vietnamese food, and the friendship of the Vietnamese as well as the beauty of Vietnams nature.

Discussion
Vietnams image as a tourism destination for US visitors has been explored through a

combination of closed and open-ended questions. The information has provided the Vietnamese tourism authorities with the ability to compete as a tourism destination for the US market and also reinforced the usability of multidimensional image assessment. Important initially for Vietnam as it works to enhance tourism campaigns, is that its organic image among current US tourists to Vietnam appears to be positive. The three elements of image structure (product, host attitudes and environment) have positive ratings among respondents, as evidenced by their mean scores of ve or above (Table 3). Attractions were viewed as important, accessible and authentic. Thus, the attraction base appears to be solid. Similarly, the hosts were perceived as friendly and tour guides competent, creating a hospitable and comfortable atmosphere for the guest. Based on the image factor structure revealed in this analysis, an essential element of Vietnams future tourism success with the US market will be dependent on maintaining its world heritage sites and accessible attractions while providing value and quality. Beyond indicating a positive image for Vietnam, the results can inform Vietnam marketers on how to differentiate itself from its Asian counterparts. One of the image factors is similar between Hong Kong and Vietnam: Activities and atmosphere (Choi et al., 1999). However, service value is central to Vietnams image, in contrast to Hong Kongs most important factor of tourist information and shopping (Choi et al., 1999) and Singapores political stability and personal safety and convenience (Hui & Wan, 2003). Subsequently, a key element for tourism marketing could be the value and high-quality service available in Vietnam, which would be in sharp contrast to other regional destinations. Retaining the quality and service is

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Tran-tuan-Hung et al. et al., 1999) and Singapores good shopping place and safe place to visit (Hui & Wan, 2003). The common images of Vietnam are represented by the popular spots and friendly attitude of the Vietnamese, whereas Hong Kong and Singapore share good shopping places, and good transportation. Hong Kong is close to Vietnam in terms of friendly and helpful people, while modern is a central aspect of Singaporean image. Vietnam has the ability to add to its differentiation from these competitors by capitalizing on the natural and cultural elements that it offers, through world heritage sites and other attractions. A mainstay in its

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an important element in product consistency in Vietnams tourism area. Regarding the continuum analysis, world heritage sites and friendly Vietnamese were considered Vietnams principal functional and psychological characteristics, as indicated by their mean scores (Table 4). In contrast, both Hong Kong and Singapore are a safe place to visit, while Hong Kong also provides a wide variety of products (Choi et al., 1999) and Singapore has many modern buildings (Hui & Wan, 2003). Vietnams holistic images are mainly Vietnamese people and panoramic nature, which differ markedly from Hong Kongs metropolis/skyscrapers (Choi

Table 4

The Attribute/Holistic, Functional/Psychological and Unique/Common Images of Vietnam X a/ (%) 2. Psychological X/ (%)

2. Functional 1. Attribute World heritage sites are worth visiting Competent guides Historical places are accessible 1. Holistic Vietnamese people Panoramic nature Lengthy history 3. Unique Hoi-An ancient town Hue imperial city Ha-Long bay 3. Common Popular spots Vietnamese food Tropical climate
a

6.32% 6.02% 5.91%

Friendly Vietnamese Prices are reasonable World heritage sites are authentic Dynamic society Interesting destination Diverse culture Exciting experience Positive emotion Development process Friendly attitude Scenic beauty Pleasant feeling

6.47% 6.06% 5.90%

34% 34% 30% 42% 40% 27% 32% 15% 13%

36% 29% 25% 25% 16% 9% 70% 36% 12%

Measured on a scale where 1 strongly disagree and 7 strongly agree.

Image of Vietnam Held by US Tourists current tourism campaign, these elements appear essential for this group of respondents from the USA. Nonetheless, challenges remain for Vietnam to distinguish itself. The physical environment around Vietnams tourist sites is challenged by litter and other forms of pollution. Specic challenges include paper litter, animal manure and standing water among disorganized shopping stalls where illegally collected tourist fees negatively impact visitors (Loi, 2003).

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Conclusion
Regarding destination image dimensionality, both the factor and continuum analyses support the existence of multiple dimensions within Vietnams tourist image. Although a smaller number of factors emerged in this project than in other work (Choi et al., 1999; Hui & Wan, 2003), they are unique and reliable. These dimensions were supported by the open-ended questions that further rened the image and provide specic attributes that marketers and destination developers can focus on. Thus, Jenkinss (1999) suggestion that the holistic image is important and attainable through qualitative approaches appears to be valid, as demonstrated in this study. The combined quantitative and qualitative approach provides a rich set of information for researchers. As discussed above, measuring destination image from both a qualitative and quantitative approach provides a great deal of product positioning data. This allows for strategic marketing against competitors, as shown in the preceding section. As organic images have the most credibility the results from this study indicate positive word of mouth and a higher probability for repeat visitation.

Both are essential ingredients to establishing long-term successful tourism development. Future research should be carried out to extend the understanding of Vietnams image among US and other attractive international markets. Most importantly, as image differs in the three travel phases of pre-visitation, on-site visitation and post-visitation (Fakeye & Crompton, 1991), future research across these phases could provide a more panoramic assessment of Vietnams image. As mentioned previously, this study has concentrated only on establishing organic images formed by destination visitation. Although this project was conducted with a convenient sample, it provides an important step in understanding Vietnams touristic image. Further, it provides a key understanding of how Vietnam differs from regional competitors such that the value, history and positive host attitude can be nurtured and enhanced.

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