Chuong 2 Vu Tru Trong Vo Hat de - Smith.N Studio

Smith Nguyen Studio.
CHNG 2
H NH D N G CA THI GIAN
Thuyt tng i rng ca Einstein cho thi gian mt hnh dng N c th tng hp vi thuyt lng t nh th no?
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Cc vng nhnh kh c th xy ra hay khng th xy ra?
ng ray xe la chnh chy t qu kh n tng lai
Thi gian c th phn nhnh v quay li c khng?
(Hnh 2.1) M HNH THI GIAN GING NH NHNG NG RAY XE LA Nhng ng ray chnh ch c tc dng v mt pha v tng lai hay n c th quay li nhp vi n ti cc giao im trc ?
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Ngi dch: da_trach@yahoo.com, http://datrach.blogspot.com
Smith NguyenT Studio. H D C G

N H N G A H I I A N
hi gian l g? Mt bi thnh ca ni: thi gian l mt lung chy v tn cun theo bao m c ca chng ta. N c phi l mt tuyn ng ray xe la hay khng? C th thi gian c nhng vng lp v phn nhnh v nh chng ta c th i ti v li cn c th quay li mt ga no trc trn ng ray (hnh 2.1). Mt tc gi th k 19 tn l Charles Lamb vit: khng c g lm ti bi ri hn thi gian v khng gian, bi v ti cha bao gi ngh v n. Hu ht mi ngi trong chng ta chng mt th gi bn tm v thi gian v khng gian, chng l g cng c, nhng i lc tt c chng ta t hi thi gian l g, n bt u th no v n ang dn chng ta v u. Theo ti, bt k mt l thuyt mang tnh khoa hc no v thi gian hoc v bt k mt khi nim no khc u da trn mt trit l khoa hc hiu qu nht: phng php thc chng (positivism) do nh trit hc Karl Popper v cng s a ra. Theo phng php t duy ny th mt l thuyt khoa hc l mt m hnh ton hc m t v gii m cc quan st m chng ta thu c. Mt l thuyt tt s m t c nhiu hin tng da trn mt s t cc gi thit v s tin on c cc hin tng c th kim chng c. Nu cc tin on ph hp vi thc nghim th l thuyt s vt qua c t kim chng mc d c th ngi ta khng bao gi chng minh rng l thuyt l chnh xc. Mt khc, nu cc l thuyt khng ph hp vi cc tin on th chng ta cn loi b hoc sa i l thuyt (t nht l nhng iu cn xy ra. Trn thc t, ngi ta thng t cu hi v chnh xc ca cc quan st v kha cnh o c ca nhng ngi thc hin cc quan st ). Nu ngi ta ng trn quan im thc chng ging nh ti th ngi ta khng th ni thc s thi gian l g. Tt c nhng vic m ngi ta c th l m t cc s kin c tm ra cc m hnh ton hc v thi gian ph hp tt vi thc nghim v tin on cc s kin mi. Isaac Newton cho chng ta m hnh ton hc u tin v thi gian v khng gian trong cun Cc nguyn l ton hc (Principia
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(Hnh 2.2) Thi gian ca Newton b tch khi khng gian nh l nhng ng ray xe la tri di n v tn theo hai hng.
Isaac Newton xut bn m hnh ton hc v khng gian v thi gian cch y 300 nm.
Mathematica), xut bn nm 1687. Newton tng gi gh gio s Lucasian ti trng i hc Cambridge, v tr m ti ang gi hin nay, mc d lc chic gh ca Newton khng c iu khin bng in nh ca ti! Trong m hnh ca Newton, thi gian v khng gian l khung nn cho cc s kin xy ra v khng gian v thi gian khng lm nh hng n cc s kin xy ra trong . Thi gian tch bit khi khng gian v c coi l n tuyn, hoc c coi l ng ray tu ha di v tn theo hai hng (hnh 2.2). Bn thn thi gian c xem l vnh cu theo ngha n tn ti, v n s tn ti mi mi. Nhng ngc li, phn ln mi ngi u ngh rng v tr vi trng thi gn ging hin ti c sng to cch y vi ngn nm. iu ny lm cc nh trit hc nh Immanuel Kant, mt nh t tng ngi c, trn tr. Nu thc s v tr c sng to ti mt thi im th ti sao li phi i mt khong thi gian v tn trc ? Mt khc, nu v tr tn ti mi mi th ti sao nhng s kin s xy ra trong tng lai li khng xy ra trong qu kh, ng lch s kt thc? c bit l, ti sao v tr li khng t n trng thi cn bng nhit trong mi vt u c cng nhit ?
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N H N G A H I I A N
(Hnh 2.3) HNH DNG V HNG CA THI GIAN Thuyt tng i ca Einstein l thuyt ph hp vi rt nhiu thc nghim cho thy rng thi gian v khng gian lin h cht ch vi nhau. Ngi ta khng th b cong khng gian m khng nh hng n thi gian. Do , thi gian c mt hnh dng. Tuy vy, dng nh n ch c mt hng ging nh cc u my xe la trong hnh minh ha trn.
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Hnh 2.4: TM CAO SU V TR Hn bi ln trung tm i din cho mt vt th nng nh l mt ngi sao. Khi lng ca n lm cong tm cao su xung quanh. Nhng hn bi khc ln trn tm cao su s b nh hng bi cong v chuyn ng xung quanh hn bi ln, cc hnh tinh trong trng hp dn ca mt ngi sao cng chuyn ng xung quanh n ging nh trn. Trang 34
Kant gi vn ny l mt s t mu thun ca l tnh thun ty (antinomy of pure reason), bi v dng nh l mt mu thun l-gc; n khng c li gii. Nhng n ch l mt mu thun trong bi cnh ca m hnh ton hc ca Newton, trong thi gian l mt ng thng, c lp vi cc s kin xy ra trong v tr. Tuy nhin, nh chng ta thy trong chng 1, Einstein xut mt m hnh ton hc hon ton mi: thuyt tng i rng. K t khi bi bo ca Einstein ra i n nay, chng ta b sung mt vi sa i nhng m hnh v khng gian v thi gian vn da trn m hnh m Einstein xut. Chng ny v cc chng sau s m t cc t tng ca chng ta pht trin nh th no k t khi bi bo cch mng ca Einstein. l cu chuyn v thnh cng ca rt nhiu ngi, v ti t ho ng gp mt phn nh cng sc vo cu chuyn .

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Thuyt tng i rng kt hp chiu thi gian vi ba chiu ca khng gian to thnh ci gi l khng thi gian (spacetime hnh 2.3). L thuyt gii thch hiu ng hp dn l s phn b ca vt cht v nng lng trong v tr lm cong v bin dng khng thi gian, do khng thi gian khng phng. Cc vt th trong khng thi gian c gng chuyn ng theo cc ng thng, nhng v khng thi gian b cong nn cc qu o ca chng b cong theo. Cc vt th chuyn ng nh th chng b nh hng bi trng hp dn. Mt cch hnh dung th thin, khng thi gian ging nh mt tm cao su. Khi ta t mt vin bi ln tng trng cho mt tri ln tm cao su . Trng lng ca vin bi s ko tm cao su v lm cho n b cong gn mt tri. Nu by gi ta ln cc vin bi nh ln tm cao su th chng s khng ln thng qua ch vin bi ln m thay vo chng s di chuyn xung quanh n, ging nh cc hnh tinh chuyn ng xung quanh mt tri (hnh 2.4). S hnh dung khng hon ton ng bi v ch mt phn hai chiu ca khng gian b b cong, v thi gian khng b bin i ging nh trong l thuyt ca Newton. Trong thuyt tng i rng, l thuyt ph php vi rt nhiu thc nghim, thi gian v khng gian gn lin vi nhau. Ngi ta khng th lm cong khng gian m khng lm bin i thi gian. Do thi gian c mt hnh dng. Bng cch lm cong khng gian v thi gian, thuyt tng i bin chng t khung nn th ng m trong cc s kin xy ra thnh tc nhn nng ng tham gia vo cc s kin . Trong l thuyt ca Newton thi gian tn ti c lp vi tt c mi s vt khc, ta c th hi: Cha lm g trc khi sng to ra v tr? Nh thnh Augustin tr li rng, ta khng nn ni a v iu , nu c ai trt hi vy th ng tr li Ngi chun b a ngc cho nhng k qu t m. l mt cu hi nghim tc m con ngi suy ngh trong nhiu th k. Theo thnh Augustin, trc khi Cha to thin ng v tri t, Ngi khng lm g c. Thc ra tng ny rt gn vi cc t tng hin i. Trong thuyt tng i rng, khng thi gian v v tr khng tn ti c lp vi nhau. Chng c xc nh bng cc php o trong v tr nh l s cc dao ng ca tinh th thch anh trong ng h hoc chiu di ca mt ci thc. Trong v tr, thi gian c nh ngha nh th ny cng l iu d hiu, n cn c mt gi tr b nht v ln nht hay ni cch khc, c mt s khi u v kt thc. Vic hi ci g xy ra trc khi thi gian bt u v ci g s xy ra sau khi thi gian kt thc l v ngha v lc n khng c xc nh.
Thnh Augustine, nh t tng th k th nm cho rng thi gian khng tn ti trc khi th gii ra i.
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Ngi quan st
Vic xc nh m hnh ton hc ca thuyt tng i rng tin on v tr v bn thn thi gian c bt u hay kt thc hay khng hin nhin l mt vn quan trng. nh kin cho rng thi gian l v tn theo hai hng l ph bin i vi cc nh vt l l thuyt trong c Einstein. Mt khc, c nhiu cu hi rc ri v s sng th, cc cu hi ny c v nm ngoi phm vi nghin cu ca khoa hc. Trong cc nghim ca cc phng trnh ca Einstein, thi gian c bt u v c kt thc, nhng tt c cc nghim u rt c bit, c nhiu php i xng. Ngi ta cho rng, trong mt vt th ang suy sp di lc hp dn ca chnh bn thn n, th cc p lc hoc cc vn tc bin (sideway) trnh cho vt cht khng cng nhau ri vo mt im mt vt cht s tr nn v hn. Tng t nh th, nu ngi ta theo di s dn n ca v tr trong qu kh, ngi ta s thy rng vt cht ca v tr khng xut pht t mt im c mt v hn. Mt im c mt v hn nh vy c gi l mt im k d v n l im khi u v kt thc ca thi gian. Nm 1963, hai nh khoa hc ngi Nga l Evgenii Lifshitz and Isaac Khalatnikov khng nh chng minh tt c cc nghim ca phng trnh ca Einstein cho thy vt cht v vn tc c sp xp mt cch c bit. Xc xut v tr xp xp c bit nh th gn nh bng khng. Hu ht tt c cc nghim biu din trng thi ca v tr u trnh c im k d vi mt v hn: trc pha gin n, v tr cn phi c mt pha co li trong vt cht b ko vo nhau nhng khng va chm vi nhau sau ri nhau trong pha gin n hin nay. Nu ng nh th th thi gian lin tc mi mi t v tn trong qu kh ti v tn trong tng lai. Lun c ca Lifshitz v Khalatnikov khng thuyt phc c tt c mi ngi. Thay vo , Roger Penrose v ti chp nhn mt cch tip cn khc khng da trn nghin cu chi tit cc nghim ca phng trnh Einstein m da trn mt cu trc bao trm ca khng thi gian. Trong thuyt tng i, khng thi gian khng ch b cong bi khi lng ca cc vt th m cn b cong bi nng lng trong na. Nng lng lun lun dng, do khng thi gian b un cong v b cong hng ca cc tia sng li gn nhau hn. By gi chng ta xem xt nn nh sng qu kh (hnh 2.5), l cc ng trong khng thi gian m cc tia sng t cc thin h xa xi i n chng ta hm nay. Trong gin th hin nn ng sng, thi
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(Hnh 2.5) NN NH SNG QU KH CA CHNG TA Khi chng ta nhn cc thin h xa xi, chng ta ang nhn v tr trong qu kh v nh sng chuyn ng vi vn tc hu hn. Nu chng ta biu din thi gian bng trc thng ng v hai trong ba chiu ca khng gian bng trc nm ngang th nhng tia sng n vi chng ta ngy nay nm nh nn. Trang 36
Thi gian
ian
Chiu khng gian

N H N G A H I I A N
Ngi quan st nhn v qu kh Cc thin h xut hin gn y Cc thin h xut hin cch y 5 t nm
Bc x phng
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L thuyt v thc nghim trng khp vi nhau
SNG (I/10-7 W m-2 sr-1 cm) BC SNG/mm (Hnh 2.6) KT QU PHP O PH PHNG VI SNG Ph (phn b cng theo tn s) ca bc x phng vi sng ging ph pht ra t mt vt nng. i vi bc x trong trng thi cn bng nhit, vt cht lm tn x bc x nhiu ln. iu ny cho thy rng c mt lng vt cht trong nn nh sng qu kh b cong nh sng. Trang 38
gian c biu din bng phng thng ng v khng gian c biu din bng phng nm ngang, v tr ca chng ta trong l nh ca nn ng sng . Khi chng ta i v qu kh, tc l i t nh xung pha di ca nn, chng ta s thy cc thin h ti cc thi im rt sm ca v tr. V v tr ang gin n v tt c mi th tng rt gn nhau, nn khi chng ta nhn xa hn v qu kh th chng ta ang nhn li vng khng gian c mt vt cht ln hn. Chng ta quan st thy mt phng bc x vi sng (microwave background) lan ti chng ta dc theo nn nh sng qu kh t cc thi im rt xa xa khi m v tr rt c, rt nng hn by gi. Bng cch iu khin cc my o v cc tn s vi sng khc nhau, chng ta c th o c ph ca bc x ny (s phn b ca nng

N H N G A H I I A N
lng theo tn s). Chng ta tm thy mt ph c trng cho bc x t mt vt th vi nhit 2,7 K. Bc x vi sng ny khng mnh lm nng chic bnh piza, nhng ph ny ph hp mt cch chnh xc vi ph ca bc x t mt vt c nhit 2,7 K, iu ni vi chng ta rng bc x cn phi n t cc vng c vt cht lm tn x vi sng (hnh 2.6). Do chng ta c th kt lun rng nn nh sng qu kh ca chng ta cn phi vt qua mt lng vt cht khi ngi ta i ngc li thi gian. Lng vt cht ny lm cong khng thi gian, do cc tia sng trong nn nh sng qu kh ca chng ta b b cong vo vi nhau (hnh 2.7).
(Hnh 2.7) LM CONG KHNG THI GIAN V lc hp dn l lc ht nn vt cht lun lm cong khng thi gian sao cho cc tia sng b b cong li vi nhau.
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Ti thi im ny, ngi quan st ang nhn v qu kh
Cch thin h cch y nm t nm
Phng vi sng
Mt vt cht lm cho nn nh sng b b cong
K d v n ln
THI GIAN KHNG GIAN Trang 40


N H N G A H I I A N
Khi chng ta i ngc li thi gian, cc mt ct ca nn nh sng qu kh t n mt kch thc cc i v sau li tr ln nh hn. Qu kh ca chng ta c hnh qu l (hnh 2.8). Khi ta tip tc i theo nn nh sng v qu kh th mt vt cht nng lng dng s lm cho cc tia sng b b cong vo vi nhau mnh hn na. Mt ct ca nn nh sng s co li v 0 ti mt thi im hu hn. iu ny c ngha l tt c vt cht trong nn nh sng qu kh ca chng ta b by trong mt vng khng thi gian m bin ca n co li v 0. Do , khng ngc nhin khi Penrose v ti c th chng minh bng cc m hnh ton hc ca thuyt tng i rng rng thi gian cn phi c mt thi im bt u c gi l v n ln. L lun tng t cho thy thi gian cng c im kt thc khi cc ngi sao hoc cc thin h suy sp di lc hp dn ca bn thn chng to thnh cc h en. By gi chng ta phi quay li mt gi thuyt ngm ca Kant v s t mu thun ca l tnh thun ty m theo thi gian l mt thuc tnh ca v tr. Bi tiu lun ca chng ti chng minh thi gian c mt im khi u t gii nh trong mt cuc thi do Qu nghin cu v hp dn ti tr vo nm 1968. Roger v ti cng chia nhau s tin thng 300 USD. Ti khng ngh rng vo nm cc bi lun t gii khc c gi tr lu di hn bi ca chng ti. c rt nhiu nhng phn ng khc nhau v cng trnh ca chng ti. Cng trnh ca chng ti lm bun lng nhiu nh vt l, nhng n li lm hi lng cc nh lnh o tn gio, nhng ngi tin vo hnh vi sng th v cho y l mt minh chng khoa hc. Trong khi , Lifshitz v Khalatnikov ang trong mt tnh trng rt kh x. H khng th tranh lun vi cc nh l ton hc m chng ti chng minh, nhng di h thng X Vit h khng th chp nhn l h sai v khoa hc phng Ty ng. Tuy vy, h thot c tnh trng bng cch tm ra mt h nghim vi mt im k d tng qut hn, nhng nghim ny cng khng c bit hn cc nghim trc m h tm ra. iu ny cho php h khng nh cc k d v s khi u hoc kt thc ca thi gian l pht minh ca nhng ngi X Vit.
(Hnh 2.8, hnh trc) THI GIAN C HNH QU L Nu ta i theo nn ng sng v qu kh th chic nn ny b b cong do vt cht nhng giai on rt sm ca v tr. Ton b v tr m chng ta quan st nm trong mt vng m bin ca n nh li bng khng ti thi im v n ln. y c th l mt im k d, mt vt cht ln v hn v thuyt tng i c in khng cn ng na.
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NGUYN L BT NH
Bc sng tn s thp lm nhiu lon vn tc ca ht t hn
Bc sng tn s cao lm nhiu lon vn tc ca ht nhiu hn
Bc sng dng quan st ht cng di th bt nh v v tr cng ln
Bc sng dng quan st ht cng ngn th bt nh v v tr cng nh
t bc tin quan trng trong thuyt lng t l xut ca Max Plank vo nm 1900 l nh sng truyn i vi tng b nh gi l lng t. Mc d gi thuyt lng t ca Plank gii thch rt tt tc bc x ca cc vt nng nhng phi n tn gia nhng nm 1920 khi nh vt l ngi c Werner Heisenberg tm ra nguyn l bt nh ni ting ca ng th ngi ta mi nhn thy ht ngha ca n. Theo Heisenberg th gi thuyt ca Plank ng rng nu ta
mun o v tr ca ht cng chnh xc bao nhiu th php o vn tc cng km chnh xc by nhiu v ngc li. Ni chnh xc hn, Heisenberg chng minh rng bt nh v v tr ca ht nhn vi bt nh v m men ca n lun ln hn hng s Plank mt i lng lin h cht ch vi nng lng ca mt lng t nh sng.
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N H N G A H I I A N
PHNG TRNH BT NH HEISENBERG
X
bt nh v v tr ca ht bt nh v vn tc ca ht
Khng nh hn hng s Plank
Khi lng ca ht
TRNG MAXWELL
Phn ln cc nh vt l u cm thy khng thch tng v s khi u v kt thc ca thi gian. Do , h ch ra rng cc m hnh ton hc s khng m t tt khng thi gian gn im k d. L do l thuyt tng i rng m t lc hp dn l mt l thuyt c in v khng tng hp vi nguyn l bt nh ca l thuyt lng t iu khin cc lc khc m chng ta bit. S mu thun ny khng quan trng i vi phn ln v tr v thi gian v khng thi gian b b cong trn mt phm vi rt ln cn cc hiu ng lng t ch quan trng trn phm vi rt nh. Nhng gn mt im k d, hai phm vi ny gn bng nhau v cc hiu ng hp dn lng t (quantum gravity) s tr ln quan trng. Do cc nh l v im k d do Penrose v ti thit lp l vng khng thi gian c in ca chng ta lin h vi qu kh v c th l c tng lai na bi cc vng khng thi gian m hp dn lng t ng vai tr quan trng. hiu ngun gc v s phn ca v tr, chng ta cn mt L thuyt hp dn lng t (quantum theory of gravity), v y s l ch ca phn ln cun sch ny. L thuyt lng t ca cc h nh nguyn t vi mt s lng hu hn cc ht c xy dng vo nhng nm 1920 do cng ca Heisenberg, Schrodinger, v Dirac (Dirac cng l mt ngi tng gi gh m hin nay ti ang gi, nhng khng phi l chic gh t ng!). Mc d vy, con ngi vn gp kh khn khi c gng m rng tng lng t vo trng in, t, v nh sng ca Maxwell.
m 1865, nh vt l ngi Anh Clerk Maxwell kt hp cc nh lut in v t bit. L thuyt ca Maxwell da trn s tn ti ca cc trng, cc trng truyn tc ng t ni ny n ni khc. ng nhn thy rng cc trng truyn nhiu lon in v t l cc thc th ng: chng c th dao ng v truyn trong khng gian. Tng hp in t ca Maxwell c th gp li vo hai phng trnh m t ng hc ca cc trng ny. Chnh ng cng i n mt kt lun tuyt vi: tt c cc sng in t vi tt c cc tn s u truyn trong khng gian vi mt vn tc khng i vn tc nh sng.
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Hng dao ng ca con lc
Bc sng l khong cch gia hai nh sng
(Hnh 2.9) SNG LAN TRUYN VI CON LC DAO NG Bc x in t lan truyn trong khng gian ging nh mt sng vi in trng v t trng dao ng ging nh mt con lc v hng truyn th vung gc vi hng chuyn ng ca sng. Bc x cng c th c to thnh t nhiu trng vi cc bc sng khc nhau. Trang 44
Ta c th xem trng Maxwell to thnh t cc sng vi cc bc sng (khong cch gia hai nh sng) khc nhau. Trong mt sng, trng s dao ng t gi tr ny n gi tr khc ging nh mt con lc (hnh 2.9). Theo l thuyt lng t, trng thi c bn hay trng thi nng lng thp nht ca con lc khng ch ti im nng lng thp nht hng thng t trn xung. im c v tr v vn tc xc nh l bng khng. iu ny vi phm nguyn l bt nh, nguyn l khng cho php o mt cch chnh xc v tr v vn tc ti mt thi im. bt nh v v tr nhn vi bt nh v m men cn phi ln hn mt i lng xc nh c bit vi ci tn l hng s Plank mt con s nu vit ra s rt di, do chng ra dng mt biu tng cho n: .
B c sn g
Hng sng truyn

N H N G A H I I A N
Phn b xc sut
Hng (Hnh 2.10) CON LC V PHN B XC SUT
Do , nng lng ca con lc trng thi c bn hay trng thi c nng lng cc tiu khng phi bng khng nh ngi ta trng i. Thay vo , ngay c trng thi c bn ca n, mt con lc hay bt k mt h dao ng no cng c mt lng nng lng cc tiu nht nh ca ci m ta gi l dao ng im khng (hay thng ging im khng - zero point uctuation). iu ny c ngha l con lc khng nht thit phi nm theo hng thng t trn xung m n s lm vi phng thng ng mt gc nh vi mt xc xut nht nh (hnh 2.10). Tng t nh vy, ngay c trong chn khng hoc trng thi nng lng thp nht, cc sng trong trng Maxwell s khng bng khng m c th c mt gi tr nh no . Tn s (s dao ng trong mt pht) ca con lc hay sng cng ln th nng lng trng thi c bn cng ln. Cc tnh ton thng ging trng thi c bn trong trng Maxwell cho thy khi lng v in tch biu kin ca in t ln v cng,
Theo nguyn l bt nh Heisenberg, con lc khng th hng thng ng tuyt i t trn xung di vi vn tc bng khng c. Thay vo , c hc lng t cho thy rng, ngay c trng thi nng lng thp nht con lc cng c mt lng thng ging cc tiu. iu ny c ngha l v tr ca con lc s c cho bi mt phn b xc sut. trng thi c bn, trng thi kh d nht l hng thng t trn xung, nhng cng c xc sut tm thy con lc lm mt gc nh vi phng thng ng. Trang 45
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iu ny khng ph hp vi cc quan st. Tuy vy, vo nhng nm 1940, cc nh vt l Richard Feynman, Julian Schwinger v Shinichiro Tomonaga pht trin mt phng php cht ch loi b gi tr v hn v thu c gi tr hu hn ca khi lng v in tch ging nh quan st. Tuy nhin, cc thng ging trng thi c bn vn gy cc hiu ng nh c th o c v ph hp vi thc nghim. Cc s loi tr cc gi tr ln v hn tng t cng ng i vi cc trng Yang-Mills trong l thuyt do Chen Ning Yang (Yang Chen Ning Dng Chn Ninh) v Robert Mills xy dng. L thuyt Yang-Mills l m rng ca l thuyt Maxwell m t tng tc ca hai lc khc gi l lc ht nhn yu v lc ht nhn mnh. Tuy vy cc thng ging trng thi c bn c hiu ng ng k hn trong l thuyt hp dn lng t. Li na, mt bc sng c mt nng lng trng thi c bn. V bc sng ca trng Maxwell c th nh bao nhiu cng c nn c mt s v hn cc bc sng khc nhau v mt s v hn cc nng lng trng thi c bn trong bt k vng no ca khng thi gian. V mt nng lng cng ging nh vt cht l ngun gc ca hp dn nn mt nng lng v hn ny c ngha l c lc ht hp dn trong v tr lm cong khng thi gian thnh mt im m iu r rng l khng xy ra. Ngi ta cng c th hy vng gii quyt bi ton c v mu thun gia l thuyt v thc nghim ny bng cch cho rng cc thng ging trng thi c bn khng c hiu ng hp dn, nhng gi thit ny khng ng. Ngi ta c th ghi nhn nng lng ca thng ging trng thi c bn bng hiu ng Casimir. Nu bn t hai tm kim loi song song vi nhau v rt gn nhau th s c mt ca hai tm kim loi s lm gim s cc bc sng c th khp gia hai tm kim loi so vi s cc bc sng bn ngoi hai tm mt cht t. iu ny c ngha l mt nng lng ca thng ging trng thi c bn gia hai tm, mc d vn l v hn, vn nh hn mt nng lng bn ngoi hai tm mt lng hu hn (hnh 2.11). S khc bit v mt nng lng ny lm xut hin mt lc ko hai tm kim loi vo vi nhau v lc ny c quan st bng thc nghim. Trong thuyt tng i, ging nh vt cht, cc lc cng to nn hp dn, do , chng ta khng th b qua hiu ng hp dn ca s khc bit v nng lng ny.
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(Hnh 2.11) HIU NG CASIMIR Bc sng bn ngoi S tn ti ca thng ging trng thi c bn c khng nh bng thc nghim thng qua hiu ng Casimir v s c mt ca mt lc nh gia hai tm kim loi song song.
S bc sng bn trong khong khng gian b gii hn bi hai a b gim i v phi va khp khong cch gia hai a
Mt nng lng ca thng ging trng thi c bn gia hai a nh hn mt bn ngoi a lm cho hai a b ht li gn nhau
Mt nng lng ca thng ging trng thi c bn bn ngoi hai a ln hn bn trong
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180
360 Ht c spin bng 1
90
180 Ht c spin bng 2
Ht c spin bng 1/2
360
360 360
(Hnh 2.12) SPIN t c cc ht c mt tnh cht gi l spin, tc dng ca spin l lm cho cc ht c thy nh nhn t cc hng khc nhau. Ngi ta c th minh ha iu ny bng mt b bi. Trc tin hy xem con t pch, nu bn quay ng mt vng hay 360 th bn s thy n ging nh trc khi quay. Do , con t pch c spin bng 1. Ngc li, con qui c c hai u. Nu bn quay mt na vng hay 180 bn s thy n ging
nh ban u. Con qui c c spin bng hai. Tng t, ta c th tng tng cc vt th c spin bng 3 hoc nhiu hn nu hnh dng ca n ging nh ban u khi quay mt phn nh hn ca mt vng quay. Spin cng cao th gc quay vt th c hnh dng ban u cng nh. Nhng c mt iu ng ch l c cc ht m hnh dng ca chng ging nh ban u ch khi bn quay hai vng. Ngi ta gi nhng ht nh vy c spin bng 1/2.
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N H N G A H I I A N
Ht c spin = 1
Ht c spin = 2
Ht c spin = 1/2
Mt nghim khc ca bi ton m c th i hi c mt hng s v tr ging nh Einstein a ra c c m hnh v tr tnh. Nu hng s ny c gi tr m v cng th n c th loi tr chnh xc gi tr dng v cng ca nng lng trng thi c bn trong khng gian t do, nhng hng s ny c v nh khng c d tnh trc (ad hoc) v n c th c iu chnh mt cch cc k chnh xc. Tht may mn, ngi ta pht hin mt loi i xng hon ton mi vo nhng nm 1970, n cung cp mt c ch vt l t nhin loi tr cc gi tr v hn xut hin t thng ging trng thi c bn. Siu i xng l mt c im ca cc m hnh ton hc hin i ca chng ta m c th c m t theo nhiu cch. Mt trong nhng cch ni rng khng thi gian c thm cc chiu khc bn cnh cc chiu m chng ta ang tri nhim. Nhng chiu ny c gi l nhng chiu Grassmann bi v chng c o bng cc con s c gi l cc bin s Grassmann ch khng phi l nhng con s thc bnh thng. Cc s bnh thng giao hon vi nhau; tc l; bn c th nhn chng theo mt trt t no cng c: 6 nhn vi 4 cng bng 4 nhn vi 6. Nhng nhng bin Grassmann th li phn giao hon (anticommute) vi nhau: x nhn vi y bng y nhn vi x. Ln u tin, siu i xng c nghin cu khi loi tr cc gi tr v hn trong cc trng vt cht v trng Yan-Mills trong khng thi gian c cc chiu s thc v cc chiu Grassmann u phng, khng b cong. Vic m rng siu i xng vo cc chiu s thc v chiu Grassmann khi cc chiu ny b un cong l mt iu rt t nhin. S m rng ny dn n mt s cc l thuyt c gi l siu hp dn (supergravity) vi s lng cc i xng khc nhau. Mt h qu ca siu i xng l mi trng hoc mi ht u c mt siu i tc (superpartner) c spin ln hn hoc nh hn spin ca n 1/2 (hnh 2.12).
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Ht Fermion vi spin bn nguyn (nh l 1/2) to nn vt cht thng. Nng lng trng thi c bn ca chng l m.
Ht Boson l nhng ht c spin nguyn (v d: 0, 1, 2) ca siu hp dn N=8. Nng lng trng thi c bn ca chng l dng.
(Hnh 2.13) SIU I TC Tt c cc ht trong v tr u thuc mt trong hai nhm: Fermion hoc Boson. Ht Fermion l cc ht c spin bn nguyn (nh l 1/2) to nn vt cht thng. Nng lng trng thi c bn ca chng l m. Ht Boson l nhng ht c spin nguyn (v d: 0, 1, 2) lm tng lc xut hin gia cc ht Fermion nh l lc hp dn v nh sng chng hn. Nng lng trng thi c bn ca chng l dng. Thuyt siu hp dn gi thuyt rng tt c cc ht Fermion v Boson u c mt siu i tc c spin ln hn hoc nh hn spin
ca ht 1/2. V d mt photon (l ht boson) c spin l 1, nng lng trng thi c bn l dng. Siu i tc ca photon l photion c spin bng 1/2 l mt fermion. Do nng lng trng thi c bn l m. Trong s siu hp dn ny, chng ta s c s cc ht fermion v boson bng nhau. Nng lng trng thi c bn ca cc ht boson lm nghing cn cn v pha dng v nng lng trng thi c bn ca cc ht fermion lm nghing cn cn v pha nng lng m, nng lng trng thi c bn s trit tiu ln nhau v loi b gi tr ln v hn.
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M HNH TNH CHT CC HT
1 2 3
Nu cc ht im (point particle) thc s tn ti nh l cc yu t ring bit ging nh cc qu bng bi-a th khi hai qu bng va chm vi nhau th l trnh ca chng b lch theo hai hng mi. chnh l iu xy ra khi hai ht tng tc, ch khc hin tng ny kch tnh hn. L thuyt trng lng t chng minh rng hai ht v d in t v phn in t va chm vi nhau th chng s hy ln nhau to ra mt t bng n nng lng rt ln v to ra mt quang t. Quang t ny gii phng nng lng to ra mt cp in t-phn in t khc. iu ny lm cho chng ta thy nh l l trnh ca in t-phn in t b lch i theo hng mi.
im va chm vo nhau
im tng tc
im tng tc
Nu cc ht khng phi l nhng ht im m l cc dy mt chiu trong cc vng dao ng ging nh mt in t v phn in t th khi chng va chm v hy ln nhau, chng s to mt dy mi vi mt kiu dao ng khc. Khi gii phng nng lng, dy ny b chia thnh hai dy i theo hai l trnh mi.
Nu cc dy ban u ny khng c xem l nhng khong thi gian ri rc m l mt lch s thi gian khng b gin on th cc dy c thy nh l mt tm gm nhiu dy to nn.
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(Hnh 2.14, hnh k) DAO NG CA DY Trong l thuyt dy, cc thc th c bn khng phi l cc ht chim mt im trong khng gian m l cc dy mt chiu. Cc dy ny c cc u khc nhau hoc cc u c th ni vi nhau to thnh cc vng dy. Ging nh cc si dy ca n violon, cc day trong l thuyt dy c cc kiu dao ng hoc tn s cng hng nht nh, bc sng ca cc kiu dao ng ny trng khp chnh xc vi khong cch gia hai u dy. Nhng trong khi cc tn s cng hng ca dy n khc nhau to nn cc nt nhc khc nhau th dao ng cng hng ca mt dy s to ra khi lng, lc khc nhau nhng thc th c gii thch l cc ht c bn. Ni nm na l bc sng dao ng ca dy cng nh th khi lng ca ht cng ln.
Nng lng trng thi c bn ca cc ht boson, trng c spin l mt s nguyn (0, 1, 2, v.v.), l dng. Ngc li nng lng trng thi c bn ca cc ht fermion, trng c spin bn nguyn (1/2, 3/2, v.v.), l m. V c mt lng ln cc ht boson v fermion bng nhau, cc gi tr v hn ln nht trit tiu nhau trong cc l thuyt siu hp dn (hnh 2.13). Vn cn li xc xut c gi tr v hn mc d rt nh nhng vn tn ti. Khng ai c s kin nhn cn thit tnh ton xem cc l thuyt ny c thc s l hon ton hu hn hay khng. Ngi ta tnh rng lm iu mt sinh vin gii phi mt 200 nm, v lm sao bn c bit sinh vin khng phm phi sai lm ngay trang th hai? n nm 1985, phn ln mi ngi vn tin rng hu ht cc l thuyt siu hp dn siu i xng (supersymetric) khng c cha cc gi tr v hn. Sau th t nhin mt thay i. Ngi ta tuyn b rng khng c l do g khng trng i cc gi tr v hn trong cc l thuyt siu hp dn, iu ny c ng rng cc l thuyt siu hp dn cng c cc sai lm cht ngi nh cc l thuyt khc. Thay vo , ngi ta qu quyt rng mt l thuyt c gi l l thuyt dy siu i xng l cch duy nht kt hp l thuyt hp dn v l thuyt lng t. Cc dy, ging nh cc dy trong kinh nghim hng ngy, l cc vt th mt chiu. Chng ch c chiu di. Cc dy trong l thuyt dy chuyn ng trong khng thi gian. Cc s dao ng ca dy th hin cho cc ht (hnh 2.14). Nu cc dy ny c cc chiu Grassmann v cc chiu s thng th cc dao ng s tng ng vi cc ht boson v fermion. Trong trng hp ny, nng lng trng thi c bn m v dng trit tiu mt cch chnh xc n ni s hon ton khng c cc gi tr v hn. Cc siu dy (superstring) c gi l l thuyt v vn vt (theory of everything). Cc nh vit lch s khoa hc trong tng lai s thy rt th v khi lp biu biu din xu hng thay i t tng ca cc nh vt l l thuyt. Ch trong vi nm, l thuyt dy ng tr tuyt i v thuyt siu hp dn b ging xung thnh mt l thuyt gn ng, ch ph hp nng lng thp. i lng nng lng thp b coi
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nh mt s ch bai, d l trong ng cnh ny cc nng lng thp ng cc ht vi nng lng nh hn hng t t ln so vi cc ht trong mt v n TNT. Nu siu hp dn ch l mt php gn ng nng lng thp th n khng th l l thuyt c bn cho v tr c. M thay vo , l c bn c xut c th l mt trong nm l thuyt siu dy. Nhng l thuyt no trong nm l thuyt siu dy m t v tr ca chng ta? V thuyt dy s c pht biu nh th no vt qua c php gn ng trong cc dy c m t nh l cc mt vi mt chiu khng gian v mt chiu thi gian dao ng trong mt phng khng thi gian phng. Liu cc dy c lm cong phng khng thi gian hay khng?
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Vo nhng nm sau 1985, ngi ta dn nhn thy rng, thuyt dy khng phi l mt bc tranh hon ho. Khi u l vic ngi ta nhn ra rng cc dy ch l mt thnh phn ca mt lp cc thc th bao qut hn, cc thc th ny c th c m rng vo nhiu hn mt chiu. Paul Townsend, mt ngi cng l thnh vin ca khoa Ton ng dng v Vt l l thuyt ging nh ti i hc Cambridge, mt ngi thc hin nhiu cng trnh c bn v cc thc th ny, t cho chng mt ci tn l cc mng-p (p-brane). Mt mng-p c chiu di theo p hng. Do , mng c p=1 l mt dy, mng c p=2 l mt mt hay mt mng bnh thng, v v.v. (hnh 2.15). Cc mng vi p=1 trong trng hp ca cc dy c v nh khng c u tin hn so vi cc gi tr c th khc ca p. Thay vo , chng ta thng qua mt nguyn tc dn ch cho cc mng-p: tt c cc mng-p sinh ra u c quyn bnh ng. Tt c cc mng-p u c tm thy l nghim ca cc phng trnh trong thuyt siu hp dn vi 10 hoc 11 chiu. 10 hoc 11 chiu c v nh khng ging khng thi gian m chng ta ang tri nghim nhng tng l 6 hoc 7 chiu trong s cc chiu b cun li nh n ni ta khng th thy chng, chng ta ch c th nhn ra 4 chiu ln v gn nh phng cn li m thi. Vi t cch c nhn m ni, ti rt min cng khi tin vo cc chiu b sung. Nhng v ti l mt ngi theo ch ngha thc chng nn cu hi Cc chiu b sung c thc s tn ti hay khng? khng c ngha g c. Tt c nhng iu m ngi ta c th hi l m hnh ton hc vi cc chiu b sung c m t tt v tr ca chng ta hay khng. Chng ta vn cha c quan st no m gii thch n ngi ta cn n cc chiu b sung. Tuy vy, chng ta c th c c hi quan st chng trong my va chm Hadron (Large Hadron
(Hnh 2.15) MNG-P Cc mng-p l cc thc th ko di theo p chiu. Trng hp c bit l cc dy vi p=1 v cc tm vi p=2, nhng cc gi tr kh d ca p c th ln hn ti 10 hoc 11 chiu. Nhng thng th mt s hoc tt c p chiu b cun li ging nh nhng vng xuyn.
Chng ta tin mt s tht hin nhin l tt c cc mng-p sinh ra u c quyn bnh ng.
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N H N G A H I I A N
Paul Townsend, chuyn gia v mng-p
Kt cu khng gian ca v tr ca chng ta c th c c chiu m rng ln chiu b cun li. Cc mng-p c th c xem xt d dng hn nu chng b cun li.
Mt mng 1 chiu hay mt dy b cun li
Mt mng hai chiu b cun li thnh mt hnh xuyn
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Loi IIB
Loi IIA Loi I
THUYT-M
Heterotic-O
Heterotic-E Siu hp dn 11 chiu
(Hnh 2.16) M HNH THNG NHT C mt mng li cc mi lin h c gi l tnh i ngu kt ni nm l thuyt dy v siu hp dn mi mt chiu. Tnh i ngu cho thy rng cc l thuyt dy khc nhau ch l nhng biu din khc nhau ca mt l thuyt c bn c gi l thuyt-M. Trc thp nin 90 ngi ta cho rng 5 l thuyt dy l cc l thuyt ring bit v hon ton khng lin h vi nhau. Thuyt-M thng nht 5 l thuyt dy vo mt m hnh l thuyt duy nht, nhng ngi ta vn cha hiu rt nhiu tnh cht ca m hnh ny.
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Loi IIB Loi I Loi IIA
Heterotic-O
Heterotic-E
Collider) Geneva. Nhng iu thuyt phc nhiu ngi trong c ti nghim tc chn cc m hnh vi cc chiu b sung l c mt m cc mi lin h khng ng c gi l tnh i ngu (duality) gia cc m hnh. Tnh i ngu ny cho thy rng tt c cc m hnh u tng ng; tc l, chng ch l nhng kha cnh khc nhau ca cng mt l thuyt c bn c gi vi ci tn l thuyt-M (M-theory). Nu khng ly tnh i ngu lm du hiu cho thy chng ta i ng hng th iu cng gn ging nh cho rng Cha t cc ha thch vo trong lm Darwin nhm ln v s tin ha ca s sng. Tnh i ngu cho thy rng c 5 l thuyt siu dy u m t cc bn cht vt l ging nhau v chng cho thy rng v mt vt l chng cng tng ng vi l thuyt siu hp dn (hnh 2.16). Ta khng th ni rng cc siu dy c bn hn siu hp dn hoc ngc li. ng hn, chng ch l nhng biu din khc nhau ca cng mt l thuyt c bn, mi l thuyt u tnh ton mt cch hiu qu trong cc tnh hung khc nhau. V cc l thuyt dy khng c cha cc gi tr v hn, chng c dng tnh cc kt qu c th xy ra khi mt s t cc ht nng lng cao va chm v tn x vi nhau. Tuy vy, chng khng hay c s dng m t nng lng ca mt s ln cc ht lm cong v tr nh th no hoc hnh thnh cc trng thi b tri buc (bound state), ging nh mt h en, ra sao. Vi cc trng hp ny, ngi ta cn n thuyt siu hp dn, v c bn l thuyt ny da trn l thuyt Einstein v khng thi gian cong vi mt s loi vt cht b sung. y chnh l bc tranh ti s dng ch yu trong cc phn sau.
Loi IIB Loi I Loi IIA
Heterotic-O
Heterotic-E
Thuyt-M thng nht 5 l thuyt dy thnh mt l thuyt c bn duy nht, nhng ngi ta vn cha hiu rt nhiu tnh cht ca l thuyt ny.
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(Hnh 2.17) Ta c th xy dng mt m hnh trong trc thi gian o nm vung gc vi trc thi gian thc. Cc qui tc ca m hnh ny s xc nh lch s thi gian o da theo thi gian thc v ngc li Trang 58

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m t l thuyt lng t to hnh dng cho khng thi gian nh th no, vic a tng thi gian o s rt hiu qu. Thi gian o nghe c v nh mt ci g n t nhng cu chuyn vin tng khoa hc, nhng n l mt khi nim ton hc c nh ngha rt r rng: thi gian c o bng cc s m ta gi l cc s o. Ta c th ngh v cc s thc bnh thng nh cc s 1, 2, -3,5, v. v. tng ng vi cc v tr trn mt ng thng ko di t tri sang phi: im 0 gia, cc s thc dng nm bn phi v cc s thc m nm bn tri (hnh 2.17). Cc s o c th c biu din l cc v tr nm trn mt ng thng vung gc: im 0 vn nm gia, cc s o dng nm pha trn v cc s o m c v pha di. Do , cc s o c th c coi nh mt loi s mi nm vung gc vi cc s thc bnh thng. V chng l cc thnh phn ton hc nn chng khng cn phi tng ng vi thc ti vt l no; chng ta khng th c mt s o cc qu cam hoc mt ha n in thoi o c (hnh 2.18). Ngi ta c th ngh iu ny ng rng cc s o ch l mt tr chi ton hc m chng c g lin quan n thc ti. Tuy vy, trn quan im trit hc thc chng, ngi ta khng th nh ngha thc ti l g. Tt c nhng iu m ngi ta c th lm l tm ra m hnh ton hc no l m hnh m t v tr m chng ta ang sng. Ha ra mt m hnh ton hc c cha thi gian o khng ch tin on cc hiu ng m chng ta quan st c m cn tin on c nhng hiu ng m chng ta vn cha th o c. Tuy cha o c nhng v cc l do khc m chng ta vn tin vo cc hiu ng . Vy th thc ti l g v o nh l g? Liu s khc bit gia chng ch c trong u c ca chng ta hay khng?
(Hnh 2.18) S o l mt khi nim ton hc. Bn khng th c mt ha n th tn dng o.
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Hng ca thi gian
Lch s ca ngi quan st Nn nh sng
(Hnh 2.19) Trong khng thi gian ca thuyt tng i rng c in, thi gian khc bit vi cc hng ca khng gian v n ch tng theo lch s ca ngi quan st ch khng ging nh cc chiu ca khng gian c th tng hoc gim theo lch s . Ngc li, hng ca thi gian o ging nh mt trc khng gian, c th tng hoc gim. Trang 60
L thuyt tng i rng c in (tc l khng c tnh lng t) ca Einstein kt hp thi gian thc v ba chiu khc ca khng gian thnh mt khng thi gian bn chiu. Nhng chiu thi gian thc vn khc bit vi ba chiu ca khng gian. V tr tuyn (world line) hay lch s ca ngi quan st lun tng theo thi gian thc (tc l thi gian lun chuyn ng t qu kh n tng lai), nhng v tr tuyn li c th tng hoc gim theo bt k chiu no ca khng gian. Ni cch khc, ngi ta ch c th quay ngc li trong khng gian ch khng th quay ngc li trong thi gian (hnh 2.19). Mt khc, v thi gian o vung gc vi thi gian thc, nn thi gian hnh x nh mt trc khng gian th t. Do vy, thi gian ny

N H N G A H I I A N
(Hnh 2.20) THI GIAN O Khng thi gian o l mt hnh cu, trong , hng thi gian o c biu din l khong cch t cc nam. Nu ta i v hng bc th cc v tuyn (nhng im nm trn cch u cc nam) s ln dn tng ng vi v tr gin n trong thi gian o. V tr s t kch thc cc i ti xch o v sau nu ta tip tc tng thi gian o th v tr s co li cho n kch thc bng khng ti cc bc. Mc d kch thc ca v tr bng khng ti cc cc, nhng nhng im ny khng phi l nhng im k d, cng ging nh bc cc v nam cc ca tri t l nhng im hon ton bnh thng. iu ny gii rng, ngun gc ca v tr trong thi gian o c th l nhng im bnh thng trong khng thi gian. (Hnh 2.21) Thay cho v , ta c th tng tng hng thi gian o trong hnh cu khng thi gian ging nh cc kinh . V tt c cc ng kinh tuyn u gp nhau ti cc bc v cc nam nn thi gian s dng ti cc cc, nu ta mun tng thi gian o ti th ta ng yn ti ch, ging nh ta ng bc cc ca tri t v i v hng ty th ta vn s nguyn ch .
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Thng tin c lu tr
Thng tin ri vo h en
Cng thc din tch entropy hay l s cc trng thi ni ca mt h en gi rng thng tin b ri vo trong mt h en c th c lu tr trong ging nh mt my ghi m v c phc hi khi h en bay hi.
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N H N G A H I I A N
c rt nhiu s kin c th xy ra hn ng ray xe la ca thi gian thc (thi gian thc ch c mt im khi u hoc kt thc hoc i thnh cc ng vng). Vi ngha o ny, thi gian c mt hnh dng. thy cc s kin c th xy ra, hy coi khng thi gian o nh mt qu cu, ging nh b mt tri t. Gi thit rng thi gian o l v ca cc v tuyn (hnh 2.20). Khi y lch s ca v tr trong thi gian o s bt u ti Nam Cc. Cu hi Ci g xy ra trc khi v tr hnh thnh? s tr nn v ngha. n gin l thi gian trc khi v tr hnh thnh khng c nh ngha, ging nh khng c im no nm pha nam ca Nam Cc. Nam Cc l mt im hon ton bnh thng trn b mt tri t, v cc nh lut khoa hc cng ng Nam Cc ging nh ng cc im khc trn tri t. iu ny gi rng s khi u ca v tr trong thi gian o c th l mt im bnh thng ca khng thi gian, v n cng gi rng cc nh lut khoa hc cng ng ti im khi u ca thi gian ging nh ti cc thi im khc ca v tr (ngun gc lng t v s tin ha ca v tr s c tho lun trong chng sau). Ta c th thy mt s kin khc c th xy ra khi coi thi gian o l ca cc ng kinh tuyn trn tri t. Tt c cc ng kinh tuyn u gp nhau Bc Cc v Nam Cc (hnh 2.21). Do , ti cc cc, thi gian s dng nu ta coi thi gian o tri tng t nh kinh ca cc kinh tuyn tng ln. Hnh dung mt ngi ng mt trong hai cc v i v hng ng hoc hng ty (theo hng kinh tuyn tng) th anh ta s t quay quanh mnh v ng yn mt ch. iu ny tng t nh cch m thi gian thc dng li chn tri ca h en. Chng ta cn nhn thy rng s dng li ca thi gian thc v o (hoc c thi gian thc v o cng dng, hoc khng c thi gian no dng) c ngha l khng thi gian c mt nhit , ging nh ti pht hin ra iu cho h en. H en khng ch c nhit m n cn hnh x nh l n c mt i lng gi l entropy. Entropy o s cc trng thi ni (s cc cch m bn trong h en c nh hnh) m h en c th c. Mt ngi quan st bn ngoi khng nhn thy c s khc bit no v s cc trng thi ni ny ca h en. Ngi quan st ny ch c th quan st c khi lng, s quay v in tch ca h en m thi. Entropy ca h en ny c cho bi mt cng thc rt n gin m ti tm ra vo nm 1974. N t l vi din tch ca chn tri ca h en: c mt cht thng tin v trng thi ni ca h en i vi mi n v
S = Akc3/4hG
Cng thc tnh Entropy ca h en A: din tch chn tri s kin ca h en h: hng s Plank k: hng s Boltzman G: hng s hp dn Newton c: vn tc nh sng S: entropy
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T R
T R O N G

V H T
Thm ch mt mnh nh trn a nh hai chiu cng cha thng tin ti xy dng nh ba chiu ca qu to.
NGUYN CHIU
NH
Ngi ta thy rng din tch b mt chn tri bao xung quanh h en l mt php o entropy ca h en. iu ny lm cho ngi ta gi thit rng entropy cc i ca bt k vng khng gian ng no cng khng th vt qu mt phn t din tch b mt gii hn vng khng gian . V entropy khng l g khc hn l php o thng tin ton phn c trong h, do , thng tin lin quan n tt c mi hin tng trong th gii ba chiu c th c lu tr trn bin hai chiu ca n ging nh mt bc nh a chiu. Theo mt ngha nht nh, th gii c th l hai chiu.
din tch c bn ca chn tri. iu ny cho thy rng c mt mi quan h su sc gia hp dn lng t v nhit ng hc mt mn khoa hc v nhit (mn ny c nghin cu v entropy). N cng gi rng hp dn lng t c th cho bit mt ci m ngi ta gi l phng php chp nh a chiu (holography) (hnh 2.22). V mt l do no m thng tin v cc trng thi lng t trong mt vng khng thi gian c th c m ha bin ca vng khng thi gian . S chiu bin ca khng thi gian t hn hai chiu so vi vng bn trong. iu ny ging nh vic chp nh ba chiu trn mt mt phng hai chiu. Nu hp dn lng t kt hp cht ch vi nguyn l chp nh a chiu th iu ny c th cho php ta theo di cc s kin bn trong h en. Vic chng ta c th tin on bc x thot ra khi h en hay khng l iu rt quan trng. Nu ta khng lm c iu th chng ta khng th tin on c tng lai mt cch y nh chng ta ngh. Vn ny s c tho lun trong chng 4. K thut chp nh a chiu s c bn lun li trong chng 7. Dng nh l chng ta ang sng trong mt mt mng-3 chiu (3-brane) l mt mt bn chiu (ba chiu khng gian v mt chiu thi gian). Mt bn chiu ny li l bin ca mt vng nm chiu vi chiu cn li b cun li rt nh. Trng thi ca v tr trn mt mng s gii m nhng s kin xy ra trong mt vng nm chiu.
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N H N G A H I I A N
(Hnh 2.22) V nguyn tc, nh a chiu l mt hin tng giao thoa ca cc loi sng. nh c to ra khi nh sng t mt chm laser n b tch thnh hai chm (a) v (b). Chm (b) p vo vt th (c) v phn x ln a nhy nh sng (d). Chm (a) s i qua mt thu knh (e) v chm vo nh sng phn x (b) to ra vn giao thoa trn a. Khi mt chm laser c chiu qua a th ngi ta
thu c hnh nh ba chiu y ca vt th. Mt nh quan st c th nghin cu bc nh a chiu ny v c th nhn thy nhng mt m nhng bc nh thng khng th cho thy c. B mt hai chiu ca a bn tri, khng ging nh mt bc nh bnh thng, c mt tnh cht ng ch l bt k mt phn nh no trn b mt ca n u cha tt c cc thng tin cn thit ti cu trc ton b hnh nh.
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Cc vng nhnh kh c th xy ra hay khng th xy ra?

ng ray xe la chnh chy t qu kh n tng lai

Thi gian c th phn nhnh v quay li c khng?

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Chiu khng gian

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L thuyt v thc nghim trng khp vi nhau

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Ti thi im ny, ngi quan st ang nhn v qu kh

Cch thin h cch y nm t nm

Mt vt cht lm cho nn nh sng b b cong

THI GIAN KHNG GIAN Trang 40

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Bc sng tn s thp lm nhiu lon vn tc ca ht t hn

Bc sng tn s cao lm nhiu lon vn tc ca ht nhiu hn

Bc sng dng quan st ht cng di th bt nh v v tr cng ln

Bc sng dng quan st ht cng ngn th bt nh v v tr cng nh

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PHNG TRNH BT NH HEISENBERG

Khng nh hn hng s Plank

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Hng dao ng ca con lc

Bc sng l khong cch gia hai nh sng

Hng sng truyn

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Hng (Hnh 2.10) CON LC V PHN B XC SUT

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Mt nng lng ca thng ging trng thi c bn bn ngoi hai a ln hn bn trong

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360 Ht c spin bng 1

180 Ht c spin bng 2

Ht c spin bng 1/2

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M HNH TNH CHT CC HT

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Paul Townsend, chuyn gia v mng-p

Mt mng 1 chiu hay mt dy b cun li

Mt mng hai chiu b cun li thnh mt hnh xuyn

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