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The Radar Equation

Introduction

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Introduction
• Before target information can be extracted from an echo signal,
that signal must be of sufficient magnitude to overcome the effects
of interference.
• The radar equation is used to predict echo power and interfering
power to assist in making the determination of whether or not this
condition is met. Use of the radar equation accomplishes the
following:

– Assists in the design of radar systems to meet the detection


specifications set by the users.

– Establishes the relationship between the signal power received and


the radar and target parameters

– Describes the power received from interfering sources, including


thermal noise, clutter, jamming, and EMI.

– Provides a means for predicting signal-to-interference ratios, and for


predicting the maximum range at which targets of a given RCS will
produce a specified signal-to- interference ratio.

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• Several parameters affect the signal and interfering power received by the radar system.

– The radar's operating parameters, including


• transmitted power,
• transmitted energy,
• transmitted waveform,
• antenna gain and effective aperture,
• receiver noise performance
• radar system losses,
• and the minimum signal-to-interference ratio for detection

– Target parameters, including radar cross-section (RCS), RCS fluctuations, and the Target’s range

– The propagation medium parameters, including RF energy absorption by gasses and the scattering of RF
energy by particles in the medium.
• With the above in view, The ability of a radar to detect the presence of a
target
is expressed in terms of the Radar Equation
which is worth deriving because of the insight it gives in the way
the radar works.

• We begin with the Transmitter: which has a peak power out put Pt
[ W ].
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• If this power is radiated isotropically by the
antenna, then the power flux ( or, the power
density-per unit area ) at a Range R is given by
• Power flux at distance R = Pt / 4πR2
[W/m2 ] (1)
because 4πR2 is the area of a sphere of radius R through
which all power must pass.
• If the transmitting antenna is not isotropic,
rather it is directional, and concentrates the
power towards the target, the equation (1) is
modified by introducing the Gain Factor Gt.
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• Gain Factor, or Antenna Gain Gt is defined
as the relation between the power density of a
directional antenna in the middle of the main
lobe, and the power density of an isotropic
radiator with the same transmitter power.
• The power flux in the direction of the beam is
now,
Power Flux at the target = Pt.Gt / 4πR2
[ W/m2 ] (2)
• ERP
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• The power effectively radiated by the Transmitter/antenna
combination in the direction of the main beam,is called
Effective Radiated Power, ERP.
• It is the product of the power delivered to the transmit antenna,
and the gain of the antenna.
• Or ERP =Pt.Gt
• Example: A long range ship and land-based
air-search radar can transmit 3MW, with a gain of 4500.
– What is its ERP ?
– To produce the same power in a receiver at a given range, the
isotropic antenna would be connected to what wattage ?
• Forward propagation

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• Example:
– Range of a target from the radar is 300nmi.
– Antenna gain is 4500
– Total transmitted power, Pt is 3MW
Work out the power density of the Forward
Signal ( or Power Per unit area in the beam at
the target’s range).

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• The power flux in the direction of the beam is
now,
Power Flux at the target = Pt.Gt / 4πR2
[ W/m2 ] (2)
• The Target intercepts a portion of this incident
power, and re-radiates it.
• The measure of the incident power intercepted
by the Target and radiated back towards the
radar is called the Radar Cross-Section,
‘RCS, σ’
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• RCS of the Target :
– has units of area.
– indicates how large the target appears to be viewed
by the radar
– is defined as the power radiated towards the radar
per unit solid angle divided by incident flux/4π
steradians.
• depends on
– (1) the angle of incidence at which it is viewed,
– (2) the radar frequency and,
– (3) the polarization used.
• The power re-radiated by the target is now .
= Pt.Gt.σ/ 4πR2 [W] (3)
• Scoop
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• Example: If the target of previous
example has an RCS of 10m2, how
much of illumination power of
0.00348 W/m2 is captured by the
‘scoop’ ?

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• On the return path this power again spreads
out over the sphere of area 4πR2.
• Although it does not usually spread out
uniformly, the 'gain' of the target is
automatically included in the concept of RCS.
• The power density at the radar thus becomes,
Power flux = Pt.Gt.σ/ [4πR2]2 [ W/m2 ] (4)

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• The amount of this returning power that is
intercepted by the antenna is determined by its
effective area, Ae. The mean power received by
the radar, Pr is thus
Pr = Pt Gt σ . Ae /[4πR 2 ] 2 [W/m2 ] (5)

• This is the radar equation in its fundamental


form.

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as Gt = 4πAe/λ2
∴ Pr =
[ 4πAe ] 
.
Pt σAe 
 2 
λ2 [
 4πR 2  ]
PA σ
2

= t e4 2
4πR λ
but same areial is used for transmission and reception, so

4πA e / λ2 = Gt = G r = G and Ae = Gλ2 / 4π

equation (5) can be written in this form :


{
Pr = Pt σAe / 4πR 2 [ ] }.[4πA
2
e / λ2 ]
= Pt σAe / 4πλ2 R 4 .......................(5.a)
2

and since Ae = Gλ2 / 4π from the above discussion,


equation (5) can be written in this form as well :
[
Pr = Pt σ / 4πλ2 R 4 . Gλ2 / 4π][ ] 2

= Pt G 2 λ4σ / ( 4π )( 4π ) λ2 R 4
2

= Pt G 2 λ2σ / ( 4π ) R 4 ................................(5.b)]
3
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• Defining the maximum range Rmax as the
distance where the received signal is
equal to the weakest signal Smin, that the
receiver can detect.
• This definition gives the following
expressions for Rmax:
Rmax = 4 Pt Gt σAe /[ 4π ] S min
2
[m] ....... (6.a)

or Rmax = 4 Pt σAe / 4πλ2 S min


2
[m] .......(6.b)

or Rmax = 4 Pt G 2 λ2σ / ( 4π ) S min


3
[m] .......(6.c)
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• Example: Calculate the maximum range of a
radar system which operates at 3 cm with a
peak pulse power of 500kW, if its maximum
receivable power is 10-13 W, the capture area
of its antenna is 5m2 , and the radar
crossectional area of the target is 20m2.

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• Finally, the inevitable in-efficiencies in a radar
system must now be introduced; which is best done
by lumping together as a System Loss factor, Ls,
assuming it to be less than unity:
• Power received by the radar, from the target is given
by
Pr = [Pt. Gt. Gr. σ. λ2.Ls. ]/[(4π)3.R4] [W] …..(7)
• Though this is a complete description of power
received, it is still not useful because it does not
indicate whether this power is larger or smaller than
the background noise level.
• Unfortunately…
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• Unfortunately noise is always present either as
– (a) internal noise from the electronics, or as
– (b) external noise from
• (i) the galaxy/s
• (ii) the atmosphere
• (iii) man made interference, or even
• (iv) deliberate jamming signals.
• All these noise are wide-band compared to the
radar signal, and one of the functions of the
radar receiver is to tailor the bandwidth to
accept the received signal, without permitting
any unnecessary further noise to enter.
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Average Noise
• Let us say, there is an
Average Noise power,
N present in the Pr Pt Gt Grσλ2 Ls
system. SNR = = [ ]
N ( 4π ) R N
3 4

• Let us now compare


the Power received
from target with the
noise power, in what  Pt Gt Grσλ Ls 
2
1/ 4

is known as SNR or Rmax =   [m]


S/N:  ( 4π ) N ( SNR ) 
3

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Example
• A short-range surveillance radar operates
at 3GHz and uses a 1m diameter dish for
both transmitting and receiving. If the
mean transmitting power is 10kW and the
noise level is -140dBW, then…
• Calculate the maximum range at which a
small aircraft of radar crossection 1m2
could reliably be detected. Assume 5dB
losses and an SNR of 13 dB.

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The Most Familiar Form of
Radar Equation
PGλσ • Valid for point targets
2 2

S N= 4
T
Dimensionless Single Echo
(4π ) . R .L .L K .T
3
.B.F
interfered with by
S A o

Where
P T
= The Transmit Peak Power (Watts)
thermal noise
G = The Antenna Gain (Dimensionless)
σ = The target Radar Cossection (squre meters) generated in the radar
λ = The Wavelength (meters)
R = One Way Range from radar to target receiver.
L S
= The System Loss

L A
= Propagation Path Loss
K = Boltzmann's Constant (1.38 J/ ° K )
T 0
= 290° K
B = Bandwidth (Hz)
F = System Noise Factor (Dimensionless)

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1-Point Targets in Noise
• We are familiar with the
equation relating to signal
power received from a target > σA
P= P G T T e

(4π ) R
2 4

• If the received power from the


interfering sources is known
the signal-to-interference ratio
is found by dividing signal
power by the interfering power
>>

S I= P R
= PGσA
T T e
(Dimensionless)
P (4π ) R P
2 4
I
I

where
S/I = The signal - to - interference ratio
P I
= the interfering power level at the same place
in the system receive power is taken
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The simple form of Radar equation…
• …expressed the maximum
range Rmax in terms of the key P= PGσAT T e

(4π ) R
2 4

radar parameters, and the


target’s radar cross section
when the radar sensitivity was 1
 Pt GAeσ  4
=
Rmax  (4π ) 2 S min 
limited by receiver noise >>  
where
• Except for the target’s RCS, Pt = transmittedpower , W
the parameters of this simple G = Antenna gain
Ae = Antenna effective aperture of the target, m 2
form of radar equation are σ = Radar Crossection of the target, m 2
under the control of the radar S min = Minimum detectable signal , W
designer.

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This radar equation states that if long
ranges are required:
• the transmitted power must be large,
• the radiated energy must be concentrated into
a narrow beam (high transmitting antenna
gain),
• the received echo energy must be collected
with large antenna aperture,( also synonymous
with high gain),
• and the receiver must be sensitive to weak
signals.
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• In practice, however, the simple radar equation does not
predict the range performance of actual radar equipments to a
satisfactory degree of accuracy.
• The predicted values of radar range are usually optimistic. In
some cases the actual range might be only half that predicted.
• Part of this discrepancy is due to the failure of the simple
equation to explicitly include the various losses that can occur
throughout the system or the loss in performance usually
experienced when electronic equipment is operated in the field
rather than under laboratory-type conditions.
• Another important factor that must be considered in the radar
equation is the statistical or unpredictable nature of several of
the parameters.
• The minimum detectable signal Smin and the target cross
section are both statistical in nature and must be expressed in
statistical terms
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• Other statistical factors which have an effect on the radar performance are
the meteorological conditions along the propagation path and the
performance of the radar operator, if one is employed.
• In this discussion, the simple radar equation will be extended to include
most of the important factors that influence radar range performance.
• If all those factors affecting radar range were known, it would be possible, in
principle, to make an accurate prediction of radar performance. But, as is
true for most endeavors, the quality of the prediction is a function of the
amount of effort employed in determining the quantitative effects of the
various parameters.
• Unfortunately, the effort required to specify completely the effects of all
radar parameters to the degree of accuracy required for range prediction is
usually not economically justified.
• A compromise is always necessary between what one would like to have
and what one can actually get with reasonable effort. This will be better
appreciated as we proceed through the discussion and note the various
factors that must be taken into account.

• A complete and detailed discussion of all those factors that influence the
prediction of radar range is beyond the scope of a single session. For this
reason many subjects will appear to be treated only lightly. This is deliberate
and is necessitated by brevity.
• More detailed information will be found in some of the subsequent chapters
or in the references listed at the end of each chapter of your text book

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Minimum Detectable Signal

The ability of a radar receiver to detect a weak


echo signal is limited:
– by the noise energy that occupies the same portion of
the frequency spectrum as does the signal energy.
The weakest signal the receiver can detect is called
the minimum detectable signal.
– The specification of the minimum detectable signal is
sometimes difficult because of its statistical nature
and because the criterion for deciding whether a
target is present or not may not be too well defined.

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• Detection is based on establishing a
threshold level at the output of the receiver.
If the receiver output exceeds the
threshold, a signal is assumed to be
present. This is called threshold detection.
• Consider the output of a typical radar
receiver as a function of time (Fig.).
• This might represent one sweep of the
video output displayed on an A-scope. The
envelope has a fluctuating appearance
caused by the random nature of noise.
• If a large signal is present such as at A in
Fig. , it is greater than the surrounding
noise peaks and can be recognized on the
basis of its amplitude. Thus, if the
threshold level were set sufficiently high,
the envelope would not generally exceed
the threshold if noise alone were present,
but would exceed it if a strong signal were
present.
• If the signal were small, however, it would
be more difficult to recognize its presence.
• The threshold level must be low if weak
signals are to be detected, but it cannot be
so low that noise peaks cross the threshold
and give a false indication of the presence
of targets.

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RECEIVER NOISE
• Since noise is the chief factor limiting receiver sensitivity, it is necessary to
obtain some means of describing it quantitatively.
• Noise is unwanted electromagnetic energy which interferes with the ability of
the receiver to detect the wanted signal. It may originate within the receiver
itself or it may enter via the receiving antenna along with the desired signal.
• If the radar were to operate in a perfectly noise-free environment so that no
external sources of noise accompanied the desired signal, and if the
receiver itself were so perfect that it did not generate any excess noise,
there would still exist an unavoidable component of noise generated by the
thermal motion of the conduction electrons in the ohmic portions of the
receiver input stages. This is called thermal noise, or Johnson noise, and is
directly proportional to the temperature of the ohmic portions of the circuit
and the receiver bandwidth. The available thermal-noise power generated
by a receiver of bandwidth Bn, (in hertz) at a temperature T (degrees Kelvin)
is equal to
Available thermal-noise power = kTBn,
where k Boltzmann’s constant = 1.38 x 10 - 23 J/deg. If the temperature T is
taken to be 290 K, which corresponds approximately to room temperature
(62°F), the factor kT is 4 x 10-23 W/Hz of bandwidth.

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• The Total Noise at the
output of the receiver
may be considered to
be equal to Thermal-
Noise Power obtained
from an “ideal” N noise out of practical receiver
F = = o
receiver X by the n
kT B G noise out of ideal receiver at std temp T
o n a o

Noise Figure Fn where N = noise output from receiver


o

G a = available gain
To = 290 K

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• The available gain Ga
is the ratio of the
signal out, So to the
signal in, Si and kToBn
is the input noise Ni in
an ideal receiver. Eq.
Sin
for Fn may be written N in
as… Fn =
S out
N out
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Re - arranging eqn. for Fn
input signal may be expressed as
kTo Bn Fn S o
Si =
No
 So 
S min = kTo Bn Fn  
 N o  min
Pt GAeσ
R max =
4

( 4π ) kTo Bn Fn ( So / N o ) min
2

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