NEUROPHYSIOLOGY

Ronald Allan Cruz, MD

Department of Physiology FEU-NRMF Institute of Medicine

Neuron

Membrane Potential
 The difference in electrical potential between

the two sides of the plasma membrane

 Negative ions inside the membrane  Positive ions outside the membrane  The body is electrically neutral

Types of Membrane Potential

 Resting membrane potential  Local potential
Synaptic potential Generator or receptor potential Electrotonic potential

 Action potential

Resting Membrane Potential

 Nature of the plasma
Inside the cell K+ ProteinsOutside the cell Na+ Cl-

membrane
Selectively permeable

 Unequal distribution of

Concentration of Ions Mmol/L of H2O Inside the cell Na+ K+ Cl15.0 150.0 9.0 Outside the cell 150.0 5.5 125.0

ions

Negative charge inside the membrane Positive charge outside the membrane
-70 mv

K+ Na+ Proteins- ClCa Ca+ Na

+ +

Cl3 Na+ 2 K+
ATP ADP

K+

Equilibrium potential
 Membrane potential when no work is involved

in movements of a given ion

Inward flow = outward flow

 Nernst equation
E = 61 log(Ci/Co)
Ion Na K Cl Equilibrium potential (mV) +60 -90 -70

Excitability and Conductivity

 Neurons have low threshold of excitation  Stimulus may be:
Electrical Chemical Mechanical

 Responses produced:
Local potential Action potential

Action Potential
 Electrical signals or nerve impulses by which

information is conducted from one area to another

Production of Action Potential

 Resting state  Depolarization  Repolarization  After depolarization  After hyperpolarization

Threshold
 Threshold stimulus  K+ flow = Na+ flow  15-20 mV fom the RMP  Critical firing level  All-or-none

phenomenon

Strength-Duration Relationship
 Weak stimulus: longer  Rheobase  Utilization time  Chronaxie

time to excite a fiber  Strong stimulus: shorter time to excite a fiber

Excitability Cycle
 Refractory period
Absolute refractory period Relative refractory period

 Supernormal period  Subnormal period

Conduction of an Action Potential

 Depolarization
Na+ influx Electronic potential

 Action potential  Refractory period

+++++ - - - - - -

+++++ +++++ +++++ +++++ +++++ +++++

Local Potential
 Transient shift in membrane potential in a

localized area of the membrane

 Localized change in the ion channels that alter

the permeability to one or more ions

 Hyperpolarization  Hypopolarization  Depolarization

Types of Local Potential

 Synaptic potential  Generator potential receptor potential  End-plate potential  Electrotonic potential

Characteristics of Local Potentials

 Graded  Summation  Short-distance signals - localized

Production of Synaptic Potential

 K+ channels open  Na+ channels open  Cl- channels open  K+ channels close  Ca+ channels open

Production of Generator potential

 Na+ channels open

Production of Electrotonic Potential

 Na+ channels open  Opening or closing of several ion channels by

an externally applied voltage

Anodal (+) pole hyperpolarization Cathodal (-) pole depolarization

Factors Affecting Conduction

 Axon diameter  Degree of

myelinization

Ion Channels in Myelinated Neurons

 Saltatory conduction  Na+ channels
Initial segment Nodes of Ranvier

REFLEX ARC

Reflex
 Functional unit of the  Components
Receptors Afferent nerve Center Efferent nerve Effector

nervous system
 Somatic reflex arc  Autonomic reflex arc

Receptors
 Cutaneous receptors  Receptors in special  Telereceptors  Exteroreceptors  Interoreceptors  Proprioreceptors

sense organs  Receptors which respond to changes in the internal environment

Properties of a Receptor
 Responds to lowest threshold  Transforms different types of energy into

nerve impulse
 When stimulated, it produces a series of

impulses ( stimulus intensity ,  frequency of discharge)

Properties of a Receptor
  stimulus intensity,  receptors stimulated
recruitment of sensory units

 Adaptation
Frequency of receptor discharge may become lower after a certain duration of stimulation

 Receptors may be inhibited

Mechanism of Impulse Initiation in Receptors

 Sequence of reactions
Stimulus produces depolarizaion Generator or receptor potential is created Generator potential is sufficient to generate an action potential

Mechanism of Impulse Initiation in Receptors

 Ionic mechanism
Stimulus increases permeability to Na+ Depolarization, creation of a generator potential Depolarization spreads and reaches the first node of Ranvier Threshold is reached, action potential is generated

Generation potential is maintained, steady action potentials are evoked at the node
Repetitive firing

A stronger stimulus produces a generator potential of greater magnitude

Increased frequency of discharge upon application of a stronger stimulus

Adaptation Inhibition by other efferent nerve fibers

SYNAPTIC TRANSMISSION

Synaptic Transmission
 Pre-synaptic element  Synaptic cleft  Post-synaptic element

Methods of Synaptic Transmission

 Electrical
Rare in vertebrates Occurs in tight junctions Transmission is by electrical coupling Transmission may be bidirectional

 Chemical
Excitatory transmission Inhibitory transmission

Neurotransmitter Release
 Release of  Characteristics

neurotransmitter  Fate of neurotransmitter  Excitatory or inhibitory mechanism

Acetylcholine, epinephrine, dopamine GABA, glycine

 pre-synaptic spike,  transmitter release Ca ions,  postsynaptic spike  Mg ions,  response Orthodromic conduction

Characteristics of Synaptic Transmission

 Summation  Inhibition
Development if IPSP Pre-synaptic inhibition Renshaw cell inhibition
Negative feedback

 Convergence
Several pre-synaptic neuron : 1 post-synaptic neuron

 Divergence
1 pre-synaptic neuron : several post-synaptic neurons

 Facilitation
Successive stimulation of an efferent neuron may build up and EPSP reaching threshold

 Occlusion
2 efferent neurons produce a lesser response than the sum of the responses produced when the neurons are stimulated separately

 Unidirectional transmission
Orthodromic transmission

 Repetitive discharge  Transmission is depressed by hypoxia

 Synaptic delay in the passage of a nerve

impulse is accounted for the time it takes for:

Release of neurotransmitter Diffusion of neurotransmitter Change in membrane permeability of post-synaptic ending Depolarization EPSP

Neuromuscular Transmission
 Acetylcholine  End-plate potential

Mechanism of Neuromuscular Transmission

 Depolarization of nerve endings  Release of neurotransmitters  Diffusion of the neurotransmitters  Neurotransmitters interact with receptors

permeability of membrane to Na+  Depolarization  Action potential



END
How do you measure the life of a woman or a man? Measure your life in love - Jonathan Larson Rent