Professional Documents
Culture Documents
2010
(u ,v)
||u ||||v||
dsourlas@physics.upatras.gr
www.physics.upatras.gr
II
............................................................................................................................................... V
............................................................................................................................................ 1
........................................................................................................................ 1
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
............................................................................................................... 1
.................................................................................................................... 2
- ............................................................................................................ 3
.......................................................................................................................................... 3
........................................................................................... 9
............................................................................................................................ 13
.............................................................................................................................. 13
...................................................................................................................................... 14
......................................................................................................................................... 19
.............................................................................................................................. 19
2.1
......................................................................................................... 19
2.2
.................................................................................................. 22
2.3
................................................................................................................................. 23
2.4 ......................................................................................................... 24
2.5 ................................................ 25
2.6 ....................................................... 26
2.7 ............................................................................. 29
2.8 ................................................................... 29
2.9
........................................................................................................ 32
2.10
........................................................................................................... 32
2.11
................................................................................ 39
2.12
(GRAM-SCHMIDT)...................................................... 42
2.13
.......................................................................................... 47
)
Y, ............................................................... 51
) .......................................................................................................................... 52
) ..................................................................................................... 53
. ................................................................................................................................ 55
................................................................................................................................................. 55
3.1 ................................................................................................................ 55
3.2 ..................................................... 56
3.3 ................................................................................................... 57
3.4 ............................................................................................................................. 59
3.5
.............................................................................................. 60
3.6
......................................................................... 62
3.7 ................................................................................................................................... 63
3.8
................................................................................................... 65
3.9 .......................................................................................................... 67
3.10
................................................................ 68
IV..................................................................................................................................81
.................................................................................81
............................................................................................................................................... 81
4.1
........................................................................................ 81
4.2
....................................... 84
4.3
........................................................................... 86
4.4
......................................................................... 86
4.5
............................................... 89
4.6
............................................................................................................ 89
4.7
.............................................................................................. 90
V...................................................................................................................................93
...................................................................................................... 93
5.1 ........................................................................................................................................ 93
5.2
................................ 93
5.3
....................................................................................................................... 97
5.3
.................................................................................................. 99
5.4
............................................................ 101
5.5
.......................................................................................................................... 104
5.6 ...................................................................................................................... 105
VI ............................................................................................................................... 111
................................................................................. 111
6.1. ...................................................................................................................................... 111
6.2 ............................................... 111
6.3 ...................................................................... 118
6.4 ( HERMITIAN) ................................................... 119
6.5 UNITARY ................................................................. 123
6.6 ......... 125
6.7
............................................................................. 130
6.8 HERMITIAN UNITARY ............................................................. 134
VII............................................................................................................................... 139
HILBERT ......................................................................................................................................... 139
.......................................................................... 139
7.1
............................................................................................................................... 139
7.2
HILBERT .................................................................... 139
7.3 ,
............................................................................................................................................................. 145
7.4
................................................................. 146
7.5
HILBERT............................................................... 147
............................................................................................................................................. 155
............................................................................................................................ 155
, ....................................................................... 155
............................................................................................................................. 156
........................................................................................................ 157
II
.............................................................................................................................................. 157
....................................................................................................... 158
.............................................................................................. 159
....................................................................................................................... 159
....................................................................................................................... 160
, ........................................................................ 160
............................................................................................................................ 165
................................................................................................................ 169
.............................................................................................................................................. 172
....................................................................................................... 176
.............................................................................................. 178
....................................................................................................................... 178
............................................................................................................................................... 182
......................................................................................................................................... 186
III
,
,
, . .
F1 , F2 , ,
F = F1 + F2 . F
F .
|| F >0
<0.
,
. ,
,
() ,
.
.
.
. ,
, ,
.
, ..
,
.
, ,
() . ()
. ..
,
.
,
,
.
.
.
.
V
.
.
,
, (
),
.
, ,
.
.
:
) .
.. , ,
, , ,
,
nn n2 , ..
.
) .
, (
..).
,
.
, () .
, .
' ,
, (), ,
.
3,
,
.
.
,
. ,
.
.
VI
1.1
1.
: .
:
f: AAA
f : (, ) f (, ) = , ,
, ,
.
2.
:
:
)
: ,.
:
f : B A A
,
f : ( , ) f ( , ) =
.
)
: A,B.
:
f :AA B
,
f : ( , ) f ( , ) =
.
1: R , :
+ :RRR
+ : ( , )
+
:RRR
: ( , )
,
, ( ).
2: V , .
V = {v / v = xi + yj + zk , x, y, z R}
v u = x1
y1
z 1 = i (y 1z 2 y 2z 1) + j (z 1x 2 z 2 x 1) + k (x 1y 2 y 1x 2 )
x2
y2
z2
V.
3: (), .
. ()
: (,)()() ()
: (,)()() ()
.
4: LA={f / f: A A}
,
(f,g) LALA f g LA
.
5: V
R , :
: R V V
: ( , v)
v = xi + yj + zk
R V
.
6: V , :
f :V V R
f :(v 1 , v 2 )
f (v 1 , v 2 ) = x 1x 2 + y 1y 2 + z 1z 2
v 1 = x 1 i + y 1 j + z 1k
v 2 = x 2 i + y 2 j + z 2k
V.
, .
1.2
1:
, ( ),
, , (algebraic structure). ,
.
.
1.3
1: G, , (semigroup),
:
(,, , G) [( ) = ( )]
(G, ) .
, , ,
.
2: , (monoid), G
e :
(G)[e=e=]
e , (identity element).
1: , (
), , , ( ),
.
0 , ( 1 ).
2: V
.
:
v (u w) = u(v w) w(v u)
(v u) w = u(v w) v(u w)
:
v (u w) (v u ) w
1.4
1: , (group), (G, ) G
G, :
(, , G) [( ) = ( )]
1.
2.
(e G)( G) [ e = e = ]
3.
( G)( G) [ = = e]
2: :
-3-
4.
(, G) [ = ]
(G,*) .
1: (G, )
G .
,
, ,
.
1: e G .
: G :
+ e=e+=
(1 )
e ,
G
(2)
+ e = e + =
(1) (2) , = e = e
e + e = e + e = e e + e = e + e = e
e = e.
2: G .
:
+ = + = e + = + = e .
= + e = + ( + ) = ( + ) + = e + = .
3: ,, G + = + = .
: + = + + + = + + e + = e + = .
1: , Q , R C
,
, . = + , .
2: nn
C
. :
e=
11 12 1n
22 2n
:
A= 21
n1 n2 nn
:
11 12 1n
22 2n
A= 21
n1 n 2 nn
3: nn
C 0 ,
.
nk
lm k=l
. =AB nm, ij ,
(. i- j-), :
k
ij = ippj
p =1
.
nn,
nn.
, :
(1)
1. :
()=A(B)
=AB E=B =AE . ()ij=(AE)ij
:
n
( )ij = ik kj
ik = illk
k =1
l =1
( )ij = illk kj
(2)
k =1 l =1
(A E) ij = il e lj
e lj = lk kj
k =1
l =1
(A E)ij = il lk kj = il lk kj
l =1 k =1
k =1 l =1
-5-
(3)
0 0
1 0
0 1
3. detA0, -1 :
AA-1=A-1A=I
0
I=
2: =
n
( )ij = ik kj
k =1
4: ,
.
XOY, R
22:
cos sin
R =
sin cos
R R R
:
cos sin cos sin
R = R R =
=
sin cos sin cos
(R
R ) R = R + R = R ( + ) +
R ( R R ) = R R + = R + ( + )
(R
R ) R = R R R (+)+=+(+)
, .:
cos 0 sin 0 1 0
=
R0 =
sin 0 cos 0 0 1
, , R
R =-. :
6
R R = R R = R = R 0
R R = R R
.
5:
:
(f)={f:RR / f= }
f(x) aylor
:
f ( )
f ( ) 2 f ( ) 3
f (x + ) = f () +
x+
x +
x + ...
1!
2!
3!
x:
f (x)
f (x) 2 f (x) 3
f (x + ) = f (x) +
+
+
+ ... =
1!
2!
3!
2
3
= f (x) + f (x) +
f (x) + f (x) + ... =
1!
2!
3!
d
d 2 d 2 3 d 3
dx
= 1 +
+
+
+ ... f (x) = e f (x)
2
3! dx 3
1! dx 2! dx
d
dx
f (x) = f (x + )
:
d
J = T / = e dx , R
J :
d
T Tb = e dx e
d
dx
=e
( + b)
d
dx
= T+ b
:
T ( b Tc ) = T (Tb + c ) = T+ ( b + c) = T( + b) + c = T+ b Tc = (T Tb ) Tc
1.
2.
To
0 = e
d
dx
= 1 :
T0 T = T0+ = + 0 = 0 =
3.
4.
-, :
T - =-=0=1 T- =-+=0=1
T - =T- =0=1
b = T+ b = Tb + = b
= e
d
dx
, (displacement operator).
-7-
. .
3: .
,
.
1 .
6: G :
x
1
1
x 1
, f4(x)= , f5(x)=
, f6(x)=
f1(x)=x , f2(x)=1-x , f3(x)=
x 1
x
1 x
x
R \ {0,1} ,
, ..
x 1
1
x
(f5f3)(x)=f5(f3(x))= f5
=
=1 x =f2(x)
=
x
x 1
1
1
x 1
.
G
.. f5 f3 f5f3
x 1
1
x
(f5f3)(x) = f5(f3(x)) = f5
=
= 1 x = f2(x) f5f3 = f2.
=
1
x 1 1 x
x 1
:
f1
f2
f3
f4
f5
f6
f1
f1
f2
f3
f4
f5
f6
f2
f2
f1
f5
f6
f3
f4
f3
f3
f6
f1
f5
f4
f2
f4
f4
f3
f6
f1
f2
f3
f5
f5
f4
f2
f3
f6
f1
f6
f6
f3
f4
f2
f1
f5
f
, f: N A, f: n f(n)A.
f(n) n
n.
fifj fi
fj .
:
) .
G.
) f1 . (
).
) fi . (
).
.
(i,j,k ) i=1,...,6, j=1,...,6 k=1,...,6
f i (f j f k ) = (f i f j ) f k .
1.5
19
.
, ,
, .
1: f: S S
S S.
1: S M(S).
I: Sx xS S, . (S).
M(S)
.
, .
.
, .
.
.
-9-
n
1 2 3
1 2 3 4
. . s =
s: {1, 2, 3, 4} {1, 2, 3, 4}
2 4 1 3
s(1)=2, s(2)=4, s(3)=1, s(4)=3.
) (1)
, k=s(k) k, k.
1 2 3 4 2 3 1 4 4 1 3 2
s =
=
=
=
2 4 1 3 4 1 2 3 3 2 1 4
) s t t, sSn st
t, s.
) st ts
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
s=
t=
3 2 5 1 4
2 3 4 5 1
:
t
s
1
2
2
st
1
2
t
s
2
3
5
st
2
5
t
s
5
1
3
st
5
3
s
t
3
4
1
ts
4
1
s
t
2
3
2
ts
3
2
s
t
4
5
5
ts
5
5
1 2 3 4 5
t
s
st
3
4
1 3
1 st =
2 5 1 4 3
t
s
st
4
4
5
4
4
1 2 3 4 5
s
t
ts
5
1 3
1 ts =
3
4 3 1 2 5
s
t
ts
1
2
2
4
4
) t s S5 tsst.
Sn .
) st :
10
(1)
s t st t
, ( ), s. :
1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 2 3 4 5 1 1 2 3 4 5
st=
=
=
3 2 5 1 4 2 3 4 5 1 2 5 1 4 3 2 3 4 5 1
1 2 3 4 5
=
2 5 1 4 3
) s-1 sSn s
.
n
n
1 2 3
1 2 3
s=
s 1 =
n
n
1 2 3
1 2 3
1 2 3 4 5
-1 2 5 1 4 3 1 2 3 4 5
. . s=
s =
=
2 5 1 4 3
1 2 3 4 5 3 1 5 4 2
) Sn 123(n-1)n=n!
3: :
x k 1 x k
x1 x 2 x 3
x k x1
x 2 x3 x 4
k
(x1, x2, x3, , xk)
5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4
2: ) (5 4 3 2 1)=
=
4 3 2 1 5 5 1 2 3
) , .
(x1, x2, x3, , xk)=(x2, x3, , xk, x1)=(x3, x4, , xk, x1, x2)=
) 1 Sn, .
(1)=(2)==(n)=1
4: 2 .
3: )
1 2 3 4 5 1 5
=
= (1 5)
5 2 3 4 1 5 1
.
) s s-1=s,
(p q)
p q
q p
=
=
= (q p) = ( p q )
q p
p q
)
-11-
5 3 4 1 2 8 7 6 10 9
:
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
1
5
2
3
4
1,
6
8
6, 7
7, 9
10
9
s=(1 5 2 3 4)(6 8)(7)(9 10)=(1 5 2 3 4)(6 8)(9 10)
5: , ( ), ,
( ), .
5: ) , 1=(pq)(pq)
.
) p>1 p-1 ,
p , ( ), p ,
( ).
6: s.
(s), +1 1 .
:
1, s
(s) =
1, s
6: 1, ( ),
(pq) , (1)=+1, (pq)=-1.
1: ) s=c1c2cp s p
, : (s)=(-1)p.
) (st)=(s)(t), (s-1)=(s) s, tSn.
12
1.6
(, G1 ) [ G1 ]
1:
1: , R
, .
1.7
1: (G,) .
, :
(, , G) [ ( ) = ( )]
(, , G) [ ( ) = ( ) ( )]
(, , G) [ ( ) = ( ) ( )]
(G,) , , (ring),
(G,, ) .
1: G ,
:
) G .
) G .
) .
1: R
, :
) (R ,+) .
) (R ,) .
(,,)[ (+)=+ ]
3) :
(,,)[ (+)=+ ]
2: (G,,
) :
.
-13-
(, G) [ = ]
3: (G,,
, (
), , :
( G) [ = = ]
.
2: (R,+,) .
0 ,
( ), 1
, ( ).
4: 0 b0,
b =0. ,
, (divisors of zero). ,
, (integral domain).
3: 22
.
:
1 1
1 1
A=
B =
0 0
1 1
0 0
: O =
. :
0 0
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0
AB=
=
=
0 0 0
0 0 1 1 0
22 .
1.8
(R,+,.) :
R .
,
, :
( R )( R ) [ = = 1]
0,
. 0,
R-{0} .
.
14
1: , (field), (G,,
, G-{e}
.
1: R, Q C
, .
( R, , ) R ring=
( F, , ) F field=
,
.
-15-
1)
:
)
(G,) , G = ,
)
(G,) , G ={1,-1} ,
)
(G,) , G =Q-{0}
,
)
(G,) , G ={+i / ,}
.
(. ) , ) , ) , , ) )
2)
(G,) : 0=e, n=n-1, -n=(n)-1,
nN. -1 .
) (r+s)t =rt+st.
: ) rs=r+s ) (r)s=rs
3)
(G,) , : ()n=n n ,G
nZ.
4)
5)
(G,),
) ) , -1.
6)
,
7)
(G,)
.
.
8)
(R,+,) :
) 0=0=0 ) (-)=(-)=- ) (-)(-)=
9)
(R,+,) :
) (-1)=-, ) (-1)(-1)=1.
10)
2= R. R . (
Bool)
: =(2)(2) ()=()2.
(2)(2)= ()2 ()()=()() = =
16
11)
(R,+,) . : ( R ,, )
R =R,
++1,
++. ( R ,, )
. .
12)
F={+2 / ,Q } .
13)
D={+2 / ,Z }
.
-17-
2.1
(F, *, ), ( *
F ), V, (
v ), ,
+, ( ), (V,+)
.
():
: FVV
:
1.
( F )( v, w V ) ( v + w ) = v + w
2.
( , F )(v V ) ( ) v = v + v
3. ( , F )( v V ) ( ) v = ( v )
4.
(v V)[1 v = v]
(V, F,+,)
F3,
( F )( v, w V ) ( v + w ) = v + w
2.
( , F )( v V ) ( + ) v = v + v
3.
( , F )( v V ) ( ) v = ( v )
(v V)[1 v = v]
4.
+
+ v + w .
F R
C . F=R V
, (linear space), F=C, V
, (complex space)
, , (superposition
principle).
, .
,
.
.
, .
1: V F :
1. ( F ) 0 = 0
2. (v V) e v = 0
3.
4.
( F )( v V ) v = 0
=e v =0
( F )( v V ) [() v = ( v) = v ]
0 V e
F .
: 1.
V 0 + 0 = 0 .
F:
0 + 0 = 0 0 + 0 = 0
( 0) 0
V, :
( 0 + 0) + ( 0) = 0 + ( 0) 0 + ( 0 + (0) ) = 0 0 + 0 = 0 0 = 0
2.
e F
, :
e e = e (e e) v = e v e v + e v = e v
ev , ( e v V),
, :
( e v + e v ) + ( e v ) = e v + ( e v ) e v + ( e v e v ) = 0
e v + 0 = 0 e v = 0
3.
v = 0 e. -1 1 = 1
- 20 -
v = 1 v = ( 1 ) v = 1 ( v ) = 1 0 = 0 v = 0
=e v = e v = 0 .
4.
:
0 = v + ( v) 0 = 0 = ( v + ( v ) ) = v + ( v )
( v) + 0 = ( ( v) + v ) + ( v) v = ( v)
:
e = ( ) 0 = e v = ( () ) v = v + () v
( v)
( v) + 0 = ( ( v) + v ) + ( ) v v = 0 + ( ) v v = ( ) v
( ) v = ( v) = v
1: R3
,
, R.
2: Rn = R ...R R
n
, : (x1,x2,,xn)
(y1,y2,,yn) (x1+y1,x2+y2,,xn+yn)
R (x1,x2,,xn) Rn, (x1,x2,,xn),
Rn R.
(0,0,,0)
(-x1,-x2,,-xn) (x1,x2,,xn).
Cn C.
3: V 0+1x++nxn, n
i, i=0,1,,n F
F
F.
4: V = {f / f : (, ) R}
, ( ), (,).
.
V R.
- 21 -
5: L = {f / f : (, ) R
f (x)
dx <
Lebesque .
,
L R,
L2(,).
, (function spaces).
6: F , V=Fn
F :
v + u = (v 1 , v 2 ,... , v n ) + (u 1 , u 2 , ... , u n ) = (v 1 + u 1 , v 2 + u 2 ,... , v n + u n )
vi,uiF i=1,,n
.. v, u, ...
2.2
W V F
V, ( ), (vector subspace),
W .
W
:
)
(v,uW)[v+uW]
)
(F) (vW)[vW]
) ) :
(1)
(, F) (v,uW)[v+uW]
: W (1).
: (1), WV
:
)
W
) W W.
:
)
==1 v+uW
=0 u=0 vW
)
- 22 -
1: V R3 W
, ( W
XOY), . W={ (x,y,0) / x, y R }. W
V.
2: V nn
R, W =(ij) ij=ji, ( ),
V.
3: V n.
W k<n V.
4: m n
x1,,xn F=R C:
11x1+ 12x2++ 1nxn=0
12x1+ 22x2++ 2nxn=0
............................................
m1x1+ m2x2++ mnxn=0
W
V=Fn.
: W 0=(0,0,,0)W
. u=(u1,,un) v=(v1,,vn) W,
.
i1u1+ i2u2++ inun=0
i=1,2,m
i1v1+ i2v2++ invn=0
,F u+vW.
u+v=(u1+v1, u2+v2,, un+vn) i=1,2,,m :
(V,F,+,)
, .:
:VV V
:
1. (v , u, w V)[ v (u + w) = v u + v w]
- 23 -
'
2. (v , u, w V)[(u + w) v = u v + w v ]
3.
( u, v V )( F ) [ ( v u) = ( v) u = v ( u)]
v u=u v
(1 V)(v V)[ 1 v = v 1 = v]
.
1: nn ,
.
, ,
, .
2.4
V F v1,v2,,vmV.
V :
w=1v1+2v2++mvm iF
, (linear combination), v1,v2,,vm.
1: SV S V F,
:
L(S)= i v i / i F, v i S
i =1
S, V.
W V, S, L(S)W, . L(S)
V, S. L(S)
S S , (generators).
S L(S).
: viS, 1vi=viL(S), S L(S).
L(S) V,
u, wL(S)
L(S).
u=1v1++nvnL(S) w=1v1++nvnL(S)
u+w=(1+1)v1++(n+n)vnL(S)
- 24 -
' u+w vi .
L(S) V.
W V
S, . SW. v1,v2,,vm S,
W, , . ,
, . c1v1++cmvm
L(S)W.
1: V=R3 S={v1,v2}, v1, v2
XOY, L(S)=R2,
XOY.
2.5
U W V F.
1: U+W={ v=u+w / uU, wW } , (sum),
U W4.
1: U+W V.
: 0U 0W 0=0+0U+W.
v=u+wU+W v=u+wU+W u, uU w, wW,
v+v=(u+w)+(u+w)=(u+u)+(w+w)U+W
2: V , (direct sum), U
W V=UW vV
v=u+w, uU wW. U
W W U .
2: . V U W
:
)
V=U+W
)
UW={0}, 0=
: V=UW vV
: v=u+w, uU wW. V=U+W.
vUW, :
i) vU v=v+0 vU 0W
ii) vW v=0+v 0U vW
v v=0.
UW={0}.
U+W UW.
- 25 -
U = {( , ,0 ) / , R } W = {( 0, , ) / , R }
R3=U+W R3
U W. R3
U W , .. (3,5,7)=(3,1,0)+(0,4,7)
(3,5,7)=(3,-4,0)+(0,9,7). ( UW= { OY}{0}.
(,,)=(,1+2,)=(,1,0)+(0,2,) (,1,0)U
(0,2,)W.
2: , U XOY W o
, .
U = {( , ,0 ) / , R } W = {( 0,0, ) / R }
(,,)R3 U
W :
(,,)=(,,0)+(0,0,)
3
R U W: R3=UW , (UW={0})
2.6
V . F.
v1,v2,,vmV , (linear depentend),
i i=1,2,.m F, , ( i
0), :
1v1+ 2v2++ mvm=0
, (linear
indepentend), . :
1v1+ 2v2++ mvm=0 : 1=0, 2=0,,m=0
1: v1,v2,,vm ,
v1=0, :
1v1+0v2++0vm=10+0++0=0
- 26 -
v1 0. v
:
v=0 v0 =0
1: v1,v2,,vm
, vi
vi=1v1++i-1vi-1.
: vi=1v1++i-1vi-1, 1v1++i-1vi-1-vi+0vi+1++0vm=0
vi . vi i=1,,m
.
: vi, i=1,,m .
1,2,m :
1v1++mvm=0
k , k0. :
1v1 ++kvk+0vk+1++0vm=0 1v1++kvk=0
k=1, 1v1=0 10 v1=0 vi0, i=1,,m. k>1
vk=-k-11v1--k-1k-1vk-1vk-1
vk
.
1:
V=R2 R. v1
y
v2 , . 1,
.
v2
1v1+2v2=0
1=2=0
2v2 1v1=-2v2 .
v1
1v1 2v2
. O
x
1v1 v1
. 1
2v2 v2.
R2 v1, v2, v3 ,
1, 2, 3 :
- 27 -
1
v1
v1
2
v2
y
v1
-v3
1
v2
2
v3
v2 + v3 = 0
(1) :
1 = 1 , 2 = 2 , 3=1.
v1
v2
. 2
k,
1, 2, 3 . R2
.
2: v1=(1,-1,0), v2=(1,3,-1) v3=(5,3,-2)
.
: 1v1+ 2v2+ 3v3 =0 (1,-1,0)+(2,32,-2)+(53,33,-23)=(0,0,0)
1 + 2 + 53=0
(1)
-1 +32+ 33=0
01 - 2 - 23=0
(1) :
1 1 5
1 3
1 3
3 3
1 3 3 = 1
1
+5
= ( 6 + 3) (2) + 5(1) = 3 2 + 5 = 0
1 2
0 2
0 1
0 1 2
1=3, 2=2,
3=-1
( v1, v2, v3
).
3: v1=(6,2,3,4) , v2=(0,5,-3,1) v3=(0,0,7,-2)
.
: 1v1+ 2v2+ 3v3 =0
(61,21,31,41)+(0,52,-32,2)+(0,0,73,-23,= (0,0,0,0)
61=0, 21+52=0, 31-32+73=0, 41+2-23=0 1=2=3=0
v1, v2, v3 .
- 28 -
2.7
1: V F v1,
v2,,vkV. v1, v2, ,vk
, V, (span the space),
uV vi, i=1,,k, :
u=1v1+ 2v2+ . . . + kvk
1: {v1, v2, . . ., vm}
V. :
1)
wV, {w, v1, v2, . . ., vm}
V.
2)
vi ,
{v1, . . ., vi-1 , vi+1, . . ., vm} V.
:
1) wV, w vj {vj}
V, . w=1v1+2v2++nvn 1v1+2v2++nvn-w=0 i
. {w, v1, v2, , vm} .
w vj V vj V.
{w, v1, v2, , vm} V.
2) vi=k1v1++ki-1vi-1 uV. {vj} V, u
vj: u=1v1++ivi++mvm vi
:
u=1v1++ i-1vi-1+i(k1v1++ki-1vi-1)+ i+1vi+1++ mvm=
=(1+ik1)v1++(i-1+iki-1)vi-1+1+1vi+1++mvm
{v1, , vi-1, vi+1, , vm} V,
vi
.
2.8
- 29 -
- 30 -
)
wi Sk .
vi:
Sk m=n
1 )
2 )
vi m<n
)
wi Sk
vi Sk m>n .
() wi
Sk, ( wi ),
Sk
W. W
, .
(), . mn . U W,
. U W
,
mn .
U W
mn nm, . n=m.
: U={v1,v2, ..., vn} W={w1, w2, ... }.
{vi} V n , W={w1,
w2, ...} n ,
. W={w1, w2, ...}
n , U={v1,v2, ..., vn} .
W={w1, w2, ...} n .
2: , (dimension), . V
, . ,
. .
dimV=n. . V ,
(finite dimensions), n<. dimV=, .
, (infinite dimensions).
1: . V={0} 0.
.
n
.
3: n+1 . V n
. n V
V
.
- 31 -
1.
2.
3.
2.9
:
,
.
n .
n+1
. n .
.
. .
1: W . V n, dimV=n,
dimWn. dimW=n, W=V.
: ' dimV=n n+1
. W
n+1 . dimWn.
{w1, w2, , wn} W, '
n V. W=V
dimW=n.
2: U W . V dimV=n, :
dim(U+W)=dimU+dimW-dim(UW).
1: V U W, . V=UW, :
dimV=dimU+dimW.
2.10
, (
),
. , ( ),
. , .
,
. R2
,
.,
.
- 32 -
( v 1 u 1 ) 2 + (v 2 u 2 ) 2
v 0=(0,0) :
v 21 + v 22
v = v 21 + v 22
|v|
.
v u : v u .
, , .
; ,
, (, , ...). ,
,
, ,
.
. v ,
u .
- , ( ), :
cos(-)=coscos+sinsin (1)
v1=OA=cos=||v||cos
u1=OB=Ocos=||u||cos
v2==sin=||v||sin
u2=B=sin=||u||sin
(1) :
v u +v u
cos( ) = 1 1 2 2
v u
v2
(2)
(3)
u2
v1
u1
v1u1+v2u2
,
v u v1u1+v2u2
. v=u
v1u1+v2u2 :
v21 + v22 = v
v . (3)
v1u1+v2u2 ||v|| ||u|| . v1u1+v2u2
:
(v,u)= v1u1+v2u2
- 33 -
:
1)
0 v ( v) = v =
2)
v u = ||v-u||
3)
v u =
(v, v )
( v , u)
v u
(v,u)=v1u1+v2u2
v u :
1.
v u
2.
,
3.
(v,v) v=0 .
R, ( ), v=(v1)
u=(u1) (v,u)=v1u1 (v,u)
, (
). v u :
vu
( v, u )
= 1 1 = 1 -1
cos =
v u
v u
0 .
C2 R2.
v=(v1,v2) u=(u1,u2), ( v1, v2, u1, u2
),
(4)
(v , u) = v1u 1 + v2u 2
v = (v, v) v u
.
2
(*) 3
v , . v
, iv ,
||iv||= v
= i v . (4)
v=u . :
(v , u) = v*1u 1 + v2*u 2
*
1
(5)
*
2
v , v v1 v2 . (v,u)
.
2
, (5).
( v , u)
v u
, (v,u)
, .
3
(v,u) (v,u)=(v,u)
- 34 -
(v,u)=v*u=(v1-iv2) (u1+iu2)=(v1u1+v2u2)+i(v2u1-v1u2)
(v , u) v1u 1 + v2u 2
v u v2u 1
=
+i 1 2
v u
v u
v u
v1u 1 + v2u 2
=cos
v u
1: V F. ,
(inner product), V VVF
( , )4 :
1.
(v,uV)[ (v,u)=(u,v)* ]
2.
(,F)(v,u,wV)[ (v+u,w)=*(v,w)+*(u,w) ]
3.
(vV)[ (v,v)0 (v,v)=0 v=0 ]
F=R, V
, (real inner product vector space).
F=C, V
Unitary . (complex inner product vector space).
(1) (2),
. , (v,u)
, ,
(symmetric bilinear and positive define form). Unitary :
, , (hermitean conjugate
bilinear and positive define form)
(3) norm , u
||u|| :
u = (u, u)
(1)
2.11
, .
1: u,vV Cauchy(u, v) u v
Schwarz:
: v=0 00 . v0 (v,v)0
( v , u) 5
: w = u
v
(v , v )
, ,
<u|v>.
- 35 -
u
w
v
:
( v, u )
( v, u )
( v, u)
( v, u)*
0 (w, w ) = u
(u, v )
( v, u ) +
v , u
v = (u, u)
( v, v )
( v, v )
( v, v )
( v, v )
( v, u)
( v, u)* ( v, u)
2
( v, v ) = u
( v, u ) u v
2
2
( v, v )
v
1: Cauchy-Schwarz :
v
u ,
u ( u, v 0 ) u
v
(u,v0) u
v0 v u. .
2
( u, v )
Cauchy-Schwarz
u v
, cos=
( u, v )
u v
( u, v ) R
u v
( u, v )
u v
Unitary , , ,
(u, v)
(u , v )
cos = Re
u v
u v
,
,
.
, ,
Unitary .
v
v
( v, u )
( v, u )
( v, u )
v=
v
=
,
u
= ( v 0 , u ) v 0
v
2
v
( v, v )
( v, v )
v
u v.
- 36 -
1: R3
, :
(1)
(v,u)=v.u=|v||u|cos=v1u1+ v2u2+ v3u3
.
(1) .
norm v R3 :
( v1 , v 2 v3 ) 0 1 0 u 2 = ( v1 , v 2 v3 ) u 2 = v1u1 + v 2 u 2 + v3u 3
0 0 1 u
u
3
3
,
, 3.
2: Rn
(1), :
(v , u) = v1u 1 + v2u 2 + + vnu n =
v u
k
(2)
k =1
norm v: v =
2
k
k =1
n.
3: (2) Rn.
R2 :
(v,u)=v1u1-v1u2-v2u1+3v2u2
(3)
= [ v1 + u1 ] w1 [v1 + u1 ] w 2 [v 2 + u 2 ] w1 + 3[v 2 + u 2 ] w 2 =
= [ v1w1 v1w 2 v 2 w1 + 3v 2 w 2 ] + [ u1w1 = u1w 2 u 2 w1 + 3u 2 w 2 ] = ( v, w ) + ( u, w )
3.
(v,v)=v12-v1v2-v2v1+3v22=v12-2v1v2+v22+2v22=[v1-v2]2+2v22 0
(v,v)=0 [v1-v2]2+2v22=0 : v1=v2=0 v=0
22
: 22 :
- 37 -
u 1 + u 2
u1
u = ( v1 , v2 ) u + u = v1 ( u1 + u 2 ) + v 2 ( u1 + u 2 )
2
1
2
=v1u1+v1u2+v2u1+v2u2
(v,u)=v1u1-v1u2-v2u1+3v2u2
: =1, =-1, =-1, =3
1 1
:
1 3
( u, v ) = ( v1 , v2 )
4: Rn
:
(v,u)=v1u1+2v2u2++nvnun
: (v,u)=p1v1u1+p2v2u2++pn vnun pi>0 i=1,2,n
2 3 V .. Rn
,
||v||=
( v,v)
.
3: Cn :
(v,u)=v1*u1+v2*u2+ +vn*un
4: V nn
R. (,)=tr(BtA) t tr , (
), tA, .
, V nn
C, (,)=tr(B+A) + ,
.
5: V
, (), x
f,gV
f(x)* f(x) V. f
, (square integrable) :
(f ,f ) = | f (x) |2 dx .
6: V=R4 :
- 38 -
v1
v2
v=
v
3
v4
u1
u2
u=
u
3
u4
0
: M=
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
: (v,u)=vtMu=v1u1+v2u2+v3u3-v4u4, (vt
v), (1) (2) , (3),
. vtMu ,
.
Lorenz, (Lorenz metric).
2.11
,
.
.
1: v, u , (orthogonal),
(v,u)=0.
900. n-
. (v,u)=0, (v,u)=(u,v)*=0
(u,v)=0. , .
.
2: {v1,v2,} , (orthonormal),
(vi,vj)=ij (6
i j.
, (normalized),
.
v
.
v
3: ,
, (complete), .
(6
1 i=j
ij Kronecker : ij=
0 i j
- 39 -
1: . (
n n
).
: {v1,v2,...vn} , j
:
n
v
=
0
v
,
i i i
j i vi = 0
i
j=0,j=1,,n
n
i ( v j , vi ) = iij = j = 0
2: ( Bessel). X={v1,v2,,vn}
v ,
:
| i |2
i
i=(vi,v) . v = v i v i vj.
i
: :
n
n
2
0 v = ( v, v) = v i vi , v j v j =
i
j
= ( v, v) *i ( v i , v) j ( v, v j ) + *i j ( v i , v j ) =
i
:
n
n
n
( v, v j ) = v i vi , v j = ( v, v j ) *i ( v i , v j ) = *j *i ij = *j *j = 0
i
i
i
.
.
3: ={vi} m
V,
.
1. .
2. (vi,v)=0 i=1,2,,m, v=0
- 40 -
3. V, (. V)
m
4. vV, v = (v i , v )v i
i =1
6. vV, || v ||2 = ( v i , v ) = | i |2
2
i =1
i =1
= Bessel.
: :
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (1).
(1) (2).
(1) (2), :
(2) (1).
v
(vi,v)=0, i v0,
,
v
, .
(2) (3) (3) (2).
V, vV
vi i
n
v = i v i .
i
i=(vi,v) :
n
v i v i
i
v = v i v i 0
i
2, v vi
(2)
n
(3) (4). v v = j v j
j
( v i , v ) = j ( v i , v j ) = jij = i : v =
n
(v , v)v
i
= = (u, v )( v , v)
i, j=1
- 41 -
*
j
i ij
*
i
|| v ||2 = ( v, v i )( v i , v ) = ( v i , v )* ( v i, v ) = ( v i , v ) = | i |2
2
(v , v )
i
=0
2.12
(GRAM-SCHMIDT)
,
.
.
,
, Gram-Schmidt,
. 3, [(3)(1)],
.
n, Gram-Schmidt ,
R2.
Bv={v1,v2}
. Bv={v1,v2}
Bu={u1, u2} ||u1||=||u2||=1 (u1,u2)=0 .
v1, ( v2),
v
, u 1 = 1 .
v1
v2
: v1
v1 .
, :
==v2-OB=v2-||OB||u1
(1)
|| OB ||=|| v 2 || cos
A
v2
u2
u1
v1
( v1 , v 2 ) v1
=
, v 2 = (u1 , v 2 ) (2 )
|| OB ||=
( v1 , v 2 ) =|| v1 |||| v 2 || cos
|| v1 || || v1 ||
u2 =
v 2 (u1, v 2 )u1
v 2 (u1, v 2 )u1
u1 u2 ,
:
v (u 1, v 2 )u 1
1
=
(u 1, u 2 ) = u 1, 2
(u1, v 2 (u1v 2 )u1) =
v 2 (u 1, v 2 )u 1
v 2 (u 1, v 2 )u 1
1
1
(u1, v 2 ) (u1, v 2 )(u1, u1)] =
[(u1, v 2 ) (u1, v 2 )] = 0
[
v 2 (u1, v 2 )u1
v 2 (u1, v 2 )u1
n
Bv={v1, v2, ..., vn} Bu={u1, u2,
..., un} Gram-Schmidt :
v1,
:
v
(3)
u1 = 1
|| v 1||
v2, , u1 .
v2 (u1,v2)u1 v2 u1
v2 u1
||v2-(u1,v2)u1|| :
v (u1 , v 2 )u1
u2= 2
(4)
v 2 (u1 , v 2 )u1
v3
u1, u2 v3 u1, u2
.
v (u1 , v 3 )u1 (u 2 , v 3 )u 2
u3= 3
(5)
v 3 (u1 , v 3 )u1 (u 2 , v 3 )u 2
um+1 u1,
u2, ,um vm+1
(u1, vm+1), (um, vm+1), , (um, vm+1)
u1, u2, ,um
:
v (u1 , v m+1 )u1 (u 2 , v m+1 )u 2 (u m , v m+1 )u m
um+1= m +1
(6)
v m +1 (u1 , v m+1 )u1 (u 2 , v m+1 )u 2 (u m , v m+1 )u m
n ,
.
. , ,
.
- 43 -
1: . V=R3
F=R :
Bv={v1=(1,1,1), v2=(0,1,1), v3=(0,0,1)}
Bu
(v,u)=v1u1+v2u2+v3u3.
: (3), (4) (5)
. : ||v1|| =3
u1 :
u1 =
1
3
v1
=
(1,1,1) = (1,1,1)
|| v1 ||
3
3
u2 :
v (u1 , v 2 )u1
u2= 2
v 2 (u1 , v 2 )u1
: (u1,v2)=
||v2-(u1,v2)u1||=
1
1
2
2 1
, v2-(u1,v2)u1=(0,1,1)(1 + 1) =
(1,1,1) = ( 2,1,1)
3
3
3
3 3
u2=
v 2 (u1 , v 2 )u1
3 1
6
=
( 2,1,1) = ( 2,1,1)
6
v 2 (u1 , v 2 )u1
63
u3
v (u1 , v 3 )u1 (u 2 , v 3 )u 2
u3= 3
v 3 (u1 , v 3 )u1 (u 2 , v 3 )u 2
: (u1,v3)=1/3, (u2,v3)=1/6,
v3-(u1,v3)u1-(u2,v3)u2 = ( 0, 0,1)
1 1
1 1
1 1
(1,1,1)
( 2,1,1) = 0, ,
2 2
3 3
6 6
||v3-(u1,v3)u1-(u2,v3)u2||=2/2
2
1 1
1 1
u3 =
0, , = 2 0, ,
2 2
2 2
2
:
6
1 1
3
Bu = (1,1,1) ,
( 2,1,1) , 2 0, ,
6
2 2
3
2: V=C3
F=C. W V
v1=(1,i,0), v2=(1,2,1-i). T
( u, v ) = u1 v1 + u2 v2 + u3 v3 .
- 44 -
: v1, v2
W Bv={v1, v2} .
Gram-Schmidt :
||v1|| =
( v1 , v1 ) =
1 1 + ( i ) i = 2
u1 : u1 =
v1
1
=
(1,i, 0 )
|| v1 ||
2
u2 :
v (u1 , v 2 )u1
u2= 2
v 2 (u1 , v 2 )u1
:
1
1
2
*
(1,i, 0 ) (1, 2,1 i ) = (1 2i ) = (1 2i ) ,
2
2
2
(u1,v2)=
2
1
1 + 2i 2 i
,
,1 i
(1 2i ) (1,i, 0 ) =
2
2
2
2
(1 2i )(1 + 2i ) + ( 2 + i )( 2 i ) +
4
(1 + i )(1 i ) =
18
2
v 2 (u1 , v 2 )u1
2 1 + 2i 2 i
2
=
,
,1 i =
(1 + 2i, 2 i, 2 2i )
2
v 2 (u1 , v 2 )u1
18 2
6
:
1
2
Bu =
(1,i, 0 ) , (1 + 2i, 2 i, 2 2i )
6
2
3: P2(x) .
1
: :
v={v0 = 1, v1,= x, v2=x2}.
Gram-Schmidt
v
u0 = 0
|| v 0 ||
v0
= 11dx = x 1 = 2
1
u0=
u1 :
v (u 0 , v1 )u 0
u1= 1
v1 (u 0 , v1 )u 0
- 45 -
1
2
1 x2
1
( u 0 , v1 ) = x dx =
2 2
2
1
v1
x3
= x dx =
3
1
= 0 u1=
1
v1
v1
3
x
2
u1 =
u2 :
v (u0 , v 2 )u0 (u1 , v 2 )u1
u2= 2
v 2 (u0 , v 2 )u0 (u1 , v 2 )u1
1
1 2
x3
x dx =
( u0 , v 2 ) =
2
3 2
1
v 2 ( u0 , v 2 ) u0 = x 2
2
=
,
3
1
v 2 ( u0 , v 2 ) u0
3 3
x dx =
( u1 , v 2 ) =
2
1
3 x4
2 4
=0
1
2 1
1
= x2
3 2
3
1
1
= x 2 dx =
3
5
1
5
u 2 = 5 x 2 = 5x 2
3
3
P2(x) :
1
Bu = u 0 =
, u1 =
2
3
5
x, u 2 = 5x 2
2
3
1: n .
un :
1
un ( x ) = n
2
( 1) ( 2n 2k )! x n 2k
k = 0 k!( n k ) !( n 2k ) !
1/ 2 n 2
n +
2
Legendre. [n/2]
n/2.
..
( f ( x ) , g ( x ) ) w ( x ) f ( x ) g ( x ) dx
w(x)
. w(x)
, (weight function).
- 46 -
1
1
Legendre
2
2
-1x1
1[Pn (x)] dx = 2n +1
1
1
Chebyshev I
-1x1
2
[ Tn (x)] dx = / 2 n 0
2
1 x
2
n=0
1 x
1
Chebyshev II
-1x1
1 x
[U (x)]
Laguere
0x
[L
exp(-x)
Associated
Laguere
0x
Hermite
-x
xkexp(-x)
[L
exp(-x2)
k
n
2.13
[H
1 x 2dx =
( n + k )!
n!
: V F=R C.
, |||| VR+ (7
1.
||v||0 ||v||=0 v=0 vV
2.
||v||=||||v|| vV F
v, uV
3.
||v+u||||v||+||u||
V , (norm
linear space), |||| norm .
1: Rn :
)
||v||= v 12 + + v n 2
||v||=max{|v1|, , |vn|}
||v||= | v1|
i=1
R2
V=R2
v=xi+yj norm:
(7
||v||2= | x |2 + | y |2
||v||2=1
)
)
||v||1=|x|+|y|
||v||=max{|x|, |y|}
||v||1=1
||v||=1
R+ .
- 47 -
: )
||v||2= | x |2 + | y |2 =1 x2+y2=1
xy
y
v=xi+yj, ,
1.
)
||v||1=|x|+|y|=1
:
1 )
x, y0, x+y=1
y
.
2 )
x0, y 0, -x+y=1
.
3 )
x0, y0, x+y=-1
-1
.
4 )
x0, y0, x-y=1
.
, ||v||1=|x|+|y|=1
.
)
||x||=max{|x|, |y|}=1
y
,
|
-1
2:
L(f(x), [,]) :
x2+y2=1
x
1 x
||f(x)||= f (x) 2 dx
||f(x)||=sup{|f(x)| / x[,]}
: d: EER+
:
1.
d(x,y)=0 x=y
2.
d(x,y)=d(y,x)
3.
d(x,y)d(x,z)+d(z,y) ( )
, (metric space),
(,d), , (points), d , ( distance ).
3: L(f(x),[,]) :
1)
d1(f,g)=maxx[,]|f(x)-g(x)|
- 48 -
2)
3)
f (x) g(x)
d 3 ( f ,g ) =
dx
1 + f ( x ) g ( x )
4: x2+y2=1 2
:
1)
(x
x 2 ) + (y1 y2 )
2
2)
d2(P1,P2)=
P1, P2 .
,
:
1: ,
. .
2:
d(v,u)=||v-u||
:
1.
d(v,u)=0 ||v-u||=0 v-u=0 v=u
2.
d(v,u)= ||v-u||=||(-1)(v-u)||=||u-v||=d(u,v)
3.
d(v,u)= ||v-u||=||v-w+w-u||=||(v-w)+(w-v)|| ||v-w||+||w-u||=d(v,w)+d(w,u)
3: ,
norm :
||v||= (v , v)
d(v,u)=||v-u||= (v u, v u)
.. ,
.
3: R3
(v,u)=v1u1+v2u2+v3u3
norm:
||v||= (v , v ) = v 12 + v 2 2 + v 32
:
d(v,u)=||v-u||= (v2 u 1)2 + (v2 u 2 )2 + (v2 u 3 )2
- 49 -
4: norm , norm
:
||v||=d(v,0)
norm,
:
1
(v,u)= || v + u||2 || v u||2 i || v + iu||2 +i || v iu||2
4
: <v|u>=+i. :
||v+u||2=(v+u, v+u)=||v||2+||u||2+(v, u)+(u, v)=
(1)
||v||2+||u||2+(+i)+(-i)=||v||2+||u||2+2
2
2
2
||v-u|| =(v-u, v-u)=||v|| +||u|| -(v, u)-(u, v)=
(2)
||v||2+||u||2-(+i)-(-i)=||v||2+||u||2-2
(1) (2) :
(A)
4=||v+u||2-||v-u||2
:
||v+iu||2=(v+iu, v+iu)=(v, v)2-i2(u, u)+i(v, u)-i(u, v)=
(3)
||v||2+||u||2+i(+i)-i(-i)= ||v||2+||u||2-2
2
2 2
||v-iu|| =(v-iu, v-iu)=(v, v) -i (u, u)-i(v, u)+i(u, v)=
(4)
||v||2+||u||2-i(+i)+i(-i)= ||v||2+||u||2+2
(3) (4) :
(B)
4=||v-iu||2-||v+iu||2
() () :
- 50 -
Y,
1)
u(t)
2
v(t)=2t +3t-4, w(t)=t2-2t-3, ) u(t)=3t2+8t-5, ) u(t)=4t2-6t-1.
2)
1 1
1 1
1 1
=
, =
, =
0 1
1 0
0 0
3 1
2 1
) =
, ) =
1 2
1 2
3)
v=2+3i, u=1-2i C
, C . R
.
4)
v=(1+i, 2i) w=(1, 1+i) . C2
C R.
5)
V . ,
f: R R. f(x), g(x), h(x)V : 1)
f(x)=e2x, g(x)=x2, h(x)=x, 2) f(x)=sinx, g(x)=cosx, h(x)=x.
6)
(1-x)3, (1-x)2, 1-x, 1
3.
7)
. R3, . ,
U={(,,0)} ( ) W
v1=(1,2,3) v2=(1,-1,1).
W={(,,)} R3
) =2, ) , ) =0, ) ==, ) =2, ) 1+2+3=0, iR
i=.
8)
U, V, W R3:
U={(,,) / ++=0},
V={(,,) / =},
W={(0,0,) / R}
3
3
3
1) R =U+V, 2) R =U+W, 3) R =V+W.
;
10)
U W R3 :
9)
- 51 -
U W . V.
)
U, W U+W
)
U+W V U
W, . U+W=L(U,W).
14)
U W V
UW . UW WU.
1) W R4 :
v1=(1,-2,5,-3), v2(2,3,1,-4), v3=(3,8,-3,-5)
) W.
) R4.
2) W
v1(x)=x3-2x2+4x+1, v2(x)=x3+6x-5, v3(x)=2x3-3x2+9x-1, v4(x)=2x3-5x2+7x+5
W.
3) U W R4, :
U={(,,,) / ++=0}, W={(,,,) / +=0, =2}
i) U, ii) W, iii) UW
4) V . 22. dimV=3.
V x n.
5)
V.
(1) {1, x, x2,,xn} (2) {1, 1-x, (1-x)2,,(1-x)n} dimV=n
- 52 -
1) V . :
) ||f(x)||, ||g(x)||.
2)
C[-1,1]
[-1,1], f(x), g(x)C[-1,1] .
)
(f,g)= (1 x 2 )f (x)g(x)dx
1
1
- 53 -
,
. ,
, .
3.1
1: Nm={1,2,,m} , Nn={1,2,,n} F .
A: NmNn F
:
((i,j)) NmNn)[ A(i,j)=ij ]
(matrix) m n .
m n , :
1n
11 12
22
2n
A= 21
mn
m1 m2
: A=ij 1im , 1jn
m n mn.
m n-:
(11, 12, , 1n) , (21, 22, , 2n) , , (m1, m2, , mn)
n m-:
11 12
1n
21 , 22 , , 2n
m1 m2
mn
.
ij ij- ij- i
j .
1 3 4
1:
2x3.
0 5 2
1 3 4
(1,-3,4) (0,5,-2) , ,
0 5 2
- 55 -
2: , =,
: ij=ij (i,j)NmNn.
mn , mn ,
.
x + y 2z + w 3 5
2:
=
x y z w 1 4
:
x+y=3
x-y=1
2z+w=5
z-w=4
3: 1n ,
m1 .
F 11.
3.2
mn.
11 12
22
A= 21
m1 m2
1n
2n
mn
11 12
22
B= 21
m1 m2
1n
2n
mn
1:
:
1n + 1n
11 + 11 12 + 12
+
22 + 22
2n + 2n
21
21
A+B=
mn + mn
m1 + m1 m2 + m2
2: k
k.
- 56 -
k1n
k11 k12
k
k22
k2n
kA= 21
k mn
km1 k m2
+ kA mn.
.
mn
F .
3.3
A=ij B=ij
,
mp pn.
1: , C mn,
cij i , j
. i- j- cij
i-
4
j-. .. i- (2,-4,8) j- 7
2
: 24+(-4)(-7)+82=8+28+16=52.
:
A1B1 A1B2
A1Bn
1
2
A2Bn
A2B A2B
C=A=
Am Bn
Am B1 Am B2
Ai , i=1,2,,m i Bj, j=1,,n j
. :
1p 11
1j
1n
11 12
c1n
c11 c12
c21 c22
c2n
=
ip
ij
C= i1 i2
cij
c
cm 2
cmn
m1
mp p1
pj
pn
m1 m2
mp
, qn, pq .
- 57 -
1:
2 1
A= 1 0 ,
3 4
2113
1 0 10
22 14
2510
C=AB= 11
+ 03
+ 04
+ 00 = 1 2
12
15
5
+ 43 32 + 44 35+ 40 9 10 15
31
1 2 5
B=
3 4 0
32 23 ,
2 1
1.2 + 2.1 + 5.(3) 1.(1) + 2.0 + 5.4 11 19
1 2 5
D=BA=
1 0 =
=
3 4 0
3.2 + 4.1 + 0.(3) 3.(1) + 4.0 + 0.4 10 3
3 4
, . .
:
1.
, ,
. A=(1 ,2 , ,n)
1
= 2
n
, :
1
2
2 1 2 2
2 n
=
(1 ,2 , ,n)=
n n
n
n 1 n 2
1:
.
,
- 58 -
.
nn
.
nn.
3.4
1. (Transpose): , t,
,
: (ij)t=ji
t
1n 11 21
m1
11 12
22
2n 12 22
m2
t 21
=
A=
mn 1n 2n
mn
m1 m2
mn At nm.
1: , ()t=BtAt
1:
1.
2.
3.
4.
1 4
t
3
1 2
= 2 5
4 5 6
3 6
:
(A+B)t=At+Bt
(At)t=A
k, (kA)t=kAt
(AB)t=BtAt
2. (Conjugate) A*
, . ,
A*=A.
2:
3+ i6
1+ i2 3 i6
* 1 i 2
A=
, A =
8+ i 2
8 i 2
4
4
3. (adjoint) , A+
At,
: A+=(At)* (ij)+=(ji)* .
- 59 -
3:
3.5
4
1+ i2 3 i6
+ 1 i 2
A=
, A =
8+ i 2
4
3+ i6 8 i 2
1. (identity):
. nn,
In, ,
1. . : ij=ij, ij Kronecker
:
i = j
1
ij =
0
i j
1:
1 0 0
I3= 0 1 0
0 0 1
33.
nn
nn IA=AI=A.
2. , (triangular).
,
. nn :
1n
11 12
2n
0 22
0
0 nn
0
.
2. , (diagonal):
, . ij=0 , ij ij=iij. '
.
1
2: A= 0
0
2
0
2 0 0
0
0 B= 0 0 0 .
6
0 0 3
- 60 -
3. (null): .
0 0
3: O
22.
0 0
4. (symmetric): ij =ji (
,
.
1
5
4: 44 : A =
7
2
5 7
0 6
6 8
3 4
3
.
4
5. (antisymmetric): ij = -ji.
.
0 2 5 7
2
0
9 12
5: : B =
.
5 9 0 8
7 12 8 0
, :
1
1
A= (A+ At )+ (A- At )
2
2
1
1
(A+ At ) (A - At ) .
2
2
3 4
6: A =
5 7
t
1
1 3 4 3 4 1 3 4 3 5
t
(A+ A ) =
+
=
+
=
2
2 5 7 5 7 2 5 7 4 7
1 6 1 3 1/ 2
2 1 14 1/ 2 7
t
1
1 3 4 3 4 1 3 4 3 5 1 0 9 0 9 / 2
t
(A - A ) =
=
=
2
0
2 5 7 5 7 2 5 7 4 7 2 9 0 9 / 2
- 61 -
3 4 3 1/ 2 0 9 / 2
: A =
=
+
0
5 7 1/ 2 7 9 / 2
3 1/ 2
0 9 / 2
.
0
1/ 2 7
9/ 2
6. (inverse) , ,
A-1 , : AA-1=A-1A=I . A-1 ( '
), . -1
.
, -1, AA-1=I -1(AA-1)=-1I (-1A)A-1=-1
A-1=-1 A-1=-1. (
).
7. (orthogonal): t=-1, .
. : t=t=
.
,
.
, (trace), ,
n
trace A trA= ii .
i 1
.
tr(AB) = (AB) ii = ij ji = ji ij = (BA) jj = tr(BA).
i
. tr(AB)=tr(BA). .
: tr(A+B)=trA+trB.
3.6
. AB - BA 0.
(commutator) ,
:
[,]=-
+
(anticommutator) :
- 62 -
[,]+=+
( ) ,
(commutate) (anticommutate).
:
1.
[A,A]=0
2.
[A,B]+[B,A]=0
3.
[A,B+C]=[A,B]+[A,C] [A+B,C]=[A,C]+[B,C]
4.
[A,BC]=[A,B]C+B[A,C] [AB,C]=[A,C]B+A[B,C]
5.
[A,[B,C]]+[B,[C,A]]+[C,[A,B]]=0 (
, Jacobi).
(5) Jacobi.
,
.
3.7
, x1, x2:
11x1+12x2=1
21x1+22x2=2
(1)
, , :
212
x1 = 1 22
,
x 2 = 2 11 1 21
11 22 12 21
11 22 12 21
:
D=1122-12210.
:
12
= 11
(2)
21 22
(1).
1: (determinant), D,
:
11 12
detA=|A|=
21 22
22 :
detA=|A|= 1122-1221
- 63 -
11 12
= 21 22
31 32
33 :
13
23
33
23
21 23
21 22
det A = 11 det 22
12 det
+ 13 det
=
32 33
31 33
31 32
(3)
=11(2233-2332)-12(2133-2331)+13(2132-2231)
2: . , (minnor), Dij
ij ,
i- j-.
3: ij ij Dij (-1)i+j:
Aij=(-1)i+jDij
(3) :
(4)
detA=1111+1212+1313
.
(4) .
.
1: :
2 3 4
= 1 4 5
1 3 4
:
4 5
1 5
1 4
1+1
1+ 2
1+ 3
det A = 2 ( 1) det
+ ( 3)( 1) det
+ ( 4 )( 1) det
=
3 4
1 4
1 3
=2[4(-4)-5(-3)]+3[(-1)(-4)-5]-4[(-1)(-3)-4]=-1
:
1 5
2 4
2 4
1+ 2
2+ 2
3+ 2
det A = ( 3)( 1) det
+ 4 ( 1) det
+ ( 3)( 1) det
=
1 4
1 4
1 5
=3[(-1)(-4)-5]+4[2(-4)-(-4)]+3[(2)(5)-(-4)(-1)]=-1
nn
:
- 64 -
det A = ijA ij
( i-)
j =1
n
det A = ijA ij
( j-)
i =1
1:
. .
1-: =(ij) :
n = 1
11
| |=
(s)
ns(n ) n > 1
1s(1) 2s(2)
s
S
n
(s) s Sn, ( 1
. 1.5).
3.8
1)
: det(A)=det(At).
2)
11 12
11 21
.. det
= 11 22 12 21 = det
21 22
12 22
nn : det()=ndet(A)
11 12
11 12
2
2
det
=
.. det
(
)
11
22
12
21
11
22
12
21
21 22
21 22
1: nn t=-A
n n=2k+1, detA=0. :
detA=det(At)=det[(-1)A]=(-1)2k+1detA=-detA 2detA=0 detA=0
3)
det=0.
12
det 11
= 11 (12 ) 12 (11 ) = ( 1112 1211 ) = 0
11 12
4)
, ( ), ,
1.
21 22
11 12
. det
= 2112 2211 = ( 11 22 12 21 ) = det
11 12
21 22
..
,
22 .
- 65 -
5)
, ( ), ,
.
11 12
11 12
.. det
= 11 22 12 21 = det
21 22
21 22
6)
, ( ), ,
:
a
a +b
a
a12
a
b
det 11 12
= det 11
+ det 11
a21 a22 + c
a21 a22
a21 c
7)
,
(), , (). ..
12 + 11
12
det 11
= 11 (22 + 21 ) (12 + 11 )21 = 1122 12 21 = det 11
21 22 + 21
21 22
8)
11 0
: detA=1122nn. .. det
= 11 22 .
0 22
, .
11 12
, ( ), : det
= 11 22
0 22
9)
nn
: det(AB)=det(A)det(B). ..
12 11 12
1111 + 1221 1112 + 1222
det 11
= det
=
21
22
21
22
21
11
22
21
21
12
22
22
=(1111+1221)(2112+2222)-(1112+1222)(2111+2221)=
11 12 11 12
=1122(1122-1221)-1221(1122-1221)= det
det
21 22 21 22
: det(A+B)detA+detB.
5 6 ,
( ), r1 , r2 ,
r + ar1
r1
r1
det 1
= det + a det
r2
r2
r2
- 66 -
3.9
: det A = ijA ij , ,
j =1
.
, n!
nn. ,
, 3,6
1010 77 2020, ( 10!=3.628.800
20!2.41018).
, n-1 ,
, nn,
.
Gauss, .
. ,
2020 3 .
Gauss .
:
2 3 4
A = 1 4 5
1 3 4
, 1, , .
detA=detA1 .
1 21 .
. (2,-3,-4)
.
:
(2,-3,-4)+(-1,4,5)=(1,-3/2,-2)+(-1,4,5)=(0,5/2,3)
:
2 3 4
2 3 4
r2 1/ 2r1 + r2
A = 1 4 5
A1 = 0 5 / 2 3
1 3 4
1 3 4
r2 r1+r2 r2
r1+r2. 1 2
31=1 2 .
(2,-3,-4) 1/2 , r3
-1/2r1+r3=(-1,3/2,2)+(1,-3,-4)=(0,-3/2,-2) 2
- 67 -
2 3 4
A1
3
A2 = 0 5 / 2
0 3/ 2 2
3/2.
(3/2)/(5/2)=3/5
: r3 3/5r2+r3=(0,3/2,9/5)+(0,-3/2,-2)=(0,0,-1/5)
3
4
2 3
r3 3/ 5r2 + r3
A 2
3
A 3 = 0 5/ 2
0 0 1/ 5
r3 1 / 2r1 + r3
3
: detA=detA3=2(5/2)(-1/5)=-1
3.10
nn:
1n
11 12
22
2n
21
nn
n1 n2
-1 . -1=-1=n , n
nn :
(1)
det(AA-1)=det(A)det(A-1)=detIn=1
detA0.
, (singular). (1) :
1
det ( A 1 ) =
det A
, .
. -1 :
, ,
(adjoint), adjA:
A n1
A11 A 21
A12 A 22
An 2
adjA=
A nn
A1n A 2n
:
- 68 -
11
21
nn
12
1n
2n
nn
22
n 2
A11
A
12
A n1
A n1 det A
0
A n2 0
det A
=
A nn 0
0
A 21
A 22
A 2n
0
(2)
det A
: , ( ),
, ( ),
.
n
ijA kj = 0
ki
j =1
A
i =1
ij
ik
=0
kj
(2) :
adjA
= In
det A
,
:
adjA
A = In
det A
adjA
: -1=
det A
D=detA :
(adjA)=In detA A
(-1) i+j D ji
(3)
ij
D
Dij " ", (minnor determinant)
ij, (n-1) (n-1) D
i j (
ij ).
(A )
-1
= ij-1 =
2 5
1: =
1 3
A-1 . (3).
' D=23-15=6-5=10
A-1 . :
D12=1
D11=3
D22=2
D21=5
1+1
(-1) D11
(-1)1+2 D 21
1
1
=
= (-1) 2.3 = 3
=
= -5
11
12
1
1
(-1) 2+1D12
(-1) 2+2 D 22
1
1
= -1
=2
21 =
22 =
1
1
:
- 69 -
3 5
A-1 =
1 2
(3)
. n2
(n-1)(n-1).
Gauss.
,
, .
:
(3-1)
2x1-3x2-4x3=1
(3-1)
-x1+4x2+5x3=-2
(3-1)
x1-3x2-4x3=3
: x=b
2 3 4
x1
1
A = 1 4 5 , x = x 2 , b = 2
1 3 4
x
3
3
2 3 4 x 1 1
.
1 4 5 x 2 = 2
1 3 4 x 3
3
x1 (3-1)
(3-1)
21/11=(-1)/(2)= 1/2. x1
(3-1) (31) 31/11=(1)/(2)=1/2. , :
(3-2)
2x1-3x2-4x3=1
(3-2)
5/2x2+3x2=-3/2
-3/2x2-2x3=5/2
(3-2)
:
2 3 4
B = 0 5/ 2
3
0 3/ 2 2
x2 (3-2)
(3-2)
32/22=(-3/2)/(5/2)=3/5. :
(3-3)
2x1-3x2-4x3=1
(3-3)
5/2x2+3x3=-3/2
(3-3)
-1/5x3=8/5
:
- 70 -
4
2 3
= 0 5/ 2
3
0 0 1/ 5
. (3-3)
x3:
x3=-8
H (3-3)
5x2-48=-3 x2=9
(3-3) :
2x1+5=1 x1=-2
(3-3)
,
,
. Gauss
.
34 , , .
,
. :
1
2 3 4 1 r = r , r = r r2 (1) r = r 1 r 2 3 4
1
1
2
2
1 2
1
1 4 5 2
r1 (1)
2
3 3/ 2
0 5/ 2
r3 (1)
1
r3 = r3
r1 = r3 r1
r1 (1)
2
1 3 4 3
0 3/ 2 2 5 / 2
4
1
2 3
0 5 / 2
3/ 2
0 0 1/ 5 8 / 5
:
1, 2, , n . = :
(4)
i=Si i=1,2,,n
Si i- .
i- i (4) Gauss
i .
2: :
- 71 -
2 3
A = 1 4
1 3
:
1
2 3 4 1
2 3
1 4 5 0 0 5 / 2
1 3 4 0
1 3/ 2
5
4
4
4
1
1
2 3
3 1/ 2 0 5 / 2
3
1/ 2
0 0 1/ 5 1/ 5
2 1/ 2
1/ 5x 3 = 1/ 5 x 3 = 1
1
5 / 2x 2 + 3 = 1/ 2
x 2 = 1 X1 = 1
2x 1 = 1
1
x1 = 1
1
2
4
0
2 3 4 0
2 3 4 0
2 3
3 1 0 5/ 2
3
1
1 4 5 1 0 5 / 2
1 3 4 0
1 3/ 2 2 0
0 0 1/ 5 3/ 5
1/ 5x 3 = 3/ 5 x 3 = 3
0
X 2 = 4
5 / 2x 2 9 = 1
x2 = 4
3
2x1 = 0 x1 = 0
3
4 0
2 3 4 0
2 3 4 0
2 3
3 0 0 5/ 2
3
0
1 4 5 0 0 5 / 2
1 3 4 1
1 3/ 2 2 1
0 0 1/ 5 1
x 3 = 5
1/ 5x 3 = 1
1
X3 = 6
5 / 2x 2 15 = 0
x2 = 6
2x + 2 = 0
5
x 1 = 1
1
-1
:
1 0 1
1
A = [ X1 X 2 X 3 ] = 1 4 6
1 3 5
, '
-1
, :
[n|A],
In .
[|n]. =-1.
- 72 -
1 2 3
3: = 0 1 2
0 0 1
1 0 0 1 2 3
r1 r1 + 3r3
: [3|]= 0 1 0 0 1 2
0 0 1 0 0 1
1 0 3 1 2 0
0 1 0 0 1 2
0 0 1 0 1 1
1 0 3 1 2 0
r1 r1 2r2
0 1 2 0 1 0
0 0 1 0 0 1
r2 r2 2r3
1 2 7 1 0 0
0 1 2 0 1 0
0 0 1 0 0 1
1 2 7
= 0 1 2
0 0 1
-1
2 2 3
4: = 1 1 0
1 2 1
1 0 0 2 2 3
1 2 0 0 4 3
r1 r1 2r2
: [3|]= 0 1 0 1 1 0
r3 r3 + r2
0 1 0 1 1 0
0 0 1 1 2 1
0 1 1 0 1 1
1 5 3 0 1 0
r2 r2 + r1
0 1 0 1 1 0
r3 r3 r1
0 1 1 0 1 1
r1 r1 3r3
1 5 3 0 1 0
1 4 3 1 0 0
1 6 4 0 0 1
1 4 3 1 0 0
1 4 3
-1
1 5 3 0 1 0 = 1 5 3
1 6 4
1 6 4 0 0 1
r1 r2
r2 r1
1: , : ()-1=(-1)(-1)
1)
x, y,z w
- 73 -
6 4
x + y
x y x
3
=
+
3
z w 1 2w z + w
2)
1 3
A=
2 1
2 0 4
B=
.
3 2 6
11 6 14
(. =
)
1 2 14
x y
z w
1 1
x y
(.
.
=
0 1
z w 0
3)
1 2
n
=
.
0 1
4)
5)
1 2n
(. n=
0 1
:
1 2 3
3 2
2 3
A=
, B =
, = 2 1 0 ,
7 5
1 3
4 2 5
2 1 1
= 0 2 1
5 2 3
(.
5 2
A =
,
7 3
1
6)
1/ 3 1/ 3
B =
,
1/ 9 2 / 9
1
5 4 3
= 10 7 6 ,
8 6 5
8 1 3
= 5 1 2
10 1 4
4 1 0
. = 0 4 1
0 0 4
: = 0
0 0
7)
7 4
=
n :
9 5
4n
1 + 6n
n =
9n 1 6n
- 74 -
8)
nn ,
) tA ,
) +t -t
.
9)
= + ,
(+)-1(-) .
10)
, +SA ,
S ,
L=(I-SA)(I+SA)-1 LtAL=A. , LtAL=A,
+L, A ,
S=(I+L)-1(I-L)A-1 .
22 XtAX=B,
1 0
0 1
A=
B=
,
0 1
1 0
1 2
1 2
:
1 2
1 2
XtX=2I.
11)
12)
1 0
A = 0 1
0 0
1
) 3=32-3+3,
) .
13)
3 4
=
5 7
14)
cos sin
: =
R
sin cos
15)
3 4 5
= 2 3 1
3 5 1
- 75 -
16)
17)
1 2 2
= 2 1 2 . 2 -1.
2 2 1
:
1 0 x 0 0 1 0 0
0 1 y 0 0 0 0 1
0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0
, , 0, .
18)
)
, )
.
19)
nn , , :
(-1+-1)-1=(+)-1=(+)-1
1 0
12) A = 0 1
0 0
1
) 3=32-3+3, ) .
2
1 0 1 0 1 2
2
1
: ) 2= 0 1 0 1 = 0
0 0
0
1
1 0 0
1 0
1 2 2
3=2= 0
1
2
0
0
1
2
1 0 1 3 3
3
0 1 = 0 1
0 0
1
1 0 0
1 2 2 1 0 1 0
2 3 0 1 + 0 1
32-3+3=3 0 1
0
0
1 0 0
1 0 0
0 1 3 32
3 =3
0 = 0 1
1
1 0 0
1 2 2 1 0 1 0 0 1 2
1
2 -3 0 1 +3 0 1 0 = 0 1
-1=2-3+33= 0
0
0
1 0 0
1 0 0 1 0 0 1
- 76 -
3 4
=
5 7
13)
:
5
r2 r2 r1
0 3 4 r1 r31
1 0 3 4
1
1/ 3 0 1 4 / 3
3
[2|]=
r2 3r2
0 1 5 7
5/ 3 1 0 1/ 3
5 3 0 1
7 4
I2
5 3
4
r1 r1 r2
3
7 4
-1=
5 3
cos sin
: =
R
sin cos
: ||=cos2+sin2A=1 11=cos, 12=-sin, A21=-(-sin)=sin, A22=cos
:
A11 A 21 cos sin
-1=
=
3 4 5
= 2 3 1
3 5 1
15)
:
1 0 0 3 4 5
1 0 0 3 4 5
r2 r2 r1
1 1 0 1 1 4
[3|]= 0 1 0 2 3 1
r3 r3 r1
0 0 1 3 5 1
1 0 1 0 1 6
2 3 0 0 1 7
2 3 0 0 1 7
r3 r3 r1
1 1 0 1 1 4
1 1 0 1 1 4
1 0 1 0 1 6
1 3 1 0 0 1
r1 r1 + 3r2
2 3 0 0 1 7
r1 r1 + 7r3
1 1 0 1 1 4
r2 r2 + 4 r3
1 3 1 0 0 1
r3 r3 r1
5 18 7 0 1 0
r1 r2
8 29 11 1 0 0
r2 r1
1 3 1 0 0 1
r2 r2 + r1
- 77 -
5 18 7 0 1 0
3 11 4 1 1 0
1 3 1 0 0 1
8 29 11 1 0 0
5 18 7 0 1 0
1 3 1 0 0 1
8 29 11 1 0 0
5 18 7 0 1 0
1 3 1 0 0 1
r1 r1
r2 r2
8 29 11
= 5 18 7
1 3 1
-1
1 2
16)
= 2 1
2 2
2
-1.
1 2 2 1 2
2
: == 2 1 2 2 1
2 2 1 2 2
2
1
2 1 0 0
2 =9 0 1 0
1 0 0 1
1
2=93 A A = I3
9
1 2 2 1/ 9 2 / 9 2 / 9
1
1
= A = 2 1 2 = 2 / 9 1/ 9 2 / 9
9
9
2 2 1 2 / 9 2 / 9 1/ 9
-1
17)
:
1 0 x 0 0 1 0 0
0 1 y 0 0 0 0 1
0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0
, , 0, .
1 0 x
0 0
1 0 0
: = 0 1 y , = 0 0 , = 0 0 1 .
0 0 1
0 0
0 1 0
-1
-1 -1 -1
() = .
0
1 0 x
1/ 0
1 0 0
-1
-1
-1
= 0 1 y , = 0 1/ 0 , = 0 0 1
0 0 1
0
0 1 0
0 1/
:
0 1 0 x 1/ 0 x /
1 0 0 1/ 0
() = = 0 0 1 0 1/ 0 0 1 y = 0
0
1/
0 1 0 0
0 1/ 0 0 1 0 1/ y /
-1
-1 -1
-1
- 78 -
18)
)
, )
.
: ) .
-1=n (A-1A)t=Int At(A-1)t=In A(A-1)t=In (A-1)t=A-1
. -1 .
) .
-1=n (A-1A)t=Int At(A-1)t=In -A(A-1)t=In (A-1)t=-A-1
. -1 .
19)
nn , , :
(-1+-1)-1=(+)-1=(+)-1
: =-1+-1 :
=(-1+-1)=-1+-1=n+AB-1
=(n+AB-1)=InB+(AB-1)B=B+A(B-1B)=B+A=A+B
- 79 -
IV
.
. ..
R3.
.
.
.
, . : (Hermitian) ,
.
Hermitian ,
. , (Unitary),
, Unitary
Heisenberg Schrndinger, .
4.1
V U F. :
T: V U
, (linear transfomation),
:
1.
T(v+u)=T(v)+T(u) vV
2.
T(v) =T(v)
F vV
, ""
,
.
(2) =0 (0)=0,
, V U.
.
:
T(v+u)=T(v)+T(u)
- 81 -
IV
1: V=Rn U=Rm
, mn.
:
T: Rn Rm
:
T: v Tv=Av
.
:
T: V U
T(v+u)=A(v+u)=Av+Au=T(v)+T(u)
T(v)=A(v)=A(v)=T(v)
,
, .
2: : R3R3 O.
.
v=(x,y,z) u=(x,y,z). :
(v+u)=T(x+x,y+y,z+z)=(x+x,y+y,0)=(x,y,0)+(x,y,0)=T(v)+T(u)
(R): T(v)=T(x,y,z)=(x,y,0)=(x,y,0)=T(v)
3: T: R2 R2
T(x,y)=(x+1,y+2).
T(0)=T(0,0)=(1,2)(0,0).
.
.
4: T: V U V
U. v,uV F, (F= V U), :
T(v+u)=0=0+0=T(v)+T(u)
T(v)=0=0=(v)
.
5: I: V V
vV . :
I(v+u)=v+u=I(v)+I(u)
- 82 -
6: V (
) x R. :
D: V V I: V R
:
1
dv
: v (v) = v(t)dt
D : v D(v) =
dt
0
:
1.
d(v + u) dv du
=
+
= D(v) + D(u)
dt
dt dt
d(v)
dv
D(v) =
=
= D(v)
dt
dt
D(v + u) =
2.
D I .
1: V U F.
{v1, v2, , vn} V u1, u2, , un U.
T: VU T(v1)=u1, T(v2)=u2, , T(vn)=un.
: 3 : 1)
T: VU T(vi)=ui , i=1,n. 2)
3) .
1: vV. ' {v1, v2, , vn} V
1, 2, , n F v=1v1+2v2++nvn .
:
T(v)1u1+2u2++ nun
' i v. i=1,,n
:
vi=0v1+0v2+1vi++0vn
T(vi)=0u1+0u2+1ui++0un=ui
2:
v=1v1+2v2++nvn w=1v1+2v2++nvn .
v+w=(1+1)v1+(2+2)v2++(n+n)vn
:
T[v+w]=T[(1+1)v1+(2+2)v2++(n+n)vn]=
=(1+1)u1+(2+2)u2++(n+n)un=
=(1u1+2u2++nun)+(1u1+2u2++nun)=
- 83 -
IV
=(v)+T(w).
.
3: S: VU :
S(vi)=ui, i=1,2,,n.
v=1v1+2v2++nvn
S(v)=S(1v1+2v2++nvn)=1S(v1)+2S(v2)++ nS(vn)=1u1+2u2++ nun=T(v)
' S(v)=T(v) vV =S, . .
4.2
1: T: V U . (image)
Im(T), U, :
Im(T)={uU / T(v)=u vV}
O (kernel) Ker(T),
V, U:
Ker(T)={vV / T(v)=0}
1: T: R3 R3 OXY. T(x,y,z)=(x,y,0).
:
Im(T)={(x,y,0) / x,yR}
.
Ker(T)={(0,0,z) / zR}
' , 0=(0,0,0).
1: T: V U .
U V.
: ) ' T(0)=0, 0ImT. u, uImT , F.
v, vV T(v)=u, T(v)=u
T(v+v)=T(v)+T(v)=u+uImT
ImT . .
) ' T(0)=0, 0KerT. v, wKerT , F.
T(v)=0, T(w)=0
T(v+w)=T(v)+T(w)=0 v+wKerT
KerT . .
2: v1, v2, , vn
V
T: V U
.
T(v1), (v2),,(vn)U,
- 84 -
Im(T).
:
, um(T) vV
T(v)=u. vi , i=1,,n vV
1,2,,n v=1v1+2v2++nvn.
u=T(v)=T(1v1++nvn)=1T(v1)++nT(vn)
T(v1),,(vn) Im(T).
3: V T: V U
. :
dimV=dim(Ker(T))+dim(ImT))
: dimV=n. Ker(T) V,
dimKer(T)=rn. Im(T)=n-r.
{w1, w2, , wr} Ker(T). {wi}
V:
{w1, , wr, v1, , vn-r}. ={T(v1), , T(vn-r) }.
To Im(T).
A) Im(T).
uIm(T), vV T(v)=u. v
{w1, , wr, v1, , vn-r}:
v=1w1+ ,+rwr+1v1+ ,+n-rvn-r
2: ,
rank(T)
nullity(T).
- 85 -
IV
4.3
1: T: V U , (singular),
v V
U , :
(1)
T= (vV)[T(v)=0 v0]
(1), kerT={0}, V U, , (non
singular)..
1: T: V U
() .
: ) , V
U, . KerT={0}
.
) , T(v)=(u), T(v-u )=T(v)-T(u)=0
v-u=0 v=u. T(v)=(u) v=u, .
2: T: V U . V
ImT .
: 3 . 4.2 :
dimV=dim(Ker(T))+dim(ImT))
dimV=dim(ImT)) dim(Ker(T))=0 Ker(T)={0} .
.
1: dim V>dimU
T: V U. V
U. 1 . 4.2
R3 R2, (x,y,z) (x,y,0), , R3
R2, .
4.4
T: V U ,
(isomorphism) () .
V U , (isomorphism).
1: V F, n {e1,,en}
V.
T: v (1,,n)
- 86 -
vV {e1,,en}
V Fn.
v, uV v=1e1+ +nen n- (1,2,...n)
u=1e1++nen n- (1,2,...n) v+u=(1+1)e1+...+(n+n)en,
(1+1,,n+n)=(1,,n)+(1,,n)
kF :
kv=(k1)e1 ++(kn)en
k(1,,n)
(v+u)= (1+1,,n+n)=(1++n)+(1++n)=T(v)+T(u)
T(kv)=(k1,k2,,kn)=k(1,2,,n)=kT(v)
.
.
1: T: V U
.
:
. V
. U. .
Ker{T}={0}, 1
, .
.
,
{v1,,vn} ,
{T(v1),T(vn)} .
c1T(v1)++cnT(vn)=0 (c1v1++cnvn)=0
c1v1++cnvn=0.
v1,,vn c1==cn=0
T(v1),T(vn) .
:
. vV
, {v} , (
). {T(v)}
T(v)0. .
, ()
, n
( ' F).
- 87 -
IV
2: V U F
n, .
: A={ e1,,en} V B={f1,fn} U.
T: V U :
T(ek)=fk k=1,,n vV v=1e1+...+ nen
n
n
n
T(v) T k ek = k T( e k )= k f k
k =1
k =1
k =1
,
,
. V U .
:
3: V U
, .
: V U ,
T: V U. ,
:
kerT={0} dimKerT=0 ImT=U
:
dimV=dim(ImT)+dim(KerT) dimV=dim(ImT)=dimU
1: 2 3
.
2: 2 Rn n , ""
n , Rn. n , Cn. Rn ( Cn )
() ( )
n . vV n-
Rn ( Cn) {e1,,en} V
n
v = k e k v (1,,n)
k =1
- 88 -
4.5
. .
S V
U F.
1. T+S :
T+S: V U
(T+S)(v)=T(v)+S(v) vV
2. kF kT :
kT: VV
(kT)(v)=kT(v) vV
T+S kT .
v,uV ,F :
(+S)(v+u)=T(v+u)+S(v+u)=T(v)+T(u)+ S(v)+S(u)=
=[T(v)+S(v)]+[T(u)+S(u)]=(T+S)(v)+(T+S)(u)
(kT)(v+u)=kT(v+u)=k[T(v)+T(u)]=kT(v)+kT(u)=(kT)(v)+(kT)(u)
V U
,
Hom(V,U). ( Hom homomorfism
).
V, U ,
.
: V F.
T: V V V .
, (linear operators),
, V.
V, A(V)
Hom(V,V) A(V) '
, .
, A(V)
F, n2, dim V=n.
T, SA(V) S T
V V , S TA(V).
A(V) ,
( ST S T).
- 89 -
IV
1.
S(T+R)=ST+SR
2.
(T+R)S=TS+RS
S,T,XA(V)
3.
k(ST)=(kS)T=S(kT)
A(V) F.
1: V
f(x) Dx X
:
df(x)
Xf(x)=xf(x)
Dxf(x) =
dx
6 4.1 Dx
Dx: V V .
X .
Dx X
,
DxX-XDx0
:
d
df(x)
(Dx X)f(x) = Dx (Xf(x)) =
(xf(x)) = f(x) + x
dx
dx
df (x)
(XDx)f(x)=x
dx
(DxX)f(x)-(XDx)f(x)=(DxX-XDx)f(x)=f(x) DxX-XDx=I0
,
x Dx = i Dx X
.
DxX-XDx ,
(commutator) Dx X.
4.7
, (invertible),
T-1 :
TT-1=T-1T=I ( = )
T-1 , (inverse), .
,
1.
.
2.
.
,
- 90 -
1: ,
(AB)-1=B-1 A-1.
0,
1
1
(A)1 = A1 A1 = A
( )
1)
:
2
) : R R2 , T(x,y)=(x+y,x) ) T: R3 R , T(x,y,z)=2x-3y+4z
2)
:
2
) : R R , T(x,y)=xy ) T: R2 R3 , T(x,y)=(x+1,2y,x+y)
) T: R3 R2 , T(x,y,z)=(|x|,0)
3)
V nn
F. V, : VV
()=+ AV .
4)
: R2 R (1,1)=3
(0,1)=-2. T(x,y).
T: R3R3
T(x,y,z)=(x+2y-z, y+z, x+y-2z)
) U=ImT ) W=kerT
5)
6)
S T :
S: R2R2 , S(x,y)=(y,x) , T: R2R2 , S(x,y)=(0,x)
S+T, 2S-3T, TS, S2, T2.
7) R3 :
T(x,y,z)=(2x, 4x-y, 2x+3y-z)
) , ) -1 .
- 91 -
5.1
{e1,e2,,en} V F v
V :
v=v1e1+v2e2++vnen
v
(1) v.
v1
v
[v]e= 2
vn
, {ei}, V
Fn.
,
{ei}, A(V) V
nn F TA(V)
F.
T:V U .
5.2
V F {e1,,en}
V. T(e1),T(e2),,T(en)
Te1,Te2,,Ten .
V
:
Te1=t11e1+ t12e2++ t1nen
Te2=t21e1+ t22e2++ t2nen
..
(1)
Tej=tj1e1+ tj2e2++tjiei+ tjnen
IV
1: (1),
[T]e ), , (representation),
[ei]
t11
t
[T]e = 21
...
t
n1
t12
t 22
...
tn2
t 21 ... t n1
t 22 ... t n 2
... ... ...
t 2n ... t nn
{ei} (ei,ej)=ij
[T]e :
tji ' j (1)
ei
(ei ,Tej)=tj1(ei ,e1)+ tj2(ei ,e2)++tji(ei, ei)++tjn(ei, en)=tji
tji=(ei, Tej)
tji , j i o
(1).
tji.
i j , :
tij=(ei,Tej)
(2)
1: V P(x)
x, 3 D: V V
d
D(P(x)) = P(x)
:
dx
D {1, x, x2, x3}. :
d
D1=
1=0=0+0x+0x2+0x3
dx
d d
x=1=1+0x+0x2+0x3
Dx=
dt dx
d 2
Dx2=
x =2x=0+2x+0x2+0x3
dx
d 3
Dx3=
x =3x2=0+0x+3x2+0x3
dx
- 94 -
1
[D]x=
0
0 0 0
0 1
0 0 0
0 0
=
0 0
2 0 0
0 3 0
0 0
0 0
2 0
0 3
0 0
2: T: R2 R2 :
T(x,y)=(4x-2y,2x+y)
{e1=(1,0), e2=(0,1)}.
:
Te1=T(1,0)=(4,2)=4(1,0)+2(0,1)=4e1+2e2
Te2=T(0,1)=(-2,1)=-2(1,0)+1(0,1)=-2e1+1e2
:
t
4 2 4 2
[T]e =
=
2 1 2 1
:
{f1=(1,1) , f2=(-1,0)}
:
Tf1=T(1,1)=(2,3)=3(1,1)+(-1,0)=3f1+f2
Tf2=T(-1,0)=(-4,-2)=-2(1,1)+2(-1,0)=-2f1+2f2
:
t
3 1 3 2
[T ]f =
=
2 2 1 2
1: (1,1) = (2,3) (-1,0)=(-4,-2),
{f1, f2} :
T(1,1)=(2,3)=(1,1)+(-1,0)=(,)+(-,0)=(-,)
= 2 = 1
=3 =3
(-1,0)=(-4,-2)=(1,1)+(-1,0)=(,)+(-,0)=(-,)
= 4 = 2
= 2 = 2
1: {e1,e2,,en} V
. vV :
[T]e[v]e=[T(v)]e
, v,
(v).
- 95 -
IV
: i=1,2,,n :
n
Tei=ti1e1+ti2e2++tinen= t ije j
j=1
[]e nn j
:
(t1j, t2j,,tnj)
(1)
n
i =1
v :
v1
t v2
[v]e=(v1,v2,,vn) =
vn
, :
n
n
n n
n
n
T vi ei = vi Tei = vi t ije j = t ij vi e j
i =1
i =1
i =1
j=1
j=1 i =1
n
= (t1j v1 + t 2 j v2 +
(2)
+ t nj vn )e j
j=1
[(v)] j :
(3)
t1jv1+ t2jv2++ tnjvn
j []e[v]e j []e
[v]e (1) (2).
(1) (2) (3). []e[v]e [(v)]e ,
:
[T]e[v]e=[T(v)]e
3: 1, D: V V
:
0
[D]x=
0
1
0
0
0
0
2
0
0
0
3
a
b
[p(x)]x=
c
d
b
2c
D ( p(x) ) x =
3d
0
:
- 96 -
0
[D]x[p(t)]x=
0
1
0
0
0
0
2
0
0
0
3
a b
b 2c
c = 3d = D ( p(x) ) x
d 0
1.
[]e T
1, '
.
,
:
1. , 2. , 3. , .
2: {e1,,en} a V F
nn F. T [T]e
A(V) A.
. S,TA(V) kF
:
[T+S]e=[T]e+[S]e , [kT]e=k[T]e , [ST]e=[S]e[T]e
5.3
, V,
n nn
, V.
A=[T]e, :
ij=(ei,Tej)
(1)
( (2), 5.2), {ei} . (
o Gram-Schmidt).
- 97 -
IV
=ij
1. (Identical)
(A)ij=ij=ij
2. (Diagonal)
(A)ij=ij=diij
3. (Transpose)
(A)ij=ij (At)ij=ji
ij=jit ijt=ji
4. (Conjugate)
(A)ij=ij (A*)ij=(ij)*
ij*=(ij)*
5. (adjoint)
(A)ij=ij (A+)ij=ji*
6. A (self-adjoint)
(A)ij=ij (A+)ij=ji*
A=A+ij=ji*
6.
A ijRij=ji
A=
6. , (Hermitean)
ijCij-ji*
A=
7. , (Antisymmetric)
ij=-ji
8. ,9 (Unitary)
A-1=A+ A+A=AA+=I
: VV
(ei,Tej)=ij
(ei,Tej)=diij
(ei,Tej)=(ej,Ttei)=(Tteiej)*
(ei,Ttej)=(ej,Tei)
(ei,T*ej)=(ei,Tej)*=(Tej,ei)
(ei,T+ej)=(ej,Tei)*=(Tei,ej)
(ei,Tej)=(ei,T+ej)=(ej,Tei)*=(Tei,ej)
(ei,Tej)=(Tei,ej)
V , .
,
,
.
(ei,Tej)=(Tei,ej)
V Unitary, .
,
,
, (Hermitean).
, (Antisymmetric)
(ei,Tej)=-(ej,Tei)
A-1=A+
(
n
ik+ kj = ij
k =1
ei , T + e k ) ( e k , Tei ) = ij
k =1
9.
-1=t AtA=AAt=I
A-1=At
(
n
ikt kj = ij
k =1
ei , T t ek ) ( ek ,Tei ) = ij
k =1
ij,
. .. ij ,
9
- 98 -
.
(1).
,
.
,
.
5.3
n-
( ) ,
. :
() ,
;
' .
1: {e1,e2,,en} {f1,f2,,fn} V.
{f1,f2,,fn} {e1,e2,,en}.
f1=11e1+12e2++1nen
f2=21e1+22e2++2nen
(1)
fn=n1e1+n2e2++nnen
, (1),
11 21 ... n1
22 ... n2
P= 12
...
... ... ...
1n 2n ... nn
( ) {ei} {fi}
:
(2)
Pei=fi , i=1,,n
:
{ei} (ei,ej)=ij. '
i (1)
fi=i1e1++ijej++ inen
ej
(ej,fi)=i1(ej,e1)++ ij(ej,ej)++ in(ej,en)
ij=(ej,fi)
(3)
{fi} (fi,fj)= ij, ij :
- 99 -
IV
n
ik* jk = ij
(4)
k=1
{fi} (4)
:
(fi,fj)=(i1e1++ inen , j1e1++ jnen)=
n
n
n n
= ik e k , j e = *ik j ( e k , e
=1
k =1
k =1 =1
n
)=
= *ik j k = *ik jk = ij
k =1
=1
k =1
1: f1,f2,,fn ,
{fi} {ei}, P-1fI=ei.
1: R2,
{e1=(1,0), e2=(0,1)} {f1=(1,1), f2(-1,0)}
f1=(1,1)=(1,0)+(0,1)=e1+e2
f2=(-1,0)=-(1,0)+0(0,1)=-e1+0e2
{ei} {fi} :
t
1 1
1 1
P=
=
1 0
1 0
e1=(1,0)=0(1,1)-(-1,0)=0f1-f2
e2=(0,1)=(1,1)+(-1,0)=f1+f2
Q {fi} {ei}
:
0 1 0 1
=
Q=
1 1 1 1
:
1 1 0 1 1 0
PQ=
1 0 1 0 0 1
()
.
- 100 -
5.4
nn j :
(1j, 2j, , nj)
v {fi}
(1)
v=k1f1+k2f2++ knfn= k i f i
(2)
i =1
k1
k2
[v]f=
kn
(3)
(2) fi :
n
n
n
n
n n
j=1
j=1 i=1
(3) v :
(4)
............................
1n k1 + 2n k 2 + + nn k n
j :
1j k1 + 2j k2 +...+ nj kn
(5)
j P[v]f j
[v]f (1) (3). (1) (3) (5).
P[v]f [v]e ei
P[v]f=[v]e P-1 :
(6)
P-1[v]e=P-1P[v]f=[v]f
, v (v1, v2,,vn) {ei}
(k1,,kn) {fi} (4) :
n
vj ki .
- 101 -
(7)
IV
{fi} , ij
ij P-1 :
(8)
ij-1 = ji*
-1
(fj,ei)=(ei,fj)*=ji*
ij-1 = ji*
ki vj (6): [v]f=P-1[v]e i :
n
l=1
l=1
2: {ei} {fi}
V. , V :
[T]f=P-1[T]eP
: vV :
P-1[T]eP[v]f=P-1[T]e[v]e=P-1[T(v)]e=[T(v)]f
[T]f[v]f= [T(v)]f
1
1
0
f1 = , f2 =
e1 = , e2 =
0
0
1
1
- 102 -
x 4x 2y
T =
y 2x + y
{ei} {fi} :
t
f1 = 1e1 + 1e 2
1 1 1 1
P=
=
f2 = 1e1 + 0e 2
1 0 1 0
:
0 1
P 1 =
1 1
[T]e {ei} :
1 4 1 0
T( e1 ) = T = =4 +2 =4 e1 +2e2
t
0 2 0 1
4 2
4 2
[ T ]e =
2 1
2 1
0 2
1 0
T( e2 ) = T = = 2 +1 = 2e1 +1e2
1 1
0 1
[T]f {fi} :
1 2
T(f1 ) = T = = 3f1 + 1f 2
t
3 1 3 2
1 3
[T]f =
=
1 4
2 2 1 2
T(f 2 ) = T = == 2f1 + 2f 2
0 2
-1
: P [T ]e P = [T ]f
:
0 1 4 2 1 1 2 1 1 1 3 2
-1
=
= [T]
=
P [T]eP=
f
1 1 2 1 1 0 2 3 1 0 1 2
2:
1
0
v=(5,7)=5e1+7e2 e1= , e2= R2, :
0
1
[T]f[v]f=[Tv]f f1=(1,1), f2=(-1,0)
: v f:
7
v=5e1+7e2==7f1+2f2 [v]f=
2
17
T(v)=(6,17)=17(1,1)+11(-1,0)=17f1+11f2 [Tv]f=
11
3 2
[T]f=
1 2
- 103 -
IV
3 2 7 17
[T]f[v]f=
= =[Tv]f
1 2 2 11
2: P=(ij) nn
F . {e1,e2,,en}
V F, n :
fi=1ie1+2ie2++nien , i=1,2,,n
V.
{ei} {fi}.
,
V, , (.. {e}), B=P-1AP
, (..
{f}).
3: V , e={ei}, f={ef}
T
V V, . ,
( ),
.
. :
VBe
T
[ T]B
VBe
:
5.5
[T ]Be
P-1
VBf
[ T] B f
VBf
= P 1[T ]B P
f
1:
, :
B=P-1AP
, (similar matrix),
, (similarity transformation).
2 3 5.4,
- 104 -
1: ,
.
2: , detA=detB
: detA=det(P-1BP)=detP-1 detB detP = detB
1
det P-1 =
detP
3: , trA=trB.
:
n
i=1
i=1
j=1 k=1
kj
(B)jk
j=1 k=1
= (B)
kk
= trB
k=1
.
" ( ' ),
".
2: , (diagonalizable),
.
4: []
, -1[] .
5.6
.
V W F, n m , dimV=n dimW=m.
1={e1, e2,, en} V B2={f1, f2,, fm} W.
mn
F V
W.
: V W , '
1 ,
j=1,2,,n.
T: ej Tej ,
- 105 -
IV
Tej W 2 W
m
T e j = ji f i
j=1,2,,n ij F.
(1)
i =1
ji =(ij) mn
1 2
A = B1 [ T]B2
1: T: R3 R2
T(x,y,z) = ( x+y-z, 2x+z) 1 = {e1,e2,e3} = { (1,0,-1), (1,1,1), (1,0,0)}
2 = {f1,f2} = {(0,1), (1,0)} R3 R2 .
Te1 = T(1.0,-1) = (2,1) = f1+2f2
Te2 = T(1,1,1) = (1,3) = 3f1+f2
Te3 = T (1,0,0) = (1,2) = 2f1+f2
1 3 2
= B1 [ T]B2 =
.
2 1 1
, =(ij) mn,
: V W
: ej TAej =
i =1
f , j = 1,2,,n
ji i
(2)
(2) V.
2: 1={e1,e2,e3} 2={f1,f2,}
1 1 1
2 0 1 .
.
: (2) :
R3 R2
Ae1 =
i =1
f = 11 f1 + 12 f2 = f1 + 2f2
1i i
Ae2 =
i =1
f = 21 f1 + 22f2 = f1
2i i
Ae3 =
i =1
f = 31 f1 + 32 f2 = -f1 + f2.
3i i
u R3 , B1,
u=x1e1+x2e2+x3e3.
(3)
(3)
u = x1(f1+2f2)+ x2f1+x3(-f1+f2)=(x1+x2-x3)f1+(2x1+x3)f2 .
3: : R3 R3
T(x,y,z) = ( x-y, x+2y-z, 2x+y+z)
1 = {e1,e2,e3} = {(1,0,0), (0,1,0), (0,0,1)) 2 = {f1,f2,f3} = {(1,0,1), (-2,1,1), (1,-1,1)).
11 212 + 13 =1
21 2 22 + 23 = 1
12 13 =1
22 23 = 2
11 + 12 + 13 =2
21 +
22
+ 23 = 1
31 2 32 + 33 =0
32 33 = 1
31 +
32
+ 33 =1
21 = 5/3
31 =-2/3
11 = 7/3
22 = 2/3
32 = 1/3
12 = 1/3
23 =-4/3
33 = 4/3
13 =-2/3
5 2
7
1
1
2
1 .
B1 [ T] B2 =
3
2 4 4
.
.
V W, n m ,
F
T: V W.
B1 = {e1,e2,,en} B2= {f1,f2,,fm} V W
T e j = ij f i
j=1,2,,n
(4)
i =1
mn
m
T e =
ij f i
j
j=1,2,,n .
i =1
- 107 -
(5)
IV
D mm C nn,
(6)
B = DAC-1
:
VB1
T
A = B1 [ T ] B2
WB2
VB1
B = B1 [T]B
VB2
V 1 1
1 1
n
e j = c ij ei , j = 1,2,,n
(7)
i =1
n
n
T e j = T c ij ei = c ijT ei
i =1
i =1
(8)
(8) (5)
m
n
m
m n
T e j = c ij ki f k = ki c ij f k = (BC) kj f k
k =1
k =1 i =1
k =1
i =1
(9)
2
2
m
f j = d ij f i , j = 1,2,,m .
(10)
i =1
D=(dij)t mm.
(4) (10)
m
m
m
m
m m
T e j = ij f i = ij d ki f k = d ki ij f k = (DA ) kj f k
k =1
k =1 i=1
k =1
i =1
i =1
(11)
- 108 -
f
j=1
j j
=0
j = 0 , j = 1,2,...,n .
(13)
ej (13) (7)
c
j=1
i =1
n n
ij i = c ij j f i = 0
i=1 j=1
(14)
e1,e2,,en , (14)
n
c
ij
=0 , i = 1,2,...,n .
(15)
j =1
(15) n- n- 1,..,n.
C=(cij)
.
1)
R2
{e1=(1,0), e2=(0,1)}
) T(x,y)=(2x, 3x-y) ) T(x,y)=(3x-4y, x+5y)
2)
{f1=(1,3), f2=(2,5)}
. R3 :
T(x,y,z)=(1x+2y+3z, 1x+2y+3z, 1x+2y+3z)
{e1=(1,0,0), e2=(0,1,0), e3=(0,0,1)} :
a1 a 2 a3
[T]e= 1 2 3
1 2 3
3)
4)
. R3 {ei}, i=1,2,3
) T(x,y,z)=(2x-3y+4z, 5x-y+2z, 4x+7y) ) T(x,y,z)=(2y+z, x-4y, 3x)
5)
V . 22 R
1 2
: M=
. : VV
3 4
T: AVT(A)MA.
V :
- 109 -
IV
1 0
0 1
0 0
0 0
E1=
, E2=
, E3=
, E4=
0 0
0 0
1 0
0 1
6)
- 110 -
VI
6.1.
' v v
v. x
v v v,
(1)
Tv=v.
, , (eigenvector),
, , (eigenvalue). v
. (1),
, .
, (1) '
, , (..
, ...)
.
, ,
x, y z.
, . ..
2
d2
+V(x)
Hamiltonian H=
2m dx 2
:
2
d2
(2)
2 + V( x ) u ( x ) = Eu ( x )
2m dx
u ,
. (2) Schrdinger
.
Hu=Eu
6.2
,
nn. (1) v=v
VI
Av=Iv
(3)
nn.
(3)
v-Iv=0 (A-)v=0
(4)
:
12
1n v1 0
11
22
2n
21
v 2 = 0
(5)
n2
nn v n 0
n1
(5) v0, (-) ,
:
11
12
1n
21
22
2n
det(A-)=
=0
(6)
n1
n2
nn
1 n1, '
.
1 .
.
1, ng1 1. n1
1. n>ng
1:
.
v1 v2 , :
Av1=v1 Av2=v2
1:
1 2
A=
3 2
:
1
2
=0 (1-)(2-)-6 2-3-4=0 1=-1 2=4
|A-|=
3
2
-1 4.
x
1=-1 (A-I)v=0, v= :
y
1+1 2 x 0
=
3 2 +1 y 0
2 x + 2y = 0
2 2 x 0
x+y=0
=
3x +3y =0
3 2 y 0
1
x=1 y=-1 v1=
1
x x 1
= -1 v = = =x
y -x -1
1
x=1 v1= .
1
2=4 (A-I)v=0, :
- 113 -
VI
3x + 2 y = 0
14 2 x 0
3 2 x 0
3x-2y=0
=
=
3x 2y = 0
3 24 y 0
3 2 y 0
2
x=2 y=3 v2=
3
x x 1
2=4 v = =
=x
x=2
y 3x/2 3 / 2
2
v2= .
3
2: (
:
1
A= 3
).
3 3
5 3
6 4
:
1
3
3
2
|A-|= 3
3 =0 (+2) (-4)=0
5
6
6
4
1=2= -2 3=4 2.
.
x
1,2=-2 (-)v=0 v= y :
z
3x 3y + 3z =0
3 x 0
3
1 + 2
5 + 2
3 y = 0 3x 3y + 3z =0 x-y+z=0
3
6
6x 6y +6z =0
4 + 2 z 0
6
,
, y z.
x y-z 1 1
v = y = y =y 1 +z 0
z z 0 1
1
1
v1= 1 v2= 0
0
1
2=-2.
- 114 -
1 v1 v2
1,2=-2.
1,2=-2
1,2=-2. v1 v2 .
3=4 (-)v=0 :
x + y z =0
3x 3y +3z =0
1 4
3 x 0
3
3 y + 0 3x 9y +3z =0 x 3y + z =0
3 54
x y =0
6x 6y =0
4 4 z 0
6
6
. x-y=0
.
,
:
1 1 -1
1
1+ 3 1 3
2+3 1
1 -3 1
=
+ (1)
=
( 1)
1 1
1 1
1 -1 0
= 1( 1) ( 3)(1) + 1( 1) 1 = [ 1 + 3] + [ 2] = 0
z
y x:
x + y z =0
x + y z =0
z=x+y=2x
x 3y + z = 0
x y =0
y=x
x x 1
v = y = x =x 1
z 2x 2
1
v3= 1 =4.
2
v3
.
3:
3 1 1
B= 7 5 1
6 6 3
,
:
|B-|=(+2)2(-4)=0 1,2=-2 3=4
1,2 =-2 :
- 115 -
VI
(-)v=0
x
v= y :
z
3+2 1
1 1 1 x 0
1 x 0
1 y = 0 7 7 1 y = 0
7 5+ 2
6 3+2 z 0
6
6 6 1 z 0
z=0
x-y+z=0
-7x+7y+z=0
x-y=0
y=x
-6x+6y-z=0
-x+y-z=0
x x 1
. v = y = x =x 1
z 0 0
1
v1,2= 1
0
1,2=-2 .
3=4 (-)v=0, :
7x-y+z=0
x=0
x 0 0
. v = y = z =z 1 :
z z 1
0
v3= 1 3=-4
1
2: 1
1. ,
1
2
v1 = v 2 = R2
3
1
.
2, -2 2
4 1.
-2 2
4 1.
R3.
- 116 -
3, -2 2,
1, 4 1.
-2 1
4 1.
R3. R3
2. R3
R3 .
1: v1,v2,,vn,
, ( ), 1,2,,n. v1,v2,,vn
.
: . n=1 v1
v10. n-1 v1,v2,..,vn-1
1v1+ 2v2++ n-1vn-1=0
: 1=2==n-1=0.
v1,v2,,vn :
(1)
1v1+ 2v2++ nvn=0
(1), :
1v1+ 2 v2++ n vn=0=0
(2)
11v1+ 2 2v2++ n nvn=0
(1) n :
(3)
1nv1+ 2 nv2++ n nvn=0
(3) (2) :
1(1-n)v1+n-1(n-1-n)vn-1=0
i , i-n0 in v1,vn-1
, :
1=2==n-1=0
(1) :
nvn=0 n=0
v1,,vn .
2: nn
. (
).
: , v
ABv=v. w=Bv ,:
(1)
w=Bv=v
(1) ' :
(2)
BAw=BABv=Bv=w
- 117 -
VI
(2) w .
.
.
3: , , -1
-1.
: v
Av=v. ' -1 :
A-1Av=v=-1v A-1v=-1v
6.3
Tv=v
(1)
(T-)v=0 v0
(1)
. v :
(T-I)mv=0
(-)m-1v0
m
.
1: k>m, :
(T-)kv=(T-)k-m(T-)mv=0
j<m w=(T-I)jv ,
m-j
(T-)m-jw=(T-)m-j(T-)jv=(T-)mv=0
(T-)m-j-1w=(T-)m-1v0
, ..
1:
, .
2: v m
(T-)m-1v
(T-)m-2v
(T-)v
.
- 118 -
2: , (Hermitian),
.
: H+=H
(-)mv=0 (-)m-1v0
:
(( H I )
m 1
v , ( H I )
m 1
v 0
Hermitian
"" ,
(-)v=0
v(H-))m-1v0
8, 6.4 (
Hermitian) R. :
{( H ) } = ( H ) = ( )
(( H I ) v , ( H I ) v ) = v ,{( H I ) } ( H I )
= ( v , ( H I )
( H I ) v ) = ( v , ( H I ) v ) 0
m 1 +
m 1
m 1
m 1
m 1
m 1
m 1
m 1 +
m 1
v =
2m2
(-)2m-2v0
1, 2m-2<m m<2 m=1.
6.4 ( HERMITIAN)
4, Hermitian
Unitary .
,
.
1: , + :
(Av,u)=(v,A+u) v,u
, (djoint) , ( ).
(v,Au)=(Au,v)*=(u,A+v)*=(A+v,u)
+
:
(v,Au)=(A+v,u) v,u
1: + .
,
.
- 119 -
VI
1: ' ,
v,u : (v,Au)=0.
: =0 (v,Au)=(v,0)=0.
, (v,Au)=0 v, u v=Au
(Au,Au)=0 Au=0
u ( ). =0.
2: :
1.
(A+B)+ = A+ + B+
2.
(AB)+ = B+A+
3.
()+ = *A+
+ +
4.
( ) = A
:
1. v,u :
=(v,A+u)+(v,B+u)=(v,[A++B+]u)
( v,{[A + B]
})
[ A + + B+ ] u =0 ( 1)
[+]+-[+++]=0 [+]+=+++
2.
})
B+ A + u =0
1, :
[]+-++=0 []+=++
3.
(v,[A]+u)=(v,u)=(Av,*u)=(v,A[*u])=(v,*Au)
[]+=*+ ( 1)
4.
(v[A+]+u)=([A+]v,u)=(A+v,u)=(v,Au) ( 1) [+]+=
4: ,
, [A,B]=AB-BA=0.
: = :
(AB)+=B+A+=BA=AB AB=Hermitian
()+ = , :
AB=(AB)+=B+A+=BA [A,B]=0
1 Hermitian
.
5: . =0
(v,Av)=0 v.
: ) =0 (v,Av)=0.
) (v,Av)=0 v =0.
(v+u,A[v+u])=(v,Av)+(u,Au)+ (v,Au)+ (u,Av)
:
(v,Au)+ (u,Av)=(v+u,A[v+u])-(v,Av)-(u,Au)
v,u.
(v,Av)
(v,Au)+(u,Av)=0.
(u,Av)=(Atu,v)=(Au,v)=(v,Au).
At=A .
(v,Au)=0 v u 1, =0.
(Unitary)
.
6: ' Unitary , =0
(v,Av)=0 v.
: ) A=0 (v,Av)=0 v
) ,
(1)
(v,Au)+ (u,Av)=0
.
u iu:
(v,Aiu)+ (iu,Av)=I[(v,Au)- (u,Av)]=0
(v,Au)- (u,Av)=0
v,u
(2)
(1) (2) (v,Au)=0 v,u 1
=0.
- 121 -
VI
5 6 .
1: '
( Unitary) =0 (v,Av)=0 v.
7: Unitary Hermitian (v,Av)R
v.
: ) =+ :
(v,Av)= (A+v,v)= (Av,v)= (v,Av)* (v,Av)R
) , (v,Av)R v , :
(v,Av)=(v,Av)*= (Av,v)=(v,A+v) (v,[A-A+]v)=0 ( 5)
-+=0 =+
2: 7 , (v,Av)R,
. (v,Av)
' , ' Unitary
Hermitian.
(v,Av)
. v ,
.
||v||=1, (v,Av)
( )
v. . '
Hermitian.
Hermitian ,
Hermitian .
.
8: Hermitian .
:
( v,Av)
Av=v (v,Av)= (v,v)=||v||2 =
R
2
v
6.6, 1.
1: , Hamiltonian
- 122 -
H=
p2 1
+ m 2 x 2
2m 2
.
Hu=Eu , ||u||=1. :
p2 1
=(u,Hu)= u,
u + u, m w 2 x 2u =
2m 2
1
1
+
=
p u,pu + mw 2 ( x +u,xu ) =
2m
2
1
1
=
( pu,pu ) + mw 2 ( xu,xu )
2m
2
p x, Hermitian . :
1
1
=
|| pu | |2 + m2 || xu | |2 0 m,>0
2m
2
6.5 UNITARY
: U ' Unitary , :
U+U=I
. UU+=I
U Unitary .
, ' , : A+A=I,
.
1: Unitary ,
.
2: ,
U+, (U+U=I), U+
(UU+=I)
1
.
U
, U Unitary.
3: Unitary Unitary
() .
- 123 -
VI
,
.
1: Unitary Unitary
.
1.
U+U=I
u,w
2.
(Uu,Uw)=(u,w)
u
3.
||Uu||=||u||
+
: U U=I, :
(Uu,Uw)=(u,U +Uw)=(u,w) u,w
w=u, :
2
2: {ei} , {Uei}
U.
:
(Uei,Uej)= (ei,ej)=ij
{Uei} .
{Uei} {Uei}
Parseval ( 5, 3, 2). :
- 124 -
v) = (U + u,U+ v)
' {ei} .
ik
jk = ki kj = ij
k
U.
, [U]ij = uij : [U+]ij = u*ji
:
UU+ = U+ U=I [UU+ ]ij= uik ujk* =[U+ U ]ij=
k
*
ki
ukj= ij
: uij=uij*
.
1.
.
3: , detA=1
: : AtA=I. :
det(AtA)=detAtdetA=(detA)2=1 detA=1
+1 -1 ,
, ' .
U Unitary , :
|detU|=1 detU=ei R
6.6
'
.
Hermitian .
1: .
: Av=v v0. :
(1)
(v,Av)=(v,v)=(v,v)
:
- 125 -
VI
(v,Av)=(Av,v)= (v,v)=*(v,v)
(2)
(2) (1) : (v,v)(-*)=0
v0 (v,v) 0 =* R.
8 4.
2: 1.
: U Uu=u, (u0), :
||v||=||Uv||=||u||=||||u|| ||=1
3: ,
.
: Av1=1v1 Av2=2v2 12
1. , :
(1)
(v1,Av2)=(v1,2v2)= 2(v1,v2)
(2)
1:
, n .
,
. k (kn) ( ),
6.8, 1, k
( ' ) . k
(n-k)
. Gram-Schmidt
k
k .
.
, (
),
, (
' ).
,
- 126 -
.
.
1: Lorentz.
.
cos sin
R=
sin cos
. Lorentz
Lorentz, -
v,
x3x3.
Lorentz :
x1=x1
x2=x2
x3=(x3-vt)
(1)
vx
t= t 23
1
1 2
, v/c c .
(1) , x4=ict
:
4
x
i =1
2
i
(2)
(2)
' .
(x1,x2,x3,x4=ict), Minko-wski.
Lorentz :
0
0
1 0
0 1
0
0
L=
(3)
0 0
0 0 i
:
- 127 -
VI
x1
x1
x1
x2
x2
2
= x v ct =
=
3
x 3 x 3 + i (ict)
c
x 4 = ict ix 3 + x 4 i v x + ict
3
c
x1
x1
x2
x 2
=x
= ( x 3 vt ) =
x3
v
ic t x
c2 3
x 4 = ict
1
0
Lx=
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
i
0 i
Lorentz :
1
cosh
1 2
sinh= cosh 2 1 =
1 2
L :
0
0
1 0
0 1
0
0
L=L()=
0 0 cosh isinh
0 0 isinh cosh
R L.
RtR=I L tL=I,
. R R
-.
R. L
v -v, ( -)
L. R L .
Unitary
R L R L
Unitarity, R+R=I L+L=I. ' R Rt=R+
R+R=I R Unitary. L LtL+
L L+L I. L Unitary.
Unitary R
(
). :
1=ei , 2=e-i
- 128 -
:
x1=(1,i) , x2=(1,-i)
:
|1,2|=|ei|=1
( 2)
1
1
(x1,x2)=(1,i) =(1,i) =11+ii=1-1=0 ( 3).
i
i
L Unitary
, L Unitary. L+=L
L (Hermitian) L
.
L
.
L :
1=1 , 2=1 , l3=cosh+sinh , 4=cosh-sinh
,
x1=(1,0,0,0) , x2=(0,1,0,0) , x1=(0,0,1,i) , x1=(0,0,1,-i) ( 3)
. L Hermitian
L.
L ,
detL=1
, .
1: , +=+.
2: , (Hermitian ),
(Unitary ) .
( =-+ anti-hermitian (A=-A+)) .
4: ' -
.
: :
Av=v A+v=*v
:
(1)
||Av||2=(Av,Av)= (A+Av,v)= (AA+v,v)= (A+v,A+v)=||A+v||2
t
, (-) (-) = + -*
(-) (1), :
||Av-v||2=||A+v-*v||2 Av=v A+v=*v
Av1=1v1 Av2=2v2
(v1,Av2)=2(v1,v2)
(v1,Av2)= (A+v1,v2)= (1*v1,v2)= 1(v1,v2)
- 129 -
VI
3:
, :
1
1
A (A + A+ ) + (A - A+ )
2
2
1
1
(A + A+ ) ( A + A+ ) .
2
2
1
1
A [ (A + A+ )]+ i[ (A - A+ )]
2i
2
1
1
B (A + A+ ) C i(A- A+ ) Hermitian.
2
2
,
.
6.7
T: VV V n.
:
0
1 0
0
0
2
n
0 0
{v1,,vn} V :
Tv1=1v1
Tv2=2v2
Tvn=nvn
v1, v2,,vn
1, 2,,n. :
1: T: V V D
V .
D .
- 130 -
2: ( = P-1AP),
.
: Avi=ivi B=P-1AP.
P-1Avi=iP-1vi P-1AIvi=iP-1vi
P-1APP-1vi=iP-1vi (P-1AP)(P-1vi)=i(P-1vi)
Bui=iui B=P-1AP ui=P-1vi
i .
i ui=P-1vi,
k vi Avi= vi, (
k ), k ui
Bui=ui.
ui :
k
k
k
-1
-1
=
=
i vi
P
P
u
v
i
i
i
i
i=1
i=1
i=1
k
u = 0
i
i=1
k
k
-1
P i v i = 0 i v i = 0
i=1
i=1
vi , i=0
k
u = 0
i
i = 0
i=1
k ui .
, :
(B-I)=P-1AP-I=P-1AP-P-1IP=P-1(A-)
det(B-I)=det(P-1)det(A-)detP=det(A-)
,
.
,
.
( ) detA, :
detA=detB
n-1 trA trA=trB.
:
0
0
d 11 0
0
0 d 22 0
0 d 33
0
=D= 0
0
0
d nn
0
Av=v ,
- 131 -
VI
n
det(D - I)= (d ii - )= 0
i= 1
i=dii, i=1,2,,n
.
, ( , )
.
n
det(D - I)= (d ii - )
i= 1
, (detA=detB),
. (A=D)
.
,
detB= det A= det(D)=det(D- I) = 0= (d ii- ) = 0= d ii = i
i
, detB=ii i .
:
p1i
3: vi= i, i=1,2,,n
p
ni
Avi=ivi. vi , P=(pij) (
vi), .
1 0
0
2
-1
P AP=
0 0
0
0
=D=[iij]=[dij]
n
.
: vi ( ) ,
detP0 P-1 .
Avj=jvj
ik
-1
AP=PD D=P AP
.
1: "
, .
- 132 -
n
i
gi
=n=dimV
2: ,
.
, :
1
A=
0 1
1
=1 v =
0
R2 .
AP=PD, (D ),
-1 P-1AP=D.
( ) (
v) , n v,
AP=PD.
AP=P D=I .
3: 3 ,
.
, .
.
1: ,
Pauli.
0 1
x=
1 0
( x spin : sx =
x )
x :
1
=(-)2-1=0 =1
det(x-)=
1
( spin Sx
)
2
' ,
xv=v , =1 =-1.
=1 :
- 133 -
VI
0 1 v1 v1
= v1=v2=
1 0 v2 v2
=1 :
0
=-1 :
=
detP=-20
-1 :
1
P-1=
2
1 0 1 1 0 1 0
P-1xP=
=
=
2
1 0 0 1 0 2
' ,
Pauli
. :
v=Iv=x2v=xxv=xv=xv=2v
(2-1)v=0 2=1 =1
Pauli,
, 1 .
, ,
, .
.
()
, ,
,
'
.
n nn (
Hermitian Unitary ) ( n
) .
3 6.7
i i . :
- 134 -
(P-1AP)ij=iij
Unitary .
,
p11 p12
p21 p22
P=
p n1 p n 2
pin
p 2n
pnn
p1i
p2 i
i vi= i
pni
( , ).
:
n
( vi, vj)=
*
ki
P kj= ij
k= 1
:
P+P=I P=Unitary
Unitary .
,
.
Hermitian :
Hermitian ,
() , Hermitian
Hermitian + .
..
( ) .
,
Unitary +
Hermitian.
( )
.
0 k
k Unitary
.
0
0.
- 135 -
VI
1: Hermitian , (
), Unitary ,
Unitary U, U-1 AU
.
, 2x2,
(n-1)(n-1) nn.
.
1, :
2: ()
.
3 6.6
Hermitian A=B+iC.
Hermitian Unitary
.
. Hermitian
) ; ,
( )
' C.
C.
C , '
.
C.
3: Hermitian C
, .
: ) {vi}
C.
Bvi=bivi Cvi=civi Bcvi=B(civi)=ciBvi=cibivi
Cbvi=cibivi
(BC-CB)vi=0 vi , (BC-CB)vi=0
vi . BC=CB.
) . BC=CB bi, vi
.
:
Cbvi=biCvi B(Cvi)=bi(Cvi)
Cvi bi.
.:
1) , bi 1.
i Cvi vi: Cvi=civi vi
C ci.
2) , m>1.
- 136 -
C v(1)
i =
j1 v(j)
i
j=1
(2)
i
Cv =
j2
v(j)
i
j=1
........................................................
m
C v(m)
i =
jm
v(j)
i
j=1
ij Hermitian.
vi(k) bi
C.
m
(k)
vi
k=1
C, ( ), :
m
C( k v(k)
i )
k=1
jk v(j)
i
j,k = 1
:
m
C( j x(j)
i
j= 1
k :
m
jk
k = c j
k=1
mm Hermitian jk.
m
. m C,
, m () m
u(i ) =
(k ) v(k)
i
k=1
C.
(
) ( Hamiltonian), L2 (
) Lz ( z- ),
,
.
- 137 -
VI
Hermitian ( 1)
.
4: Unitary -
, .
: Hermitian
( 3, 6.6).
1
1
A = B+ iC = (A + A+ ) + i (A - A+ )
2i
2
Unitary
Hermitian C
C , +
. .
Unitary (
), Unitary
.
.
Hermitian
, :
1=23=4=567n
v1,v2,,vn.
6,7,,n :
ij=(vi,vj)=(vi,jvj)=j(vi,vj)=iij , j=6,7,,
:
11=(v1,Av1)=(v1,1v1)=1(v1,v1)
22=(v2,Av2)=(v2,2v2)=2(v2,v2)
:
12=(v1,Av2)=(v1,2v2)=2(v1,v2)=1(v1,v2) 1=2
21=(v2,Av1)=(v2,1v1)=1(v2,v1)=1(v1,v2)*
(v1,v2)0
Hermitian .
12 21 .
34, 35, 43, 45, 53, 54 .
:
- 138 -
0
0
1 12 0
0
0
0
21 1
0
0
3 34 35
0 43 3 45
0
A= 0
0 53 54 3
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2x2
1=2 3x3
3=4=5.
,
.
Gram-Schmidt
v1,v2,,vn e1,e2,,en
.
- 139 -
VII
HILBERT
7.1
, , ,
.
.
.
. .
vk .
k=1
. ;
; ( )
;
, , Hilbert
,
. vk ,
. ,
, .. ,
Legendre, Hermite Laguerre
Hilbert.
, Hilbert .
, ' Hilbert
() ' Hilbert.
, .
, ' .
7.2
HILBERT
Pn n.
, .
, .
x
- 139 -
VII
[,b] .
L2, .
f1 f2 :
(f1+f2)(x)f1(x)+f2(x)
:
(f)(x)f(x)
. ,
,
;
:
2
|f 1+ f 2 | = |f 1 | +|f 2 | + f 1* f 2+ f 1 f 2*=
2
(1)
1.
( f (x) + f
(2)
(3)
f1(x)+f2(x) =
2.
| f (x) |2 dx +
, ,
:
b
(f 1 , f 2) f 1* (x) f 2 (x)dx
1 2
2
|f 1* f 2|= |f 1||f 2| (|f 1 | + |f 2 | )
2
1 b 2
i b 2
b
|f 1* f 2|dx |f 1 | dx+ |f 2 | dx< +
2
2
b
f 1* f 2dx < +
2
HILBERT
f(x)
, .
,
' [,b].
.
Riemann . ..
f(x) 1
[0,1], 0 . " "
, ,
.
Riemann [0,1] xi :
Riemann .
Lebesgue ,
f(x) f(x)=0,
f(x)=0 .
Lebesgue
Riemann ..
. Riemann ,
Lebesgue.
, f ' (f,f)=0,
f(x) x, , '
. (f,f)=0 f(x)=0 . ,
, .
'
(4) .
(4) Unitary .
,
. Cauchy10
, .
10
VII
.
n
1
Sn =
k=0 k!
e .
. Riesz-Fischer
.
1: ,
1. .
2. .
3. , ( norm ).
4. .11
Hilbert.
1: Hilbert
. Hilbert
. Hilbert
1 4.
2:
.
3: .
Hilbert ,
l 2()
1: l 2()
1
= 2
11
V ,
( vn V) : A =V.
:
(vV)(>0)(nN)[ ||v-vn||< ]
vV vn
.
- 142 -
HILBERT
|2<+
(1)
k=1
Hilbert :
1 + b1
+b= 2 + b 2
1
= 2
( ,b) =
(2)
(3)
(4)
b
*
k
k=1
1/2
2
2
| k + b k |
+ |bk |2 1/2
| k |
k =1
k =1
k =1
2
v ,bl ()
| k | =| |
2.
k=1
k=1
(4) SchwarzCauchy v , :
n
n
| k* bk |=
| k ||bk |
k=1
k =1
1/2
| 2k |
k = 1
*
k
b k |< +
k= 1
3. :
k=1,2,... :
- 143 -
1(n)
(n)
2
=
(n)
k
1/2
|b k |2
k = 1
VII
(n)
(m)
| (m)
- (n)||
k - k | ||
k k(1) , k(2) , k(3) Cauchy
bk.
b1
b= b2
n
|bk - k(n) |2
k = 1
1/2
n
|b k - k(m)|2
k = 1
1/2
n
+ | k(m) - k(n) |2
k =1
(5)
m=1,2,...
(1), (2),... Cauchy :
2
v
(n) 2
(m)
(n) 2
(>0)(n o () N)(v N) m,n> n o() | (m)
||
|
<
|
|
k
k
4
k=1
.
' limmk(m)=bk, :
2
2
(5) n>no() N :
1
1
2
|b k - (n)
+ =
k | k+1 +
2
2 k=1 2k 2
k=1
k=1 2
(6)
(6) n n>no()
(6) : ( n)
|b -
k
| n>n 0 ( )
(n) 2
k
(7)
k=1
n :
1/2
1/2
1/2
n
|bk |2
|bk k(n)|2
+ | k(n) |2
k =1
k =1
k =1
n bl 2() (7) (1), (2),...
b.
- 144 -
HILBERT
4. l 2(), D
l 2() , ,
(8)
n+1=n+2==0
k. D . D
l 2(), c l 2() ck k
. c l 2(), :
2
( 0) (u N) | c k |2
2
k = n +1
. , D
(8) :
k=1,2,n
|ck - k | <
2n
:
2
||c - ||= |c k - k | + |c k |2
k =1
k =n+ 1
l 2() .
1/2
<
7.3 ,
' V F,
v1,v2,v3,.,vn :
1v1+ 2v2++ nvn=0 iF I=1,2,,n
: 1=2==n=0.
( )
,
1: S ( ) V
,
S .
2: ( , ) S V u V
VII
n
u = lim un
un + k vn
k=1
3: ( ) S, V
, V.
4: V (
) k
k .
'
V n, 4, V n
, V + V
.
7.4
1: S (Hilbert)
(S)
, :
(,F)(f,g)[f+gS]
F=R C .
S ( 3, 7.2)
' .
2: S , f,
fnS, S, S
[S].
1: [S] Hilbert Hilbert.
2: (S) Hilbert
, ( S )
(S) [S]: ( S )=[S].
3: (S) S
Hilbert S
12 S. [S]
12
ST,
(S)T.
- 146 -
HILBERT
SH S.
, (S)=[S]
.
7.5
HILBERT
Hilbert
(2.11 2),
().
1: ( ) S
,
, (vi,vj)=0, ij.
vi
||vi ||=
(v i , v i ) = 1
S . vi
, :
(vi ,vj) = ij
.
2: {v1,v2,..} ,
uH i=(vi,vi) Fourier u
{v1,v2,...}.
1: S
.
n
vk = 0 , n
k=1
vk = 0 :
k=1
| k |2
1 = 2 =...= n = 0
k=1
1: ,
, ' ,
.
- 147 -
VII
2: S
(S) S, -
(S), (T)=(S).
, S .
: S :
S={u1, u2, }
S ' .
S ,
Gram-Schmidt
T={v1 ,v2 , }
u n (vn-1,u n ) vn-1 (v1,u n ) v1
(1)
vn =
u n (vn-1,u n ) vn-1 (v1,u n ) v1
(1) vn
un . (T)=(S).
S ,
S So : n=1,2,..
un So
u1,...,un-1. So
Gram-Schmidt .
3: V={v1,v2,..,vn} uH
n
b v
i
bi
i=1
v
i
i=1
i=(u,vi) Fourier u V
n
i=1
i=1]
||u- i vi || ||u- bi vi ||
: o bi :
n
||u - bi vi ||
i=1
. :
n
n
n
n
n
n n
2
||u - bi vi || = u - bi vi , u - bj vj = ( u,u) bi* ( vi ,u) - bj u,vj + bi*bj vi ,vj =
i=1
i
j
i =1 j =1
i=1
j=1
( )
i =1
- 148 -
+ bi*b i =
i =1
HILBERT
n
i=1
i=1
:
n
i=1
i=1
,
n
i=1
Bessel.
4: {v1,v2,}
. u :
|(v ,u) |
||u||
i=1
Bessel
:
n
Sn =
|(v ,u) |
, ||u||2
i=1
, n
||u||2.
|(v ,u) |
i=1
||u||2, :
|(v ,u) |
||u||
i=1
, Bessel.
,
.
5: {v1,v2,} , i
u = i vi
i=1
v
i
i=1
Sn = n vn ).
i-1
- 149 -
VII
| =||u||
k=1
.
6: V .
S V .
: v vS ,
(v , v)=0 ||v||=||v||=1
:
1/2
(1)
||v - v ||= (v - v , v - v ) = 2
V , D={y1, , yk, }
D =V. v v Yn Ym
D :
2
2
d(v ,ym) =||v - ym ||<
3
3
:
||v - v || ||v -yn ||+||yn ym ||+||ym - v||
d(v ,yn)=||v -yn ||<
(2)
(3)
(1) (2)
||yn - ym ||>
2
3
3
,
2
D D vS ,
vS , d(v ,yn) <
d(v ,ym)<
3
, D D D D ,
2
D D= ( yD d(v ,y)<
3
3
, d(v ,y)> .
2
2
yD
S (D)
D D D
D D
S .
7: V ,
.
- 150 -
HILBERT
:
.
V , D={...,yk,...}
D =V.
D
.
D . x1
D, y1 . x2 yk(k>1),
x1=1.
x3 yeD,(l>k>1)
x1=1 x2=yk.
S={..., xk,...} (
) .
:
L= k x k / n = 1,2,... x k S k
k =1
S. S L
L L.
S Gram-Schmidt
B={l1,l2,...,lk,...} L. L
V. L '
D. , ye
S, xk
ye.
D=V DLV. L =V {l1,...,lk,...}
V.
, '
V , u
u= k lk
k=1
{l1,..,lk,...} .
2: 7 '
,
.
,
. ,
k=(lk,u)
,
.
- 151 -
VII
,
, .
( ),
' V,
' .
13 .
3: S={..., v,...}
,
) (v , v) = 0
) ||||=1
) vV VU{v} ,
S .
.
8: ' V ,
S ( V) S
.
: S={...,v,...} . v0 V
( v, v)=0 vS. v
V, V S. v
( vV), .
3: 8,
7 '
.
4: 8 .
, . ,
,
.
7,
.
9: V
S, .
13
() .
- 152 -
HILBERT
: S= { l1,...lk,...} .
D lk
14. D . , uV ,
D = r k lk ( rk ), :
k
, |k-rk|
rk.
V V
.
7 9 , :
" ,
".
14
.
- 153 -
1)
u(t)
2
v(t)=2t +3t-4, w(t)=t2-2t-3, ) u(t)=3t2+8t-5, ) u(t)=4t2-6t-1.
2)
1 1
1 1
1 1
=
, =
, =
0 1
1 0
0 0
3 1
2 1
) =
, ) =
1 2
1 2
3)
v=2+3i, u=1-2i C
, C . R
.
4)
v=(1+i , 2i) w=(1 , 1+i) . C2
C R.
5)
V . ,
f: R R. f(x), g(x), h(x)V : 1)
f(x)=e2x, g(x)=x2, h(x)=x, 2) f(x)=sinx, g(x)=cosx, h(x)=x.
6)
(1-x)3, (1-x)2, 1-x, 1
3.
7)
. R3, . ,
U={(,,0)} ( ) W
v1=(1,2,3) v2=(1,-1,1).
W={(,,)} R3
) =2, ) , ) =0, ) ==, ) =2, ) 1+2+3=0 , iR
i=.
8)
9)
U, V, W R3:
U={(,,) / ++=0},
V={(,,) / =},
W={(0,0,) / R}
3
3
3
1) R =U+V, 2) R =U+W, 3) R =V+W.
;
U W R3 :
U={(,,) / ==} W={(0,,)}=
R3=UW
10)
11)
V . nn R. U
W , . U={M / Mt=M,
MV} W={M / Mt=-M, MV}. V=UW.
12)
V={f(x) / f: R R } .
,
U={f(x) / f: R R f(-x)=f(x) } , W={f(x) / f: R R f(-x)=-f(x) }
. V=UW.
U W . V.
)
U, W U+W
)
U+W V U
W, . U+W=L(U,W).
13)
W R4 :
v1=(1,-2,5,-3), v2(2,3,1,-4), v3=(3,8,-3,-5)
) W.
) R4.
1)
W
v1(x)=x3-2x2+4x+1, v2(x)=x3+6x-5, v3(x)=2x3-3x2+9x-1, v4(x)=2x3-5x2+7x+5
W.
2)
U W R4 , :
U={(,,,) / ++=0}, W={(,,,) / +=0, =2}
i) U, ii) W, iii) UW
3)
4)
V . 22. dimV=3.
- 156 -
5)
V x n.
V.
(1) {1, x, x2,,xn} (2) {1, 1-x, (1-x)2,,(1-x)n} dimV=n
1)
C[1, -1]
[1, -1] , f, g C[1, -1];
2)
(i)
(f, g)= f ( x ) g ( x ) dx
(ii)
(iii)
(f,g)= x 2 f(x)g(x)dx
-1
1
-1
-1
V .
. f(x)=x+2, g(x)=x2-2x-3. )
( f1 ,f 2 ) = f1 (x)f 2 (x)dx
0
1)
= + ,
(+)-1(-) .
: : At=A, Bt=-B, AB=BA. =(+)-1(-).
t=-1 t=I
t=(-)t[(+)-1]t=(A+B)[(At+Bt)-1]= (A+B)[(A-B)-1]
t=(+)-1(-) (A+B)[(A-B)-1]= (+)-1(2-AB+BA-B2)[(A-B)-1]=
=(A+B)-1(A+B)(A-B)(A-B)-1=I
2)
- 157 -
-2
(i) = 6
4
0 3
1 -1
3
(ii) = 1
1
3 5
5 12
3)
t ;
t, ;
1 t 0
A= 0 1 - 1
t 0 1
4)
:
a2
b2
(b+c)2
(c+a) 2
bc
ca
c2
(a+b) 2
ab
5) :
1+sin 2
sin 2
sin 2
cos 2
4sin2
1+cos 2 4sin2 = 0
cos 2 1+4sin2
1)
:
2
) : R R2 , T(x,y)=(x+y,x) ) T: R3 R , T(x,y,z)=2x-3y+4z
2)
:
2
) : R R , T(x,y)=xy ) T: R2 R3 , T(x,y)=(x+1,2y,x+y)
) T: R3 R2 , T(x,y,z)=(|x|,0)
3)
V nn
F. V, : VV
()=+ AV .
4)
: R2 R (1,1)=3
(0,1)=-2. T(x,y).
- 158 -
T: R3R3
T(x,y,z)=(x+2y-z, y+z, x+y-2z)
) U=ImT ) W=kerT
5)
1)
S T :
S: R2R2 , S(x,y)=(y,x) , T: R2R2 , S(x,y)=(0,x)
S+T, 2S-3T, TS, S2, T2.
2)
R3 :
T(x,y,z)=(2x, 4x-y, 2x+3y-z)
) , ) -1 .
1)
R2
{e1=(1,0), e2=(0,1)}
) T(x,y)=(2x, 3x-y) ) T(x,y)=(3x-4y, x+5y)
2)
{f1=(1,3), f2=(2,5)}
. R3 :
T(x,y,z)=(1x+2y+3z, 1x+2y+3z, 1x+2y+3z)
{e1=(1,0,0), e2=(0,1,0), e3=(0,0,1)} :
3)
1 2
[T]e= 1 2
1 2
4)
. R3 {ei}, i=1,2,3
) T(x,y,z)=(2x-3y+4z, 5x-y+2z, 4x+7y) ) T(x,y,z)=(2y+z, x-4y, 3x)
5)
V . 22 R
1 2
: M=
. : VV
3 4
T: AVT(A)MA.
V :
- 159 -
1 0
0 1
0 0
0 0
E1=
, E2=
, E3=
, E4=
0 0
0 0
1 0
0 1
6)
1)
u(t)
2
v(t)=2t +3t-4, w(t)=t2-2t-3, ) u(t)=3t2+8t-5, ) u(t)=4t2-6t-1.
u(t)=v(t)+w(t) 3t2+8t-5=(2t2+3t-4)+(t2-2t-3)
: )
3t2+8t-5=(2+)t2+(3-2)t+(-4-3)
2+=3 , 3-2=8 , -4-3=-5 =2, =-1
) .
2)
1 1
1 1
1 1
3 1
2 1
=
, =
, =
) =
, ) =
0 1
1 0
0 0
1 2
1 2
: ) =++
3 1 + + +
1 2 = 0 + 0 + 0 0 =
++=3, +-=-1, -=1, -=-2 =2, =-1,
=2.
) .
3)
v=2+3i, u=1-2i C
, C . R
.
: z=x+yi.
, z=v+u. ,
z=v+u x+yi=(2+3i)+(1-2i) x=2+ , y=3-2
2x+y
3x+2y
=
, =
7
7
- 160 -
4)
v=(1+i,2i) w=(1,1+i) . C2
C R.
: ) v, w: c1v+c2w=0 c1=x1+iy1,
c2=x2+iy2 , :
(x1+iy1)[1+i , 2i]+(x2+iy2)[1 , 1+i]=0
[x1+x2-y1+i(x1+y1+y2), -2y1+x2-y2+i(2x1+x2+y2)]=(0+i0, 0+i0)
x1+x2-y1=0 , x1+y1+y2=0, -2y1+x2-y2=0, 2x1+x2+y2=0
d=0.
, x1, y1, x2, y2
c1, c2 . v, w
C.
)
,
: c1v+c2w=0
c1[1+i , 2i]+c2[1 , 1+i]=0 [c1(1+i)+c2 , 2ic1+c2(1+i) ]= (0+i0, 0+i0)
c1=0, c2=0
v, w R.
5)
V . ,
f: R R. f(x), g(x), h(x)V : 1)
f(x)=e2x, g(x)=x2, h(x)=x, 2) f(x)=sinx, g(x)=cosx, h(x)=x.
: 1) c1e2x+c2x2+c3x=0 x. x1, x2,
x3 x , :
c1e 2x1 + c 2x12 + c 3 x1 =0
e 2x1 x12 x1
e 2x3 x 3 2 x 3
c1e 2x3 + c 2x 32 + c 3x 3 =0
c1=c2=c3=0 e2x,
x2, x
2)
6)
(1-x)3, (1-x)2, 1-x, 1
3.
: 3(x)=3x3+2x2+1x+0
c3, c2, c1, c0 3(x)=c3(1-x)3+c2(1-x)2+c1(1-x)+c0 ,
3x3+2x2+1x+0=c3(1-3x+3x2-x3)+c2(1-2x+x2)+c1(1-x)+c0
(3+c3)x3+(2+3c3+c2)x2+(1-3c3-2c2-c1)x+(0+c3+c2+c1+c0)=0
3+c3=0 , 2+3c3+c2=0 , 1-3c3-2c2-c1=0, 0+c3+c2+c1+c0=0
c3, c2, c1, c0
3, 2, 1, 0 :
c3=-3 , c2=33-2 , c1=-33+22+1 , c0=3-2-1-0 .
- 161 -
7)
. R3, . ,
U={(,,0)} ( ) W
v1=(1,2,3) v2=(1,-1,1).
: wW :
w=v1+v2=(1,2,3)+(1,-1,1)=(+,2-,3+)
w . U
, . 3+=0 =-3.
w=(-2,5,0)=(-2,5,0) =1 w=(-2,5,0)
W={(,,)} R3
) =2, ) , ) =0, ) ==, ) 2=0, ) 1+2+3=0 , iR
i=.
: ) W={(2,,)} . W :
,R w1,w2W w1+w2R3
w1=(21,1,1) w2=(22,2,2)
w1+w2=(21,1,1)+(22,2,2)=(2(1+2), 1+2, 1+2)
.
W . .
111 , 222
)
w1=(1,1,1), w2=(2,2,2)
:
w1+w2=(1+2, 1+2, 1+2)
1+2 1+2 1+2 , .
W . .
)
w1=(1,1,1), w2=(2,2,2)
11=0 , 22=0
:
w1+w2=(1+2, 1+2, 1+2)
(1+2)(1+2)=0
(1+2)(1+2)=211+222+(12+21)=(12+21)
.. 1=0, 2=0 20, 10
11=0 22=0
W . .
)
w1=(1,1,1), w2=(2,2,2)
1=1=1 , 2=2=2
:
w1+w2=(1+2, 1+2, 1+2)
1+2= 1+2= 1+2
W . .
)
w1=(1,1,1), w2=(2,2,2)
112=0 , 222=0
:
w1+w2=(1+2, 1+2, 1+2)
(1+2)(1+2)2=0
(1+2)(1+2)2=3112+2122+22112+2212+3222+22212=
8)
- 162 -
=2122+22112+2212+22212
112=0 , 222=0 :
1=0, 10, 20, 2=0 112=0 , 222=0
(1+2)(1+2)20 2212 .
W . .
)
w1=(1,1,1), w2=(2,2,2) 11+21+31=0
12+22+32=0
:
w1+w2=(1+2, 1+2, 1+2)
: (11+21+31)+(12+22+32)=0
w1+w2 W
W . .
U, V, W R3:
U={(,,) / ++=0},
V={(,,) / =},
W={(0,0,) / R}
3
3
3
1) R =U+V, 2) R =U+W, 3) R =V+W.
;
: 1) (x,y,z)R3 .
1+1+1=0
(1)
u=(1, 1, 1)U
2=2
(2)
v=(2, 2, 2)V
:
(x,y,z)=u+v=(1, 1, 1)+(2, 2, 2)=(1+2, 1+2, 1+2)
x=1+2 (3) y=1+2 (4) z=1+2 (5)
(1), (2), (3), (4), (5) 5 :
1, 1, 1 , 2, 2, 2. , R3=U+V.
U+V .
UV .
U, V (,,)
++=0 =, . +2=0.
: (,-2,).
9)
2) (x,y,z)R3 .
u=(1, 1, 1)U 1+1+1=0 (1)
w=(0, 0, 2)W
:
(x,y,z)=u+w=(1, 1, 1)+(0, 0, 2)=(1, 1, 1+2)
x=1 (2) y=1 (3) z=1+2 (4)
(1), (2), (3), (4) 4 4 : 1, 1 ,
1 , 2.
1=x , 1=y , 1=-x-y , 2=x+y+z
3
R =U+V.
- 163 -
U+V : R3=UV.
3) (x,y,z)R3 .
u=(1, 1, 1)V 1=1 (1)
w=(0, 0, 2)W
:
(x,y,z)=v+w=(1, 1, 1)+(0, 0, 2)=(1, 1, 1+2)
x=1 (2) y=1 (3) z=1+2 (4)
(1), (2), (3), (4) 4 4 : 1, 1 ,
1 , 2.
1=x , 1=y , 1=-x , 2=z-x
3
R =U+V.
U+V : R3=UV.
U W R3 :
U={(,,) / ==} W={(0,,)}=
R3=UW
: R3=UW :
) R3=U+W ) UW={0}.
)
v=(x,y,z)R3 : (x,y,z)=(,,)+(0,,)=(, +, +)
x=, y=+, z=+ =x, =y-x, =z-x .
(x,y,z)=(x,x,x)+(0,y-x,z-x)
3
R =U+W.
)
UW={0} v=(,,)UW == =0 ===0
v=0.
10)
11)
V . nn R. U
W , .
U={M / Mt=M, MV} W={M / Mt=-M, MV}.
V=UW.
: ) UW={0}.
UW 1) U M=Mt 2) MW M=-Mt =- =0
1
1
t
t
) V, = {A + A } + {A A }
2
2
1
{A + At } U
2
t
t
1
1
1
A + At } = At + ( At ) = {At + A}
{
2
2
2
1
t
{A + A } .
2
- 164 -
1
A At } W
{
2
1
1
1
1
t
t
A At } = At (At ) = {At A} = {A At }
{
2
2
2
2
1
t
{A A } .
2
V
V=U+W UW={0} V=UW.
12)
V={f(x) / f: R R } .
,
U={f(x) / f: R R f(-x)=f(x) } , W={f(x) / f: R R f(-x)=-f(x) }
. V=UW.
: ) UW={0} ) V=U+W.
) f(x)=f(-x) f(-x)=-f(x) f(x)=-f(x) 2f(x)=0 f(x)=0
) Vf(x)={f(x)+f(-x)}+{f(x)-f(-x)}=f(x)+f(x), f(x)= , f(x)=
13)
U W . V.
)
U, W U+W
)
U+W V U
W, . U+W=L(U,W).
: ) uU. W V 0W.
u=u+0U+W. U U+W. W
U+W.
) , U+W V
U W, L(U,W), .
L(U,W)U+W
, vU+W v=u+w=1u+1w, uU wW, v
UW
L(U,W).
U+WL(U,W)
U+W=L(U,W)
W R4 :
v1=(1,-2,5,-3), v2(2,3,1,-4), v3=(3,8,-3,-5)
) W.
) R4.
- 165 -
1)
: ) v1, v2, v3 .
c1v1+c2v2+c3v3=c1(1,-2,5,-3)+c2(2,3,1,-4)+c3(3,8,-3,-5)=0 (1)
c1+2c2+3c3=0 , -2c1+3c2+8c3=0 , 5c1+c2-3c3=0 , -3c1-4c2-5c3=0
c1 c2 c3 :
c1=c3 , c2=-2c3
.
(1). v1, v2, v3
. .. v3
v1, v2 c3=1, c1=1, c2=-2
. v3=-1v1+2v2 . {v1, v2, v3}
v3 {v1, v2} , v1 =v2 .
{v1, v2} W
dimW=2.
) {v1, v2}
{u3, u4}, {v1, v2}
.. . u1=(0,0,1,0)
u2=(0,0,0,1)
{v1, v2, u3, u4} .
{v1, v2, u3, u4} 4 , R4.
{v1, v2, u3, u4}
. :
1 2
2 3
||=
0 0
0 0
5 3
1 4
=7
1 0
0 1
2)
W
v1(x)=x3-2x2+4x+1, v2(x)=x3+6x-5, v3(x)=2x3-3x2+9x-1, v4(x)=2x3-5x2+7x+5
W.
: {x3, x2,
x, 1} : v1=(1,-2,4,1), v2=(1,0,6,-5), v3=(2,-3,9,-1), v4=(2,-5,7,5)
1 2
2 3
||=
1 0
2 5
4 1
9 1
=0
6 5
7 5
c1v1+c2v2+c3v3+c4v4 =0 c1(1,-2,4,1)+c2(1,0,6,-5)+c3(2,-3,9,-1)+c4(2,-5,7,5)=0
c1+c2+2c3+2c4=0
-2c1+0c2-3c3-5c4=0
4c1+6c2+9c3+7c4=0
c1-5c2-1c3+5c4=0
:
c1=3c2-4c4 , c3=c4-2c2 c2, c4
c2=c4=1 c1=-1, c3=-1 : v1+v2-v3+v4 =0
v4=v1-v2+v3 v4.
{v1, v2, v3} .
: c1v1+c2v2+c3v3=0 :
c1+c2+2c3=0
-2c1+0c2-3c3=0
4c1+6c2+9c3=0
:
1
2 0 3 =0
4
, :
c1=3c2, c3=-2c2 c2
c2=1 c1=3, c3=-2 : 3v1+v2-2v3 =0
v2=-3v1+2v3 v2
v1=(1,-2,4,1),
v3=(2,-3,9,-1)
W.
U W R4 , :
U={(,,,) / ++=0}, W={(,,,) / +=0, =2}
i) U, ii) W, iii) UW
:
i) ++=0 0+++=0
, , .
1) =1, =0, =0 , 2) =0, =1, =0 , 3) =0, =0, =1
:
v1=(1,0,0,0), v2=(0,-1,1,0), v3=(0,-1,0,1)
{v1, v2, v3} U dimU=3
: =, =--
U : (,--,,).
,, ,
..
ii) +=0, =2
.
3)
- 167 -
1) =1, =0 , 2) =0, =1
:
v1=(-1,1,0,0), v2=(0,0,2,1)
{v1, v2} W dimW=2.
: =-, =2
W : (,-,2,).
, ,
..
iii) UW :
++=0, +=0, =2
. =1
v=(3,-3,2,1). {v} UW dimUW=1.
, ,
: =3, =-3, =2 =1 v=(3,3,2,1). {v} UW dim UW =1.
V . 22. dimV=3.
: =
, (.
).
i) =1, =0, =0 ii) =0, =1, =0 iii) =0, =0, =1
:
4)
1 0
0 1
0 0
1=
, 2=
, 3=
0 0
1 0
0 1
V
. :
(1) V :
0 1 0 0
1 0
=
= 0 0 + 1 0 + 0 1 =1+2+3
{1, 2, 3} V.
(2) c1E1+c2E2+c3E3=0
1 0
0 1
0 0 0 0
c1
+ c2
+c3
=
c1=0 , c2=0 , c3=0
0 0
1 0
0 1 0 0
{1, 2, 3} .
{1, 2, 3} . V dimV=3.
: :
1 0 0 1 0 0
A=
+
+
0 0 1 0 0 1
:
- 168 -
1 0 0 1 0 0
,
,
0 0 1 0 0 1
22
, , V,
dimV=3.
5)
V x n.
V.
(1) {1, x, x2,,xn} (2) {1, 1-x, (1-x)2,,(1-x)n} dimV=n+1
: (1) V
1, x, x2,,xn .
. {1, x,
x2,,xn} V dim=n+1.
(2) {1, 1-x, (1-x)2,,(1-x)n}
.
n+1 {1, 1-x, (1-x)2,,(1-x)n}
V.
1)
C[1, -1]
[1, -1] , f, g C[1, -1];
1
(i)
(f, g)= f ( x ) g ( x ) dx
(ii)
(iii)
-1
1
-1
(f,g)= x 2 f(x)g(x)dx
-1
: :
1.
(v,uV)[ (v,u)=(u,v)* ]
2.
(,F)(v,u,wV)[ (v+u,w)=*(v,w)+*(u,w) ]
3.
(vV)[ (v,v)0 (v,v)=0 v=0 ]
1
-1
-1
:
- 169 -
f0 (f, f)>0 .
1
(f , g ) = (1 x 2 )f ( x )g ( x )dx
(ii)
1)
-1
-1
2) :
( f+bg,h ) = -1 (1 x 2 ) (af(x)+bg(x))h(x)dx=
1
-1
-1
= ( f,h ) +b ( g,h )
3) (f , f ) = (1 x 2 )(f (x )) dx
1
(f , g ) = x 2 f ( x )g ( x )dx :
1
-1
-1
-1
2)
V . :
) ||f(x)||, ||g(x)||.
1
- 170 -
( x 3 7x 6)dx =
7
37
1
= x 4 x 2 6x =
2
4
0
4
) ||f(x)||=
(g(x), g(x)) =
||g(x)||=
3.
(f (x), f (x)) =
2
f (x) dx = ( x +2) dx =
2
g(x) dx =
( x2 2x 3)
( x +2) 3
dx =
=
0
19
3
203
15
( f1 ,f 2 ) = f1 (x)f 2 (x)dx
0
1,2* 12 f1(x)=sin1x
f2(x)=sin2x. .
.
f1 ,f 2 C [ 0,1]
1
( f1 ,f 2 ) = f1 (x)f 2 (x)dx
0
( f1 ,f 2 ) = sin(1x)sin( 2 x)dx=
0
1
2sin(1x)sin( 2 x)dx =
2 0
1
[cos(1x- 2 x)-cos(1x- 2 x)]dx=
2 0
1
1
cos[(1 - 2 )x]dx- cos[(1 + 2 )x]dx =
20
20
1
cos[(1 - 2 )x]d[(1 - 2 )x]
2(1 - 2 ) 0
1
cos[(1 + 2 )x]d[(1 + 2 )x] (1)
2(1 + 2 ) 0
12 1-20 1,2* 1 + 2 0
(1) :
- 171 -
( f1 ,f 2 ) =
=
1
1
sin(1 - 2 )x 10 sin(1 + 2 )x
2(1 - 2 )
2(1 + 2 )
1
0
1
1
1
1
sin[(1 - 2 )]sin0sin[(1 + 2 )]+
sin0
2(1 - 2 )
2(1 - 2 )
2(1 + 2 )
2(1 + 2 )
1
sin[(1 + 2 )]=0 , (1+2)
2(1 + 2 )
, .
1
sin[(1 - 2 )]=0
2(1 - 2 )
( f1 ,f 2 ) =0
1-cos(2nx)
dx =
2
0
1
1
1 1 1
1 1
dx- cos(2nx)dx= sin(2nx) 10 = [sin(2n)-sin0]
20
20
2 2 2n
2 4n
1
2
2
( sin(nx), sin(nx) ) = = sin(nx) sin(nx) =
2
2
:
2
2
2
sin(x),
sin(2x), ... ,
sin(nx) nN*
2
2
2
1)
= + ,
(+)-1(-) .
: : At=A, Bt=-B, AB=BA. =(+)-1(-).
t=-1 t=I
t=(-)t[(+)-1]t=(A+B)[(At+Bt)-1]= (A+B)[(A-B)-1]
t=(+)-1(-) (A+B)[(A-B)-1]= (+)-1(2-AB+BA-B2)[(A-B)-1]=
=(A+B)-1(A+B)(A-B)(A-B)-1=I
2)
,
.
- 172 -
-2
(i) = 6
4
0 3
1 -1
3
(ii) = 1
1
3 5
5 12
(i)
.
detA=720
.
adjA =
0 3
1 1
3 2
1 1
6 3
4 1
2
4
6 0
4 1
2 3
4
1
2
1
3 2
0 3
9
3 5
2 2
= 18 6 18
6
3
6
14
18
3
2
+
6 0
+
1
-5
-1
72
8
9 24
1
1
1
6 18 = -
4
12
4
14 18 1
1
-7
36
4
12
(ii)
:
det()=36+10+15-9-25-24=30
.
3 5
2 3
2 3
+
+
5 12
3 5
5 12
11 -9 1
1 5
1 3
1 3
= -7 9 -2
+
adj =
1 12
1 12
1 5
2
-3
1
1 3
1 2
1 2
+
+
1 5
1 5
1 3
3
1
-1 adjA
A =
=
18
detA 72
6
11
1 3
11 9
adjB 1
B-1 =
= 7
9 2 = 7
3
detB 3
2
3
1
2
3
1
3
3 2
3
1
1
3
3)
t ;
t, ;
- 173 -
1 t 0
A= 0 1 - 1
t 0 1
det(A)=0
1 t 0
det(A)= 0 1 - 1 = 1 t 2
t 0 1
t = 1 .
t :
adj(A)
A -1 =
det(A)
1
0
0
adj(A) =
t
0
t
1
1
1
1
1
0
t
0
1
t
1
0
1
0
1
t
0
1
1 t t
0
1
= t 1
1
t t 2 1
t
1
t
1
1
0
1
0
t 1 :
1 t t
1
-1
A =
t 1
1
2
1 t
t t 2 1
4)
:
a2
(b+c)2
bc
b2
c2
(c+a) 2
(a+b) 2
ca
ab
: :
a2
b2
(b+c)2
(c+a) 2
(a+b)
bc
a2
ca = b 2
ab
c2
b 2 +c 2 +2bc bc a 2
c 2 +a 2 +2ca ca = b 2
2
a +b +2ab ab
b 2 +c 2
c2 +a 2
2
a +b
bc a 2
ca + b 2
ab c 2
2bc bc
2ca ca =
2ab ab
0
- 174 -
a2
a 2 +b 2 +c 2
= b
c2
b +c +a
c 2 +a 2 +b 2
= -( +b +c )
a 2 1 bc
bc
2
a2
2
ca = ( +b +c ) b 1 ca = ( +b +c ) b -a
ab
c 2 1 ab
c 2 -a 2
b 2 -a 2
2
c -a
ca-bc
ab-bc
= -(2+b2+c2)(b-)(c-)
= -(2+b2+c2)
bc
0 ca-bc
0 ab-bc
(b+a)(b-a) -c(b-a)
=
(c+a)(c-a) -b(c-a)
b+a -c
b+a+c -c
= -(2+b2+c2)(b-)(c-)
c+a -b
c+a+b -b
= -(2+b2+c2)(+b+c)(b-)(c-)
1 -c
= -(2+b2+c2)(+b+c)(b-)(c-)(c-b)
1 -b
= -(2+b2+c2)(+b+c)(-b)(b-c)(c-)
5) :
1+sin 2
2
sin
sin 2
:
cos 2
4sin2
1+cos 4sin2 = 0
cos 2 1+4sin2
, :
2
cos 2
sin
sin 2
1+sin
2
4sin2
cos 2
4sin2
2+4sin2 cos 2
4sin2
1 cos 2
4sin2
2
2
= 2+4sin2 1+cos 4sin2 = (2 + 4sin2) 1 1+cos 4sin2 =
2+4sin2 cos 2 1+4sin2
1 cos 2 1+4sin2
1 cos 2 4sin2
= 2(1 + 2sin2) 0
0
1
0
0
1
= 2(1 + 2sin2)
:
1+sin 2
2
sin
sin 2
cos 2
4sin2
- 175 -
2=+2k
6
1
, k = 0,1,2,
sin2 = - sin2 = sin
2
6 2=- - +2k
6
=- 12 +k
, k = 0,1,2,
= 7 +k
12
1)
:
2
) : R R2 , T(x,y)=(x+y,x) ) T: R3 R , T(x,y,z)=2x-3y+4z
: ) v=(v1, v2) w=(w1,w2)
T(v+w)=T(v1+w1, v2+w2)=(v1+w1+v2+w2, v1+w1)=(v1+v2, v1)+(w1+w2, w1)=T(v)+T(w)
T(kv)=T(kv1,kv2)=(kv1+kv2, kv1)=k(v1+v2, v1)=kT(v)
.
) v=(v1, v2, v3) w=(w1, w2, w3)
T(v+w)=T(v1+w1,v2+w2,v3+w3)=2(v1+w1)-3(v2+w2)+4(v3+w3)=
=(2v1-3v2+4v3)+ (2v1-3v2+4v3)=T(v)+T(w)
T(kv)=T(kv1,kv2,kv3)=2kv1-3kv2+4kv3=k(2v1-3v2+4v3)=kT(v)
.
2)
:
2
) : R R , T(x,y)=xy ) T: R2 R3 , T(x,y)=(x+1,2y,x+y)
) T: R3 R2 , T(x,y,z)=(|x|,0)
:
)
T(v+w)=T(v1+w1, v2+w2)=(v1+w1)(v2+w2)=v1v2+w1w2+(v1w2+v2w1)=
=T(v)+T(w)+ (v1w2+v2w1) T(v+w) T(v)+T(w)
) ' (0,0)=(1,0,0)(0,0,0)
) (v+w)=(|v1+w1|,0) , T(v)=(|v1|,0) , T(w)=(|w1|,0) (|v1+w1|,0) (|v1|,0)+(|w1|,0) .
T(v+w) T(v)+T(w)
3)
V nn
F. V, : VV
()=+ AV .
: T(A+B)=(A+B)M+M(A+B)=(AM+MA)+(BM+MB)=T(A)+T(B)
T(kA)=(kA)M+M(kA)=k(AM+MA)=kT(A)
- 176 -
4)
: R2 R (1,1)=3
(0,1)=-2. T(x,y).
: v=(x,y). (x,y)
e1=(1,0), e2=(0,1). fl=(1,1), f2=(0,1)
R2 v
:
v=(x,y)=c1f1+c2f2=c1(1,1)+c2(0,1)=(c1, c1+c2) c1=x , c1+c2=y c1=x , c2=y-x
v=(x,y)=xf1+[y-x]f2=x(1,1)+[y-x](0,1)
:
T(x,y)= T(c1f1+c2f2)=T(x(1,1)+[y-x](0,1))=xT(1,1)+[y-x]T(0,1)=3x+[y-x](-2)=5x-2y
(x,y)
x y, . T(x,y)=x+y
(x,y)=(1,1) T(1,1)=+=3 (x,y)=(0,1) T(0,1)==-2
+=3, =-2 =5, =-2
T(x,y)=5x-2y
T: R3R3
T(x,y,z)=(x+2y-z, y+z, x+y-2z)
) U=ImT ) W=kerT
: ) R3 U
T. R3 (1,0,0), (0,1,0), (0,0,1)
T(1,0,0)=(1,0,1) , T(0,1,0)=(2,1,1) , T(0,0,1)=(-1,1,-2)
,
:
5)
1 2
D= 0 1 1 = 0
1 1 2
(1,0,1) , (2,1,1) , (-1,1,-2) .
(1,0,1) , (2,1,1)
Im(T) T,
2
) (x,y,z) :
T(x,y,z)=(x+2y-z, y+z, x+y-2z)=(0,0,0)
:
x+2y-z=0 , y+z=0 , x+y-2z=0
. :
x+2y-z=0 , x+y-2z=0
dimW=1 x, y
: x=3z y=-z
- 177 -
W :
(x,y,z)=(3z,-z,z)=z(3,-1,1)
W {(3,-1,1)}
1)
S T :
S: R2R2 , S(x,y)=(y,x) , T: R2R2 , S(x,y)=(0,x)
S+T, 2S-3T, ST, TS, S2, T2.
: (S+T)(x,y)=S(x,y)+T(x,y)=(y,x)+(0,x)=(y,2x)
(2S-3T)(x,y)=2S(x,y)-3T(x,y)=2(y,x)-3(0,x)=(2y,-x)
(ST)(x,y)=S(T(x,y))=S(0,x)=(x,0)
(TS)(x,y)=T(y,x)=(0,y)
S2(x,y)=S(S(x,y))=S(y,x)=(x,y) S2=
T2(x,y)=T(T(x,y))=T(0,x)=(0,0) T2=
R3 :
T(x,y,z)=(2x, 4x-y, 2x+3y-z)
) , ) -1 .
: ) W=KerT:
T(x,y,z)=(2x, 4x-y, 2x+3y-z)=(0,0,0)
2x=0, 4x-y=0, 2x+3y-z=0 x=0, y=0, z=0 W={0}
.
) (r,s,t) (x,y,z), T(x,y,z)=(r,s,t) (x,y,z)=T-1(r,s,t)
x,y,z r,s,t. :
T(x,y,z)=(2x, 4x-y, 2x+3y-z)=(r,s,t)
2x=r, 4x-y=s, 2x+3y-z=t x=r/2, y=2r-s, z=7r-3s-t
-1
T (r,s,t)=(r/2, 2r-s, 7r-3s-t)
2)
1)
R2
{e1=(1,0), e2=(0,1)}
) T(x,y)=(2x, 3x-y) ) T(x,y)=(3x-4y, x+5y)
: )
0 2
T(1,0)=(0,3)=0e1+3e2 T(0,1)=(2,-1)=2e1-e2 [T]e=
3 1
- 178 -
3 4
T(1,0)=(3,1)=3e1+1e2 T(0,1)=(-4,5)=-4e1+5e2 [T]e=
1 5
2)
{f1=(1,3), f2=(2,5)}
: (,)R2
{fi}.
(,)=(1,3)+(2,5)=(+2, 3+5) =+2 , =3+5 =2-5 , =3-
(,)=(2-5)f1+(3-)f2
)
T(x,y)=(2x, 3x-y)
4 18
T(f1)=T(1,3)=(2,0)=-4f1+6f2 , T(f2)=T(2,5)=(4,1)=-18f1+11f2 [T]f=
6 11
)
77 124
T(f1)=T(1,3)=(-9,16)=77f1-43f2 , T(f2)=T(2,5)=(-14,27)=124f1-69f2 [T]f=
43 69
. R3 :
T(x,y,z)=(1x+2y+3z, 1x+2y+3z, 1x+2y+3z)
{e1=(1,0,0), e2=(0,1,0), e3=(0,0,1)} :
1 2 3
[T]e= 1 2 3
3
2
1
3)
: T(e1)=T(1,0,0)=(1, 1, 1)=1e1+1e2+1e3
T(e2)=T(0,1,0)=(2, 2, 2)=2e1+2e2+2e3
T(e3)=T(0,0,1)=(3, 3, 3)=3e1+3e2+3e3
1 2 3
[T]e= 1 2 3
3
2
1
: . V=Fn
.
4)
. R3 {ei}, i=1,2,3
) T(x,y,z)=(2x-3y+4z, 5x-y+2z, 4x+7y) ) T(x,y,z)=(2y+z, x-4y, 3x)
: :
- 179 -
5)
2 3 4
[T]e= 5 1 2
4 7 0
0 2 1
[T]e= 1 4 0
3 0 0
V . 22 R
1 2
: M=
. : VV
3 4
T: AVT(A)MA.
V :
1 0
0 1
0 0
0 0
E1=
, E2=
, E3=
, E4=
0 0
0 0
1 0
0 1
:
1 2 1 0 1 0
T(E1)=ME1=
=1E1+0E2+3E3+0E4
=
3 4 0 0 3 0
1 2 0 1 0 1
T(E2)=ME2=
=0E1+1E2+0E3+3E4
=
3 4 0 0 0 3
1 2 0 0 2 0
T(E3)=ME3=
=2E1+0E2+4E3+0E4
=
3 4 1 0 4 0
1 2 0 0 0 2
T(E4)=ME4=
=0E1+2E2+0E3+4E4
=
3 4 0 1 0 4
0
[T]E=
3
= 11
21
0
1
0
3
12
22
2
0
4
0
2
tr(T)=1+1+4+4=10
0
4
=111+ 122+ 213+ 224
11
12
[]=
21
22
6)
) [ T] f [v]f=[T(v)]g
g
: ) 2 : (,)=(2-5)g1+(3-)g2
T(f1)=T(1,1,1)=(1,-1)=-7g1+4g2
T(f2)=T(1,1,0)=(5,-4)=-33g1+19g2
7 33 13
8
4 19
[ T] gf =
T(f3)=T(1,0,0)=(3,1)=-13g1+8g2
)
v=(x,y,z), {f1,f2,f3}
v=zf1+(y-z)f2+(x-y)f3 . :
(x,y,z)=(3x+2y-4z, x-5y+3z)=
=[2(x-5y+3z) 5(3x+2y-4z)]g1+[3(x-5y+3z) (3x+2y-4z)]g2=
=(-13x-20y+26z)g1+(8x+11y-15z)g2
z
13x 20y +26z
[v]f= y z [T(v)]g=
8x +11y 15z
x y
z
7 33 13
13x 20y +26z
[ T] [v]f=
y z =
=[(v)]g
8
4 19
8x +11y 15z
x y
g
f
- 181 -
B
Bessel , 40, 149
C
Chebyshev I , 47
Chebyshev II , 47
G
Gauss , 67
Gram-Schmidt , 42
H
Hermite , 47
Hilbert , 142
, 14
, 24
., 24
, VI, 2
, 113
, 59
, 145
, 62
, 4
, 11
, 62
, 24
, 4
, 13
, 4
, VI
, 8
, 48
, 12
, 20
, 2
, 29
Laguere , 47
Legendre , 46
Lorentz , 127
Lorenz , 39
S
Schrdinger , 111
U
Unitary , 123
Unitary , 35
, 4
, 56
, 25
, 118
, 113
, 56
, 57
, 55
, 26
, 40
, 26
, V
, 146
, 81
, 24
, VI
, VI, 13
, 14
, 8
, 72
, 56
, 93
. , 56
, 146
, 31
, 22
, VI, 19
, 31
, 31
, 142
, 60
, 11
n , 10
, 62
, 90
, 104
, 83
, 83
, 9
, 86
, 14
, 55
, 20
, 35
, 3
, 84
, 113
, 113
, 64
, 62
, 111
, 1
, 1
, 1
, 2, 32, 35
, 1
, 25
, 35
, VI, 3
, 86
, 104
, 39
, 147
, 39
, 63
, 3
, 3
, 94
, VI
, 8
, 55
, 62
, 61
, 60
, 99
, 68
, 61
, 68
, 62
, 68
, 59
, 61
, 59
, 60
, 60
mn, 55
, 39
, 86
, 111
, 111
, 113
, 56
, 123
, 123
, 86
, 62
, 39
, 146
, V
, 11
k, 11
- 183 -
, 4
, 20
, 35
, 24
, 3
, 4
, 84
, 8
Jacobi, 63
, 90
, 90
,, 120
, 89
, 120
, 129
, 7
, 123
, 123
, 120
, 38
, 59
, 71
, 12
, 47, 140
, 35
, 47
, 55
, 59
, 119
n , 10
, , 35
, 3
, 25
, 64
, VI, 22
, 119
, 8
, 147
, 24, 29
, VI
, 15
, 13
, VI, 146
, 112
, 112
- 184 -
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2.
"Linear Algebra"
VNR, New York,1971
3.
4.
"Linear Algebra"
L.Lang. Addison Wisley, 1970
5.
"Linear Algebra"
P. Knopp, Hamilton Publishing Co., Santa Barbara, California 1974
6.
"Linear Algebra"
G. Shilov, Dover, New York, 1977
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8.
Algebra
S. MacLane, G. Birkhoff, Chelsea Publishing Company, New York, 1967
9.
. Morris, . 1980
10.