Studies of Religion

Oxford Studies of Religion
PRELIMINARY & HSC COURSE
ROSEMARY KING JOHN MOONEY ELIZABETH CARNEGIE
HELEN SMITH ANTHONY JOHNS DAVID JOHNS
ANNE PATTEL-GRAY SANDY HOLLIS KELVIN MCQUEEN
The nature of religion and beliefs

The focus of this study is the nature of religion and beliefs, including Australian Aboriginal beliefs and spiritualities, as a distinctive response to the human search for meaning in life.
Outcomes
A student: P1 P2 P6 P8 describes the characteristics of religion and belief systems identies the inuence of religion and belief systems on individuals and society selects and uses relevant information about religion from a variety of sources uses appropriate terminology related to religion and belief systems
Content
Students learn about: The nature of religion religion as a worldview that: acknowledges the supernatural dimension has a belief in a divine being or powers beyond the human and/or dwelling within the individual the characteristics of religion: beliefs and believers sacred texts and writings ethics rituals and ceremonies the contribution of religion Australian Aboriginal beliefs and spiritualities the Dreaming the nature of the Dreaming the inextricable connection of the Dreaming, the land and identity
(Studies of Religion Stage 6 Syllabus Board of Studies NSW for and on behalf of the Crown in right of the State of New South Wales, 2009.)
Prelim | Chapter 1 The nature of religion
BULLROARER
a at piece of wood or stone that is swung around on a thong. Used in Australian Aboriginal communities to call people to ceremonies or to imitate the voice of an Ancestral Being. a European term that refers to the essence of truth in Aboriginal religious beliefs. relating to the principle of equality. a set of practices based on moral beliefs clarifying what is right and wrong. a religion that holds that gods, goddesses or divine spirits live within nature and that the universe was created by these spirits and is maintained by their power. highly sophisticated networks of relationships governing interactions between members of Aboriginal language groups. the inherent rights of Aboriginals to their land, forming the basis of a movement designed to ensure the preservation of Aboriginal spirituality and culture. Aboriginal spirits or spirit gures. belief in a single God: Judaism, Islam and Christianity are monotheistic faiths. the belief that God and the universe are onethere is no divine power outside of the universe, but everything that makes up the universe is God. the core belief of a particular religious tradition that is the basis for all other beliefs held by believers of that tradition.
POLYTHEISM
belief in many gods and goddesses: Hinduism is an example of a polytheistic religion. these can be both religious and secular in nature, and can be described as a patterned series of activities that are capable of being repeated. A clear example in the religious sphere is worship. cross hatchingan Aboriginal artistic style characteristic of Arnhem Land. natural land formations where Aboriginal Ancestral Spirits interacted with creation. certain aspects of Aboriginal religion and spirituality that are reserved for initiated Aboriginal persons. the word totem comes from the Algonquin (native North American) language. It refers to an entityplant, animal or natural objectthat has become the token or emblem of an individual or a language group. The entity cannot be gathered, hunted or even painted by those who have it as their totem since it is believed to link them to the spiritual force responsible for their existence. a religion that holds that there are beings that exist beyond the known universe that are not subject to the laws of nature; polytheism and monotheism are the two principal types of transcendent religion. a general philosophy or view of life.
RITUALS
DREAMING
EGALITARIAN ETHICS
RRARK
SACRED SITES
IMMANENT RELIGION
SECRET-SACRED
KINSHIP
TOTEMISM
LAND RIGHTS
MIMIS MONOTHEISM
PANTHEISM
TRANSCENDENT RELIGION
PARADIGM
WORLDVIEW
The nature of religion

Religion has been an essential part of the way humans have ordered and made sense of the world. Religion has been the means of answering some of the most signicant questions that confront humans: rst, why does a person exist at all; second, why is there a universe; third, what happens to a person after that person dies; and nally, why is there suffering in the world? The way humans have developed answers to these questions has varied throughout time and place. A system of answers shared by a signicant number of people is called a worldview. Over time, as humans spread throughout the earth, these systems of answers were adapted to new experiences and challenges. Every culture that exists today is in fact a different worldview, and it is necessary for humans to appreciate these differing ways of understanding the world and humanity. It is important that each culture is allowed to reveal itself rather than be judged from the perspective of another cultures ideas and understanding of the truth. From prehistoric times humans have clearly shown a sense that the answers to these questions and their survival depended on powers and forces beyond their direct control. These powers needed to be acknowledged, made happy and worshipped so that the harvest would be plentiful, the hunt would be successful, human fertility would continue, natural disasters would be avoided and the human person would be made happy in the afterlife. These powers or forces were understood to live beyond the realm of nature and indeed they created and maintained the world. These gods and goddesses lived in a supernatural dimension beyond the world, or, if in the world, in the most inaccessible places such as mountains, oceans or clouds.
activity
Divide into groups. Discuss the following question: What would be lost if all religions and spiritualities were to disappear from the world?
FIG. 1.1 The Lascaux cave paintings in France contain some of the earliest known artwork, dating from around 17 000 years ago. Cave paintings such as these provide evidence of early religious thought.
The transcendent religious worldview

Religions that believe there are beings that exist beyond the known universe and that are not subject to the laws of nature are called transcendent religions. For some believers, the very fact that the world is structured by the laws of nature is proof that there must be beings that created the universe and gave it order and purpose. For these believers, humans are able to discover this purpose through both their reasoning and their observation of nature, along with revelation from these transcendent beings. Even though the gods and goddesses are beyond the universe, transcendent religions believe that they are still necessary for the ongoing existence of the universe and play an essential part in its working. There are two principal types of transcendent religion. Some religions believe in many gods and goddesses. This belief is known as polytheism. Other religions believe that there is only one God. This belief is known as monotheism. Polytheistic religions For polytheistic religions, the gods and goddesses may have control of particular happenings in nature. In some religions there are gods who rule the oceans and the skies, others who look after the fertility of all animals and humans, others who protect humans from natural disasters and others who are concerned about the health and well-being of humans. Examples of polytheistic religions are Hinduism and the religion of ancient Greece.
FIG. 1.2 Sculptures of the Greek gods Poseidon, Apollo and the goddess Athena from the Parthenon (Acropolis Museum, Athens)
In many polytheistic religions, there are gods and goddesses who bring evil into the world in the form of natural disasters, disease, and loss of possessions and life itself. These gods require particular attention, for they will only stop harming humans if they are made happy through worship and sacrice. Humans have a special relationship with these gods and goddesses. Often these gods and goddesses desire that humans full their wishes and offer them worship through prayers and sacrices. If the human person is obedient to the wishes of the gods, that person will be rewarded with a happy life here on earth and assured of a happy existence after death. Those who do not obey the divine commands will be punished when they die or suffer disease and misfortune while here on earth. Adherents of polytheistic religions may choose to serve one god or goddess while not denying the importance of all the other gods. For example, in Hinduism people may devote their lives to the service of Shiva or Vishnu. They will attend the temples of their particular god, celebrate important festivals that honour the god and his dealings with humanity, and observe special laws and customs. In polytheistic religions there are many ways that gods and goddesses are presented to believers. In some polytheistic religions the gods and goddesses take on animal forms, as in the religion of Ancient Egypt, or human form, as in Mayan religion. Or they may remain without form, as, for example, Brahman in Hinduism.
Monotheism Some religions believe that there is only one God. This belief is known as monotheism. Christianity, Islam and Judaism are examples of monotheistic religions. For these religions the universe came into being through the power and design of one God. One of the principal reasons for creating the universe was for humankind to exist and relate with this God. The purpose of the universe is to provide for humans a place in which they form a relationship with God. Nature has been established to provide humans with all that they need to survive on earth. In return, humans are expected to care for Gods creation.
some portrayals of this do take the form of a man in pictures and sculptures, the transcendent God can only be known through attempting to describe him as having characteristics similar to humans, for example, love, mercy and compassion. Humans are ultimately unable to understand fully the reality of God. No image of God For Muslims and Jews no image of God is permitted. This is because God is absolutely beyond representation, and to create any image of God would be to create an idol to worship.
The immanent religious worldview

Immanent religions hold that gods, goddesses or divine spirits live within nature. These spirits dwell in sacred places like mountains, streams or forests. They can also be felt in the forces they control such as wind, re or water. Adherents of an immanent religion believe the universe was created by these spirits and is maintained by their power. Human beings are to acknowledge these spirits through worship and, in particular, through respect for places in which the spirits dwell. Often these places have shrines built to house the spirits or to be the sites where devotees can pray for assistance or seek guidance from the spirits. The spirits may take the form of human beings, but they are better understood as the energy or force behind natural phenomena. Humans are obliged to live cooperatively with these forces of nature, for if they neglect them or destroy their habitats, humans will suffer misfortune. In some immanent religions, since all life is explained by the existence of these spirits, human beings are often understood to have within themselves a life-force similar to the spirits of nature. This explains their vitality, their power of reason and delight, and their purpose in life. This spiritual force often requires careful observation. Health and wellbeing are maintained through a balance of forces within the human. This balance is brought about by correct diet, exercise and meditation. Since the human has this spiritual dimension, immanent religions may place an emphasis on communicating with the other spirits of nature and on maintaining a harmonious relationship with them. Certain religions have developed complex forms of
FIG. 1.3 Gods creation of humans is represented by Michelangelo (Sistine Chapel, Rome).
Though the work of God can be seen in everything around humans, the most important knowledge about God is revealed directly by him. For many monotheistic religions, the nature of God can never be known since it is beyond human reason. God, however, either directly or through messengers, has shown humans what relationship he has with them and how they are to respond to him. For the major monotheistic religions of the world today (Christianity, Islam and Judaism), God is a being who wishes humans to be happy. He wants them to obey his commands, for this is the way happiness is achieved. The world was created initially as a happy state for all humans, but, through evil and sin, humans destroyed this initial state. God, however, is seen as never abandoning humans and continually offering them close relationship so that they can be happy again. For most monotheistic religions, the ultimate divine reality, God, has neither form nor gender. Although for Christians God became human, and
movement (for example, tai chi) that bring about a unity of the human and the natural spiritual world. One expression of an immanent religion is pantheism. This is the belief that the universe is God. There is no divine power outside of the universe, but everything that makes up the universeboth matter and energy, including humanityis God. God and the universe are one.
activities
1. Dene the concept transcendent religious worldview. 2. Explain the differences between polytheism and monotheism. 3. Which religious traditions would be classied as polytheistic and which as monotheistic? 4. Why do the Islamic and Jewish religious traditions oppose images of God? 5. Dene the immanent religious worldview. 6. Create ve columns with these headings: Transcendent religions, Immanent religions, Polytheism, Monotheism and Examples. List the principal teachings of each group of religions and give examples of the religions.
Transcendent religions Immanent religions Polytheism Monotheism Examples
FIG. 1.4 Tai chi is a complex form of movement designed to bring about a unity of the human and the natural spiritual world.
The characteristics of religion
religions is a belief that there is a reality that is greater than all the parts of the universe
central to all
Religion is dened by its characteristics. For a phenomenon to be called a religion, it must have all of the characteristics that distinguish a religion from other phenomena. Though it is often said that a large gathering of people that is held regularly and that has the same structure and operations each time it meets (for example, a football game or a Wimbledon tennis match) might be called a religion, if such a gathering does not have all of the characteristics of a religion then it cannot correctly be called a religion.
activity
Divide into groups and discuss what would be the key features of a hypothetical religious tradition based on the following circumstances: a world inhabited only by women a world where children had all the power a world covered in water with intelligent marine life forms a world beneath a planet whose surface temperature was 200 degrees Celsius.
Beliefs and believers The most important characteristic of religion is the belief system it maintains. Central to all religions is a belief that there is a reality that is greater than all the parts of the universe and, in many cases, exists outside the universe. This belief can be in a transcendent or immanent God or gods. Each religion, however, is made different by what is known as its paradigm. This is the core belief that a person must have if that person can truly be said to belong to that religion. This core belief is the basis for all other beliefs held by believers of that faith tradition. In Buddhism the paradigm is a belief in the Three Refugesthe Lord Buddha, the Dharma and the Sangha. In Christianity it is the belief that Jesus Christ died and rose from the dead in order to save humankind from sin and death. In Islam it is submission to Allahif a person acknowledges that submission to the will of Allah is essential for being a human and for understanding his or her place in the universe, then that person is a Muslim. For Judaism, the belief that God has entered history and formed a covenant relationship with his people is absolutely important. For Hinduism, the belief that ultimate union with Brahman is the only real purpose for humans is fundamental. Every religion, however, has other beliefs that ow out of its core paradigm. Some of these other beliefs are most important and must also be accepted. In Buddhism, a belief that there is no such thing as a permanent human person is central. For Judaism, the idea that God revealed himself to Moses and other people throughout history ows from the belief in a God who works for humans within historical reality. There are other beliefs that are held by some within a religious tradition but not by others. These beliefs are not seen to be essential for a person to belong to a particular religious tradition. For example, in Christianity there are some who believe that all Gods assistance (grace) comes through Jesus mother Mary, while other Christians would regard this belief as wrong. Both sides would still consider themselves Christian. In Buddhism, the belief of some that there are powerful beings called Bodhisattvas that can help a person attain nirvana is not universally acknowledged by other Buddhists. Both sets of believers, however, would consider themselves to be authentically Buddhist.
These differing sets of beliefother than a religions paradigmcreate the various signicant divisions within a religious tradition. These schools of thought or denominations have developed over time. Many have either come about through movements to reform the religious tradition by removing customs, laws and ideas that are seen as not essential for the tradition (for example, the Protestant Reformation of the sixteenth century), or they have arisen after further signicant insights and understanding have developed (for example, the rise of Mahayana Buddhism). Others may form because the application of strict observance based on ancient law and custom is not thought to be relevant to modern times (for example, the rise of Liberal Judaism). There is also a range of believers within a religious tradition. It is important to acknowledge that, while there are some believers who are dedicated to the beliefs and practicesoften referred to as devout believersthere are also people who are largely indifferent to the beliefs and practices and use the religion only on important occasions, for example, weddings, a boys entry into the Sangha or a teenagers Bar Mitzvah. There are also differences in gender, age and authority structures. There are often clearly dened roles for both genders, differing expectations of young believers and more mature believers, and people possessing more authority to make decisions. There are also historic differences in practice and customs within a given religious tradition. As a religious tradition enters into new countries and experiences, cultural differences develop within that tradition. For example, Buddhism as practised
FIG. 1.5 Buddhist ordination ceremony, Sri Lanka
in Nepal and Tibet is different from that practised in Japan. The same is true of other religious traditions. Christianity takes different forms in South America compared with the forms in the United Kingdom.
activities
1. What is the central belief of the ve major religious traditions? 2. Explain the different sets of beliefs of the major religious traditions. 3. List the reasons why beliefs are different both within a religious tradition and between religious traditions. Give examples.
Sacred texts and writings Another important characteristic of religions is that they possess sacred texts and writings. These sacred texts may be in written form or may be made into images that aid the less educated to understand the signicant beliefs of their religion. Some sacred texts are regarded as particularly important, for they have been given to humans in the form of a revelation from God. The Quran in Islam, along with the Bible in Christianity and the Torah in Judaism, are all believed to be revelations from God. The central paradigm of a tradition is often summarised within great epic stories found in the sacred texts. The Exodus of the Jews from slavery in Egypt, the Mahabharata in Hinduism, with its story of the encounter between Arjuna and Krishna, and the death and resurrection of Jesus in Christianity all help believers come to an understanding of the essential teaching of their respective religious traditions.
FIG. 1.7 Women throwing petals at a Christian religious parade, Peru
Sacred texts perform a number of important functions. For many religious traditions, the life and words of the Founder can be found in them, presenting believers with the most important role model on which they can base their lives. Sacred texts also contain rules and directions on how to live life, along with prayers and rituals that have become central to the religious tradition. These sacred texts and writings are used by believers to nd out what they must do in new ethical situations. They may also assist priests and ministers in carrying out their duties and obligationsfor example, the Penitentiaries of the Middle Ages helped the clergy to advise penitents as to what they needed to do in order to regain a sound relationship with God. Sacred texts are, therefore, given special reverence and have signicant authority for the religious traditions. Such texts are often placed in special places within mosques, synagogues, churches and temples and are often elaborately decorated. Great care is taken in handling them, and some of the texts may even be worn by believers during prayer (for example, the Jewish phylactery) or xed to the doorpost of the home.
activities
1. Why are sacred texts important to a religious tradition? 2. What functions do sacred texts perform?
FIG. 1.6 Muslims believe that the Quran is the revelation from God.
3. Describe some of the common features of sacred texts.
10
traditions teach that humans have certain obligations and expectations towards other humans as well as towards the environment
religious
activities
1. What is ethics? 2. Where do these religious ethics come from? 3. Give some examples of religious ethics that tell a person how to live their life. 4. How has technology inuenced religious ethics? 5. Prepare and deliver an oral presentation on how ethics is the practical application of beliefs. Use examples in your presentation.
Ethics Ethics is the practical application of belief. If believers hold the beliefs of their religious tradition as the most important means of understanding the universe and their place in it, their behaviour will reect this fact. In other words, ethics puts into practice the beliefs of an adherent. Many of the ethical teachings of a religious tradition can be found within its sacred texts and writings. Most signicantly, the central ethical paradigm of the religious tradition is found within the most important and central sacred texts and writings. For example, the Torah in Judaism sets out in detail what a Jew must do; the Tripitaka in Buddhism also presents the Five Precepts that all lay Buddhists must observe. The Teachings of Manu does likewise for Hindus, as does the Quran for Muslims. Religious traditions teach that humans have certain obligations and expectations towards other humans as well as towards the environment. For most religious traditions, how people live out their ethical lives will determine for those individuals what happens to them after death. Since most religious traditions believe that God or gods expect the human person to be good, they also believe that humans will be judged according to how they have lived in this life. Religious ethical teaching gives directions to how humans should act sexually, politically, economically, professionally and environmentally. There are also teachings in regard to a persons body and health, in particular, laws that govern decisions in bioethics. As with beliefs, there are some ethical directions that are more important than others. Failing to full these most signicant ethical demands has serious consequences for the believer, particularly in regard to what happens after death. For example, the commandment of love in Christianity and the teaching of ahimsa (the necessity of avoiding harm to any sentient life form) in Buddhism are examples of essential ethical teachings. For most religious traditions, the interpretation of what is ethical and proper rests within a hierarchical structure, that is, a system with one or more prominent authorities governing a series of lesser decision makers. An example of this is the structure of the Roman Catholic Church, which has the Pope governing the Church along with the bishops, who themselves are responsible for their priests. At the lowest end of this structure is the majority of Roman Catholics, the laity, who have traditionally had very little say in determining the ethical teachings of their church. For many religious traditions, the modern age has called into question parts of their ethical teaching and reasoning. There are new ethical challenges that the religious traditions have not had to address in the past and that were not even thought possible. Such critical ethical issues as global warming, biological cloning and nuclear weapon systems are a challenge to traditional ethical teachings. Some also argue that these ethical teachings arose before modern science and medicine, and therefore are no longer relevant for people in the twenty-rst century since they are based on errors and misunderstandings about the body and nature. It is further argued by some that these teachings demonstrate a bias towards manhood, for most of these ethical decisions have been made by men and may have been used to maintain structures that oppress women.
11
Rituals and ceremonies As ethics is the practical application of belief within a religious tradition, rituals and ceremonies are ways to celebrate and reinforce the central belief system and structures for that tradition. There are two types of ritualpublic and private. A public ritual is a formal activity with clearly dened structures, timing and content. Though believers are free to express their religious beliefs in a private ritual in whatever manner they nd comfortable, public rituals are designed for public display and are a means by which the community of believers expresses its common beliefs. Public rituals are often based on rituals found within sacred texts (for example, the communion service in Christianity). They may reect the actions and words of an important event or person in history (for example, the rituals surrounding the Jewish festival of Passover). Public rituals and ceremonies have set structures, which may include readings from sacred texts, instructions by presiding ofcials or ministers, set formulae of prayers and petitions, or rites of purication. The ritual may be created for special occasions that celebrate a persons growth. There are initiation rites for the newly born or for adults who have shown a wish to become a member of a faith tradition (for example, Brit Milah [circumcision] in Judaism and the Sacred Thread FIG. 1.8 A mother serving kneidel soup at a family Passover Seder ceremony in Hinduism). There are also rites of passage that assist a person in moving from one state of life into another (for example, the marriage ceremony, entry into the Sangha in Buddhism, or ordination into the priesthood in Christianity). Certain ceremonies are created for the benet of the community that may be experiencing sadness or need (for example, funeral ceremonies and harvest rituals). Most religious traditions have a religious calendar that celebrates the passing seasons, and often the principal beliefs of the traditions have been xed to certain seasons or dates (for example, Wesak in Buddhism and Divali in Hinduism). Festivals that have their own special rituals help members of the community remember their beliefs and reinforce the link between present faith and the historical tradition. Rituals may also determine the pattern of the day (for example, meditation and chants by Buddhist monks, the Divine Ofce in Christianity (Roman Catholic and Anglo-Catholic), and the ve times for daily prayer in Islam). FIG. 1.9 Muslim daily prayers
ceremonies are ways to celebrate and reinforce [a religious traditions] central belief system
rituals and
12
FIG. 1.10 In Buddhism, puja (important daily rituals) are expressions of honour, reverence and devotional attention.
Ritual may also have many different cultural art forms, such as music, dance, performance and art. Ritual is a way the religious tradition can demonstrate the richness of human endeavour and skill. Rituals also often clearly indicate the separate roles of the genders. In most religious traditions, men have been the ones in charge of determining what is a suitable and appropriate ritual and have led the congregation in the ritual. Rituals are often celebrated in sacred places where there may be areas where the ordinary person may not enter or sit (for example, the raised platform within a Buddhist temple for members of the Sangha or the sanctuary in Christian churches). There may also be areas assigned for women if a religious tradition believes they must be separated from men. Ceremonies may take place outside of a formal ritual. These may celebrate local festivals and may include processions, re-enactments of important religious events (for example, the Way of the Cross for Christians) and local gatherings to honour particular holy men and women. Other ceremonies may be held to bless the harvest, listen to festive
music and readings (for example, a Service of Nine Lessons and Carols for Christians during Advent) or bestow blessings on particular groups (for example, a Catholic priest blessing the safety of a shing eet). There may also be ceremonies that are performed at home (for example, the Sabbath meal in Judaism or prayer in front of a home-shrine that includes offerings to gods and goddesses in Hinduism). In these cases, some of these ceremonies are based on laws and customs found within sacred texts and writings while others may vary from house to house.
activities
1. Why are rituals and celebrations important to religious traditions? 2. Give examples of private and public rituals in one religious tradition. 3. What is an initiation rite? 4. Give examples of initiation rites within the ve religious traditions. 5. Create a mind map showing the interconnection of beliefs to sacred text, ethics and rituals.
13
FIG. 1.11 Religion gives the individual an identity as a believer within a religious tradition and a keen sense of belonging.
The contribution of religion

Contribution to individuals Religion offers an individual answers to lifes profound questions. It explains the creation of the universe, human nature and lifes purpose. It also gives the individual an identity as a believer within a religious tradition. This identity gives the individual a keen sense of belonging. This helps the person understand what it is to be human and what are the rightful relationships expected of him or her with others and with nature. Religion also offers an individual a system of ethics that will guide the person in behaving appropriately. It advises individuals on how they are to treat themselves, others and the environment. It helps individuals address current and challenging ethical issues that may be too complex and difcult for them to decide. Religion also gives to individuals ways by which they can celebrate signicant events and times in their lives. These rituals proclaim to the community of believers that a person has grown and developed in his or her faith and can now accept greater duties and responsibilities within the community. Most importantly, religion offers individuals a way of perfection, that is, it instructs them on what is required to become more true to themselves as people of faith and to move closer to achieving the
goal of their religious tradition. Religious traditions present role models, guidance and direction for individuals to develop their understanding of their faith and how to become better people. Religion also presents to individuals ways of achieving inner peace through prayer, reection and meditation. Religion also places individuals in a long tradition of belief and practice. This heritage gives reassurance to them of the validity of the tradition since it has been an appropriate means of living for thousands of years. It also places individuals within a specic cultural context of that religious tradition, which denes the particular customs and practices that they will observe throughout their lives. Religion may also help individuals dene their attitudes and ideas. It may reinforce stereotypes of race, gender and sexuality. It may determine a persons response to other religious traditions or different sects and churches within a religious tradition. It may make individuals resistant towards modern developments of science and technology.
activity
Create two columns headed Contribution to individual and Examples. In the rst column list in dot point form the contribution made by religions to the individual, and in the second column give examples.
14
Contribution to society and culture Humans have survived and developed because of their capacity to make sense of the world around them and to use various materials to improve their life. They have used their reason to create meaning and order. Religion has been one such system by which humans have made sense of their place within the universe and what it is they need to do in order to survive both here and after death. Though there are aspects of religion that have not been an accurate understanding of the workings of the material world, it is undeniable that religion has contributed greatly to the survival and development of humankind. Human society rests on the essential basis of maintaining order and well-being for most members of that society. It also depends on the safety and security of its members, the ability to feed and house people, and the ability to hand on the knowledge and skills of one generation to the next. In other words, society needs peace in order to survive. Religion has played a signicant role in maintaining this peace. Through its principal teachings that acknowledge the ultimate responsibility of individuals towards a divine being and their minimal obligations and duties towards their neighbour, religion has instructed generations on the means of preserving peace and harmony. Without doubt, religions have at times created hostilities and wars, but the underlying motivation of authentic religions is to recognise the fundamental goodness of a common humanity and a common destiny. In many cases a societys laws are based on the ethical systems of a religious tradition (for example, the Westminster system of law and government, or the laws and government of Islamic nations). Furthermore, social welfare (helping those less fortunate than others) is a basic yet constant practice within religious traditions. Throughout most of history it has been religious institutes that have developed hospitals, orphanages and care for the stranger. Religions have seen the importance of education for their young and the need to develop higher forms of learning for the educated (for example, the great universities throughout Europe, the Islamic world, India and in Buddhist Asia). It is through these institutes that the sciences and medical knowledge have been either preserved or developed. They have encouraged the higher skills of philosophy, cosmology and theology, and developed the precision of logical argument and clarity of thought. The roles and positions of people within a society have also been largely the result of religious teaching. The place of women, the denitions of childhood and the separation of ofcials and laity have all been determined by religious traditions. Humans, however, have not simply created sustainable societies. They have created cultures that display the creative and artistic dimensions of the human. Religious traditions have been great patrons of the arts. They have been responsible for most of the worlds wonders of architecture and grandeur such as Angkor Wat, the Taj Mahal, Chartres Cathedral and Borobudur.
FIG. 1.12 The practice of taking an oath on the Bible in court reects the Christian traditions that inform many Western legal systyems.
FIG. 1.13 Angkor Wat, in Cambodia, is a Hindu temple complex famous for its beautiful architecture.
15
Religions have also dictated the appropriate diet and dress for people. They have dened the weekly and yearly calendar. Religious institutes have also sponsored artists to decorate their sacred spaces, to compose music of the highest quality, and to decorate the interiors of churches, mosques, synagogues and temples with graceful design and ornament. These have been recognised as masterpieces by both religious and non-religious peoples. Since religious traditions wish to preserve what they believe to be the truth, religions have on occasion prevented the advancement of knowledge and understanding, particularly in science and medicine (for example, the rejection of the Copernican revolution by some within the Christian tradition and more recently the rejection of the theory of evolution). The past misunderstandings and errors of religions came about through a lack of access to modern technology and science. They cannot be condemned on this basis, for they were only using what was available to them at that time.
Rather, religions have been an essential part of society and culture. What cannot be dismissed is the fact that religions have given comfort, hope and joy to humans throughout history. They have taught that humans are more than what is understood and explained by science. They have insisted that humans are beings capable of great acts of goodness and creativity. They have consistently taught that humans are created by the divine as beings with free will and reason who are destined for happiness.
activities
1. Give examples of how religion has played an important role in: architecture law art meaning and order in human life. 2. Divide the class into two groups. Create a debate based on the following statement: Human society is possible only with the contribution from religion.
FIG. 1.14 Arabic calligraphy in a mosque. Mosques are decorated with beautiful ceramic tiles. They also reinforce the messages of the Quran.
16
Australian Aboriginal beliefs and spirituality the Dreaming

In Australia there are literally hundreds of distinct Aboriginal languages, as well as many different dialects. It is impossible, therefore, to use one common Aboriginal language, for there is no such thing. However, this chapter makes use of individual words (with translations into English), both within the text and in the glossary entries at the start of the chapter. Certain aspects of Aboriginal religion and spiritualityincluding elements of belief and knowledge relating to Aboriginal Law, culture, language and traditionsare secret-sacred, meaning that they are reserved for initiated Aboriginal persons. Unfortunately, that which is also retained is the most secret. For this reason most points in the following text will not be illustrated with specic examples. This chapter cannot provide for in-depth study; rather, it is intended as an introduction to the topics and issues involved. The Indigenous people of Australia are best described categorically and distinctively as Aboriginals (as opposed to the inappropriate and often offensive aborigines). This chapter will use the word Aboriginal as both a proper noun and an adjective, and Aboriginals as the plural noun. In addition, many different names are commonly used to refer to the Aboriginal peoples of Australia, each one specic to particular geographical areas. In New South Wales, Victoria and Tasmania, for example, the term used is Koori; in Queensland it is Murri; in the Northern Territory, Yolngu; in South Australia, Nunga; in Western Australia, Nyungah. In an effort to simplify this complicated linguistic scenario, this chapter will use the word Aboriginal to refer to all Aboriginal peoples. Likewise, there are differences in views on origins of the universe, stories of the Dreaming and how people lived and still live their lives. There is no more one Aboriginal Australian than there is one Australian.
The nature of the Dreaming

The Dreaming (also referred to as Dreamtime or Dream Time) holds the essence of truth of Aboriginal religious beliefs. The Dreaming does not refer to a dream that one would have during the night. Rather, the Dreaming holds the Aboriginal view of creation: it is the beginning of everythingthe beginning of time, the creation of life, the birth of humanity and the ordering of all things. It is the remote past of the Spirit Ancestors or Spirit Beings or Ancestral Beings; it is the period, long ago, when Spirit Beings interacted with Aboriginal people. This past lives on in ceremonies and rituals that have been passed down by word of mouth from generation to generation for over 140 000 yearsthe time that Aboriginal people have lived on this land called Australia.
17
FIG. 1.15 The Dreaming is often a key aspect of Aboriginal art as, for example, in this Dreaming painting of the Warlpiri tribe.
For Aboriginal people, the Dreaming explains the origin of the universe, the workings of nature, the nature of humanity, and the cycle of life and death. It shapes and structures Aboriginal life by regulating kinship, ceremonial life and the relationship between male and female, with a network of obligations involving people, land and spirits. It even affects the rights of Aboriginal people to land through sacred sites.
The importance of traditional beliefs and the Dreaming

Within the Dreaming, the Creator, through the Spirit Beings, shaped the land, making its mountains, valleys, hills, gullies, rivers, streams, ora and fauna. These are formed as a result of the action and interaction of Spirit Beings. As a result, the whole creation is of spiritual signicance. Sacred sites are places associated with Ancestral Beings. Aboriginals see themselves as part of, and inextricably bound to, the rest of creation. Galarrwuy Yunupingu, traditional elder and leader of the Gumatj people of north-eastern Arnhem Land, puts it this way:
activities
1. Dene the Dreaming. 2. What role do Spirit Beings play in the Dreaming?
The whole story goes right back to the time when the Ancestral Heroes made Laws, Ceremonies and languages, gave names to things including land, rivers, mountains, animals and so on; when everything that we nd here now was still in the process of creation. (Galarrwuy Yunupingu, 1992)
FIG. 1.16 Aboriginal leader Galarrwuy Yunupingu in his traditional head dress on a beach in the Northern Territory
18
In order to understand the worldview of Aboriginal people and the importance of the Dreaming for Aboriginal life, people need to immerse themselves in this worldview. Such a task is not easy, for Aboriginal peoples perception of themselves and their worldwhether it be the physical, intellectual or spiritual worldis not fragmented. For Aboriginals, all elements within the world coexist; they are connected, linked together. The importance of this connection between the things of creation is expressed through totemism. The ritual performances associated with this are believed to inuence and ensure the reproduction of both the natural and the human sphere, as well as the natural cycle of seasons. During the course of many thousands of years Aboriginal people have developed an intimate relationship between themselves and their environment. They see themselves as spiritually interconnected with the natural world. They do not see themselves as separate from it but as inextricably bound to it. Their very survival is a direct result of this close relationship with their natural environment. Moreover, their relationship with this environment is not one of domination or
manipulation. Aboriginals are not compulsive builders; they do not erect huge cathedrals, churches or synagogues in order to draw attention to the signicance of a sacred area. Rather, their sacred sites are natural land formations, places where Ancestral Spirits interacted with creation and in so doing based Aboriginal ownership on their spiritual identication and association with their land. Through the bestowal of land by their Ancestors, Aboriginal people share in the preservation of their interconnection with the natural environment. This is done through shared responsibilities and obligations, through totemic relationships, through custodial maintenance of particular sacred sites, and through rituals and ceremonies that are performed at particular times every year. These rituals and ceremonies cannot be done by just anyone; they are the responsibility of the custodians of particular sacred sites. However, representatives of more than one language group may be involved. Those who share in these obligations may be custodians of a particular section of a ritual on account of their totemic association with a site, and by virtue of their shared ownership of sacred knowledge.
FIG. 1.17 Karlu Karlu, also known as the Devils Marbles, is a sacred site for the traditional ownersthe Warumungu, Kaytetye, Warlpiri and Alyawarra peoples.
19
Cooperation or sharingnot only between genders but also between language groupsis an important factor in any Aboriginal society. The division of labour is shared among the members of the community. Responsibilities and obligations concerning sacred rituals and ceremonies are shared between language groups, as more than one language group may have ownership of a certain section of a particular ritual.
The story of Nguthunanga Mai Ambatanha (The Dreamtime Spirit cooking of the damper) Retold by Denise Champion, an Adnyamathanha woman from the Flinders Rangers in South Australia. This story is located at a place called Nguthunanga Mai Ambatanha north of Copley just near Nepabunna Mission, South Australia. There was a woman who had two children. They went searching for food. They kept walking and walking and, at the end of the day, they knew they had to make camp. The mother sent the two children off to nd food while she stayed and made camp for them. The children split up and went in different directions. After a while, the mother realised her children had been gone a long time and the sun was starting to go down. She became worried. She knew her children would be hungry, so she decided to make a giant damper in a ground oven. She hoped that the smell of the damper cooking might bring her children home. But the smell of the damper didnt bring the children home. The mother thought that if she was up higher she would be able to see a lot further. She made some steps in the side of the hill so that she could get a better vantage point. But when she got to the top of the hill, she couldnt see her children anywhere. After she had exhausted her own human abilities, a bellbird came. The bellbird sang to her: Wayanha Uanarungha vaku vaku winmirandha Wayanha Uanarungha vaku vaku winmirandha Under the shadows of wayanha The bellbird is whistling. The song of the bellbird led her to her children. The girl was found up at Lake Lettie near Maree and the boy was found near Mount Wyana (Mount McKinlay). The mother was able to bring her two children home. When you go to the little hill north of Copely, the mound is symbolic of the damper that the mother cooked. When you look at the landscape it looks like it has had a re there with ashes still around. The land looks like grey and white compared to the rest of the land. I always tell this story to people to teach them about a parents responsibility to their children. I also tell the story to teach the children about the dangers of wandering away from home. There are many things that draw our children away from home, even today. This story is an opportunity to talk about what these things are.
activities
1. Why is the Dreaming so important for Aboriginal people? 2. Describe the relationship between Aboriginals and their environment. Why is this relationship very important to Aboriginals? 3. Discuss as a group how Aboriginal life has developed in order to keep this interrelationship with the natural environment. 4. Discuss why you think that it was important for different groups to know sections of a ritual and not the whole ritual.
Stories of the Dreaming

For Aboriginal people, Aboriginal mythology is the embodiment of truth. Aboriginal mythological narrative details the beginning of creation and of the life of all living things. It is the basis of Aboriginals association with land of the Ancestral Spirits action in, and interaction with, creation rock formations, trees, rivers, mountains and so on. The knowledge of the birth of humanity and the essence of Aboriginal religious beliefs, laws, ceremonies and rituals are all derived from Aboriginal mythology. The narratives belonging to Aboriginals mythology have been passed on from time immemorial and are the eternal link between the Ancestral Spirits and the past, present and future generations. Aboriginal mythology is truth; its authenticity is never questioned. Aboriginal mythology is not written in a book; the environment contains the markings and narratives of the Ancestral Beings found in the Dreaming. The Australian Museum has many examples of stories of the Dreaming for you to listen to and read.
20
FIG. 1.18 Wilpena Pound, South Australia
The story of Ikara (Wilpena Pound) Retold by Denise Champion, an Adnyamathanha woman from the Flinders Rangers in South Australia This is the story of the journey of Yurla the kingsher man. The journey begins somewhere near Leigh Creek. Yuras had gathered together at Ikara (Wilpena Pound). It was ceremony time. They were waiting for Yurla the kingsher man to come down to begin the ceremonies. While they were waiting, they became impatient and wondered if someone else should begin the ceremonies. Yurla the kingsher man knew that they were impatient. So he lit a big re and the smoke from the re sent up a signal to let the yuras know that he was on his way. The place where he lit this re was known as Yurlas re burning underground. (The udnyus later discovered this place had brown coal and mined it.) He started his journey down to Ikara. At the same time, two giant Akurra (Dreamtime serpents), who knew that there were yuras at Ikara, made their journey down to where the yuras were waiting. On their way down, their big bodies dragging along the ground carved out the gorges and deep valleys. When the Akurra got to Ikara, they coiled their bodies into a circle around where the yuras had camped. The yuras, seeing the evening stars twinkling on the horizon, thought that it was time for the ceremonies to begin. They didnt know that the stars were the eyes of the Akurra watching them. When Yurla the kingsher man arrived at Ikara, all but two of the yuras had disappeared, devoured by the Akurra. The yuras believed that the bodies of the giant Akurra form the raised sides of Ikara. Ikara (Wilpena Pound) has a special sacred signicance to the Adnyamathanha people. It was their meeting place, a special place where boys stepped up to become men and a place where laws were made and passed and punishment was carried out.
activity
1. Research the areas where the two Dreaming stories are set. Create a visual presentation of the area. 2. Use the web to nd other Dreaming stories being told by Aboriginal people. Try to nd one from your local region.
21
Aboriginal symbolism and art

Sacred literature within Aboriginal society is identied as sacred objects, sacred paintings and sacred sites. Songs and dances tell the stories of the signicance of the Spirit Beings interaction with people and their bestowal of land upon particular language groups. Songs and dances function as both art and narrative; they actually paint or illustrate a language groups relationship to its land or Spirit Being. Aboriginal art and ritual objects play an important role in the telling of stories and in preserving the sacred laws handed down from the past. Aboriginal symbolism and art tell stories that have many layers of meaning, some of which are secretsacred. The rst layer is the surface layer, which is the most obviousopen and accessible to all. It consists of such elements as colour, texture, movement, sound and so on. It is the surface layer that is rst noticed. Second and further layers are not obvious and usually require some degree of experience of, or relationship with, Aboriginal people or culture in order to understand them. Sometimes this means visiting a particular area of land; other times it means being in a relationship with a particular Aboriginal person or community. The deepest layers are secretsacred and are accessible only to initiated Aboriginal persons (elders). These are the layers that give the full story, with all details, meanings and signicance.
Aboriginal symbolism and art have many different expressions, ranging from oral, musical and dance traditions to the visual arts. Aboriginal people have a very strong oral tradition. From the beginning of time they have expressed everything through words, music and dance. These art forms not only recorded their Dreamings, rituals and ceremonies but also reminded them of the activities and events of their Ancestral Spirits. These traditions were maintained and handed down through every generation, each language group having its own unique type of expression. Oral arts included narratives and song cycles, which performed an important function in the telling of Aboriginal mythology. Musical arts incorporated voice, clap sticks, drums and other instruments. Dance was done by individuals or groups, and was performed both within ceremonies and for social purposes. The visual arts performed a religious function in that they, together with the other art forms, gave visual expression to spiritual reality. Aboriginal visual artists are expert in a vast spectrum of styles, using a great variety of media. Examples of media include the human body (painted for ceremonies such as initiations); rocks (engravings and petroglyphs); rock walls, caves and shelters (X-ray gures and Mimis, or spirit gures, found throughout Australia); wood and sheets of bark (the distinctive Arnhem Land rrark, cross hatching); poles and sticks (message sticks
FIG. 1.19 Aboriginal painting of sh and animals to be hunted gives visual expression to a spiritual reality.
22
Aboriginal art
and ritual objects role in the telling of stories and in
play an important
preserving the sacred laws handed down from the past
with general or sacred designs); ground and sand (traditional central desert ground art, which developed into the renowned dot paintings); clay and hardened beeswax; feathered string; shells and pearls; baskets. Much traditional art was temporary, made out of ochres, charcoal or feathers, and lasted only for the duration of particular ceremonies such as funerals. In more recent times some artists have used permanent media such as wood, canvas and paper, as well as pencils, crayons, oils, acrylics and synthetic polymers. Other contemporary styles include photography, cinema, television and video. Some Aboriginals have experimented with state-of-the-art satellite and multimedia technologies. Many volumes have been written about Aboriginal symbolism and art the particular types and styles, the media, the signicance, the aesthetic or nancial value. Yet virtually all of this primarily Western interpretation of Aboriginal art misses the most basic element: the religious functions. Aboriginal symbolism and art are inextricably linked to Aboriginal religion and spirituality. Paintings and symbols give expression to religious traditions, customs and practices. They communicate the Dreaming, the time of the Ancestral Spirits, the Law and all the values, traditions, customs, ceremonies and obligations of Aboriginal people. They tell the stories that have been handed down from the past, and in so doing convey them to future generations. Aboriginal symbolism and art enable the passage of knowledge both within Aboriginal society and, in limited ways, to the outside world. Paintings and symbols express something of the Aboriginal worldview. More recently they have also expressed something of the capacity of Aboriginal artists to blend motifs derived from traditional religion with imported Western Christian concepts. Aboriginal symbolism and art express intimate religious and social relationships with the Ancestral Beings and with creation. They assist in the maintenance of custodial obligations pertaining to particular areas of land, and they express totemic relationships and personal relationships, such as those between elders and initiates or between men and women. Aboriginal symbolism and art are unique forms of communication. They can be religious, political, geographic, social and even humorous in nature. They can relate something of the time of the Ancestors; make very specic and explicit claims to areas of land; describe the features of a river or mountain range or the ight of a bird; recall times of peace or acts of slaughter and dispossession perpetrated by Westerners. At times they can even be used to call people togetherthus the bullroarer, a at piece of wood or stone that is swung around on a long piece of thin hide or card, is used on some occasions to call people for ceremonies or to imitate the voice of an Ancestral Being.
activities
1. What is meant by oral tradition? 2. Why is art so important to an oral tradition? 3. What is the link between art and Aboriginal spirituality? Give examples. 4. Prepare a visual presentation of different types of Aboriginal art and describe what the artwork symbolises.
23
Women and the Dreaming

In some Aboriginal societies the creation of the world and life came from a matriarchal beginning, and laws, sacred rituals and objects were owned by women until they were stolen by men, who perceived these rituals and objects as having power. This important factor cannot and should not be overlooked or dismissed as irrelevant; it has an impact on todays society. Despite the mens act of theft, the social and ceremonial roles of women remain very important. In most cases the sacred symbolism associated with certain rituals relates equally to women and men. As most of the rituals and ceremonies concern the rejuvenation and reproduction of the life cycle of ora, fauna and humanity, the fertility of life is of great importance. In different parts of Australia, the Dreaming often refers to the female Ancestors and their power and authority with reverence and great respect. Womens Business holds a very important and respected place within traditional Aboriginal society. The role of women is considered to be critical to the maintenance, continuity and survival of the entire social structure. Aboriginal society depends greatly on the equal participation of women. Today the status and position of Aboriginal women within communities differs depending on the impact and absorption of white patriarchal values. Such values have done much to undermine the status and role of Aboriginal women in Aboriginal communities throughout the land. There is no single, dened female role to be found in any of these communities. The function of women varies from a submissive, subservient role to one of egalitarian leadership and great ceremonial and social authority. One practice that is common to all Aboriginal tribes is the setting aside of sacred areas relating to Womens Business, ceremonies, rituals, songs, dances and sacred sites. In some tribes, Aboriginal authority is ranked according to birth. So if, for example, the eldest child is a female, she will have ultimate power and responsibility in making decisions affecting her group. The independence of women is an important element in Aboriginal society. It is well documented that woman are the main food suppliers for their communitiesat least 85 per cent of the food consumed in Aboriginal society is hunted and gathered by women. It could be said that men are more dependent on women than on other men for their food sources. In addition, women have their own sacred sites, rituals and ceremonies, which men are not allowed to enter or participate in. It is quite often stated by Aboriginal men that women are the backbone of Aboriginal society. This is a fact not often recognised or taken into consideration by Euro-Australians.
FIG. 1.20 A Pitjantjatjara woman on her homeland near the South Australia Northern Territory border
activities
1. What was the role of women in creating Aboriginal laws, sacred rituals and objects? 2. Research the role of women in traditional Aboriginal societies today.
24
Connection of the Dreaming, the land and identity

The Dreaming, the land and an individual or group of people are inexorably linked. The link between human beings and creation is made through what Europeans have called totemism. A totem can be any object, such as a bird, a plant or even a particular landmark, through which a person is linked to the creative spiritual force responsible for his or her existence. The person, through the totem, becomes linked to the land and to the Spirit governing that territory. Each totem has its own sacred sites and sites of signicance associated with the mythology of that totem. This means that ultimately the land, through its totemic links, owns the people. Totemism is a system of belief that gives rise to the existence of that special link, and also gives effect to peoples relationship with the Ancestral Beings through participation in ceremonial events. Such events enable communication with the Ancestral Spirit(s) and participation in the rejuvenation of that life force that ensures the stability of human experience. Aboriginals may have a combination of individual and group totems to make sure that the whole range of human expression is covered. Totemism is formalised through ceremonialism. It is through dance, song and symbolism that aspects of creation are linked with the creative life
force. Thus the balance and integrity of all creation is sustained and the stability of life preserved. While totemism itself is not a religion, it contains religious elements because of the link that it makes between creation and the Ancestral Beings.
activities
1. What is totemism? 2. Why is totemism important to Aboriginal people? 3. Aboriginal ceremonies allow communication with Ancestral Beings. Why is this important to the people? 4. Do you see any similarities between these ceremonies and elements of other religions? Explain.
The Dreaming is the eternal link between Ancestral Spirits and Aboriginal humanity. It explains the creation of life and the sustaining of life; it reveals the totemic connection to land and the sacred sites given by the Ancestral Beings; it brings out the relevance of the nexus between the there-and-then and the here-and-now. Tribal land is not so much a dened area as a constellation of ancestral narratives particular to special places that were sacred to a number of different groupsplaces such as Uluru. Thus the Dreaming affects rights to land. The Dreaming is not only a memory of the past but also the reality of the present and the creator
FIG. 1.21 Through Aboriginal ceremonial dance, aspects of creation are linked with the creative life force.
25
of the future. The Dreaming is the Law that the Ancestral Spirits created and passed on through the rituals and ceremonies that are carried out even to this day. Aboriginal people view their Dreaming as who and what they are. Western academics have written about the so-called migration of Aboriginal people to the land now called Australia. It is also important to note that this theory of migration is just thata theory. No concrete evidence in support of it has ever been found. Aboriginal people are in profound disagreement with any such notion. Gularrwuy Yunupingu, the Gumatj leader (see page 18), shares a story from another tradition leader, Burrumarra, from Elcho Island, that challenges such theories. Burrumarra demanded to know where, in what museums, were the rafts in which Aboriginal people had arrived. As Yunupingu has said: They knew that the Spirit Beings had bestowed the land on Yolngu people in the distant past, and that all Aboriginals would afrm, This country was always ours. When Aboriginal people express the term always, they are signifying the importance of their relationship with the land. They are saying that the land is theirs because the Ancestral Beings bestowed it on them from the beginning of time, and that there has been no change in this relationship. Aboriginal relationships to motherland are as critically important as those to fatherland. Both the mothers and the fathers line are linked to people who themselves are bound to land. While there are clearly distinct roles and areas of responsibility, these complex interrelationships between males and females work towards harmony. Aboriginal people have saturated their family relationships with symbolism, especially symbolism relating to land.
The Aboriginal understanding of land covers the whole of Australia. Through Ancestral Beings this land was given to different Aboriginal tribes. The Spirit Beings travelled from one tribal boundary to another throughout the land, sea, rivers and along the coast, giving names as well as Spirits to the Aboriginal Ancestors, thereby signifying their relationship to a particular land. The Spirit Beings forged links between certain Aboriginal groups, creating kinship bonds and relationships through their association with and bestowal of land.
activities
1. How is tribal land linked to the Dreaming? 2. What is the importance of this link to Aboriginal people and how does it inuence their behaviour? 3. Explain the link between Spirit Beings and the land.
Land boundaries and names Within the Dreaming, the use of particular names and terms in Aboriginal languages indicates the signicant relationships that exist between social groups and the bestowal of their land. The boundaries are established by the Spirit Beings travels through one territory to another, and by the transformations of the Spirit Beings, which are marked by the distribution of languages or dialects. The place where such a transformation takes place makes the boundary of a related, yet separate, land-owning group, and the Spirit Being continues to make and name sacred areas as it travels through the land. For various Aboriginal peoples, a Spirit Being has given names in their own language or dialect to land, animals, rituals and ceremonies. In most cases
FIG. 1.22 Uluru in the Northern Territory is sacred to the Pitjantjatjara and Yankunytjatjara, the Aboriginal people of the area.
26
areas named by the Spirit Being have more than one name, but some of these names are never used for non-ceremonial purposes; they are only used during ritual singing. Names are ranked according to their sacrednessa division exists between inside (sacred names) and outside (public names). An Aboriginal person attaches great importance to his or her own name because of the person (in most cases a relative) who gave them their name, and because the name signies their relationship to the land as well as their ownership of land. Aboriginal names Names operate at several levels in Aboriginal society. They are important in identifying a persons: relationship to the land status or position within a community social roles within a community obligations concerning ceremony, land and community. It is not unusual for an Aboriginal person to have more than one name, for it is by name that they identify their position within a language group.
FIG. 1.23 Australian native ora supplies a wide range of plants for food.
activities
1. How are Aboriginal land areas dened by Aboriginal people and how were they developed? 2. Why are names very important to Aboriginal people?
Land and economics

On the whole, Aboriginals view their relationship to land not only as a religious one but also an economic one. The Ancestral bestowal of land on Aboriginal people gave them ownership, which includes control of all of the lands resources as well as the maintenance of its territorial integrity. Aboriginal economies are based on the land, which is rich in both spiritual and material resources. Throughout Australia, Aboriginals have always had their needs met by the tremendous variety of the lands natural resources. The Aboriginal diet varies from season to season. Whether one looks at coastal areas or wetlands, at inland river systems or Central Australias arid deserts, a food supply is present. Native ora and fauna provide foods that include mammals (kangaroos and wallabies), reptiles (goannas, lizards,
snakes), birds (emus, mutton birds, ducks, magpie geese, brolgas), marine life (turtles, sh, crustaceans, sharks, stingrays, dugongs), insects (witchetty grubs, honey bees, honey ants) and plants (yams, berries, native fruits). This short list identies just some of the wide range of natural resources used and maintained even today by Aboriginal people. It could even be said that Aboriginals are the true conservationists since they waste nothing and use the environment so as not to exhaust any species. For example, when women gather yams, they do so in such a way that a portion of the plant is left to regenerate itself. Conservation is a general practice of Aboriginal hunting and gathering techniques. Knowledge of how to nd natural resources comes from the Aboriginal peoples caretaker relationship with the land. Aboriginal people have never manipulated the environment to suit themselves but rather have adapted to the land, of which they themselves are a part. Land has never been seen as a commodity or as capital to be bought, sold or traded. Rather, Aboriginals have always believed that the land is an extension of life. They often refer to it as the Land, our Mother.
activities
1. Describe the connection between the Dreaming, the land and Aboriginal peoples identity. 2. Discuss the implications that you think this might have on issues such as Aboriginal land rights.
27
Review and assess

Review
1. Explain the ways in which the characteristics of religion describe a religious tradition as a whole. Explain the difference between the terms transcendent and immanent. Use examples to support your explanation. What are the major characteristics of most religions? Explain the contribution of religion both to individuals and to societies and their cultures. Aboriginal spirituality is a religion based on oral traditions. What does this mean? Discuss whether this is different to the early years of Christianity or another major religious tradition. Explain the Aboriginal concept of the Dreaming. Explain the connections between land, identity and the Dreaming to Aboriginal people. Discuss the diversity of Aboriginal Dreaming. Use the Internet to research Aboriginal art associated with the Dreaming. Look at meanings associated with particular elements, then apply that knowledge to interpret the artwork in Figure 1.15 on page 18. Remember that your response will only be your interpretation based on your research, not necessarily the precise meaning intended by the artist.
2.
3. 4.
5.
6. 7.
8. 9.
10. In groups, debate the following statement: Rites and religious rituals are a means of controlling the behaviour of adherents.
28
Exam style questions

Multiple choice 11. The paradigm belief of Buddhism is: a. b. c. d. there is One God the Three Refuges the Eightfold Path Bodhisattvas, which can help attain Nirvana. 16. The separation of officials and laity has been determined by: a. b. c. d. the laity themselves the government church officials religious traditions.
12. Christianity is practised the same way in: a. b. c. d. Latin America and Europe Africa and the United States Australia and the United Kingdom South America and the United Kingdom.
17. Rrark is an example of: a. b. c. d. European artistic painting style Aboriginal spiritual gures natural rock formations Aboriginal artistic style.
13 The Mahabharata is an example of an epic story in the sacred writings of: a. b. c. d. Islam Mahayana Buddhism Judaism Hinduism.
18. Murri is the Aboriginal term for an Aboriginal person who comes from: a. b. c. d. South Australia Northern Territory Queensland New South Wales.
14. Global warming, cloning and nuclear weapon systems are all examples of: a. b. c. d. scientic humanism current ethical issues issues found in traditional ethical teachings rational humanism.
19. A sacred site for Aboriginals is: a. b. c. d. a natural land formation a church a cathedral land set aside as a national park.
15. An example of a rite of passage for Christians is: a. b. c. d. the Way of the Cross the Feast of the Passover ordination to the priesthood Brit Milah.
20. For Aboriginal women, authority is a result of: a. b. c. d. being an outstanding hunter and gatherer being born eldest in a family being the tallest woman in the community having the best education.
29
Buddhism
The focus of this study is Buddhism, one of the major religious traditions, as a living religious system.
Outcomes
A student: P3 P4 P5 P6 P7 P8 P9 investigates religious traditions and belief systems examines signicant aspects of religious traditions describes the inuence of religious traditions in the life of adherents selects and uses relevant information about religion from a variety of sources undertakes effective research about religion, making appropriate use of time and resources uses appropriate terminology related to religion and belief systems effectively communicates information, ideas and issues using appropriate written, oral and graphic forms
Content
Students learn about: Origins the historical and cultural context in which Buddhism began the Buddha the formation of the Sangha the early councils, including the rst council at Rajagaha and the second council at Vesali Buddhism Theravada Buddhism Mahayana Buddhism Vajrayana Buddhism Principal beliefs the Three Jewels the Four Noble Truths the marks of existence karma, samsara, nirvana Sacred texts and writings Tripitaka Lotus of the Good Law Tibetan Book of the Dead Core ethical teachings the Five Precepts the Vinaya Personal devotion in the home puja
Prelim | Chapter 2 Buddhism
31
ANATMA ANICCA ARAHATS ASCETICISM ATMAN BARDO
the human condition of possessing no permanent self. the teaching that everything changes. holy men in Theravada Buddhism. the practice of disciplining the body to achieve spiritual perfection. the belief that a human has a soul. the Tibetan word Bardo means literally intermediate state also translated as transitional state or in-between state or liminal state. a human who has promised to aid all sentient life in achieving nirvana. the ultimate divine reality (god) in Hinduism. the priestly caste in Hinduism. the Enlightened One who has realised the fundamental truth of reality. the teachings of the Lord Buddha and the laws of the universe. the teaching that every aspect of ordinary life has some aspect of suffering or incompleteness. a blessed state in which the individual transcends desire and suffering and attains Nirvana. levels of meditation practice in Buddhism. the consequence of all acts that are done willingly. a good act. the School of the Great Wheel in Buddhism found in northern countries of Asia. spiritual maps of the various realms of the Buddhas. spiritual sounds or chants. a mental concentration which allows the person to reach a deeper mental state of relaxation or awareness. at some point Buddha came to a conclusion that the right path of extremism and non-extremism was somewhere in the middle and he called it the middle path.
MOKSHA MUDRAS NIRVANA PANCASILAM PARANIRVANA PRAJNA PUJA SAKYAMUNI SAMADHI SAMSARA SANGHA
the nal reconnection between the atman and Brahman. body postures. the teaching of the ultimate destiny for all sentient life forms. refers to The Five Precepts. the departure of the Lord Buddha from this world into nirvana. wisdom. private or public ritual; worship involving offerings to a deity. the historic Buddha. the practice of meditation in Buddhism. the cycle of rebirths. the community of Buddhist believers and, more specically, Buddhist monks and nuns. all creatures that possess senses and respond to the enviorment in which they live. holy men and women. the ethical life in Buddhism. ve combinations of energy which make up the ever-changing human being. a person who realises that everything is an illusion, and there is nothing but nirvana. the School of Elders in Buddhism found in South-East Asia. the Buddhist sacred texts (the three baskets) made up of the Sutta Pitaka, the Vinaya Pitaka and the Abhidharma Pitaka. the school of Buddhism found in Tibet and Nepal. Hinduisms most ancient sacred texts. the rst collection of the Tripitaka (sacred texts) in Buddhism indicating the laws for monks.
BODHISATTVA BRAHMAN BRAHMINS BUDDHA DHARMA DUKKHA
SENTIENT
SHRAMANAS SILA SKANDRAS
ENLIGHTENMENT
JHANAS KARMA KUSALA MAHAYANA
STREAM-ENTERER
THERAVADA TRIPITAKA
MANDALAS MANTRAS MEDITATION
VAJRAYANA VEDAS VINAYA
MIDDLE WAY OR PATH
32
Origins of Buddhism
The historical and cultural context
India in the sixth century BCE was a country comprising many tribes and a diversity of cultures. Its religious tradition was that of the Vedas (ancient books containing the teachings and ritual expectations of the Brahmins) and the new Upanishads (philosophical works that taught the close relationship between the atman [soul] and the source of the universe, Brahman). It was a country divided into three classes: the Brahmins (priests), the Kshatriyas (knights) and the Vaishyas (skilled workers). These castes were clearly segregated and a person was born into one of them and remained within it. Outside these three castes were the outcastes, people who had no political or social power and depended on others for their livelihood. The Hindu religion was based largely on animal sacrices performed by the Brahmins. The rituals were elaborate and formal. Adherents believed that through puja (ritual/devotion) at home and in the temple, along with discipline of the body and mind, they could increase good karma (the development of their atman) to achieve moksha (release from samsara [the cycle of rebirths] and the return of the atman to Brahman). India was also a nation rich in intellectual life. There were many schools of philosophy that attempted to discern the very nature of existence. Some argued that the universe was made up only of matter while others thought that it was principally spiritual. Still others thought that any human attempt to understand reality was impossible. There was also a highly developed spiritual culture. Men and women devoted their lives to seeking moksha. Many became shramanas (wanderers who gave up the comforts of life) and some chose asceticism (harshly disciplining their bodies through starvation and pain), while others found comfort in mysticism or magic.
activities
1. Describe what life was like in India at the time Buddhism was formed. 2. Describe the Hindu religious tradition that was practised before Buddhism.
FIG. 2.1 Hindu gods and goddesses
33
The Buddha
Around 560 BCE Siddhartha Gautama, sometimes known as Sakyamuni (the insightful one of the Sakya tribe), was born. Legend has it that his mother, Mahamaya, conceived him when a white elephant passed through her side. At his birth, his father, Suddhodana, called learned scholars and priests to predict what future this child would have. They responded that he would become either a powerful ruler of men, like his father, or a great religious leader. The father decided that Siddhartha would become a ruler. In order for this to happen, the father gave his son all the comforts that his palaces could provide and removed all situations of suffering that might cause the child to think about the meaning of life beyond the here and now. There are stories that the child was very intelligent and insightful. One story narrates how as a boy he developed the method of meditation that would become crucial for his enlightenment as the Buddha. Other stories tell of his growing awareness of human suffering and the need to nd a solution for it. On three journeys away from the comforts of the palace, he encountered a sick person, an old person and nally a dead person. All these sights made him realise that he too would suffer and die. On a nal journey he met a holy man and saw the peacefulness that he had attained. Determined to nd the solution to all human suffering, Siddhartha left his wife and child. (This is seen by Buddhists as a noble deed whose outcome would benet all humankind.) He rst sought for the solution in the various schools of philosophy. But having mastered them, he still had not found the solution. He next tried asceticism, disciplining his body in order for his mind to nd the answer through meditation. It is said that his use of fasting and sleep deprivation was thought by his fellow ascetics and companions to be very extreme. Finding this disciplined life unsatisfactory, he allowed a milkmaid to give him a drink. His companions, disgusted by his renunciation of their discipline, abandoned him. Siddhartha, however, resolved to enter into a state of meditation until he had either died or had found the solution. Under the Bodhi Tree at Bodh Gaya, Siddhartha became enlightened. At that moment he became the Lord Buddha (the Enlightened One). He had discovered the cause and the solution to human
FIG. 2.2 Siddhartha (the Lord Buddha) leaves his family after seeing the four signs (old age, death, sickness and a hermit) that were to persuade him to become an ascetic.
suffering. His insights became known as the Four Noble Truths (see page 41). Deciding that his solution could be taught to others, he sought out his companions in the deer park at Sanath (Benares) and preached his rst sermon, known as The Turning of the Great Wheel of the Dharma. On hearing it, one of his companions also became enlightened. Others followed.
34
The Buddhas central ideas Life is full of suffering and discontent Suffering is caused by desires and grasping The end of suffering is achieved by removing all desires and graspings There is a noble eightfold path which will bring about the end of suffering
From the moment of his enlightenment the Lord Buddha became a supreme guide for those people who were attracted by his teaching and compassion. These became his early disciples (the Sangha, the community of monks and nuns). His insights and teachings (Dharma), his ability to explain the ethical life (sila) and his guidance into the correct ways of meditating (samadhi) clearly presented him as the role model for all Buddhists. He preached and lived the Middle Path, avoiding the extremes of academic rigour and asceticism. His simplicity in dress and manner, his welcome to all who sought him out, and his acknowledgement that all humans, regardless of what caste they belonged to, could nd enlightenment using the methods and the teachings he had discovered made him the living example of what would become known as Buddhism.
activities
1. What legends exist about the birth of Siddhartha Gautama? 2. Describe the life of Siddhartha Gautama as a child. 3. Outline the events surrounding the Bodhi Tree that created a major change in the life of Siddhartha Gautama. 4. How did Siddhartha Gautamas life change after this period of enlightenment? 5. Alongside the following list of the virtues of the Lord Buddha, give examples from his life: wisdom, compassion, generosity, simplicity, perseverance and reection.
FIG. 2.3 The Lord Buddha preaching to his disciples
35
Formation of the Sangha

The Sangha initially consisted of the close companions of the Lord Buddha, who received his instructions as to how to live and develop in the spiritual life. From these teachings arose the Vinaya (the code or set of rules for Bhikkus, monks). For many years the Lord Buddha refused to allow women to enter into this spiritual community by becoming Bhikkunis, nuns. After persistent requests, however, his foster mother, Mahapajapati, nally was given permission to establish the Sangha for women. This was of great signicance in that it indicated that higher levels of the spiritual life were accessible to both men and women. Like the Lord Buddha, his early companions were wandering beggars. During the dry season they would travel through villages and cities giving instruction and receiving donations of food from the people. In the rainy season they would retire to the forest to live simply and use the time for meditation and study of the Dharma. The Buddha urged his followers to meet regularly so that all could agree on the correct understanding of his teachings and on the correct way of life for a monk. If there were disagreements the monks could vote and the majority vote would decide the disagreement.
The early councils

The first two councils After the paranirvana (apparent death) of the Lord Buddha, there was a meeting of the Arahats (holy men) at Rajagaha. The purpose of this meeting was to agree on the Dharma and the Vinaya. It also gave the Arahats an opportunity to recite the Dharma so that all could agree that what had been committed to memory were in fact the correct teachings of the Lord Buddha. Seventy years after the rst recitation, the Arahats assembled for a second council at Vasali. This meeting was necessary for a disagreement about the Dharma had arisen. Some monks were behaving in a way thought to be not in keeping with the Vinaya, such as accepting gold and silver, and these monks were expelled. The importance of these councils is that, in its earliest development, the Sangha collectively decided what the truth of the Dharma was and how they should live it out. Ananda, a close companion of the Lord Buddha, had asked him who would succeed him as leader of the Sangha. He stated that no one was to lead the Sanghaonly the Dharma could hold such a position of authority. These community meetings ensured that no hierarchical system of government developed for all members of the Sangha outside of each community. Each Sangha could make decisions without seeking advice from an external leader. Only when the decisions made within a Sangha were recognised as wrong or heretical would other members from different Sanghas assemble to decide what was right. This gave the oldest institution in the world (see page 40) the means to survive and adapt to varying circumstances and cultures. It eventually permitted the evolution of the three Schools of Buddhism Theravada, Mahayana and Vajrayana.
activities
1. Who were the Sangha? 2. How did they live their lives? 3. Why do you think the people supported them with food?
activities
1. Why were the councils necessary? 2. What did each achieve? 3. Why were the councils important to Buddhism?
FIG. 2.4 Buddhist monks with begging bowls receiving donations of food
36
FIG. 2.5 The life of the Lord Buddha is depicted on the walls of the Borobudur Temple, Java, Indonesia.
The three schools of Buddhism

Theravadan Buddhism The Theravada school of Buddhism exists throughout the countries of South-East Asiafrom Sri Lanka to Vietnam and throughout the islands of Malaysia and Indonesia. It is known as the School of the Elders and is regarded as the oldest of the three schools. It has a strong emphasis on monastic life as the means of attaining enlightenment. It teaches that only men can become enlightened and that this is only possible for members of the Sangha. Those who attain enlightenment are called Arahats. It stresses that enlightenment is brought about through meditation (samadhi) and the doing of good works (sila). These bring about an increase in prajna (wisdom). Along with all other Buddhists, followers of this school take refuge in the Three Jewels (Buddha, the Dharma and the Sangha). They believe in the teachings of karma, samsara and nirvana. They hold that intentional acts bring about either good karma or bad karma, which determines a persons next life. They accept the Tripitaka (sacred texts) as possessing the authentic teachings of the Lord Buddha. Theravada Buddhism is seen as a means by which a person can overcome the three human conditions of anatma (possessing no permanent self), anicca (everything in life changes) and dukkha (all aspects of human life have some form of suffering or unsatisfactoriness).
Mahayana Buddhism The Mahayana school of Buddhism is found in Northern Asia. It is the Buddhism of China, Korea and Japan. Though accepting the principal teachings of the Lord Buddha found within the Tripitaka, it differs from Theravada on ve points. First, the school accepts that the Lord Buddha was a historical human person who found enlightenment. It also, however, recognises that he is one of many Buddhas who existed either in the past or within different universes. To distinguish the historic Buddha, he is often referred to as Sakyamuni. This school teaches that there is a Buddha nature that has three aspects: one that lies at the essence of all things, one that shows itself to Buddhas and other holy man and women, and a third that is seen in the human form of Sakyamuni. Second, these holy men and women (Bodhisattvas) begin the spiritual journey by undertaking the Bodhisattva vow. This vow is to seek nirvana but to assist all sentient beings in also attaining it before they themselves will achieve this state. Bodhisattvas are thought to be holier than the Arahats of Theravada Buddhism and to be able to respond to the petitions and needs of humans. Third, nirvana is understood differently. Mahayana Buddhism understands nirvana as underlying all phenomena and that it is nothing and formless (sunyata). Because all phenomenal things experienced by humans are really indications
37
FIG. 2.6 Tibetan monks tracing a mandala with coloured sand
of nirvana, individuals strive to prepare themselves, through meditation and a good life, to be awakened to enlightenment at any moment or through any experience. The human sees that he or she is nothing other than nirvana. Therefore, people do not require the Sangha in order to achieve nirvana, and enlightenment is possible for both men and women. Fourth, Mahayana Buddhism agrees that a good life (sila) and meditation (samadhi) increases prajna (wisdom), but it further stresses that a life of commitment and devotion is also necessary. For example, devotion to the Buddha Amitaba will ensure that the person will enter into Amitabas heavenly realm after the persons death. Indeed, the very utterance of his name with complete devotion will bring about this heavenly reincarnation. Lastly, Mahayana Buddhism accepts other texts as sacred. Important texts like the Diamond and Lotus Suttas contain information about the existence of the Bodhisattvas and the true nature of the Lord Buddha. Vajrayana Buddhism The Vajrayana school of Buddhism is practised in Tibet and Nepal. It came about through the adoption of local religious beliefs and customs, particularly incorporating local gods and goddesses into its belief system.
According to this school, enlightenment is achieved under the guidance of gurus (persons who have achieved high levels of meditation and understanding). The path towards enlightenment is rigorous and uses three means: mudras (bodily postures), mantras (spiritual sounds or mystical phrases) and mandalas (spiritual maps of the various realms of the Buddhas). There are two principal paths in Vajrayana. The rst is known as the Right-hand Path and stresses the use of the mantras, mudras and mandalas. The Left-hand Path incorporates the worship of shaktis (goddesses) who mate with gods in loving compassion, and also recognises the powers and temptation of demons. When a person achieves the highest spiritual levels, he may use practices that other schools would recognise as immoral, such as the eating of meat and drinking of alcohol.
activity
Create a table with a column allocated to each school of Buddhism. In the columns list the following details for each school: where it was formed; what it believes; its relationship to Buddhas original teaching; and who promoted the vision of the school.
38
Principal beliefs
The Three Jewels
Buddha Buddhists see the Lord Buddha as an enlightened human being. This is very important, for it indicates that all humans are able, through Buddhism, to achieve the same enlightenment. For Mahayana Buddhism, the Lord Buddha undertook, many epochs ago, the Bodhisattva vow to aid all sentient life forms in gaining nirvana. A Buddha is a person who is deep, immeasurable, and hard to follow as is the great ocean (Majjhima Nikaya 1.487). As a Buddha he is capable of seeing the past lives of all whom he meets and can see all of his own past lives. He is called the Lord Buddha because he was the one who reawakened the Dharma for this present age. He is the best role model for Buddhists and is the one who has given humans the means to achieve enlightenment, the Dharma. His central teachings are known as the Four Noble Truths (see page 41) containing the Eightfold Path of Perfection. He is also the founder of the Sangha, understood as both the monastic communities and the universal community of all Buddhists. His own enlightenment taught that every person is responsible for his own success on the spiritual path. There is no divine help in the form of rewards and no divine judgment of failure. The path is to avoid all extreme forms of behaviour and to integrate the moral life (sila) with meditation (samadhi) in order to grow in an understanding of the Dharma (prajna). Dharma The Dharma is, rst, the teachings of the Lord Buddha. It is the means by which he instructed his followers on the correct spiritual journey towards enlightenment and nirvana. It contains the description of the human condition (anatma, anicca and dukkha) and the way of overcoming this condition (the Four Noble Truths). The Lord Buddha is the Dharma in that his life and message indicate that the truth is attainable. Second, the Dharma is found within the sacred texts, primarily in the Tripitaka but also in the Suttas of Mahayana and texts accepted by Vajrayana Buddhism. The Dharma, however, cannot be contained only within the texts, for it is, third, the very laws of the universe. It is that which orders all things in the phenomenal world and has for its basis nirvana. Finally, the Dharma is the lived experience of Buddhism throughout the ages. The lives of holy men and women, the progress of the ordinary Buddhist, and the Sangha all indicate the Dharma. Sangha The Sangha is, rst, the universal community of Buddhists. Specically, it is the term applied to the monastic communities of monks and nuns. It was
are able, through Buddhism, to achieve the same enlightenment
all humans
FIG. 2.7 Lord Buddha
39
FIG. 2.8 Buddhist monk at prayer in a temple
founded by the Lord Buddha after his companions accepted the truth of his rst sermon at Sanath (Benares). It is the oldest institute in history. Members of the Sangha observed the rules laid down in the Vinaya, the code for monastic behaviour (see page 46). The monks and nuns observe ve precepts more than the lay person is expected to observe. These are that no food is to be consumed after midday, that monks and nuns must avoid the distraction of entertainments or military parades, that they are not to sleep on high beds, that they are not to handle gold or silver (money), and that they are to dress according to the code of the monastery, which does not allow the use of any items of vanity such as jewellery or cosmetics. A further rule states that monks and nuns may not eat meat that has been killed for that purpose. Young men or boys enter the Sangha as novices. They undergo training in monastic life, particularly training in meditation and puja. They also receive instruction in the teachings of the Lord Buddha and the monastic code (Vinaya). All monks must show respect to those monks who have been members of the Sangha for a longer time than they have. For ordination there must be a specic number of monks, usually ten in number. In Thailand, all men are expected to join the Sangha at least once in their lifetime. It is also the custom for Thai boys to transfer the karma that they merit on entering the Sangha to their mothers. The Sangha is administered by senior monks who are in charge of maintaining the monastery
and temples. The head of the community is the abbot, who receives this position because he is acknowledged as having achieved the highest level of spiritual development within the community. The Lord Buddha also established the female Sangha. Nuns have more rules to observe than monks and must show respect to all male members of the Sangha regardless of age or spiritual development. For monks and nuns, the daily routine is to rise before dawn and perform both meditation and puja. They then leave the monastery to beg for food. This is eaten in two meals, one on returning to the monastery and the other just before noon. The day is spent in study, domestic duties and assisting the laity with puja and advice.
activities
1. Who is the Lord Buddha? 2. What do Buddhists see as the spiritual path or journey? 3. What is the Dharma? 4. As a group, discuss if the Dharma can be found in the sacred texts, explaining why or why not. 5. Describe the Sangha. 6. How do members of the Sangha behave and what rules do they follow? 7. Research the role and daily rituals of the male and female monks in the Sangha.
40
The Four Noble Truths The Four Noble Truths are among the most insightful understandings about the human condition. The Lord Buddha, at his enlightenment, discovered the cause of human suffering and the means by which suffering would cease. The rst Noble Truth is about suffering (dukkha). All aspects of a humans life contain elements of suffering. Dukkha is the experience of the loss of happiness, of pain and illness, of death, and of a sense of never being satised. The second Noble Truth is about the cause of suffering. What brings about dukkha is craving after things that a person does not have. It is the grasping for pleasures and the attachment to wrong ideas. It is not being content with the present moment as it really is. To end this suffering the third Noble Truth teaches that a person merely needs to cease craving. Once all cravings and attachments have ceased, then the person will achieve nirvana. Even the craving to achieve nirvana must, in the nal stage of spiritual development, be destroyed.
The Eightfold Path to Perfection The fourth Noble Truth is the truth about how to cease cravings and is known as the Eightfold Path of Perfection. The rst two paths deal with the gaining of wisdom (prajna). The next four paths teach how to live a good ethical life (sila) and the nal two give instruction in the practice of meditation (samadhi). 1. Right understanding is the acceptance of the truth of the Buddha and the Dharma. 2. Right thought is the correct use of the mind to be open to wisdom. 3. Right speech forbids lying, slander, gossip or any speech that will harm a person. 4. Right action is to accept and live out the ve ethical precepts (see page 45). 5. Right livelihood indicates which careers and ways of living are suitable for a Buddhist. 6. Right effort provides the channelling of energy and time into the practice of Buddhism. 7. Right mindfulness prepares the person through meditation to keep on the path to enlightenment. 8. Right concentration is the correct focus for the mind during meditation and the constant awareness of the present moment. Each aspect of the Eightfold Path is to be practised with all the others. Because of the interconnectedness of sila, samadhi and prajna, all elements of the Path must become the practice of every Buddhist in living out his or her commitment to the religious tradition.
activities
1. Explain the Four Noble Truths. 2. How are they important in the everyday life of a Buddhist? 3. What is the major distinction between the rst two and the second two truths? 4. The fourth Noble Truth is a way of living. Debate in groups how you think this would work in your society or cultural group. Why/why not? What features are similar to those of your faith? In what way?
The marks of existence

According to Buddhism, all human beings have three conditions that they need to acknowledge. Anicca is the knowledge that there is no thing that does not undergo change. Every aspect of life and the universe is impermanent. As every cell in a persons body comes into existence and then dies, so too do all phenomena. This universal law of change leads to one of Buddhisms most unique teachings: anatma. Anatma is the teaching that there is no permanent self. Humans do not possess a soul that gives them a permanent identity. The human consists of various parts (skandras) that themselves are ever changing. The only thing that survives the death of a person is karma, the consequence of all intentional acts. Because there is no permanent self that does not change, Buddhists argue that Buddhism is the only religious tradition that needs an ethical system. For if there were a permanent, unchanging soul then no act could affect it. Failure to recognise that there is no permanent self and that all things change brings about the third condition. Dukkha is the suffering that humans feel because they cling to the deceit of the unchanging self and the idea that certain things will bring them unchanging happiness. But since all things change there is nothing that can guarantee such a permanent state of happiness.
41
Karma, Samsara, Nirvana

Karma is the consequence of any act that a person willingly and knowingly does. Those acts that are good (kusala) bring about good karma, while those that harm any sentient life form (akusula) bring about bad karma. The Buddhist attempts to increase the good karma during his lifetime and to reduce any bad karma brought about either during this life or previous lives. Karma is related closely to prajna (wisdom), for to understand what it is to achieve nirvana requires an increase in karma. Thus karma is connected with right ethical behaviour (sila) and right practice of meditation (samadhi). Karma results in samsara, the cycle of rebirths. After the person dies, karma seeks a suitable rebirth. The rebirth is determined on the amount of karma. The most desirable rebirth is that of becoming a human, for only as a human can the Buddhist achieve enlightenment. If a human has decreased his or her karma through unethical behaviour so that rebirth is not possible as a human, that karma will nd rebirth in lesser animal or sentient life forms. Those who have reached high levels of perfection yet not enlightenment may nd rebirth in one or other of the heavenly realms. The goal for all Buddhists is to reach nirvana. This is not a place of eternal happiness like heaven or paradise, nor is it a reward for a good life. It is the realisation that all known objects and what appear to be individual experiences are illusions. There is nothing but nirvana. The person who glimpses this truth is known as a stream-enterer. Having grasped this reality, the Buddhist enters into an extraordinary path towards attaining nirvana. That person will live a purer ethical life (sila) and practise higher levels of meditation (jhanas), gaining clearer understanding that all things are no thing (prajna). When all objectication has ceased (and this includes the dismissal of nirvana as a desirable object) then that person is what he has always beennirvana.
FIG. 2.9 A Chinese fresco depicting the cycle of rebirths
realisation that all known activities

1. Why is it possible to have good karma and bad karma? 2. Explain the concept of samsara. 3. If nirvana is not heaven, what is it? 4. Create a mind map showing the connection between karma, samsara and nirvana.
objects and what appear to be individual experiences are illusions
Nirvana is the
42
Sacred texts and writings

Tripitaka
Sacred texts are those written collections that a religious tradition accepts as dening the essential teachings of the tradition. The Tripitaka (the three baskets, for they were originally three collections of scrolls kept in three baskets) contains three divisions, the second of which is the Sutta Pitaka, which is the collections of sayings of the Lord Buddha and stories about his life. It is therefore of great importance to the Buddhist, for it contains the essential teachings (Dharma) and the life of the founder, presented as the most signicant model of the way of attaining nirvana. The rst part of the Tripitaka is the Vinaya Pitaka, which sets out the rules and expectations for the Sangha. It also contains the decisions made in the past about what is to happen if a monk is found to have broken one or more of the rules. The judgment can range from a mild rebuke to expulsion from the Sangha. The importance of this work is that it connects the lifestyle of present-day monks to those of the past and ensures that the Sangha remains a witness to the truth of Buddhism. The third division is the Abhidharma Pitaka, a set of philosophical works that discuss the intellectual consequences of the teachings of the Lord Buddha. It also explores the psychological make-up of the human person and the fundamental laws of karma. It is the most difcult part of the Tripitaka, but it is important for those desiring higher levels of understanding through scholarship. It integrates the teachings of the Lord Buddha into a logical and coherent system of thinking.
FIG. 2.10 The Pali canon written on bamboo, Cambodia
shows the differing path for attaining nirvana that Mahayana Buddhism offers. It is a clear denial of the path offered by Theravada Buddhism. The Lotus of the Good Law has become an important text for Japanese Buddhism. Many schools of Buddhism within Japan would see this as an essential elaboration of the means of achieving enlightenment.
Tibetan Book of the Dead

This signicant text for Vajrayana Buddhism spells out the means by which a Buddhist can help determine his next rebirth. The Dalai Lama states: From the Buddhist point of view, the actual experience of death is very important. Although how or where we will be reborn is generally dependent on karmic forces, our state of mind at the time of death can inuence the quality of our next rebirth. So at the moment of death, in spite of the great variety of karmas we have accumulated, if we make a special effort to generate a virtuous state of mind, we may strengthen and activate a virtuous karma, and so bring about a happy rebirth. (Sogyal Rinpoche, Preface, The Tibetan Book of Living and Dying, 1998) The text is therefore of great importance in achieving this new virtuous karmic state. It is a book which guides people through dying and instructs them about what can be done in the immediate state after dying (bardo).
The Lotus of the Good Law

The Lotus of the Good Law is a Mahayana text regarded by many as a classic of literature. It tells about the wonderful powers of the Divine Buddha. It invites everyone to become one with the divine Buddha through the help of the Bodhisattvas. It is made up of twenty-eight chapters and speaks about the powers of the Bodhisattvas, especially about Avalokitesvara. It is important in that it
43
activities
1. The Tripitaka (the three baskets) is the written collection of this tradition. Outline what is in each of the three baskets and their implications for Buddhists. 2. Mahayana Buddhism offers a clear denial of the path offered by Theravada Buddhism. How are these paths different? 3. Why is death so signicant to Vajrayana Buddhists that they consider the Tibetan Book of the Dead so important? 4. Working in groups, select and read one of the extracts below. Present to the class how your text presents the principal ideas of Buddhism.
Knowing that this body is fragile like a jar, and making this thought rm like a fortress, one should attack Mara (the tempter) with the weapon of knowledge, one should watch him when conquered, and should never rest. 41 Before long, alas! this body will lie on the earth, despised, without understanding, like a useless log.
131
40
He who seeking his own happiness punishes or kills beings who also long for happiness, will not nd happiness after death. He who, though dressed in ne apparel, exercises tranquillity, is quiet, subdued, restrained, chaste, and has ceased to nd fault with others, he is indeed a Brahmin, an ascetic (sramana), a friar (bhikshu). (The Dhammapada)
142
The Buddha said to Shariputra, The Buddhas, the Thus Come Ones, simply teach and convert the Bodhisattvas. All the things they do are at all times done for this one purpose. They simply wish to show the Buddha wisdom to living beings and enlighten them to it. (The Lotus Sutra, translated by Burton Watson, 1993)
When I wander in samsara, Due to my intense envy, In the path of the shining light Of the wisdom of performance, May the Blessed Amoghasiddhi Lead me
And may his mate, Samaya-Tara, Protect me from behind. May they help to cross The bardos dangerous path, And bring me to the perfect Buddha state. (The Tibetan Book of the Dead)
5. The photo of the library on this page is from a suburban Buddhist temple. It shows lots of other books. Research other important Buddhist texts and their importance to Buddhists.
44
Core ethical teachings

The Five Precepts
The most commonly held set of ethical rules are known as the Five Precepts (pancasilam): 1. To abstain from killing sentient life forms. 2. Never to take what is not given. 3. Never to harm anyone through sensual pleasures. 4. To avoid harming anyone through speech. 5. To avoid all mind-changing substances. Each of the Five Precepts produces its own virtues. The rst brings about compassion, the second generosity, the third contentment and genuine companionship, the fourth honesty, and the fth clarity and awareness. The rst precept makes unjustied the killing of any sentient life form. Sentient life forms are all creatures that possess senses and respond to the environment in which they live. Sentience indicates that there is the presence of karmic forces and a creature should be allowed to develop these forces during its life so that the karmic forces may be reborn into a better life form. Buddhists see killing as an act that will bring about bad karma. Lesser bad karma, however, is created if the killing is of small sentient life forms, and most serious is the killing of a human being. The second precept not only rejects stealing but advises that people may not take possession of anything that does not belong to them or that has not been freely given to them by another. This precept deals not only with material possessions but also with intellectual ideas. It also has an inuence on dealings in business and the economy. The third precept simply states that a person cannot do harm to himself or to others through sensual pleasure or sex. In Buddhism any sexual act that is harmful directly to another (for example, rape) can never be permitted. But any act that may scandalise another is also to be avoided. Because a Buddhist wishes to attain enlightenment that is a pure understanding of the truth, any act that deliberately entails falsehood
Precepts produces its own virtues.
Each of the Five
FIG. 2.11 In order to develop the spiritual path, clarity of mind is of great signicance.
must be avoided. Therefore, any use of language that abuses, demeans or insults another person or any use of language that deceives another is to be avoided. Finally, in order to develop the spiritual path, clarity of mind is of great signicance. Any substance that clouds the mind or changes it from its function of gaining wisdom is to be avoided. Alcohol and mind-changing drugs that are used outside of medical advice will produce less opportunity for improving a persons ethical life (sila)and in fact may ruin that persons lifeand will also affect the development of the practice of meditation (samadhi).
activities
1. Outline the importance of the ethical life to the everyday living of a Buddhist. 2. Demonstrate how an ethical life is based on the principal teachings of Buddhism. 3. Prepare a PowerPoint display of the key points of the Five Precepts using your own words. 4. Did you discover any similarities between Buddhist ethical rules and those of your own faith or others that you have studied? Explain the similarities and where differences occur.
45
FIG. 2.12 Tibetan monks at Sera Monastery in Lhasa, Tibet
The Vinaya
The Vinaya Pitaka is the rst collection found in the Tripitaka. It outlines the rules for monks within the monastery. It covers their dress, behaviour and diet and provides further rules about the punishments a monk will receive if he is found to have broken any of the rules. It also addresses the right understanding of the teachings of the Lord Buddha. Among its many rules are ve further instructions of importance for the monks: 1. They are not to eat after midday. 2. They may not attend any distracting entertainments or military parades. 3. They may not sleep on high beds. 4. They may not handle silver or gold (money). 5. They may not use cosmetics or jewellery. The Parivara, the third book of the Vinaya Pitaka, offers analysis and commentary on the rules identied in the other two books of the Vinaya Pitaka. Discipline is for the sake of restraint, restraint for the sake of freedom from remorse, freedom from remorse for the sake of joy, joy for the sake of rapture, rapture for the sake of tranquillity, tranquillity for the sake of pleasure, pleasure for the sake of concentration, concentration for the sake of knowledge and vision of things as they are, knowledge and vision of things as they are for the sake of disenchantment, disenchantment for the sake of release, release for the sake of knowledge and vision of release, knowledge and vision of release for the sake of total unbinding without clinging. (Vinaya Pitaka: Parivara.XII.2)
activities
1 Carefully consider the implications of becoming a Buddhist monk. List some advantages you see and some disadvantages you see. Discuss these with other students. 2 Do you think that a specic kind of person is attracted to becoming a Buddhist monk? What reasons do you have for this? Discuss with others whether this is correct or incorrect, and why.
46
Personal devotion in the home

Puja
Devotion (puja) in the home may be a time for an individual or a family to show reverence and to offer prayers. There is usually a specic place in the home for a shrine that is cared for by members of the family. This shrine may contain a statue or picture of the Buddha or a Bodhisattva. It may simply consist of a wall-hanging of calligraphy that presents a small piece of sacred text. There is no formal time for puja. It may be undertaken at any time during the day or night. Most often it will be one of the rst things a person or family does in the day. The person or family ensures that they are properly dressed and clean. They will sit or stand before the shrine and bow towards it. Three bows shows reverence to the Three Jewelsthe Buddha, the Dharma and the Sangha. Offerings may be made. These may take the form of owers, in particular the lotus as a sign of the owering of Buddhism above the muddy waters of ordinary life. Fruit may also be offered. For some, incense is offered, which represents the belief that there is a spiritual reality and path that the Buddha preached. Incense may also represent the prayers and petitions of the person going-up to the Lord Buddha or Bodhisattva. The family may chant prayers or parts of sacred texts. Some may use beads (malas) to concentrate on the repetition of the prayers. The shrine is also used as a place for samadhi (meditation). It is an important place in the home and is never used for any other purpose than puja and meditation.
FIG. 2.13 Family shrine, Australia
activities
1. What is puja and when does it occur? 2. If you walked into the home of a family you have never met before, what might you see to indicate to you that they are Buddhists? 3. Why do you think it is important to Buddhists to have a shrine in their home? 4. Draw up a table that shows the key practices and the signicant symbols of home puja. Connect these to the principal teachings in Buddhism.
47
Review and assess

Review
1. 2. Describe the diversity of culture in sixth-century BCE in India. Describe each of the three classes of Indian society at the time of the Buddha. Discuss the means by which a persons karma could be improved. Explain the process of attaining nirvana. Write a biography of Siddhartha Gautama. What is the signicance of suffering to the Buddhas story? What is enlightenment? Explain the importance of the Sangha to Therevada Buddhism. Devise a table that demonstrates the similarities and differences between the three major schools of Buddhism.
3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.
10. Outline the important facts that underlie Buddhist ethics. 11. Your friend is interested in converting to Buddhism. Outline the principal beliefs that he or she would have to accept. 12. Explain how a Buddhist attempts to overcome suffering. 13. Select one Buddhist sacred text. Explain its signicance to its branch of Buddhism by using examples. 14. Give an example of personal devotion and describe what is involved.
48

Short response (100150 words) 15. Outline the Four Noble Truths. 16. Outline the historical context in which Buddhism rst began. 17. Outline the principal events in the life of the Buddha. 18. Describe the life of the Buddha. 19. Describe the early formation of the Sangha. 20. Outline the major points of the rst two councils. 21. Outline the unique features of Theravada Buddhism. 22. Outline the unique features of Mahayana Buddhism. 23. Outline the unique features of Vajrayana Buddhism. 24. Name and explain the Three Jewels. 25. Name and explain the three marks of existence. 26. Explain the importance to Buddhism of sacred writings. 27. Explain the connection between karma, samsara and nirvana. 28. Demonstrate the importance of the Lotus of the Good Law. 29. Outline what happens in home puja. 30. Demonstrate how the Five Precepts form the basis of Buddhist ethics. 31. Describe the Vinaya.
Longer response (500650 words) 32. Explain the principal beliefs of Buddhism. Give examples to support your answer. 33. Using the three major branches of Buddhism (Theravada, Mahayana and Vajrayana), demonstrate the development of Buddhist thought. 34. Explain the signicance of key Buddhist texts to the key Buddhist beliefs.
49
The focus of this study is Christianity, one of the major religious traditions, as a living religious system.
Outcomes
the development of early Christian communities Christianity Anglicanism Catholicism Orthodoxy Pentecostalism Protestantism Principal beliefs the divinity and humanity of Jesus Christ the death and resurrection of Jesus Christ the nature of God and the Trinity revelation salvation Sacred texts and writings Bible Core ethical teachings
Content
Students learn about: Origins the historical and cultural context in which Christianity began Jesus Christ
the Ten Commandments New Testament ethics the Beatitudes Jesus commandment of love Personal devotion prayer
Prelim | Chapter 3 Christianity
51
CHARISM
a gift of the Holy Spirit; an understanding of Christianity taken on by a particular community (for example, Franciscan charism focuses on the teachings of St Francis). the Messiah, the anointed one; from the Greek Christos. an agreement or contractin the Old Testament, between God and Israel. the Ten Commandments given to Moses on Mount Sinai outlining a code of behaviour for the Israelites during the Exodus. the spread of Jewish communities around the known world. a follower, particularly a follower of Jesus of Nazareth. a set of practices based on moral beliefs clarifying what is right and wrong. writings containing secret wisdom about Jesus ministry and teachings that were not included in the New Testament. the Gospels were the good news of the story of Jesus Christ. They refer to the rst four books of the New Testament, attributed to Matthew, Mark, Luke and John, thought to be written down during the period 65100 CE. emanating from the Greek world. the group of early Christians who set out to spread the good news about Jesus. ofcial public worship, the set order for communal worship. exercises that serve as a support for prayer and contemplation of God.
MESSIAH MONASTICISM
the anointed one who would save the Jews and usher in the reign of God. a style of Christian life that emphasises community, often of priests, brothers, nuns or lay believers. belief in a single God, Judaism; Islam and Christianity are monotheistic faiths. a rst-century Jewish group who valued the oral law of Moses and the Torah as guidance for how to live life as a Jew. forms of address to achieve a moment of interaction with God. Roman ofcial appointed to govern Roman provinces. a 16th-century movement for renewal of the church, led by Luther, Zwingli, Knox and Calvin. the message of God to all humanity, fully expressed in the person of Christ. sacred rites or ceremonies involving change for the individual. a priestly class of the Jewish people at the time of Jesus. the redemption of humanity achieved through Jesus Christs death and resurrection. the assembly of judges in Jerusalem, the High Court of the Jews. central place of worship for Jewish adherents. the rst ve books of the Bible. a rst-century Jewish group looking for a Messiah who would lead a revolt against the Roman authorities.
CHRIST COVENANT DECALOGUE
MONOTHEISM
PHARISEES
PRAYER PROCURATOR REFORMATION
DIASPORA DISCIPLE ETHICS GNOSTIC WRITINGS
REVELATION SACRAMENTS SADDUCEES SALVATION
GOSPELS
SANHEDRIN TEMPLE OF JERUSALEM TORAH ZEALOTS
HELLENIC JESUS MOVEMENT LITURGY MEDITATION
52
Origins of Christianity
Christianity is a monotheistic religion that has its roots in Judaism. The central gure of Jesus of Nazareth, an itinerant Jewish preacher, was rst recognised by John the Baptist as the Messiah, the one for whom Jews had been waiting. Jesus life and ministry of teaching and healing in Galilee created a strong following among Jews and Gentiles in Galilee, Judea and elsewhere, but it was not until the story of his death and reported resurrection emerged that his followers began to spread the gospel (the good news) of Jesus Christ, Messiah and Saviour. To Christians, Jesus is the Son of God, who came to speak about the kingdom of God and to teach humanity how to live. Jesus death and resurrection were to bring about salvation from sin, and his return would bring everlasting life to those who chose to follow him. Christians are called upon to spread the gospel message (the good news of Jesus Christ) to others and to keep his command to love God and their neighbour.
Now there was about this time Jesus, a wise man, for he was a doer of wonderful works, a teacher of such men as receive the truth with pleasure. He drew over to him both many of the Jews, and many of the Gentiles. (Josephus, Antiquities 18.3.3)
Hence to suppress the rumour [that he had set Rome on re], he [the Emperor Nero] falsely charged with the guilt, and punished with the most fearful tortures, the persons commonly called Christians, who were hated for their enormities. Christus, the founder of that name, was put to death by Pontius Pilate, procurator of Judaea in the reign of Tiberius: but the pernicious superstition, repressed for a time, broke out again, not only through Judaea, where the mischief originated, but through the city of Rome also, where all things hideous and shameful from every part of the world nd their centre and become popular. Accordingly, an arrest was rst made of all who pleaded guilty; then, upon their information, an immense multitude was convicted, not so much of the crime of ring the city, as of hatred against mankind. (Tacitus, Annals 15.44)
activity
Is there any historical evidence for Jesus existence? Examine the sources in the right column and discuss some of the attitudes evident or implied about the gure of Jesus the Christ at the time the sources were written.
As the Jews were making constant disturbances at the instigation of Chrestus [Christ], he [the Emperor Claudius] expelled them from Rome. (Suetonius, Life of Claudius, 25.4)
What advantage did the Athenians gain from putting Socrates to death? Famine and plague came upon them as a judgment for their crime. What advantage did the men of Samos gain from burning Pythagoras? In a moment their land was covered with sand. What advantage did the Jews gain from their executing their wise king? It was just after that that their kingdom was abolished. God justly avenged these three wise men: the Athenians died of hunger; the Samians were overwhelmed by the sea; the Jews, ruined and driven from their land, live in complete dispersion. But Socrates did not die for good; he lived on in the statue of Plato. Pythagoras did not die for good; he lived on in the statue of Hera. Nor did the wise king die for good; he lived on in the teaching which he had given. (Mara Bar-Serapion, who wrote this in a letter to his son from prison, c.73 CE).
FIG. 3.1 Early Christian Bible
53
The historical and cultural context for Christianity

The story of the Jewish people was one handed down in sacred story and song as part of the oral tradition of the time. They were called to be the people of God under the leadership of Abraham. During the time of the Exodus they were freed from slavery under the Egyptians and brought by Moses to the Promised Land. The story (eventually written down in the Torah, the rst ve books of the Bible) was one of covenant, an agreement between the Jewish people and their God. Always mindful of this covenant, the Jewish community lived in the place that their God had given them. However, the Jewish people were not always free to control their homeland. First the Babylonians, then the Assyrians, the Greeks and nally the Romans took over their land and controlled the lives of the Jewish people. The Jews began to look for a Messiah, an anointed one, to lead them out of slavery and into freedom. Many around the time of Jesus believed that this Messiah would lead a revolt against the rule of the Romans and bring about a new golden age for Judaism. This would be an age when a new kingdom, the kingdom of God, would be realised. Prophecies of the Messiah For to us a child is born, to us a son is given, and the government will be on his shoulders. And he will be called Wonderful Counsellor, Mighty God, Everlasting Father, Prince of Peace. Of the increase of his government and peace there will be no end. He will reign on Davids throne and over his kingdom, establishing and upholding it with justice and righteousness from that time on and forever. (Isaiah 9:67) A shoot will come up from the stump of Jesse; from his roots a Branch will bear fruit. The Spirit of the Lord will rest on himthe Spirit of wisdom and of understanding, the Spirit of counsel and of power, the Spirit of knowledge and of the fear of the LORD and he will delight in the fear of the LORD. He will not judge by what he sees with his eyes, or decide by what he hears with his ears; but with righteousness he will judge the needy, with justice he will give decisions for the poor of the earth. He will strike the earth with the rod of his mouth; with the breath of his lips he will slay the wicked. Righteousness will be his belt and faithfulness the sash around his waist. (Isaiah 11:15) Here is my servant, whom I uphold, my chosen one in whom I delight; I will put my Spirit on him and he will
The name of God YHWH, the ancient Hebrew name for God written with four consonants, was held to be unutterable by the Jews and was replaced by them during the reading of scripture by the word Adonai, meaning Lord. In 2008 the Vatican asked Catholics to avoid using the word YHWH in worship services out of respect for Jewish adherents.
Jesus as the Messiah

The prophets of the Jewish people gave them hope. They wrote of the Messiah who would free them from slavery and usher in a new time for Israel. The Jews were looking towards the coming of this Messianic Age: a time when Israel would be renewed. The Messiah would return the Jews to power in their homeland and rebuild their temple. Throughout Jewish scriptures there are references to great leaders: prophets such as Isaiah, priests like Melchizedek and the great Jewish king David. But in the Messiah to be born in Bethlehem these roles would become one: Jesus was Prophet, Priest and King for his people.
bring justice to the nations. He will not shout or cry out, or raise his voice in the streets. A bruised reed he will not break, and a smouldering wick he will not snuff out. In faithfulness he will bring forth justice; he will not falter or be discouraged till he establishes justice on earth. In his law the islands will put their hope. (Isaiah 42:14) The days are coming, declares the Lord, when I will full the gracious promise I made to the house of Israel and to the house of Judah. In those days and at that time I will make a righteous Branch sprout from Davids line; he will do what is just and right in the land. In those days Judah will be saved and Jerusalem will live in safety. This is the name by which it will be called: The LORD Our Righteousness. (Jeremiah 33:1416) Rejoice greatly, O Daughter of Zion! Shout, Daughter of Jerusalem! See, your king comes to you, righteous and having salvation, gentle and riding on a donkey, on a colt, the foal of a donkey. I will take away the chariots from Ephraim and the war-horses from Jerusalem, and the battle bow will be broken. He will proclaim peace to the nations. His rule will extend from sea to sea and from the River to the ends of the earth. (Zechariah 9:910)
54
activities
For Christians, how was Jesus seen to full the Jewish scriptures regarding the Messiah? Look up the following prophecies and discuss whether it was important to his followers that the life of Jesus fullled the scriptural call for the Messiah. Born of a virgin (Matthew 1:2223; fulls Isaiah 7:14) Born in Bethlehem (Matthew 2:46; fulls Micah 5:2) Pierced on the cross (John 19:3337; fulls Zechariah 12:10)
Palestine under the Romans

In the time in which Jesus lived, the region of Palestine was under Roman authority and Judea was controlled by a Prefect (when Jesus was brought to trial this position was held by Pontius Pilate). The Jewish community were led by the priests of the Sanhedrin (the Jewish judicial authority). The priests had much of the wealth and most of the power over Jewish society through their control of the temple and temple worship. The temple
gathered wealth through the money that observant Jews would offer as well as taxes on the people. It also held the personal wealth of many rich Jews. There were several signicant groups within the Jewish community whose attitudes to Jesus were important to recognise. The Sadducees were the priestly class in Jewish society. They were members of the aristocracy and were the majority of members of the Sanhedrin. The Pharisees were the followers of Mosaic Law and focused on the importance of obeying strict rules in an effort to live a devout life. Some observers believe that Jesus may have been born into the Pharisaic community. Another signicant group within the Jewish community at the time were the Zealots. They looked to bring about the release of the Jewish people from the tyranny of the Romans. Each of these groups had a particular attitude to the coming of the Messiah and responded to Jesus of Nazareth differently.
activities
1. Use group research to create a table that collates information about each of the key Jewish groups. Use the following headings to sort information: Beliefs, Sources of teaching, Leadership, Attitude to Messiah, Gospels evidence of their response to Jesus. 2. Read the following quotation about the Sadducees and Pharisees in the rst century CE. How would differences between the Sadducees and Pharisees have made Jerusalem a place of tension for the preaching of Jesus of Nazareth? The Sadducees formed a religious movement that was devoted to a strict, conservative, and literal interpretation of the Torah. In opposition, the Pharisees, perhaps emerging from the scribal class that was attached to the Jerusalem temple, developed standards of piety, purity, and religious observance that made them widely regarded as interpreters of the personal and social implications of the Torah. Although they respected the claims of the Jerusalem priesthood, the Pharisees placed greater emphasis on the covenant that they understood to be binding upon the lives of all the people of Israel. (David Chidester, Christianity: A Global History, 2000)
FIG. 3.2 Jesus defending a woman caught in adultery against the Pharisees
55
The principal events of Jesus life

Jesus Christhis birth and early life The Evangelists (Matthew, Mark, Luke and John) recorded stories of Jesus life. Jesus birth is recorded in Matthews and Lukes Gospels (Matthew 1:1825, Luke 2:17). Luke records Jesus birth as at the time of the census of Caesar Augustus when Quirinius was governor of Syria (67 CE). According to the Gospel writers, Jesus grew up in Nazareth, a small village in Galilee. He remained there throughout his childhood, travelling at least once to Jerusalem to observe the Passover. It would appear that Jesus education in the Torah was a signicant part of his early life. This is likely given the understanding of the scriptures evident in his teaching once his work as a preacher began. The Gospel writer Luke tells us that John the Baptists work as a prophet began during the 15th year of Tiberius reign. John refers to Jesus upon meeting him as the Messiah and indicates that he is unt to untie his sandal (Mark 1:7). The meeting with John was a signicant event for Jesus. After this he retreated into the desert to contemplate his future. Then the public ministry of Jesus began as he travelled the countryside for three years teaching any who would listen and healing those who believed in him.
Tyre Caesarea Philippi
Damascus
GALILEE
Copernaum Bethsaida
Mediterranean Sea
Caesarea
Cana Tiberias Nazareth Scythopolis
DECAPOLIS
SAMARIA
Sebaste
Jordan River
Joppa Philadephia Jericho Jerusalem Bethany
JUDEA
Gaza
Bethlehem Hebron
Dead Sea
Machaerus
Masada
IDUMEA
FIG. 3.3 Palestine in the time of Jesus

Mediterranean Sea
FIG. 3.4 John baptising Jesus in the Jordan River. The Holy Spirit hovers over Jesus as he comes up from the water.
56
FIG. 3.5 Sermon on the Mount, from the Sistine Chapel
Jesus the teacher Mark (the earliest of the Gospels) casts the person of Jesus as a preacher. Jesus came to proclaim the reign of God. His message was one that was welcomed by the Jewish community, eager for freedom from Roman rule. This idea of the coming of the kingdom or reign of God is a clear message given by Jesus that comes through in all the Gospels. Gospel records tell us that Jesus had many disciples. From this group he selected twelve men to whom he gave the role of authority and leadership. They continued this leadership role even after Jesus death through healing and preaching in the name of Jesus. Though living within a patriarchal society, Jesus did give an important role to Mary Magdalene among his followers. She is mentioned by name several times in the Gospels and referred to in early Christian writings as one of his signicant followers. Each of the Gospels presents a different aspect of Jesus and each was written for a different audience. Matthew wanted to emphasise the importance of faith for a mostly Jewish audience. Luke was more concerned with the humanity of Jesus. He included Jesus ministry to the Gentiles as an important aspect of his work. Marks Gospel was written for a Jewish audience in the Diaspora. Johns Gospel was written last but for a wider audience, Jews and Gentiles who were looking towards Christianity.
Teachings about the reign or kingdom of God were an essential element of Jesus message. He saw Gods vision for humankind as a place where love and justice were evident and peace pervaded the world. He encouraged his followers to bring about the kingdom through the faithful living of these values. Jesus used parables to explain many of his teachings. A parable is a story that had a deeper meaning or message for the listener. Jesus used many well-known parables that have ethical messages such as the Parable of the Good Samaritan and the Parable of the Mustard Seed.
activities
1. Using just one of the Gospels, create a prole of Jesus highlighting some key teachings and recording the important sayings of Jesus in the Gospel chosen. Record the names used to describe Jesus in that particular Gospel. Compare your portrait of Jesus based on the Gospel you selected with portraits prepared by other students using different Gospels. How do they differ? What are the similarities? 2. Why would the Gospel writers want to present different interpretations of Jesus?
57
Jesus the miracle worker Jesus demonstrated his power over nature in several incidents during his ministry. He changed water into wine at Cana. He calmed storms when at sea, walked on water and multiplied loaves and sh. As healer he cured people of leprosy, restored crippled people and brought the dead back to life. The miracle events were an essential element of Jesus teaching. They served to authenticate his authority as Son of God. Signicant miracles of Jesus include: The curing of ten lepers (Luke 17:1119) The raising of Lazarus (John 11:144) Jesus walking on water (Mark 6:4552) Feeding the ve thousand (Luke 9:1017).
activity
Read through one of Jesus miracles and discuss what the message of the event was for those who heard and saw it. How was Jesus providing a new interpretation of Jewish teachings?
Identical stories in the Gospels The Gospels of Matthew, Mark and Luke are said to have a similar point of view and are often referred to as the Synoptic Gospels. The following miracle stories are found in all three Gospels: the healing of a leper the healing of a paralytic the healing of a man with a withered hand the feeding of the multitude the healing of the boy with a spirit the healing of Bartimaeus.
Jesus as a challenge to Jewish and Roman authority Jesus as an itinerant preacher and rabbi was not initially a threat to Jewish leadership. The size of his following grew as he neared the city of Jerusalem in the days leading up to the Passover. He healed the crippled in the spas around the temple precinct in Jerusalem and in so doing appeared to undermine the power of the temple authorities. The road to Jerusalem The most signicant events in Jesus life occurred in his nal week in Jerusalem. These are remembered in Christian liturgy in the celebrations of Easter. These ceremonies link Christians back to the story of Jesus, tried and crucied under Roman and Jewish law, who defeated death and redeemed humankind.
activities
1. Study the key events and teachings of Jesus last week of life. What do they highlight in terms of his message to the people of Jerusalem? Which events would have worried the leadership among the Jews in Jerusalem? 2. The Last Supper is a signicant event in the last week of Jesus story. It is the foundation of the celebration of communion today in Christian communities. Read the passages about the Last Supper (Luke 22:720; Mark 14:1727; Matthew 26:2629; John 6) and identify the links to current Christian worship services. 3. Examine the artworks by Dominic Ferrante (Fig. 3.7 3.12). What contemporary elements do they include that help us empathise with the events in the last week of Jesus life?
FIG. 3.6 Jesus brings Lazarus back to life.
58
FIG. 3.10 FIG. 3.7 Palm Sunday FIG. 3.8 Last Supper FIG. 3.9 The Arrest of Jesus FIG. 3.10 Jesus carries his cross FIG. 3.11 Jesus before Pilate FIG. 3.12 Death of Jesus FIG. 3.7
FIG. 3.11
FIG. 3.8
FIG. 3.12
FIG. 3.9
59
Why Jesus is the model for Christian life The presentation of Jesus seen through the eyes of the Gospel writers provides guidance for Christians on how to live a good life. The ethical teachings that Jesus proclaimed called on his followers to live life based on two key relationships. One relationship was with their God, whom they were to love, honour and worship. The other relationship was with their neighbour, whom they were to care for and treat with justice. TABLE 3.1 Gospel guide to living a Christian life GOSPEL REPRESENTATION OF JESUS Written for a mainly Gentile audience, it tells the story of the rst disciples. Written for Jewish Christians, it gives guidance about living in community. KEY CHRISTIAN TEACHINGS
MARK
The kingdom of God is at hand (1:15) so we must be ready. Jesus is the Suffering Messiah who died for our sins. Christians are called to be community for each other. Jesus parables tell us how we can be part of the kingdom.
MATTHEW
Jesus is the teacher and law-giver, his teachings being expressed mainly through parables and the Beatitudes sermon. The Kingdom of God is coming and we must be prepared. Christians are called to go into the world and preach the Good News. Care for the poor and marginalised in society are key aspects of Christian activity. Forgiveness is a common theme in the parables. Christians must be honest and wealth is to be shared. Jesus is the Prophet and Messiah sent to save us. Jesus was the Word, the Son of Man, the Light of the World. The importance of the Christian community is emphasised. Eternal life is open to all believers.
LUKE
Written for Gentile Christians in the Greek world, it tells the story of the compassionate Saviour. Written for Jews and Gentiles.
JOHN
How is Jesus viewed by other religious traditions? In Islam, Jesus is seen as one of Gods prophets and a miracle worker. Jesus is viewed as Messiah who ascended into heaven. In Judaism, Jesus is seen as teacher but not the Messiah as he did not full all the Jewish prophecies. In Hinduism, Jesus is a guru to his followers. In Buddhism, Jesus is viewed as a healer and teacher.
activities
1. Examine the teachings in the Beatitudes (Matthew 5:112) and outline what message Jesus had for his followers. 2. At-home task: read extracts from the Letter of Saint Paul to the Romans and locate key teachings for the early Christians. 3. What kind of portrait did the Gospel writers give us of Jesus as a guide for Christians today?
60
The early development of Christian communities after the death of Jesus

The followers of Jesus were thrown into confusion by Jesus arrest, trial and crucixion. The story of the women who returned from the tomb claiming that he had come back to life was not originally believed by his disciples, but the events of Pentecost provided them with a way forward. Their mission was to spread the good news of the life, death and resurrection of Jesus of Nazareth, preaching and healing in his name. Peter and James, two of Jesus disciples, along with Paul of Tarsus, led the Jesus movement. Peter and James continued to spread the message of Jesus in Palestine while Paul encouraged the spread of the movement in the Hellenic world. Differences in interpreting what it meant to be a Christian by Hellenic and Palestinian Christianity led to the Council of Jerusalem in 49 CE, which set out to settle these differences. The letters Paul wrote to communities of believers in the Hellenic world were the rst Christian writings. The Gospels were later written for the early communities to help share the story of Jesus and record the oral stories told by those who had met and been disciples of Jesus.
And Jesus came and said to them All authority in heaven and on earth has been given to me. Go therefore and make disciples of all nations, baptising them in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit, and teaching them to obey everything that I have commanded you. And remember, I am with you always, to the end of the age. (Matthew 28:1820)
activities
1. Read the events of Pentecost in Acts 12 and outline the task given to the disciples. 2. Carefully examine the photograph in Fig 3.13. Discuss with other students and then as a class what is being represented and how. Pose questions for further discussion, e.g. Why are two people looking at the artist and not above?
FIG. 3.13 Stained glass window (15th Century) showing the Descent of the Holy Spirit
61
FIG. 3.14 Procession of Crusaders around Jerusalem, 11th century. (Oil painting by Jean Schentz, 1841)
Paul: the rst writings about Jesus Paul was the rst to write down the teachings of Jesus of Nazareth. His letters to early Christian communities assisted in their understanding of the beliefs and practices of Christianity. He is listed as the author of thirteen of the epistles (letters) written to the communities of Christians living in and around the Mediterranean Sea. The Romans had a tolerant approach to religions in general; however, early Christians gained negative attention by refusing to honour the Roman gods during festivities. The Roman persecution of the Christian religion was formalised during the reign of Nero, when they were blamed for a great re in Rome. This persecution of Christians continued intermittently until Emperor Constantine legalised Christianity in 313 CE. The era of the Early Fathers (up to 325 CE) was a time when church leaders such as Ignatius of Antioch and Tertullian documented and explained key Christian beliefs. The Councils of Nicaea and Ephesus then further claried teachings on issues such as the humanity and divinity of Christ. This era ended with the EastWest Schism in 1054 CE when the Orthodox Church in the East disagreed with the Roman Catholic Church in the West over the authority of the pope in Rome and the relationship between the persons of the Trinity.
62
The development of the monastic communities and particular charisms saw a blooming of Christianity during the Middle Ages. This age was notable for the signicant work of saints such as Saint Francis, Saint Benedict and Saint Dominic, who founded their communities during this time. The crusades during this period were an attempt to protect the Holy Land from the control of Islam, a growing religion in the Middle East. These raids led to increased tension between the churches of the East and West and were waged at great cost in terms of life and money for the Christian communities that sent crusaders there. The time of the Renaissance saw the rise of science and developments in the arts and architecture. It became an era when popes and bishops built huge cathedrals and churches were resplendent with artwork. This was at a time when the majority of people remained poor but continued to pay heavy taxes to church and state authorities. The Reformation emerged during 16th century when theologians such as Martin Luther and Ulrich Zwingli began to question church practices such as the granting of indulgences. This led to the formation of the Protestant churches when they declared independence from the church hierarchy in Rome. The Council of Trent (15451563 CE) was the Catholic Churchs response to calls for renewal and addressed some of the corrupt practices it had earlier tolerated. At this time too it established some
FIG. 3.15 Vatican II Council sat at St Peters Basilica, Vatican City.
other key beliefs, such as the clarication of seven sacraments, and reafrmed the structural hierarchy of the Church. The era of Revivalism was a period in the Protestant churches, particularly in America, between 1750 and 1950 CE when churches looked to reawaken the faith within their community. The legacy of this era was the enthusiastic approach to faith meetings in those churches, sometimes seen in testimonies and enthusiastic spiritual music. During the latter part of the 20th century the Roman Catholic Church entered a period of renewal. This began with Vatican II (19621965 CE), a most signicant council that looked at preparing the Catholic Church for the modern era.
The unique features of Anglicanism, Catholicism, Orthodoxy, Pentecostalism and Protestantism

Anglicanism The Anglican Church had its beginnings during the Reformation. King Henry VIII formalised the separation of the Church in England from any association with papal authority. The Anglican Communion is a fellowship of all the dioceses or regions, with leadership of this group usually coordinated by the Archbishop of Canterbury.
63
Core beliefs include the centrality of the Bible and the key sacraments of baptism and the Lords Supper. Within the Anglican Church there are two divisions: High Church (Anglo-Catholic) and Low Church (evangelical). The Anglo-Catholic church retains many of the features of Roman Catholicism including the title of priest, seven sacraments and the use of vestments. Ministers lead evangelical Anglicans and services are generally simple, without incense or vestments. Catholicism The Catholic Church historically began with the disciples of Jesus. It established itself on the leadership of Saint Peter. This became formalised in the role of the pope in Rome, whose leadership of the Catholic community has been maintained since the time of the apostles. The Catholic Church remains hierarchical with the community looking to leadership from its priests, bishops, cardinals and pope. Core beliefs include the importance of the guidance of the Holy Spirit, the magisterium (teaching authority of the Church), sacraments as a channel of Gods grace and the guidance of scripture. Within the Catholic Church there are several types of Catholics, Roman Catholic (the largest group) as well as Eastern Rite Catholics (including Maronite and Melkite Catholics). Orthodoxy For over one thousand years the Orthodox Churches remained part of the Catholic Church. But divisions over papal authority and debate over the expression of the relationship of the Trinity led to the Great Schism in 1054 CE. Eastern Orthodox Churches were established under the leadership of the Patriarch of Constantinople and other patriarchal authorities around the world. Core beliefs establish the equal role of scripture and tradition as sources of authority. There are seven sacraments in the Orthodox Church and the divine liturgy is an important worship service. Icons are a distinctive feature of Orthodox churches and liturgies are often lled with music and chanting. Pentecostalism Pentecostal churches are identied as having an emphasis on the gifts of the Holy Spirit and what that brings to the worship service in response. These churches emerged from Protestant congregations
FIG. 3.16 The crowd at a Planetshakers event in Brisbane. Planetshakers City Church is a Pentecostal church afliated with Australian Christian churches, the Assemblies of God in Australia.
in America during the early 1900s. Some have formed into communities such as the Assemblies of God or Christian City Church whilst others remain independent. Pastors have authority over their communities, and often services are a mix of testimony, preaching and music. Core beliefs focus on the gifts of the Holy Spirit such as prophecy, healing and speaking in tongues. Baptism in the Spirit (the individuals experience of the power of the Holy Spirit) is an adherents rst awareness of the power of Pentecostal worship. Protestantism Baptists, Methodists, Lutherans, Calvinists, the Salvation Army and Quakers were movements of reform within Christianity. The rst efforts at reform had been led by Luther, Calvin, Knox and Zwingli. Protestantism emphasises the authority of the Bible as a source of teaching, the universal priesthood of believers and justication by faith. Each of these churches developed teachings and practices under the leadership of their particular founder.
activity
Choose one of the denominations of Christianity and research its key teachings and core beliefs. Share this with the group.
64
Principal beliefs
The divinity and humanity of Jesus Christ
The humanity of Jesus of Nazareth is clearly proven in the historical evidence that Jesus of Nazareth was born during the time of Emperor Augustus and died during the reign of Emperor Tiberius, crucied at the decree of Pontius Pilate. The Gospels tell us he lived the life of a carpenter in Nazareth for much of the time before travelling to Galilee teaching and telling parables about the Kingdom of God and the love of God for all who follow his commands. It is important that this humanity is acknowledged and understood, as Jesus suffering and death were real and experienced by him. The divinity of the Christ, the Son of God, is evident and understood from the Gospel testimonies of the miracles and healings performed by Jesus, and from the witness to his death, resurrection and ascension into heaven by his followers and other eyewitnesses. This divinity recognises his relationship to God the Creator as Son. Jesus divinity then made sense of his role on earth, both to be the salvation of humanity and to defeat death through his resurrection and ascension. Early Christian thinkers argued over Jesus dual nature, fully human and fully divine, and what it meant for Christians. The debate over this paradox was claried during the Council of Nicaea (325 CE), which stated that there is only one God but there are three distinct persons of the Godhead. This concept was known as the Holy Trinity.
FIG. 3.17 Jesus the Christ, a Byzantine mosaic in the Hagia Sophia in Istanbul
The importance of the death and resurrection of Jesus Christ

The Easter celebrations in Christian communities recognise the importance of the death and resurrection of Jesus Christ. The belief of Christians is that Jesus death was important to destroy sin and give humanity the opportunity for eternal life (Romans 8:34). Jesus death was then followed by his resurrection and ascension into heaven. John 11:25 tells Christians that Jesus said I am the resurrection and the life. Those who believe in me, even though
they die, will live. Christians believe that the resurrection of the body will occur for all at the Final Judgment. The Jewish concept of resurrection was that it was only to happen at the end of days (Isaiah 26:19) and was not possible for an individual, such as Jesus, before that time. So the dramatic revelation of Jesus resurrection would have been an unforeseen event for the apostles. Jesus ascension into heaven (recorded in the Gospels of Mark and Luke) marks Jesus transformation to sit at the right hand of God the Father.
65
Beliefs about the nature of God and of the Trinity

God has interacted with the world in three different ways.
God the Father, the Creator of the Universe
God the Son, Jesus Christ, Redeemer and Sustainer of Life
God the Holy Spirit, the Sanctier
activity
Research the meaning of the Trinity as expressed by the artist in Fig. 3.18.
The idea of the personhood of God was rst explored in the Gospels and New Testament letters and expanded upon and named by Tertullian in his writings. It was claried further in the Nicene Creed in 325 CE. The role of Creator is recognised mainly in the Old Testament, in Gods interaction with his chosen people. In the Gospels it is God the Son, Jesus Christ, who is the central gure. In the other books of the New Testament and today, the Holy Spirit is the principal means by which God interacts with the world. In New Testament writings the concept of the Trinity is suggested in the commissioning of the apostles to Go therefore and make disciples of all nations, baptising them in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit (Matthew 28:19). Saint Paul echoes this in his blessing on the Corinthian Christians: The grace of the Lord Jesus Christ, the love of God, and the communion of the Holy Spirit be with all of you (2 Corinthians 13:14). Christians consider the nature of the Trinity, three persons but one God, a mystery.
activities
1. Creator, Redeemer and Sanctier: use a Bible concordance to search for references to each of these persons of the Trinity. 2. Locate the key stories for Christians and examine what role each person of the Trinity took in interacting with the world.
The Christian understanding of revelation

The revelation or message of God has occurred throughout history. For Christians, it was most fully given through the person of Jesus Christ. But Gods revelation is also evident in creation and through the person of the Holy Spirit, interacting with the world. The Old Testament has examples of revelation in events such as Gods spoken promise to Abraham and the destruction of Sodom (Genesis 18:133). God is also revealed through the glory of nature in the Psalms (Psalm 8 and 104 particularly). In the New Testament revelation is expressed through the person of Jesus Christ. But even at the start of Jesus ministry, at his baptism in the Jordan River, God the Fathers voice is heard: This is my Son, the Beloved, with whom I am well pleased
FIG. 3.18 The Trinity of Roublev, painted by Andrei Roublev in the 14th century, is a famous Russian icon depicting the Holy Trinity.
66
(Matthew 3:17). Christians know that revelation involves God communicating with the world, but revelation also relies on us to respond to it with a commitment to relationship with God. Revelation is not complete without acknowledgement of God.
activities
1. Read the following statement by Roman Catholic theologian Edward Schillebeeckx. What examples of Christian action do you feel are a means of moving the adherent towards salvation? What, then, is salvation in Jesus from God? I would want to say: being at the disposal of others, losing oneself to others and within this conversion working through anonymous structures for the happiness, the goodness and the truth of mankind. This way of life, born of grace, provides a real possibility for a very personal encounter with God, who is then experienced as the source of all happiness and salvation, the source of joy. (Edward Schillebeeckx, Christ: The Experience of Jesus as Lord, 1980 ) 2. Describe the Christian understanding of salvation and the roles of grace, Jesus Christ and the adherent. 3. The free gift of God is eternal life (Romans 6:23). How is salvation realised for Christians?
The Christian understanding of salvation

Salvation (from the Latin salus, meaning health) means the deliverance from sin that we can only attain through our relationship with God. As Jesus death was meant to bring us salvation, this is a key event in renewing that relationship. For Christians salvation will only come to fruition in the nal days of the world when they are reunited with God and is only attainable through the grace of God. The idea of nal judgment is not the most important element of salvation, but the opportunity to know and be united with God. What happens to those who do not believe in Christ? Will people who do not believe in Christ be saved? Expressions of Christianity differ as to the possibility of salvation for those who are not Christians. Conservative adherents believe that outside Christianity there is no salvation. Some liberal Christians believe that anyone who lives a good life will be saved, irrespective of their religious afliation. Saint Paul writes in 1 Timothy 2:34 that God desires everyone to be saved and to come to the knowledge of the truth. Some believe this supports the argument that even if one does not know Christianity, salvation will be possible on the last day.
Salvation Salvation is: freedom from sin being reconciled with God through Jesus Christ being united with God in heaven.
67

The importance of the Bible
The Christian Bible is made up of: the Hebrew scripturesknown as the First or Old Testament the Christian scripturesknown as the Second or New Testament the Apocrypha or Deuterocanonical books additional material contained in Orthodox and Catholic Bibles. The Bible is the sacred text for Christians believed to have been inspired by God and a record of key events in the story of humanitys interaction with God. It is essential to Christian ceremony and is a foundation for private reading and study. It contains key ethical teachings as well as history, poetry, songs, the story of the Messiah, and teachings about how to live a Christian life in the letters to the Christian communities. For Protestant communities it is the primary source of teaching. For other expressions of Christianity it is one source of teaching. For example, Catholics draw teachings from the Bible but also recognise the teaching authority of the Church. TABLE 3.2 Extracts from the Bible that demonstrate the principal beliefs of Christianity BELIEF Belief in one God Salvation through Jesus Christ Power of the Holy Spirit Commemoration of the Last Supper Ethical teachings SCRIPTURE Exodus 20:24 1 Corinthians 1:18, 2125; Romans 1:16 Acts 2 1 Corinthians 11:2326
The Nicene Creed We believe in one God, the Father, the Almighty, maker of heaven and earth, of all that is, seen and unseen. We believe in one Lord, Jesus Christ, the only son of God, eternally begotten of the Father, God from God, Light from Light, true God from true God, begotten, not made, of one being with the Father. Through him all things were made. For us and for our salvation he came down from heaven: by the power of the Holy Spirit he became incarnate from the Virgin Mary, and was made man. For our sake he was crucied under Pontius Pilate; he suffered death and was buried. On the third day he rose again in accordance with the Scriptures; he ascended into heaven and is seated at the right hand of the Father. He will come again in glory to judge the living and the dead, and his kingdom will have no end. We believe in the Holy Spirit, the Lord, the giver of life, who proceeds from the Father [and the Son]. With the Father and the Son he is worshipped and gloried. He has spoken through the Prophets. We believe in one holy catholic and apostolic Church. We acknowledge one baptism for the forgiveness of sins. We look for the resurrection of the dead, and the life of the world to come. AMEN.
activities
1. Use the Nicene Creed to identify the key Christian beliefs in the box above. Discuss what other beliefs would be considered core Christian beliefs. Locate scripture references that support your choice. 2. List the names of Deuterocanonical or Apocryphal books and explore their relevance to Catholic and Orthodox communities.
Exodus 20:214; Matthew 5:112; Matthew 22:3740
68

Christian ethics are based on Gospel teachings but focus on two key relationships: right relationship with God right relationship with humanity. These two key relationships are guided by appropriate actions to maintain and support positive and healthy interaction. Then God spoke all these words: I am the LORD your God, who brought you out of the land of Egypt, out of the house of slavery; you shall have no other gods before me. You shall not make for yourself an idol, whether in the form of anything that is in heaven above, or that is on the earth beneath, or that is in the water under the earth. You shall not bow down to them or worship them; for I the LORD your God am a jealous God, punishing children for the iniquity of parents, to the third and the fourth generation of those who reject me, but showing steadfast love to the thousandth generation of those who love me and keep my commandments. You shall not make wrongful use of the name of the LORD your God, for the LORD will not acquit anyone who misuses his name. Remember the sabbath day, and keep it holy. For six days you shall labour and do all your work. But the seventh day is a sabbath to the LORD your God; you shall not do any workyou, your son or your daughter, your male or female slave, your livestock, or the alien resident in your towns. For in six days the LORD made heaven and earth, the sea, and all that is in them, but rested the seventh day; therefore the LORD blessed the sabbath day and consecrated it. Honour your father and your mother, so that your days may be long in the land that the Lord your God is giving you. You shall not murder. You shall not commit adultery. You shall not steal. You shall not bear false witness against your neighbour. You shall not covet your neighbours house; you shall not covet your neighbours wife, or male or female slave, or ox, or donkey, or anything that belongs to your neighbour. (Exodus 20:114)
The Ten Commandments

The Ten Commandments (the Decalogue) were a covenant between God and his people. They were given to Moses and the Israelites when they were in the desert searching for the Promised Land (Exodus 20:214; Deuteronomy 5:621). The rst four commandments describe ones relationship with God and the other six are about maintaining good relationships with ones neighbour. Christians recognise the Ten Commandments as a set of principles for ethical behaviour. Many of the commandments are phrased in terms of what is not permissible. They outline the behaviours that are not allowed personally or not to be tolerated in others. The Old Testament had many other rules about right living for the people of Israel. Some of these additional laws are outlined in the Books of Leviticus and Deuteronomy.
FIG. 3.19 The Torah and the Ten Commandments
69
The Beatitudes
New Testament ethical teachings are expressed differently from those of the Old Testament. The language speaks of what is valued or blessed in our interaction with others. New Testament ethical teachings are those outlined by Jesus in his ministry to the people who heard him preach and believed in him. The Beatitudes were a revolutionary mind map for Jesus followers detailing how to live a good life. They remain guidelines for todays Christians as to how they should relate to others. They teach that we all have a responsibility to care for others in society. Much of the social justice agenda of Christian groups such as Anglicare and the Edmund Rice Centre emerges from the challenge of this text. When Jesus saw the crowds, he went up the mountain; and after he sat down, his disciples came to him. Then he began to speak, and taught them, saying: Blessed are the poor in spirit, for theirs is the kingdom of heaven. Blessed are those who mourn, for they will be comforted. Blessed are the meek, for they will inherit the earth. Blessed are those who hunger and thirst for righteousness, for they will be lled. Blessed are the merciful, for they will receive mercy. Blessed are the pure in heart, for they will see God. Blessed are the peacemakers, for they will be called children of God. Blessed are those who are persecuted for righteousness sake, for theirs is the kingdom of heaven. Blessed are you when people revile you and persecute you and utter all kinds of evil against you falsely on my account. Rejoice and be glad, for your reward is great in heaven, for in the same way they persecuted the prophets who were before you. (Matthew 5:112)
Jesus commandment of love

The commandment of love is a summative statement that draws together all the ethical teaching that went before. Jesus teaching is about Gods love for human beings and their opportunity for salvation through love of God and neighbour. These three central scripture passages underpin our relationships with God and with each other. A central action that Christians have to channel their love of neighbour is through social justice activities. [Jesus] said to him, You shall love the Lord your God with all your heart, and with all your soul, and with all your mind. This is the greatest and rst commandment. And a second is like it: You shall love your neighbour as yourself. On these two commandments hang all the law and the prophets. (Matthew 22:3740)
activities
1. Christian ethical thinking has its sources in the writings of many great Christian thinkers. Research the life and teaching of one of the following and describe how their ideas express unique approaches to life as a Christian. Why would adherents of Christianity be drawn to their teachings? Thomas Aquinas Augustine of Hippo Martin Luther Gustavo Gutierrez Rosemary Radford Ruther 2. Describe the importance of ethical teachings to Christian adherents.
FIG. 3.20 Jesus commandment of love underpins peoples relationship with God and with each other.
70
Personal devotion
Different types of personal prayer
Followers of the Abrahamic religions of Judaism, Christianity and Islam have been described as People of the Book, but Christians might be also described as People of the Word, the word being a reference to Jesus. Christians have a great reverence for the scriptures, and sacred readings always form part of worship services. Some expressions of Christianity demonstrate a particular devotion to saints (such as Mary, Mother of God, in the case of Catholicism) and these devotions form a signicant part of personal prayer for adherents. Personal prayer refers to a religious practice that occurs privately and is, by denition, non-liturgical. But private prayer may also occur during public worship services. Personal prayer can involve regular activities such as attendance at church services where time is given to individual silent prayer, or it can reect the prayer that is conducted in the home, alone. Prayers of intercession during a worship service may include an opportunity to contribute personal silent prayer. Some types of personal prayer may involve a repeated phrase or statement such as the Lords Prayer or Hail Mary. Meditative practices involving prayers such as the Rosary are part of personal prayer practice for Catholic, monastic Orthodox and some Anglican Christians. The prayer of the Rosary uses a tool, a circular string of beads, to aid concentration on the prayer. The rosary consists of ve sets of 10 beads to count recitation of the Hail Mary prayer. Other personal prayer practices have emerged from the monastic tradition. Meditation involves extended reection on the being of God. Lectio Divina, also known as sacred reading, has been used by the Benedictine tradition as a reective tool for focusing personal prayer. The technique involves reading and rereading a scripture passage, focusing on words or phrases within the reading and looking for insight into the meaning through this practice. Prayer books may also be a support for the pursuit of personal prayer. These may contain traditional or modern prayers and focus the adherents attention on one aspect of prayer. Some expressions of Christianity have set prayer books, such as the Anglican Book of Common Prayer, that collect prayers together for use by adherents. Study groups may also assist personal prayer. These are common in many of the Protestant expressions of Christianity. Personal prayer is usually a key element of these practices.
FIG. 3.21 Some people use tools, like Rosary beads, to help them concentrate on prayer.
activities
1. Fig 3.21 is from World Youth Day 2008. Research how this event made use of devotional practice for its participants. 2. Explain the importance of personal prayer for the adherent of one expression of Christianity. Share this research in a class discussion.
71
Review and assess

Review
1. Expressions of Christianity differ in their understanding of grace (the favour of God given to humanity). Calvinists believe that grace is only offered to a certain few who will enjoy eternal life with God. To Roman Catholics and Orthodox Christians, sacraments are a means by which grace is gained. Create a formal oral presentation explaining how different expressions of Christianity view the role of grace in the lives of adherents. 2. Making reference to Biblical sources, evaluate the ways in which Jesus is the model for Christian life. Marcion of Sinope (150 CE) was the rst to collect the writings of Christians together to form the Bible. He included the Gospel of Luke and some of Pauls letters but excluded the Old Testament. Other Christian authors of the time wanted their writings included in the canon (the denitive list of books of the Bible). Many of these books were Gnostic (containing special knowledge). Research some of the Gnostic writings of the time and discuss the impact their inclusion might have had on Christianity.
3.
4. Examine the Lords Prayer. What key Christian teachings are contained in this prayer? What challenges does it offer the Christian adherent?
72

Short response (100150 words) 5. Outline the historical context in which Christianity began. Outline the principal events in Jesus life. Describe the early development of Christian communities. Outline the unique features of Anglicanism. Outline the unique features of Catholicism. Longer response (500650 words) 22. Discuss the early development of Christianity. 23. Explain the signicance of the Christian scriptures to the underpinning of Christian beliefs. 24. Describe the importance of ethical teachings in the life of Christians.
6. 7.
8. 9.
10. Outline the unique features of Orthodoxy. 11. Outline the unique features of Pentecostalism. 12. Outline the unique features of Protestantism. 13. Outline the principal beliefs about the humanity and divinity of Jesus Christ. 14. Discuss the signicance of the death and resurrection of Jesus for Christians. 15. Explain the importance of the Bible for Christians. 16. Outline the principal ethical teachings of the New Testament. 17. Describe three different types of personal prayer. 18. Outline the Christian understanding of the terms revelation and salvation. 19. Explain the beliefs concerning the Trinity. 20. Discuss the core ethical teachings of Christianity. 21. Explain how the Ten Commandments form the starting point for Christian ethics.
73
Hinduism
The focus of this study is Hinduism, one of the major religious traditions, as a living religious system.
Outcomes
A student: P3 P4 P5 P6 P7 P8 P9 investigates religious traditions and belief systems examines signicant aspects of religious traditions describes the inuence of religious traditions in the life of adherents selects and uses relevant information about religion from a variety of sources undertakes effective research about religion, making appropriate use of time and resources uses appropriate terminology related to religion and belief systems effectively communicates information, ideas and issues using appropriate written, oral and graphic forms the main features of devotion to: Vaishnava Shaiva Principal beliefs Atman and Brahman gods and goddesses dharma, karma and moksha union with God through: karma yoga bhakti yoga raja yoga jana yoga Sacred texts and writings the Vedas, including the Upanishads the Epics Ramayana and Mahabharata, including the Bhagavad Gita Ethical systems the four Varnas ashramas or stages of life Personal devotion in the home puja
Content
Students learn about: Origins the early inhabitants of the Indus Valley: the Harappan civilisation the Aryans the Vedic period Hinduism as Sanatana Dharma
Prelim | Chapter 4 Hinduism
75
ABSOLUTE BEING
the transcendent divine reality (Ultimate Reality), also known as Brahman or the Supreme Being. Vedic texts. nomadic pastoralists from central Europe who entered into the northwest of India about 1600 BCE. people who practise rigorous selfdiscipline and self-denial in the quest to draw closer to their god. duty appropriate to a persons life stage. traditional stages of Hindu life. the innermost self, that which is divine. an incarnation of a god, e.g. Vishnu. the Song of the Lord, a part of the Mahabharata and the best known of Hindu scriptures. the Creator. Absolute Being or Supreme Being, the transcendent divine reality. a text from the Vedas, outlining how the Brahmin priests must perform rituals. people of the highest class of Indian society, the priestly class. the viewing of the image of the deity in the inner sanctuary. a set of values that supports and sustains normal life in the world. A persons religious duty. books containing specic ethics addressing specic religious duties. the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. a spiritual guide. castes or sub-groups of Hindu society. law of cause and effect, the consequences of ones actions. one of Vishnus ten incarnations (avatars). contains guidelines on dharma. a symbol or sign indicating the Absolute Being. liberation from samsara, the cycle of rebirths. an image, often a sculpture, that represents a deity. gifts offered to the deity.
PUJA PURANAS RAMA RENUNCIATES RISHIS SAMHITA
worship involving offerings to a deity. a collection of sacred Hindu texts. one of the ten incarnations of Vishnu. sannyasi. ancient sages. a collection of hymns addressed to a variety of deities. The most ancient of the four Vedas. the cycle of rebirths; the teaching that a persons karma will nd a new life form. the immemorial way of right living an expression used to refer to the way of life of a Hindu. Also known as the eternal law or dharma. The term comes from Sanskrit. wandering holy man. language of the Vedas. devotees of Shiva. the name given to the wife of Shiva when she is regarded in her own right rather that as the wife of Shiva. one of two principal gods. that which was heard, for example, the Vedas. Revealed wisdom. literature remembered by humans and handed down by word of mouth. It is preserved by tradition. Everything after the Vedas. another term for the Ultimate Reality or Brahman. the three divine manifestations of BrahmanBrahma, Shiva and Vishnu. another term for the Supreme Being or Brahman. outcastes, people who lived on the fringes of settlements. the last section of Vedic literature; the word means to sit down beside. followers or devotees of the god Vishnu. Also known as Vaishnavites. the four major classes of society. means sacred knowledge. The Vedas are regarded as sacred scripture. the religious duties of the four classes of Indian society. one of two principal Hindu gods. Said to have ten incarnations or avatars.
ARANYAKAS ARYANS
ASCETICS
SAMSARA SANATANA DHARMA
ASHRAMA DHARMA ASHRAMAS ATMAN AVATAR BHAGAVAD GITA
SANNYASI SANSKRIT SHAIVAS SHAKTI
BRAHMA BRAHMAN BRAHMANAS BRAHMINS DARSHAN DHARMA
SHIVA SHRUTI SMRITI
SUPREME BEING TRIMURTI ULTIMATE REALITY UNTOUCHABLES UPANISHADS VAISHNAVAS VARNAS VEDA VISHESHA DHARMA VISHNU
DHARMASHASTRA EPICS GURU JATI KARMA KRISHNA LAWS OF MANU (MANUSMRITI) LINGA MOKSHA MURTI PRASADA
76
Origins of Hinduism
The early inhabitants of the Indus Valley
Hindu is a Persian word; the Indians themselves did not originally refer to their religious culture as Hinduism. The word Hindu comes from the word Sindhu or Sindoo, the name given to the Indus River of northern India. In time the term Hindu came to refer to a range of religious beliefs and practices that developed on the Indian subcontinent over the past 4000 years. It is only since the late 18th century that Indians have used the word to refer collectively to their beliefs and traditions. Prior to that, Indians sometimes referred to their way of life as Sanatana Dharma, the eternal way of right living. Even now many Hindus use this expression to refer to their religion. The word eternal is signicant because Hindus believe that Hinduism had no founderit has always been there. Hindus believe that their traditions have been passed down from one generation to the nextfrom a teacher to a studentand that this transmission of beliefs and
the word eternal is signicant because Hindus believe that always been there
Hinduism had no founderit has
practices has existed from time immemorial. If the Hindu does speak about an origin for Hinduism, he or she says that God initiated the tradition through the revelation of the Veda to the ancient sages. The Aryans and the Indus Valley civilisation When the Aryans arrived in India they found evidence of a civilisation more sophisticated than their own. This ancient civilisation is known as the Indus Valley civilisation or the Harappan civilisation. It ourished over a wide area of the north and west of India approximately between 3000 BCE and 1700 BCE. This civilisation developed
FIG 4.1 The city ruins of Mohenjo-Daro, in the Indus River Valley of northern India.
77
a high standard of living and cultivated trade links with west Asia. Archaeological excavations have uncovered the remains of several towns, all built following a similar pattern. The ruins indicate extensive town planning with straight roads, brick houses built around courtyards, and a system of covered drains for removal of sewage. There is still a lot to be learnt about the Harappan civilisation, and the ruins of these ancient towns are still being discovered in the western part of India. The writing of these people has not yet been deciphered, hence not much is known about their beliefs or the causes of the decline of their civilisation. Some scholars believe that their cities were destroyed by the invading Aryans. Whatever is the case, it is not unreasonable to think that the beliefs of the Harappan people must have made a considerable contribution to the development of Hinduism.
the sacred wisdom as God revealed it. Hindus look upon the Vedas as revelation. For many centuries the Vedas were not written down; priestly families were the custodians of different portions of the Vedas, and transmitted them by memory from one generation to the next. Only after many hundreds of years were they written down. Even today some Hindus learn long sections of the Vedas by heart.
Hinduism as Sanatana Dharma

Sanatana Dharma (the Eternal Law or Dharma) is the name by which most Hindus refer to their religion. It comes from the Sanskrit language and implies that the religion comes directly from God, not from a human founder. It applies to everyone regardless of caste. It includes the qualities of purity, goodwill, mercy and patience. Later texts such as the Vamana Purana list the ten limbs of the eternal dharma as non-injury, truth, purity, not stealing, charity, forbearance, selfrestraint, tranquillity, generosity, and asceticism In modern Indian usage, sanatana dharma is often equated with Hinduism as a name, stressing the eternal foundation of it. (Oxford Dictionary of World Religions [1997].)
activities
1. What is the origin of the word Hinduism? 2. How has the meaning of the word Hinduism changed over time? 3. Who do Hindu followers believe founded their religious tradition? 4. Research the Harappan civilisation and outline how different they were from the Aryans.
activities
1. What are the Vedas? 2. Why were the Vedas also called Shruti?
The Vedic period

Hinduism cannot be dened as easily as other religious traditions as there is no central organisation to determine correct belief and to enforce it, nor is there a single authority. It can be compared to a great tree with luxuriant foliage of beliefs and customs that have developed over the centuries. Despite this there is a consensus of opinion that the Vedas are sacred scripture. The word Veda means sacred knowledge. Traditional Hindus believe that the Vedas are not the composition of any being, human or divine. Rather, the Vedas are a part of the wisdom that God naturally possesses. God, moreover, revealed this wisdom to the ancient sages (rishis) who in turn taught it to their disciples. Tradition holds that the Vedic teachings have been passed down in this way to the present day. The Vedas are known as Shruti texts, which means what was heard, because the sages heard
3. Why do Hindus call their religious tradition Sanatana Dharma?
78
Devotion to Vishnu and Shiva

Vishnu the Preserver Vishnu is known in the Vedic literature. While most of the other Vedic gods declined in importance, the popularity of Vishnu increased to such an extent that he became one of two principal gods. The name Vishnu means he who pervades all, and this refers to a story told in the Vedas. The story is that the earth was ruled at one time by a demon named Bali, and that the gods, in their anxiety to have him removed, approached Vishnu for help. Vishnu agreed and assumed the form of a dwarf. He went to Bali, asking that the latter give him as much space as he the popularity of could cover in three Vishnu increased to steps. Bali laughingly such an extent that agreed. The dwarf then he became one of two grew to a mighty size and covered the whole principal gods earth with his rst step. With his second step he covered the heavens and then, not knowing where to place his third step, set his foot upon the head of Bali, sending the demon to the lower regions under the earth. Vishnu is also known by the names of Narayana and Hari. He is usually depicted as reclining in heaven on his couch, which consists of the coils of a huge thousand-headed snake. Vishnu is of a dark colour and, like all Hindu gods, has four arms. The arms symbolise omnipotence. His vehicle is Garuda, the king of birds. Vishnu responds to the prayers of people, just as he did to the request from the gods, and on occasion he incarnates himself on earth to rid the world of some evil menace. Vishnu is generally said to have had ten incarnations, or avatars, the two most important being Rama and Krishna. In the northern part of India, Rama and Krishna receive more worship than Vishnu, while in the south there are many temples dedicated solely to the worship of Vishnu. Venkateshwara has long been a popular god in the southern part of India, and by the 12th century it was decided that he was actually a manifestation of Vishnu. Nowadays the temple of Venkateshwara, at the town of Tirupati, north of Madras, is the most popular in the whole of India. It receives thousands of pilgrims daily and, after the Vatican, is the most wealthy religious centre in the world. The Vishnu
FIG 4.2 Statue of Vishnu in a Hindu temple
temple at Helensburgh, near Sydney, was built with assistance from the Venkateshwara temple in India, and the principal deity of the Sydney temple is Vishnu in the form of Lord Venkateshwara. The other popular incarnation of Vishnu is Krishna, who taught the Bhagavad Gita. Certain aspects of the life of Krishna are very popular, such as his childhood, when he performed a number of miracles, and his bewitching youth, when he attracted the wives and daughters of the local cowherds. His relation with these women was later interpreted as an allegory of how the soul, represented by the women, yearns for union with God.
activities
1. Outline the story of Vishnu as told in the Vedas. 2. Why did Vishnu become more popular with time?
79
activities
3 Name and describe each avatar (incarnation) of Vishnu in Fig 4.3. Briey outline the signicance of each.
.....
FIG 4.3 The Ten Avatars or Incarnations of Vishnu, an engraving by Andrew Thom, ca. 1850
80
Shiva the Destroyer Shiva is a god known in the Vedas as Rudra, and is a different type of god to Vishnu. Whereas Vishnu is associated with the order of the world and represents for his followers a life of virtue that can be pursued in the affairs of the world, Shiva is a god of passion and also of terrible asceticism. He is mostly represented as meditating on a snow peak in the Himalayan mountains where he is believed to dwell. He is wearing a loincloth and his pale body is smeared with the ashes of the god representing desire whom he destroyed with a single angry glance for daring to disturb his meditation. Unlike Vishnu, Shiva represents turning away from the world and, accordingly, he is the favourite god of ascetics and yogis. He is generally represented in his temples by a cylinder-shaped stone called a linga. The linga is a sign indicating the Absolute Being. Some European scholars believe the linga to have originally been a phallic symbol, but it is certain that the worshippers of Shiva do not look upon it that way. There are temples dedicated to Shiva all over India. In the south there are many magnicent stone temples dedicated to Shiva and Vishnu that date from the seventh century CE. Most of the temples in the north were destroyed by the waves of invaders who, from the tenth century, entered India from the north-west. One of the most famous images of Shiva is that of Nataraja, the Lord of the Shiva Dance. Here Shiva is depicted as is a god performing the cosmic dance of of passion creation and destruction of the universe. As Shiva dances he is and also surrounded by a ring of re that of terrible represents the universe. His hair ows out on either side, showing asceticism. that the dance is taking place. In one hand he holds a small drum. The sound emitting from the drum stands for the sound that brings forth creation. In the other hand he holds a lamp. Fire represents the destruction of the cosmos. The right hand is held upright with the palm facing outward. This position indicates that there is no need to have fear. The other hand points to his raised foot to show that there is liberation from the world of birth and death. The other foot tramples upon the demon of the ego. One of his earrings is of the type worn by a male, the other of the type worn by a female. This symbolises that God combines both genders, male and female. Though Shiva is
FIG 4.4 Wall painting of Shiva the Destroyer, Udaipur, Rajasthan, India
FIG 4.5 1001 Lingas on one Shiv Linga at Shiva Temple, Kota, Rajasthan, India
FIG 4.6 Shiva Nataraja, Lord of the Dance
81
performing the vigorous dance of creation and destruction, his face remains serene and his eyes are often shown as closed in meditation upon his own timeless Being. There is complete stillness at the centre of the dance. Parvati, the wife of Shiva, is sometimes worshipped in her own right as Shakti, the creative and destructive power behind the universe. In this aspect she is also known as the goddess Kali or Durga, who destroys evil and protects the universe. Most Hindus worship one or more of these gods. Some Hindus worship Vishnu, or his incarnations, and believe that he is the only true God and that the other gods such as Shiva are mere demigods. These followers of Vishnu are called Vaishnavas or Vaishnavites. Some believe that Shiva is the only true god. They are called Shaivas or Shaivites and hold all gods other than Shiva to be demigods. Yet others honour all gods but consider them to be different representations of the One formless, underlying reality.
activities
1. In what ways is Shiva different from Vishnu? 2. Look at the representations of Shiva in Figures 4.4 and 4.6 on page 81. What are the similarities and differences?
Local gods It is a characteristic of Hinduism that when a god who is worshipped in one part of India becomes increasingly popular, he is thought of as a local manifestation of either Vishnu or Shiva. If the local deity is female, then she is thought of as a manifestation of either Laksmi, the wife of Vishnu, or Parvati, the wife of Shiva. The god Venkateshwara is an example of this identication of a local divinity with the panHindu Vishnu or Shiva.
FIG 4.7 Kali, the Mother Goddess, in the form of Shiva FIG 4.8 Venkateshwara
82
Principal beliefs
Atman and Brahman
Hindus believe that every person has an indwelling spirit. This spirit is their divine nature, or the spirit of God dwelling within. They refer to this spirit as Atman or the true self; it is their body that is imperfect. As this spirit is an indestructible essence of the living being, when the body dies the Atman does not. It leaves its temporary home and is reincarnated in another body. Brahman is the power that is present everywhere and in everything. It is the Supreme Being, the Ultimate Reality. It is transcendent and imminent; it is a part of everyone but is identied with no one; it is within and without. The Atman and Brahman unite to become onejust as salt dissolves in water, they can no longer be separated. When this happens the Atman has combined with the Absolute. You are that (Tat tvam asi). Finite they say are these our bodies indwelt by an eternal embodied self, for this self is indestructible incommensurable Who thinks this self can be a slayer Who thinks that it can be slain Both of these have no right knowledge: it does not slay nor is it slain As a man casts off his worn out clothes and takes on other new ones So does the embodied self cast off its worn out bodies and enters other new ones. Weapons do not cut it nor does re burn it The waters do not wet it nor does the wind dry it Uncuttable, unburnable, unwettable, undryable it is Eternal, roving everywhere, rm set, unmoved, primeval. (Bhagavad Gita, chapter 2, verses 1924)
Gods and goddesses

The study of the Upanishads has always been only for the few, though the teaching of the One Reality behind all diversity has exercised a powerful inuence on all of Hinduism. Popular Hinduism has to do with the variety of gods and goddesses and their worship. As we have seen, there are two principal deities, Vishnu and Shiva. The god Brahma (not to be confused with Brahman) makes up the third god of the triad, often referred to as the Trimurti and depicted as one god with three heads. Brahma was the Creator of the world. Each of these three gods has a wife. The wife of Brahma is Saraswati, the goddess of learning. The wife of Vishnu is Lakshmi, who represents wealth and prosperity. The wife of Shiva is Parvati. This couple has two children, the elephant-headed god Ganesha and Skanda, also known as Subramanya. Ganesha is popular with all Hindus. He is known as the remover of obstacles. Hindus commence a new undertaking with a prayer to Ganesha to remove the obstructions that might stand in the way of success. The Vedas refer to the creative energy as Shakti, the energy that inspires the male gods to exert their power, so the universe will be alive and dynamic. Shakti may be seen in her own right, as the goddess Durga or Kali or as the consort of Vishnu. The very formidable goddess Durga is said to have done battle with the demons of the cosmos. She is depicted as having many arms, each with a weapon and a battle shield. She rides a erce lion into battle. Her most famous battle is the slaying of the buffalo demon, Mahisa. Mahisa represents selshness and ignorance. At some point Durga becomes a wife of Shiva and takes on a domestic role. In this stage she is closely associated with Shivas wife Parvati.
is popular with all Hindus. He is known as the remover of obstacles
Ganesha
83
How did Ganesha come to have an elephants head? According to a legend in the Puranas (a religious text), Parvati, the wife of Shiva, was once interrupted while bathing. Wanting privacy, she used her powers to create a handsome young man and told him: You are Ganesha, you are my son. Be my doorkeeper. Let no one into my house without my permission! Soon after, Lord Shiva arrived, but the youth refused to let him pass. Insulted, Shiva beheaded the youth with his trident. When Parvati found out she was furious and threatened to destroy the world. In order to pacify her, Shiva commanded his followers to bring the rst head they could nd. They returned with the head of an elephant and attached it to the body. Shiva then restored Ganesha to life. Ganesha is represented with a broken tusk. This happened when the sage Vyasa wished to dictate the epic poem the Mahabharata. Ganesha agreed to be the scribe and broke off a tusk to use as a writing instrument.
Durga challenges the stereotypical view of women, representing the extraordinary power that is repressed in women who, in Hindu society, are forced into submissive and often demeaning roles. The festival of Navaratra falls over nine days in the month of Asvin in northern India and Nepal. The focal point of the festival is Durga slaying a water buffalo, which represents Mahisa. This puja reasserts her role as queen of the battle and regulator of the cosmos. Sometimes Durga is manifested in the form of Kali, the embodiment of destruction. In this case the image is often black with a red face and she wears a necklace of skulls while holding a severed head to frighten her enemies. In images of both Durga and Kali she holds one hand raised. This is telling people not to be afraid because she will protect them and goodness will replace evil.
activities
1. Research the signicance of each of the following attributes of Ganesha and prepare a visual display identifying the attribute and its meaning: his large ears and head the elephants trunk the large stomach one leg folded and the other on the ground the food at his feet the rat the axe the rope the rice bowl. 2. Find a picture of the God Krishna. Explain the following symbolism: blue skin yellow garments the peacock feather the jewelled crown the white calf. 3. Who is Hanuman? Find a picture of him and describe his appearance. Why do you think he is so popular?
FIG 4.9 Ganesha
84
Dharma
The word dharma stands for everything that involves leading a life of proper conduct. It refers to that which sustains, upholds and supports. Hindus believe that the world is sustained by dharma. Dharma refers to a set of values that supports and sustains normal life in the world. Dharma can be translated as religious duty and the idea of duty is very important in understanding the concept of dharma. According to Hindu teaching, dharma is of two typesa universal dharma (Samanya Dharma) and a personal dharma. The universal dharma is incumbent on all people without distinction. The Vedas contain several general statements about ethics. For example, in one of the Upanishads the parting instructions by a teacher to his student are as follows: Speak the truth, practise right conduct, dont neglect what you have studied. Let your mother be like a god to you, let your father be like a god to you, let the teacher be like a god to you, treat the unexpected guest who comes to your house like a god. Dont do actions that are blameworthy, do those actions that are not blameworthy. (Taittiriya Upanishad 1:11:12) These obligations to speak the truth, respect ones parents and teachers, and cultivate proper behaviour constitute a general system of values applicable to all people in society.
Karma
Hindus believe that just as there are physical laws of nature, so too there are moral principles inherent in the world: to live a life of dharma or religious duty is to live in accord with moral principles inherent in the universe. The most famous of these moral laws of the universe is the teaching concerning karma, which in this context means the results of ones actions. From very early times Hindus have believed in the doctrine of karma, which says that a person cannot avoid experiencing the results of his or her actions. If a person performs good actionsin thought, word and deedthen that person will necessarily reap the reward of those actions at some future time. The consequences of whatever bad actions a person may do will also have to be experienced at some time. Everyone is presently experiencing the results of their past deeds and will experience the results of their present deeds at some time in the future. The teaching of karma, or the principle of cause and effect, became linked to the teaching of reincarnation. A person does not necessarily experience all the consequences of the various actions done in a single life; therefore, that person must be reborn in some other formas a human being, an animal or an inhabitant of some other worldin order to experience the results of those actions. But in their new life a person (animals do not make new karma; they simply experience the results of some past deeds) performs still more actions, and so another life is required in order that the consequences of those actions may be experienced. Thus the cycle of birth and rebirth, called samsara, may be experienced. It goes on indenitely.
FIG. 4.10 Hindu woman praying at beach in Bali, Indonesia
85
FIG. 4.11 Yoga on the beach at sunset helps a person empty their mind of all distractions.
Moksha
All Hindus believe that moksha, liberation from samsara, is possible. However, there are different views on what liberation is and how it is achieved. According to those who follow the Upanishads, liberation is possible through knowing that the innermost Self, Atman, is actually Brahman, the One Reality underlying everything. They say that liberation is only possible through the knowledge of identity, called jana. The followers of the theistic bhakti traditions, who worship Shiva or Vishnu or his incarnations as Rama or Krishna, say that liberation means going to heaven, which results only from the grace of a god who becomes pleased with the devotion of the worshipper. Thus, some Hindus consider that liberation means the knowledge of identity of the innermost Self with the Absolute Spirit, while many others believe that liberation is the result of devotion to a personal deity.
Union with God through the four yogas

The practices of yoga date back to before the time of the Upanishads. In 100 CE a person called Patanjali organised yogic practices into the classical system by identifying four types of yoga. They are hatha yoga (based on physical exercise and breathing), jana yoga, bhakti yoga and karma yoga. Yoga is a spiritual practice common to renunciates and householders alike (see section The four varnas, p. 93).
The best known is hatha yoga, or the physical exercises that are practised for the sake of health. These are actually meant to serve as a preparation for meditation, and the meaning of yoga is especially associated with meditation. When meditating, the practitioner tries to suspend the ow of thoughts in the mind in order to experience an absorption into the being of the innermost SelfAtmanwhich is concealed by the constant stream of the minds thoughts. The goal of yoga meditation is to be absorbed into the innermost Self for some time, to the exclusion of the consciousness of any other thing. The practitioner of yoga, whether a householder or a sannyasi, will generally learn it from a guru, who is often a sannyasi. In the practice of yoga a person is trying to empty the mind of all distractions. This may be achieved by concentrating on words, an image or beads until the Self is merged with Brahman. It is not a personal conversation or relationship. The rst aim is to remove moral distractions such as violence or theft and then physical distractions through correct posture and controlled breathing.
activities
1. What do Hindus understand by the term dharma? 2. Explain the term karma. 3. What is understood by the term moksha? Why is it important for a Hindu person to achieve this? 4. Prepare a poster of the four yogas using dot points to describe the key features.
86

The four Vedas
When the Aryans entered India they spoke a highly developed language that came to be known as Sanskrit. Sanskrit was the language in which they composed the Vedas, which continue, to this day, to be chanted in Sanskrit. Most of the important Hindu scriptures were composed in Sanskrit, which remains the pre-eminent sacred language of Hindu culture. The Vedas are four in number: the Rig Veda, Yajur Veda, Sama Veda and Arthava Veda. Each of the four Vedas is composed of four sections: Samhita, Brahmana, Aranyaka and Upanishad. The Samhita The Samhita are collections of hymns addressed to various deities. The principal Vedic deities are Indra, Varuna and Agni. Indra is the chief among the gods, and he won victories for the gods over the demons. Varuna is the god of morality, representing law and order. Agni is the god embodied in re, functioning as a mediator between the gods and men in the Vedic re sacrices. The Rig Veda Samhita is the most important collection of hymns, and most of its hymns are found in the Samhita portions of the other three Vedas. The Arthava Veda Samhita is different from the others, for in addition to hymns it contains incantations and spells. The Vedic gods were originally conceived as personications of the powers in nature. This conception later changed, and the gods began to be seen as manifestations of an all-pervading, ultimate power from which they derived their individual powers. Behind the multiplicity of gods there was the One Being, the source of all. Truth is one. The sages speak of it in various ways (Rig Veda Samhitha). A famous hymn of the Rig Veda Samhita is the Purusha Sukta, a hymn about the cosmic Being who created the universe. This hymn is one of the few Vedic hymns that are regularly recited nowadays. The hymn describes in symbolic terms how the Cosmic Beingwhile remaining transcendentallowed a portion of himself to be sacriced by the gods, and how all things arose from the dismemberment of his body: from his navel came the atmosphere, from his head arose the sky and from his feet came the earth. This hymn is signicant for three reasons. First, it shows that the Cosmic Being is the material cause of the universe. The material cause means the basic material that makes up somethingwood, for example, is the material cause of a wooden table. This hymn addresses the question: What is the origin of the matter that comprises the universe? This hymn indicates that the Cosmic Being, or God, is somehow the very material that comprises the universe itself. Second, the hymn is signicant because it indicates that the act of creation was a kind of sacrice on the part of the Cosmic Being, who allowed himself to be sacriced in the act of creation. Last, the hymn provides the rst known reference to the system of four great classes of Hindu society: it says that the Brahmins, the priestly class, symbolise the mouth of the cosmic person; the Kshatriyas, the class of rulers and warriors, symbolise his arms; the Vaishyas, the merchants and businessmen, represent his thighs; and the Shudras, the labourers, represent his feet.
FIG 4.12 Indra, a principal Vedic god, mounted on his elephant, an engraving from a 19th-century Rig Veda, artist unknown
87
The Brahmanas Vedic religion originally consisted of delivering offerings of food into the sacred re with the chanting of hymns to the gods. The offering of valuable items, such as food and butter, symbolised the sacrice made by the cosmic Being in the act of creating the cosmos. Rituals became more elaborate and could only be performed by the Brahmin priests. The Brahmanas are written in prose explaining how to perform the elaborate rituals. The belief arose that if a ritual was performed correctly, in all its detail, and if the hymns were chanted without any mistake in pronunciation, then the ritual itself possessed the power to make the gods grant a persons wish. The ritual had become more important than the gods. The literature of the Brahmanas is a world of complicated ritual, akin to magic, in which the power to obtain ones desires, and even the power to maintain the order of the cosmos, resides in the correct performance of the rituals. Only a few of these rituals remain today. Some of them may be performed during a wedding ceremony or at a funeral.
The Aranyakas These are the forest treaties. This literature was written for people who had withdrawn from everyday life and who lived as hermits in forests. They increasingly saw the Vedic rituals as symbols to be meditated upon. The Upanishads These comprise the last division of the Vedic literature. Only the Upanishads, among the Vedic texts, continue to be important in present-day Hinduism. The word Upanishad means to sit down close, and it indicates a secret teaching position between a guru or spiritual teacher and his student. The subject matter of the Upanishads teaches that there is one spiritual reality, referred to mostly by the word Brahman, meaning the vast. Brahman is thought of as the Absolute Reality underlying the entire universe. The Upanishads teach that the universe has become manifest from Brahman, the one Ground of Being, and that all living things are, in their deepest essence, not different from Brahman. Brahman is not a Supreme Being in the sense of a personal god, but rather is Being Itself, the One Being that is the essential essence of all things.
Supreme Being in the sense of a personal god, but rather is Being Itself, the One Being that is the essential essence of all things
Brahman is not a
FIG. 4.13 Hindu devotees
88
The common word for self is Atman. But in the Upanishads the word Atman does not mean an individual person, or even an individual soul; rather, it means the deepest essence of a living thing. The Atman is not the body, nor the ego personality; it is neither male nor female, neither black nor white, neither young nor old. The innermost Self, or Atman, is the same as Brahman. The Upanishads therefore make up the equation that Atman equals Brahman. This means that the innermost essence of the individual is in fact identical to the spiritual reality underlying the entire cosmos. In the Chandogya Upanishad (below) there is a section where a sage is involved in teaching his son, whose name is Shvetaketu. Fetch a fruit from this banyan tree. Here it is, sir. Break it. It is broken. What do you see in it? Some tiny grains. Break one of them. I have broken it. What do you see in it? Nothing at all, sir. Son, you dont see the subtle essence but this mighty tree stands having this subtle essence. Everything has this subtle essence as its Self. That is the Truth. That is the Self. You are That, Shvetaketu! (Chandogya Upanishad, 6.12.13) The Upanishads say that they themselves are concerned with the ultimate reality while the other parts of the Vedas deal with mundane matters. In the following passage there is a teaching in which the guru is beginning to instruct a student about Brahman. He said to him: Those who know Brahman say that two knowledges are to be acquired, the higher and the lower. Of these, the lower comprises the Rig Veda, Yajur Veda, Sama Veda, Arthava Veda, the science of pronunciation, the code of rituals, grammar, etymology, metre and astrology. Then there is the higher knowledge, and it is through the higher knowledge that the Imperishable [i.e. Brahman] is attained. The discriminating people discern that which cannot be perceived, cannot be comprehended, which is without origin, which has no features, which has no eyes and ears, hands or feet; which is permanent, powerful, all pervasive, exceedingly subtle, unchanging, the source of all. (Mundaka Upanishad 1.1.46) Within the Vedas the Samhita, Brahmana and Aranyaka portions are regarded as lower knowledge. Even nowadays, in spite of increased Westernisation, many Brahmins still cultivate their Vedic learning and continue to observe many Vedic traditions, as they have done for centuries. And the large number of Hindus living in villages still gather to listen to the classical Hindu stories, the great Hindu epics of the Ramayana and Mahabharata and the narratives of the Puranas, as their ancestors did before them.
activities
1. a. Name the four vedas. b. Outline the subject matter of each. c. Explain the signicance of the Upanishads. 2. What are the Samhitas? 3. Name the two great Hindu epics. When were they written and what are they about?
89
The epics
The period 600300 BCE is often called the Epic Period because during that time the two great epics of Hinduism, the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, were in the process of composition. The Mahabharata, especially, contains much information about how Hinduism was developing during these times. The division of society into the four classes was becoming more rigid, and marriage was gradually restricted to members of the same social class. By this time the interaction between the Aryans and the older inhabitants of India had produced many of the characteristic forms of Hinduism that can be recognised today. Devotion to the old gods lapsed, and worship of two deities, Shiva and Vishnu, became predominant. All Hindu religious literature, other than the Vedas, is called Smriti or remembered tradition. The Smriti literature is not divinely revealed like the Vedas but is of human origin. It is very extensive and consists of: two great epic tales, the Mahabharata and the Ramayana numerous Puranas, which are a type of popular literature narrating stories about the Hindu gods and ancient sages and kings Dharmashastra, which are legalistic treatises having to do with correct conduct and the proper order of society. While the Vedic literature is generally seen to be the preserve of priests and scholars, the Smriti literature is available to all people. Most Hindus are familiar with some part of the epics and the Puranas, through the stories told to children by their parents or grandparents, as well as through public dramas, and nowadays even through television. It is the epics and the Puranas that provide the colourful fabric of popular Hinduism. Another class of literature, which is not very well known, is called Agama, or Tantra, and consists of esoteric theological treatises and manuals about how to perform the worship of different deities. The Ramayana The Ramayana was composed in the sixth or fth century BCE and is the most popular of the epics. Its popularity derives essentially from its highlighting important moral values, such as the placing of truth above all else. The hero of the story is willing to renounce power and comfort, even an entire kingdom, in order to uphold the value of truth. The Ramayana tells the story of Rama, the eldest son of a king. On the day before Rama is to be made the ofcial heir to the throne, one of the kings wives, out of fear for her own son Bharata, reminds the king that he had once promised her two wishes. She says that she wants Rama banished to the wilderness for 14 years and her own son installed on the throne. The king is distraught but he had given his word, so he has to banish his son. Ramas friends suggest that he disobey his father and usurp the throne. Rama, though disappointed, chooses to honour his fathers promise and so leaves the city for exile in the forest, accompanied by his wife Sita and his younger brother Lakshmana. While in the forest, Rama kills many demons who are harassing the forest-dwelling sages and
FIG 4.14 Rama and Lakshmana do battle with Ravana, the king of the demons from the Ramayana.
90
interfering with their Vedic rituals. Ravana, the king of the demons, seeks revenge and kidnaps Sita. A special tribe of monkeys who have the ability to speak help Rama in his search for Sita, and eventually they locate her on the island of Lanka, off the coast of India. After a huge it is battle, Rama kills Ravana and the epics and returns with Sita in triumph to the Puranas the kingdom, as the time of exile is over. that provide However, the story ends sadly, the colourful for the people would not believe that Sita had remained faithful to fabric of Rama during her captivity, and popular even though Rama knows the rumour to be false, he feels it his Hinduism duty to banish his beloved queen to satisfy his subjects. Scholars consider this last part of the story to be a later addition.
The Mahabharata The Mahabharata is the great epic tale of India. Begun in the fth century BCE and completed around 400 CE, it tells the story of events that were believed to have occurred in the far distant past. Consisting of 100 000 verse couplets, the Mahabharata is the longest poem in the world. It is a presentation of Hindu life, religion, thought and culture. It says of itself, Whatever is found here may be found somewhere else, but what is not found here is found nowhere! The central story of the Mahabharata concerns ve brothers who lose their kingdom to their stepbrothers at a gambling match. The condition of the match was that if the ve brothers could live in the jungle for 12 years and spend another year living somewhere incognito they could have their kingdom back. When the time is up, the stepbrothers refuse to return to the kingdom. Both sides rally their allies and prepare for a battle in which the whole country takes part. The battle rages for 18 days and at its end the ve brothers are victorious, but both sides have been devastated and shattered by war. Around this basic plot are woven other stories, many highlighting some point of proper conduct, which sometimes lead, in turn, into still other tales. The work thus became a vast and intricate tapestry of Hindu life and lore in ancient times.
FIG. 4.15 A scene from the great epic tale of the Mahabharataa battle between Babhruvahana, son of Arjuna, and the snakes
91
Bhagavad Gita The Bhagavad Gita or Song of the Lord is the best known of the Hindu scriptures. It occurs at a crucial point in the Mahabharata. Just as the battle is about to begin, when the forces stand facing each other, Arjuna, one of the ve brothers, asks Krishna to take his chariot close to the enemy so that he can see the people with whom he is to ght. Arjuna is shocked when he sees the faces of his friends, relatives and teachers on the opposing side. At this moment he thinks that it is better to retreat from the battle. Sinking down in despair, Arjuna asks Krishna what he should do. Krishna, Arjunas friend, is actually the incarnation of the god Vishnu, and the Bhagavad Gita consists of the teachings that Krishna gives to Arjuna. The Bhagavad Gita attempts to bring together the various strands that were developing in Hinduism during this period. First there is the teaching of the Upanishads, the teaching of the knowledge of the true inner self. The second strand is linked to the Vedic rituals. In the Bhagavad Gita Krishna revalues the idea of ritual, teaching that all actions,
FIG 4.16 Arjuna in the carriage behind Krishna from the Ramayana
whether a Vedic ritual or an everyday deed, should be performed not for personal gain but with the attitude that the action is done as an offering to God. The third strand has to do with bhakti, the spirit of devotional worship to God, which increasingly was becoming the most important form of religion among ordinary people. Krishna teaches Arjuna about devotional surrender to God. The Bhagavad Gita tries to unite these three strands that had developed within Hinduism.
activities
1. Why was the time of the epics important to the evolution of Hinduism? 2. What is referred to as the Smriti literature? 3. Why do you think the Ramayana is the most popular epic? 4. What is the great epic tale the Mahabharata about? 5. The Bhagavad Gita or Song of the Lord is the best known of the Hindu scriptures. Discuss why is it so important to Hindu people.
Ethical systems
The four varnas
By the time of the epics, the recognisable structure of Hinduism had developed. Society was stratied into four major divisions or classes known as varnas: Brahmins, the priests and scholars; Kshatriyas, the rulers and warriors; Vaishyas, the traders and farmers; and Shudras, the labourers. Other ancient peoples also visualised society as divided into layersfor example, the Greek philosopher Plato considered that an ideal society would have a threefold division: the thinkers, the warriors and the common people. The Aryans in India added a fourth group: the tribal people who were treated as the servants of the other classes and who were supposed to be supported by the other classes in exchange for their labour. In this hierarchical system, only the rst three classes had the right to study the Vedas and function as respectable members of society. The Shudras were excluded. They were thought to be less pure than the higher classes because of the type of work that they had to perform. Within each of these four classes there were numerous sub-groups called castes or jatis, which formed their own groups for purposes of marriage and social interaction. Later, people who had been excommunicated from a class became treated as outcastes (untouchables) and their descendants had no rights in society.
FIG 4.17 A sadhu, or holy man
Ashrama dharma or stages of life

Ashramas or stages of life apply to the three upper classes. The concept was especially applicable to the life of a Brahmin. There had been tension within Hinduism, from a very early period, between life in the world and renunciation of the world. Some Hindus thought that the duty of every person was to marry and produce children; others thought that a man need not marry but, if he wished, could instead renounce the world and become a wandering holy man or sannyasi after his studentship was over. A famous treatise on dharma called The Laws of Manu tried to provide a compromise between these two views. It said that after the period of studentship (brahmacarya) was completed and a male was in his twenties, he should then enter into the stage of a householder (grihastha) and raise a family. Then, after his children were settled, he should, either alone or with his wife, become a hermit (vanaprastha). Finally, when past the age of 70, he should take to the nal stage of life, that of a solitary wandering sannyasi in search of spiritual liberation. Thus Manu made a graduation of four stages of life. However, this was a somewhat articial solution, and the fact remains that in Hinduism most people remain householders, though it has always been the case that a few people choose the life of a
93
renouncer (vanaprastha or sannyasi) from a young age and never marry. In addition to general ethical principles that should be observed by everyone, Hindu society developed a system of specic ethics, vishesha dharma, which lays down the particular religious duties incumbent upon each of the four great classes of Hindu society. The rules of specic ethics are found in books called Dharmashastra, which address the various specic religious duties. These books were composed around the beginning of the Common Era, though they were based on texts written as early as 500 BCE. The most famous Dharmashastra work is The Laws of Manu. Manu was a mythical sage said to be the father of the human race. The Laws of Manu contains guidelines on dharma rather than actual laws. They were composed by Brahmins in an attempt to orient society towards what the Brahmins thought to be the ancient Vedic way of dharma. They provide a model for how the Brahmins envisaged society ought to be.
Personal devotion in the home

Hindu worship is performed individually. Hindus do not congregate for common worship though some gather to sing devotional songs called bhajans or kirtans. Hindus generally worship one or more gods. Remember that some Hindus think that Vishnu is the one true god while others believe that Shiva is the one true god. Others honour all gods but consider them to be different representations of the single all-pervading, underlying reality. Family heritage often determines whether a person worships Vishnu, or one of his incarnations, or avatars or Shiva. Some Hindus, however, choose to worship the god that most appeals to them. Most Hindus keep a picture of the god or gods whom they honour in their home. They will burn incense before that image. Some Hindus have a special room in their home that is used for conducting worship. Seeing or being in the presence of the deity is referred to as darshan. The word for worship is puja, which means to honour. Hindu worship consists of honouring the god as one would honour the most esteemed guest, or a king. Puja is generally performed in the morning or evening. Before worship the Hindu will bathe and put on clean clothes. The image (murti) of the deity is placed, facing east, on a decorated platform. A lamp is lit on the left side of the deity and a small lamp is kept in front of the deity. The devotee sits at the side of the deity, facing north. Near the devotee is a bell and some articles used for worship such as owers and incense. At the beginning of worship in the home, Hindus will chant prayers and invite the god to come and dwell within the image for the duration of the worship. Flowers will then be offered before the image and a seat, water and fresh clothes will be symbolically offered to the deity. Incense and sandalwood paste will also be offered. Thus the deity is treated as the most revered guest. The deity will then be worshipped with owers and sacred chanting: fresh owers, such as marigolds, are offered at the feet of the image while the holy names of the deity are recited. If
activities
1. What are the four social classes or varnas, and which had access to the Vedas? 2. Why were some people excluded? 3. Why were the laws of Manu a compromise? 4. Were the same ethics applied to all classes? If this was not the case, explain how they differed. 5. Why did the Brahmins write The Laws of Manu?
gods but consider them to be different representations of the single all-pervading, underlying reality.
Hindus honour all
94
there is time, the 108 or 1000 names of the deity may be recited with a ower offered at the feet of the image after the recitation of each name. Fragrant incense is briey brought near the face of the deity while the bell is rung with the left hand. Food, mostly fruits or a kind of milk pudding, is offered to the deity while the bell is rung again. The family will later receive this food as a sacred gift (prasada) from the god. Finally a piece of camphor on a tray is lit, the worshipper stands, and the ame is slowly waved clockwise in front of the deity to the accompaniment of the bell and sacred chanting or singing. This is the highlight of the puja. The worshipper then prostrates themselves in front of the image and again sits. After some silent meditation or prayer, the worshipper takes some owers dipped in sandalwood paste and puts them over the image with both hands while uttering a Sanskrit chant, which requests the deity to depart. The bell is rung with the right hand indicating the end of the puja. Some Hindus will conduct an elaborate daily worship, others will make it briefer and still others will only perform puja on special occasions. While some Hindus perform the worship themselves, others employ a priest to come to the house for this purpose.
activities
1. How does family heritage inuence the family's devotional practices? 2. What is puja and when is it performed in the home? 3. Describe the physical act of puja. 4. Debate the following; Every Hindu should follow the same puja at home. 5. Looking at the photograph below, identify all the elements present. Explain their purpose in the puja.
FIG 4.18 A home shrine to the god Ganesha
95
Review and assess

Review
1. Research the early inhabitants of the Indus Valley and write a report on why this area was so important in the history and, in particular, in the growth of the Hindu religion. 2. Prepare a visual presentation to accompany an oral report to the class on the main features of devotion to Vishnu and to Shiva. 3. Prepare an analytical diagram of one or more gods detailing the importance of the component parts, including body features, dress, associated objects, body position etc., of that deity. 4. Rama, Sita, Lakshmana and Hanuman are the main characters of the Ramayana. What role does each play in this epic? 5. What is ISKCON and what can you nd out about this movement in your local area? 6. Research one form of yoga. Prepare an oral presentation that includes a physical dimension and display this to the class. 7. Outline the principal ethical teachings of Hinduism and describe how this inuences how Hindu people live their lives. 8. Look at the photo of a Hindu home shrine. What can you tell about the location of this place of worship? Why do you think it is placed where it is?
96

Short response (100150 words) 9. Describe the early civilisation of the Indus valley. Longer response (500600 words) 25. Explain how union with God can come about through practising yoga. 26. Assess the importance of sacred texts to the understanding and living out of Hinduism by its adherents. 27. Explain the signicance of Hinduisms principal beliefs to the fullment of the Hindu ideal. 28. Describe what a Hindu home shrine would look like. What elements would be present and when would Hindu adherents use the shrine? What would be involved in home puja?
10. Describe the Vedic period. 11. Outline the early development of Hinduism. 12. Explain Hinduism as Sanatana Dharma. 13. Describe the main features of Vishnu. 14. Describe the main features of Shiva. 15. Dene the terms Atman and Brahman. 16. Describe two Hindu goddesses. 17. Explain the connections between dharma, karma and moksha.
18. Name the four yogas and describe one. 19. Explain the importance of sacred writings for the Hindu religious tradition. 20. Describe the Hindu epics. 21. Explain the importance of the Bhagavad Gita for Hindu adherents. 22. Outline the principal ethical teachings of Hinduism. 23. Demonstrate how the ashramas form the framework of the Hindu life cycle. 24. Outline Hindu puja as celebrated in the home.
97
Islam
The focus of this study is Islam, one of the major religious traditions, as a living religious system.
Outcomes
A student: P3 P4 P5 P6 P7 P8 P9 investigates religious traditions and belief systems examines signicant aspects of religious traditions describes the inuence of religious traditions in the life of adherents selects and uses relevant information about religion from a variety of sources undertakes effective research about religion, making appropriate use of time and resources uses appropriate terminology related to religion and belief systems effectively communicates information, ideas and issues using appropriate written, oral and graphic forms Principal beliefs The articles of faith explained in the Aqida as: Tawhid angels Books of Allah Rusul Akhira fate/predestination Sacred texts and writings the Quran and Hadith Core ethical teachings Islamic jurisprudence the Quran the Sunna and Hadith ijmaconsensus among religious leaders
Content
Students learn about: Origins pre-Islamic Arabia as the cultural and historical context for the development of Islam the Prophet Muhammad the development of Islam under the leadership of the Four Rightly Guided Caliphs
qiyascomparison with teachings of the Quran or Hadith Expressions of faith the Five Pillars as the expression of the faith of Islam
Prelim | Chapter 5 Islam
99
AL-AMIN AL-FATIHA ANSAR
the trustworthy (term used to refer to Muhammad even before his prophetic call). the opening chapter of the Quran. helpersthose in Madina who threw in their lot with Muhammad and his fellow migrants when they arrived from Mecca. the Creed, the six articles of faith. the poorer branch of the Quraysh tribe. 12th month of the Muslim year, so called because it is the month in which the rituals of the Hajj are performed. rst light, dawn. abstention from food, drink, smoking and sex. Islamic jurisprudence. used for individual sayings of the Prophet, and as a collective term to refer to the entire corpus of such sayings. As a collective term it is a name for the second foundation text of Islam, the rst being the Quran. the annual pilgrimage to Mecca and the attendant ceremonies held between the seventh and tenth day of dhul-hijja, the twelfth month of the Muslim year. migration. The Hijra was Muhammads migration from Mecca to Madina in 622 CE. Hijra year is the Muslim calendrical year, based on a lunar month calendar, and dates from the migration. the revealed book given to Jesus (not to be confused with the Christian narrative Gospels about Jesus). act of accepting belief in the unity of God and the prophetic mission of Muhammad. The name of the religion revealed to and preached by Muhammad to which the Quran gives testimony. line of transmitters of a saying of the Prophet (hadith); hadith. effort, struggle (moral or physical). a 30th part of the Quran. cube-shaped structure in the Sacred Mosque in Mecca, the house of God. a shaman or soothsayer in pre-Islamic Arabia. mosque. a male Muslim who utters the call to each of the ve daily prayers from the minaret.
MUHAJIR(UN) MUSLIM NABI OCCULATION
migrant(s)those who accompanied or followed Muhammad from Mecca to Madina. one who professes faith in Islam. prophet. hidden state of the twelfth Imam, who is to return to inaugurate the millennium at a time of Gods choosing. the book revealed to Muhammad, the prime foundation text of Islam. the custodian tribe of the Mecca shrine; the tribe into which Muhammad was born.
AQIDA BANU HASHIM DHUL-HIJJA
QURAN QURAYSH RAMADAN
FAJR FAST FIQH HADITH
ninth month of the Muslim yearthe month of fasting from the rst sign of dawn to sunset. Oxford Studies of Religion RUSUL messengers (of God). Singular rasul. SAHABA SAHIFA companions of Muhammad during his life. the covenant made between Muhammad and his community with the communities of Madina after the migration from Mecca. ritual prayer (used of the ve obligatory daily prayers, collectively or individually). having the character of a shamanone who can fall into a trance-like state and have knowledge of the spirit world. the party of Ali. The wing of Islam that believes that guidance of the community resided in Ali and the Imams descended from him. The twelfth Imam was taken into occultation in 8734 CE, and will return to introduce the millennium. the wing of Islam that believes that the authority and guidance of the community is decided by the community itself. a chapter of the Quran. acronym used to refer to the Hebrew Bible. declaration that God is One. the revealed book given to Moses (not to be confused with the Torah). the wealthier branch of the Quraysh tribe. the former name of the city to which Muhammad migrated from Mecca in 622 CE, now known as Madina. the revealed book (of psalms) given to David (not to be confused with the book of Psalms in the Tanakh). the poor tax. miraculous spring of plentiful pure water next to the Sacred Mosque.
SALAT SHAMANISTIC
HAJJ
SHIA
HIJRA
INJIL
SUNNI
ISLAM
SURA TANAKH TAWHID TAWRAH UMAYYA YATHRIB
ISNAD JIHAD JUZ KABA KAHIN MASJID MUEZZIN
ZABUR
ZAKAT ZAMZAM
100
Origins of Islam
Pre-Islamic Arabia
Arabia is the name given to the peninsular extension of the Eurasian landmass to the Indian Ocean. It lies between the Red Sea and Egypt to the west and the Persian Gulf to the east, and extends almost to the Horn of Africa. The northern region is known as the Hijaz and the south as the Yemen. Its southern coast faces the Indian Ocean and is exposed to the winds and rains of the monsoons that sweep across the ocean from South-east Asia and southern India. The Arabian Peninsula is, in fact, an extension of the lands of the Bible. Its peoples are ethnically related to those of the Fertile Crescent, broadly referred to as Semitic. The languages they speak are closely related. Arabic and Hebrew, for example, are as closely related as German and Dutch. Before modern times, the nation states we now know as Syria, Jordan, Iraq, Israel, Palestine and Saudi Arabia did not exist as political entities. Although some of the names have been known for over a millennium, these names did not have the same connotations or cover the same areas as the modern nation states. The borders between them were not clearly marked or guarded. Peoples moved from region to region following caravan routes, whether in search of wealth, learning or, like the desert monks, driven by religious yearnings. Apart from the south coast, the Constantinople Arabian Peninsula is largely arid. The occasional rains, strategically situated wells, springs and oases are adequate to support nomadic Tigris River life. For centuries they supplied SYRIA water and provisions for caravan Mediterranean Baghdad routes across Arabia from south Damascus Sea to north and south-east to northPERSIA Jerusalem westto Alexandria, Damascus, Euphrates River EGYPT Byzantium and Ctesiphon, taking in Mecca, Madina and Nile River Persian other centres in the Hijaz. Dotted Gulf Madina along the east, south and west Badr coasts were port settlements that served inland areas. In the Mecca Yemen were ourishing centres ABYSSINIA of trade and culture, ruled in turn by Christian and Jewish rulers, who were in close contact ARABIA Red with kingdoms (commercial and Sea political rivals) in East Africa, in particular Abyssinia. These were only a stones throw from Aden for mariners who knew the winds FIG 5.1 Pre-Islamic Arabia lies between the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf.
101
and ocean currents. The Yemen was famous for its wealth and was known to the Romans. The Yemenis were accomplished sailors who understood the monsoons and regularly crossed the Indian Ocean to the Coromandel Coast of eastern India, and possibly as far as South-East Asia. They contributed to a trade in gold, textiles, spices, incense, gums and perfumes that was carried along these caravan routes, which in effect linked the world of the Indian Ocean with that of the Mediterranean. Traditionally, the Arabs of the Hijaz were nomadic pastoralists. They had a strong sense of tribal identity and loyalty, and occupied territories that they identied with their tribal, largely shamanistic religious tradition. They shared a belief that their world was haunted by jinnspirits that could be helpful or malevolentalong with a belief in the magical properties of wells, springs and grottos, curiously formed trees and outcrops of land. These gained the status of sacred sites, and the areas around them were regarded as consecrated. It was forbidden to harm any form of life there, human or animal. Ritual practices centred on kahinsshamans who by going into a trance could enter the spirit world, cure diseases, gain favours and nd what was lost. The regions to the north of the Hijaztodays Syria, Israel, Palestine and Jordanwere subject to attacks by the Byzantines and Persians.
FIG 5.2 Circumambulation of the Kaba. One of the rituals of the Hajj, the pilgrimage to Mecca, a duty incumbent on every legally responsible Muslim physically and nancially able, at least once in their lifetime
102
Each made strategic alliances with Arab tribes in a continuing struggle that created a ripple effect along the caravan routes to the south. This spread religious beliefs and values among the Arabs from the wider world. Many Arab tribes were inuenced by the peoples of various cultures who moved through or into the region. Among them were Persians, Africans, Jews, Syrians, Greeks and people from present-day Jordan representing various Christian traditions (Orthodox, Nestorian, Monophysite). Some of these Arab tribes followed Christianity, some followed Judaism. Among the sacred sites was one that had a wide appeal: the Kaba at Mecca, about 50 kilometres from the port town of Jidda on the coast of the Red Sea. The Quran speaks of it as set in a barren valley (sura 14:37). Not far from the Kaba was the spring of Zamzam, an inexhaustible source of fresh water. The shrine, the water and the location made Mecca a virtual resort town, and perhaps even an emporium for merchants, travellers and pilgrims of many faiths. The Kaba had the trappings of a traditional Arab sacred siteit was the home of idols and the scene of fertility rituals. These rituals included naked processions around the Kaba at set times of the year, men by day and women by night. But the Kaba was also associated with stories of Abraham, and the Quran says that next to it was the place where Abraham prayed. This sacred character gave Mecca a wide reputation and made it an established centre from which caravans went northwards to Damascus and southwards to Sana and Aden. Such caravans are referred to in the Quran when it speaks of the caravan of winter and summer (sura 106:12). In short, the Arabian Peninsula consisted of vast areas of desert, but at particular focal points, and along the routes linking them, there was intense activity. This activity shared in the cultural, religious and economic life of the so-called lands of the Bible, the eastern Mediterranean generally and beyond.
The Prophet Muhammad

Muhammad was born in Mecca in 570 CE into a tribe called Quraysh. This tribe had two wings, a richer and more powerful one, the Umayya, and a poorer one, that of Banu Hashim. Muhammad was born into the latter. His father was referred to by the name Abdullah, and his mother Aminah. His father died before he was born, his mother when he was six. As an orphan, he was brought up by the oldest of his fathers ve brothers, Abu Talib, who held a senior position in the sub-clan. Abu Talib was later to have a son born around 590 CE named Ali, who was to become especially close to Muhammad and later to play a crucial role in Islamic history. Muhammad grew up in poverty. By the time he was seven, he was working as a shepherd in the hills outside Mecca. This period saw the rst sign of his future destinyan event in the Prophets life that is related in the religious instruction of every Muslim child. Two passing shepherds caught sight of him attended by two angels, who gently took hold of him, removed his heart and cleansed it of a single black spot. This spot was a trace of evil, and their action was to prepare him for his future vocation as a nabi (prophet), a man specially chosen by God to receive his commission. (Sura 6:124: God knows where he places His message.) From earning a livelihood as a shepherd, Muhammad became apprenticed to the caravan trade. There are narratives that he took part in a north-bound caravan and travelled as far as Damascus. In Damascus a Christian monk saw him secluded beneath a tree and asked one of the caravan party who he was. On being told, he solemnly declared, That boy bears the mark of prophecy. The traditional accounts continue that as he grew older and assumed more responsibility, he became known for his integrity and honesty. He was given the name al-Amin (the trustworthy one). These years are a hidden part of Muhammads life but they were rich in experience. The caravan trade was a hard, demanding one and required extraordinary qualities of leadership. Muhammad was successful, and he gained the condence and respect of one of the entrepreneurs of this trade, a woman named Khadijah, for whom he executed a number of commissions. She was some years older than he and a widow. Arrangements were made for them to marry. The traditional account puts him at 25 years of age and her at 40 when they were
activities
1. Using a map of the Arabian Peninsula, identify the places named in this geographical and historical background. 2. Prepare a written report, or oral report, describing the geography of the region. 3. Outline the human endeavours undertaken in the region around 500600 CE.
103
wed. This would mean the marriage took place in 595 CE. But the gures for their ages need not be taken literally. Both are conveniently round numbers, and they probably signify only that she was some years older. The marriage was long and happy, lasting until Khadijah died in 619 CE. They prospered and had six children, two boys and four girls. Both boys died in infancy. The older one was called al-Qasim and, according to the custom of the time, Muhammad was addressed as Abul-Qasim, the father of alQasim. His daughters were Umm Kulthum, Ruqayya, Fatima and Zaynab. Fatima was to be of special importance. She was the only child to survive him, and that by only six months. She alone bore him grandchildrentwo boys named Hasan and Husayn, and two daughters who have no place in history. The Quran refers to this period of Muhammads life, with Gods words reminding him: Did He not nd you poor, and enrich you; and nd you wandering, and guide you; nd you in need, and enrich you (Sura 93: 68). Appointment as Gods Messenger Muhammad was not a wandering Bedouin but a city dweller, a man of affairs. For a number of years after his marriage he lived in comfort, enjoying respect as a successful and honest merchant. However, there was a stirring in his heart that led him to seek God, inspired perhaps by religious hermits, perhaps by the example of desert monks, perhaps by the millenarian atmosphere of the early years of a new century. He had dreams of extraordinary radiance, and in response to them began to leave Mecca for days at a time to meditate in one of the caves outside the city. On one of these occasions he found himself challenged by an awesome presence that seemed to crush him, and heard a voice that said to him, You are the Messenger of God. The voice, identied as the angel Gabriel, ordered him to utter the words: Recite in the name of your Lord who created [all things], created humankind from congealed blood. Recite, your Lord is most gracious, He taught by the pen, Taught humankind what it did not know. (Sura 96:15)
FIG 5.3 A scene from an illustrated manuscript of Muhammads night journey (Isra) from Mecca to Jerusalem and Ascension (Mi raj) from the site of the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem to Heaven
This event, the traditional date for which is 610 CE, is generally held to mark the beginning of the revelation of the Quran. It transformed Muhammads perception of himself and his life. At rst it terried him. He feared he had been deceived by an evil spirit. He returned home. His wife Khadijah reassured him. She believed that the message he had received had truly come from God. She took him to a very old uncle, Waraqa, who, it is said, used to translate the Hebrew scriptures into Arabic. He too reassured Muhammad, telling him that the bearer of the divine message to him was the same as the bearer of the divine message to Moses. Muhammad then saw himself, not as the messenger of a new religion, but a new bearer of the religion of Moses. Waraqa warned him that his people would reject him, and that he would be forced to leave his home city of Mecca. If Khadijah was the rst person to believe that Muhammad was indeed the Messenger of God, the second was his cousin Ali, son of Abu Talib. Ali assured Khadijah and Muhammad, that the mighty presence that had confronted him in the cave was the same angel of revelation that had brought
104
Gods word to Moses and all the prophets; that Muhammad was in fact a new Moses, the prophet referred to in Deuteronomy 18:18 where God says to Moses: I will raise up for them a prophet like you from among their own people: I will put my words in the mouth of the prophet, who shall speak to them everything that I command. From then on, at moments determined by divine wisdom, God spoke to him Arabic words, put on Muhammads lips by the angel Gabriel. These statements, sometimes long, sometimes short, were brought to him for the rest of his life. Together they constitute the Quran. By them God told Muhammad of himself, his uniqueness and unicity. He told of the laws human beings were to live by, the service they were to give to God and the values they were to aspire to. God told of the certain coming of a day of physical resurrection and judgment. He told Muhammad of the creation of Adam and Eve, of their disobedience and expulsion from Paradise, and of the prophets God had sent to teach and guide their descendants. These included Noah, Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, Joseph and Moses, and many others told of in the Tanakh and the New Testament, among whom Jesus, son of Mary, had a special place. Further, God guided him, encouraged him, comforted him and reminded him of how God cared for him. He told Muhammad what he was to say to his people when they challenged him, how to answer questions that were put to him, and how to resolve his personal problems and dilemmas. Preaching and opposition These revelations were the basis of Muhammads preaching. At rst this was to members of his family and then to the community at large. Some thought Muhammad was mad; others regarded him as a menace. One response was a boycott. A few believed he was what he said he was and formed a small community around him. But resentment and hostility grew as he attracted followers, even if most of them were poor and uneducated. He and his followers were isolated and persecuted by the Umayya, the dominant wing of Quraysh. Tensions between those who accepted him and those who regarded him as a disruptive element in Meccan society continued. Muhammad was personally secure due to the standing and authority of his uncle, Abu Talib. But 619 CE was to be a year of sorrows for him. His wife Khadijah died, and so did Abu Talib, who had been
like a father to him. Without his uncle to protect him, Muhammad found persecution redoubled. He began to look for another base where he could preach the messages he received unhindered. He tried, unsuccessfully, to nd a home in Taif, a fertile upland enclave to the south-east of Mecca. But he and his followers were stoned there and forced to return to the city. There were important events at this time in his personal life. He was betrothed to Aisha, the sevenyear-old daughter of Abu Bakr, one of his followers. Aisha was to have a special place in his heart for the rest of his lifeindeed, she was to cradle his head as he died. She played a prominent role in the civil war that broke out 24 years after his death, and was one of the major sources of knowledge of sayings (hadith) attributed to him. By 622 CE, opposition to Muhammad from the Umayya had become more intense and better organised. The traditional accounts tell of a plot to kill him. He had been negotiating with tribal leaders in Yathrib (now known as Madinamadina being the Arabic word for city). This was an oasis town about 300 kilometres north of Mecca where his late wife, Khadijah, had family members. His reputation as a person of integrity and his standing as a prophet were well known there. He seemed to be a person who could settle disputes between Arab and Jewish tribes in the region, and restore the social and economic stability of the city. The story goes that Muhammad left Mecca for Yathrib secretly, by night, while Ali slept in his bed so that it would not be noticed he had gone. Muhammad left with his father-in-law, Abu Bakr. After a period of journeying they rested in a cave. The Umayya Meccans sent out a party in pursuit, hoping to capture him. They passed the cave where he was resting, but approaching it they saw a spider-web covering the entrance. That it was intact seemed proof that the escapees could not have entered it, so they passed by. This event is referred to in the Quran when God reminds Muhammad of his continuing care for him, and chapter (sura) 29 of the Quran is called The Spider (al-Ankabut). When Muhammad arrived in Yathrib, about 70 of his followers had preceded him. He arrived at Quba on or about 4 September 622 CE. His rst act was to build a place of prayera masjid (mosque). The Arabic word masjid means a place of prostration. The year of the Hijra (migration) was established as year 1 of the Muslim era.
105
FIG 5.4 The pursuers of Muhammad walking past the cave where he hid. Seeing a spider-web over the entrance, they believed no one was inside.
Life in Madina, fighting Mecca Muhammad made the sahifa, a treaty or covenant, with the various Arab and Jewish tribes in Madina for a place for his followers. In the sahifa he was designated as the Prophet of God, and the rights and integrity of the other Arab and Jewish communities were recognised. Uniting them as the Messenger of God, he became their leader, the rst among equals to whom disputes could be referred. The arrival at Madina and the implementation of the sahifa look at rst sight like the turning of a new page of history. There followed for Muhammad eight years of community leadership. Many of the Muslim migrants were poor. There was considerable settling in to be done. Now, faced by new challenges to survive, they were at last given permission to ght. In sura 22 of the Quran (al-Hajj), a sura that seems to overlap the period immediately before the migration and the rst year after it, they were told: Permission is given to those who ght who do so because they have been wronged. God indeed has the power to give them victory; those who have been unjustly driven from their homes only because they said our Lord is God. (Sura 22:3940)
The continuation of the verse explains that physical resistance has its justication: Had not God used some men to repel others, many cloisters and churches, places of prayer and worship, would have been destroyed. Fighting the Meccan tribes was a matter of asserting a claim for what had been taken from them in their former home, and of compensation for the persecution they had at that time passively endured. It was also a matter of economic survival. This was part of the motivation for forays against caravans travelling between Mecca and the north. At the same time, relations between Muhammad and the Jewish communities, though not all Jews individually, began to break down. The rabbis regarded discrepancies between the Torah and the Quran as evidence that Muhammad was ignorant. To them his claim that he was a new prophet sent after Moses was untenable. The resulting tensions offered new opportunities for Muhammad to exercise leadership. Under the guidance of the revelation that he was receiving, he took on greater responsibilities as a leader in an economic struggle against Mecca, and in ensuring
106
If anyone worships Muhammad, If anyone worships God, God is alive, immortal.
Muhammad is dead.
spoils of war and economic support for both migrants and the helpers who had made common cause with him. Throughout this period the number of Muhammads followers grew rapidly. In 630 CE, with an army of 10 000, he nally took control of Mecca and declared it a permanent sanctuary. In 632 CE Muhammad led a pilgrimage to Mecca during which he destroyed the idols surrounding the Kaba and preached a famous sermon. It was to be his nal visit to Mecca, for within six months he would be dead. Thus it has gone down in history as the Farewell Pilgrimage, and the sermon he gave on the plain of Arafat as his Farewell Sermon. Early in June 632 he fell ill. He seemed to rally, then unexpectedly died on Monday 8 June, his head cradled in Aishas lap. His death caused alarm. At rst, Umar, one of Muhammads Sahaba (Companions), refused to believe that he was dead. He had gone, just as had Moses, to spend 40 days on Mount Sinai and would return. Abu Bakr approached Muhammad, and, disregarding Umar, uncovered the Prophets face and kissed him. He said to the body: You are dearer to me than my mother and father. You have tasted the death that God has decreed: a second death will never overtake you. He recovered the Prophets face. Umar was still protesting. Abu Bakr calmed him and said: If anyone worships Muhammad, Muhammad is dead. If anyone worships God, God is alive, immortal. He recited Quran 3:144: Muhammad is but a messenger. Messengers have died before him. Can it be that if he were to die or to be killed, you would turn back on your heels? He who turns back does no harm to God, and God will reward the grateful.
activities
1. 2. 3. 4. Outline Muhammads early life. What event is reported to have happened to him at seven years of age that told of the unusual life he would have? Explain what happened. Describe the apprenticeship Muhammad started and what sort of work he would have undertaken. How do the words, Did He not nd you poor, and enrich you; and nd you wandering, and guide you; nd you in need, and enrich you (Quran 93: 68) explain Muhammads life? Why is the year 610 CE so important? What happened and how did this moment transform Muhammads life? Where did Muhammad get the words for the Quran? How and when did these words reveal themselves to Muhammad? Who did Muhammad initially preach to and who did he upset doing this? Fearing for his life, Muhammad left. Why did he leave and where was he going? What was his role at Madina?
5. 6. 7. 8. 9.
10. How did this role help build his leadership? 11. How did his relationship with the Jewish communities change during this time? 12. In what circumstances and when did Muhammad die?
107
Development of Islam under the Four Rightly Guided Caliphs

The rst four successors to Muhammads political (though not his prophetic) authority have a special resonance in Muslim history. Their time in power extended over a period when personal memories of the Prophet were still vivid. Each of them had been closely associated with him throughout the greater part of his career. They were prominent among the Sahaba. The names of the Caliphs and the dates of their rules are as follows: Abu Bakr (632634 CE) was a very early follower of the Prophet, and became his father-in-law when his daughter Aisha married him. At the time of the Hijra he left Mecca with Muhammad, and together they hid in a cave when the Meccans pursued them. Umar (634644 CE) was likewise a father-in law of the Prophet, who married his daughter Hafsa. At rst he was a bitter enemy of Muhammad; on learning that his sister had joined Muhammads circle, he struck her. Then, hearing a recitation of the Quranic story of Moses, he was overwhelmed by its beauty and became a Muslim. Like Abu Bakr, he was one of Muhammads close circle. Uthman (644656 CE) was an unlikely convert, belonging to the Umayya wing of Quraysh. He
became a son-in-law of the Prophet, marrying rst his daughter Ruqayya and then, after her death in 624 CE, her sister Umm Kulthum. Ali (656661 CE), Muhammads paternal cousin, also became his son-in-law, marrying his daughter Fatimathe only one of Muhammads children to outlive him. Ali and Fatima gave the Prophet his only grandchildren, the most important of whom were Hasan and Husayn. Contributions of the Caliphs Abu Bakr was the rst of the four Caliphs, who ruled from 632 to 661 CE. This period was one of extraordinary expansion of Islam and gave the Muslims great self-condence. Islam brought order to the social and economic life of the great cities of Syria and Palestine, devastated for many years by wars between the Byzantines and Persians and the rivalries of the Arab tribes. Jerusalem, Damascus and other great cities of the region were captured; the Byzantines were driven out of Palestine and Syria, the Persians were driven back, and the great city of Ctesiphon was occupied. The result was an Islamic commonwealth that extended to the east through Persia to central Asia and the frontiers of India, and to the West through Egypt and north Africa. Eventually it reached Spain, which was invaded in 711 CE. Each of the four Caliphs made an indelible and distinctive contribution to the development of
Azerbaijan Armenia Turkey Syria Lebanon Israel Jordan Libya Egypt Bahrain Qatar Arabia Oman
Expansion under the Prophet Muhammad, 622-632 Expansion during the Rashidun Caliphs, 632-661
Afghanistan Iraq Iran Pakistan
Yemen
FIG 5.5 The Caliphate, 622661 CE
108
Islam. There were revolts against the authority of Madina after the Prophets death, but Abu Bakr dealt with them rmly, restoring the authority of Madina and, in effect, the internal discipline necessary for Islamic expansion to the north. He prevented the unity of tribes and alliances created by Muhammad from falling apart. Abu Bakr also set about expeditions to the north against the Byzantines. Umar in turn led full-scale invasions to the north and personally accepted the surrender of Jerusalem. Under Uthman, Muslim forces moved into Egypt and on into North Africa. Unlike his two predecessors, however, he belonged to the Umayya wing of Quraysh, and in his appointments he favoured his kinsmen. One of these appointments was that of his cousin Muawiya, the son of Abu Sufyan, as governor of Syria. Uthmans unique contribution to Islam was the committee he formed to establish the correct recitation of the Quran. In various regional centres, discrepancies in recitation had occurred. Uthmans committee, consisting of professional reciters who knew the text by heart, combined this knowledge with scraps and fragments of the revealed words that had been written down. The result is the received text of the Quran as we have it today, known as the Uthmanic text. Civil war On Uthmans death, Ali was appointed as Caliph. It was an appointment that was to lead to civil war. Muawiya, the cousin that Uthman appointed as governor in Damascus, opportunistically accused Ali of passive or active complicity in Uthmans murder and launched the rallying cry Justice for Uthman. In the face of gathering opposition, Ali moved his seat of government from Madina to Kufa in present-day Iraq. Two of his rivals for the caliphate from the Umayya wing of Quraysh led a revolt against him on 9 December 656 CE, near Basrah. They were supported by Aisha, who came onto the battleeld in a howdah mounted on a camel (hence the battle is referred to as the Battle of the Camel). However, the rebels were defeated and the tendons of the camels leg cut so that it collapsed, and Aisha was captured. She said to Ali, You have been victorious; be magnanimous. He sent her back to Madina with an escort, who treated her with the honour and respect due to the widow of the Prophet and Mother of the Faithful.
This civil war marked a reappearance of tensions that had immediately surfaced on the death of Muhammad a quarter of a century earlier and delayed his burial by 24 hours. There had been rivalries between the muhajirun (migrants) from Mecca, who had a special status, and the ansar (helpers), those who supported them at Madina. There were further tensions between the muhajirun and the aristocratic wing of the Quraysh tribe at Mecca, led by Abu Sufyan, who had been Muhammads greatest enemy until he accepted Islam after the city was conquered. Muhammad had generously accepted his conversion and appointed his son Muawiya as his secretary. This wing of the tribe had wealth, status, infrastructure and administrative skills, as well as networks of tribal alliances, personal contacts, marriage relationships and the like. But over against these was a signicant group who believed there was divine election in the line of Muhammad that could ultimately be traced back through Ismail to Abraham. For this reason and many othersAlis closeness to the Prophet, the fact he had grown up with him, the fact that he had been the second person to accept Islam after Khadijah and that he had served the Prophet in discharging many responsibilitiesthey believed that the individual who had the right to succeed Muhammad was Ali (Muhammads paternal cousin, husband of his daughter Fatima and father of his two grandsons, Hasan and Husayn). Those who supported this position could be called legitimists. This was the issue that resurfaced as soon as Ali was appointed Caliph in 656 CE. Having won the Battle of the Camel, he dismissed a number of the governors appointed by Uthman and demanded an oath of loyalty from others. Muawiya in Damascus refused to swear allegiance. In a speech he displayed the blood-stained cloak of Uthman and the severed ngers of the hand of his wife, Nailah, and challenged Ali: Either bring to justice the murderers of my kinsman Uthman, or admit that you are one of their accomplices. It was a declaration of war. The climactic battle was fought at Sifn, a town north-east of Damascus, in 657 CE. Ali was on the point of victory when he was outwitted. He agreed that the issue of responsibility for the murder of Uthman and Alis own right to rule be put to arbitration.
109
FIG 5.6 A caravan of Mecca pilgrams crosses the desert (19th or early 20th century).
The murder of Ali This decision was the catalyst for the emergence of a third faction. A large number of Alis own followers turned against him, denying his right to submit to arbitration. Their slogan was la hukma illa lillah (No decision but that of God). In rejecting Ali, they also rejected Muawiya and any of the descendants of either of them. Any Arab of virtuous life could be ruler, they said, but any ruler who sinned could be overthrown. These Kharijites (Seceders), as they called themselves, were the enemies of any established authority. They held that a person guilty of serious sin lost his status as a Muslim and his execution was lawful. They declared that neither Ali nor Muawiya had a valid claim to the caliphate, and condemned Uthman for the way in which he had exercised his authority. They killed anyone who, when challenged, did not accept their views. They organised themselves into cells, striking now here, now there. They implemented the principle of istirad (religious murder), demanding that individuals accept their views at the point of the sword. While always remaining a fringe group, they represented a mindset that resurfaces from time to timea simplistic, fundamentalist understanding of the imperatives of being a Muslim. The Kharijites may be seen as the forerunners of the radical groups that trouble the modern world. Essentially the Kharijites took the view that the right to rule was founded on moral virtue, not race
or descent. They banded together to ght against Ali. In 659 CE, Ali launched an attack against them and almost wiped them out. But they regrouped and gained new adherents. One of them nally murdered Ali as he was entering the mosque at Kufa in January 661 CE. With the death of Ali, the era of the Four Rightly Guided Caliphs came to an end. Muawiya then declared himself Caliph and inaugurated the Umayyad dynasty that was to rule the Islamic commonwealth until 756 CE. His capital was Damascus, a city plural in its culture, religious traditions and intellectual life. The culture, learning and wealth of Syria were now at the heart of an Islamic empire.
activities
1. Who were the four Caliphs, and how well did they know Muhammad? 2. Discuss the contribution of each to the development of Islam. 3. Why did the appointment of Ali as Caliph lead to civil war? How was this linked to events immediately after Muhammads death? 4. Ali had lots of enemies. Who were they and why were they opposed to him? 5. How did Ali die? Discuss as a class the changes created by his death.
110
The emergence of Sunni and the Shia

The Arabic word shia means party. In this context, it serves to identify the party of Ali (shi a Ali)those who on Muhammads death believed that Ali should have been leader of the community. They were outmanoeuvred at the time in the political jostling for leadership by two groups: the Umayyad wing of Quraysh, which had now accepted Islam, and those Companions of the Prophet who did not accord Muhammads family the honour they gave the Prophet himself. In their view, leadership was not limited to the family of the Prophet, but was to be found in the sunna (tradition) of the Companions and achieved by recognition and consensus. (Sunni, the word used to refer to the majority branch of Islam that believes the rst four Caliphs were the rightful successors to Muhammad, comes from the word sunna.) The claim of the Shia is multi-layered. At one level it is purely political. At another it resides in the nature of Alis claim. It is justied by the notion of the Five of the Cloak, a sacred family unit consisting of Muhammad, his daughter Fatima, her husband Ali, and their children Hasan and Husayn. The Shia believe that this family, as a result of illumination by the light of God, and guaranteed by a bloodline of continuity with the Prophet, was entrusted with leadership of the community. With this innate right went a privileged understanding of the Quran and special insights into the issues faced by the Muslim community. Politically Ali was a failure, but the Shia see him as the lost, cheated leader. He had earned the position, giving proof of his tness for it by his courage and chivalry in battle, his spiritual insights and his closeness to the Prophet. He also had the Prophets own nomination. He was with Muhammad on the Farewell Pilgrimage in January 632 CE and at his Farewell Sermon. On the return journey to Madina, Muhammad called a halt at a place known as Ghadir Khumm (the Pool of Khumm), where the road from Mecca to Madina intersects with the routes to Egypt, Syria and Iraq. There he declared that he entrusted two sources of authority to his community: the Quran and his household. He then took Alis hand and raised it so that everyone could recognise Ali, and proclaimed, Those of whom I am the master, Ali too is the master. He repeated this three or four times. For the Shia, Ali is not regarded as the fourth Caliph but the rst Imam. Among the Sunni, the word imam has the general sense of leader. It is sometimes used to designate the leader in congregational prayer, sometimes a mosque FIG 5.7 El Azhar Mosque and University, founded by Shiite Fatimids in 926 AD, are a landmark and a guide for Muslim ofcial, sometimes even a head of state. For the sunnis worldwide. Shia, however, Imam refers to certain members
111
FIG 5.8 Shia men agellating themselves on 10 Muharram, sharing in the suffering of Husayn, the martyred Iman
of the Prophets household who lead the Muslim community. The true Imam is designated by his predecessor. Each inherits a secret knowledge and exclusive authority to interpret the Quran and hadith, and so elaborate the legal system of Islam. The Shia account of the succession is as follows. The rst Imam, Ali, killed by a Kharijite, has the charisma of a martyr. Before he died, he designated his older son, Hasan (d. 669 CE), as the second Imam. Hasan ceded the right of Caliph (authority over the state) to Muawiya, but he is still honoured as the second Imam. The third Imam was his younger brother, Husayn. On the death of Muawiya in 680 CE, the new caliph, Muawiyas son Yazid, whom history describes as a womaniser and a drunkard, demanded Husayns submission. Husayn refused and led an army against him, feeling it was his duty to attempt to regain the Caliphate. He led an army from Madina towards Kufa, but at Kerbala, about 40 kilometres north-west of Kufa, he was abandoned by many who had promised to support him. Defeat was inevitable but he refused to surrender. Over the days of battle his few supporters were cut down one by one. When all had been killed, he then left his tent to face the enemy. For a moment they hesitated, reluctant to kill the grandson of the Prophet. Then his head was cut off, along with the
heads of 72 of his followers. These were taken in procession of the tips of lances to Kufa, where they were put on display, and then taken to Damascus. The image of the martyred Imam, the grandson of the Prophet, slain by the grandson of Muhammads once bitter enemy, Abu Sufyan, is built into the Shia sense of identity. The Shia mark the anniversary of the event, on the tenth day of Muharram, the rst month of the Muslim year, by ritual self-agellation to share in the redemptive suffering of the Imam, along with cries of mourning and passion plays re-enacting the murder. Husayns infant son, also named Ali and given the title Zayn al-Abidin, was saved from the slaughter and named the fourth Imam. He was followed by the fth Imam, the scholarly Muhammad al-Baqir. After this the Shia tradition divided into two wings. The sixth Imam, Jafar alSadiq (d. 765 CE), had two sons, Ismail and Musa. Some believed that Ismail was the seventh Imam while others believed the position belonged to Musa. Those who chose Ismail formed their own community. After his death in 760 CE, they believed that the line of Imams had come to an endthat he was an apocalyptic gure who would return. They are known as Ismailis or Seveners. Those who accepted Musa believed that the line of Imams would continue, and it did so until the 11th Imam,
112
Hasan al-Askari (d. 874 CE). He left an infant son who was to succeed him, but all trace of the child vanished. It is the belief of this community that he has gone into occultation and is to return at an unknown date, with the name Muhammad al-Mahdi (Muhammad the Guide) or al-Muntazar (the Awaited) to establish the rule of universal justice. These Shia are known as the Imami or Twelvers, for they await the return of the 12th Imam. This branch of Shia Islam is the most important. It is represented by the overwhelming majority of the population of Iran, a signicant majority in Iraq, and communities in the Gulf States, North Africa and the Indian sub-continent. Although the Imam is absent from the world, his presence is felt, and there is a sense that some of the most holy and learned may be able to be in touch with him. Tradition has it that all the Imams were unlawfully killed. The majority of their graves and shrines are in Iran or Iraq. Mosques are built beside them, and they are constantly thronged by thousands of pilgrims, honouring them and praying for their intercession. These devotions, and the beliefs that inspire them, serve to create the emotional mood through which the Shia see worldly reality, and the ways in which they identify themselves as a community. They embrace suffering. This collective mentality, some minor points of ritual observance in which they differ from the Sunni, the exuberance of their exultation of Ali and Fatima, their lack of respect for Aisha, their reverence for the Imams and their expectation of the return of the Mahdi to introduce the millennium all combine to generate hostility between the two traditions. In particular historical circumstances, as in present day Iraq, this may lead to the outbreak of social mayhem and mutual persecution, even after many years of peaceful, neighbourly association. The Shia tradition has often been neglected in Western scholarship on Islam. With the Iranian Islamic revolution in 1979 and the heightened prole of Shia Islam, the tradition has been widely seen as simply a fanatical form of Islam. Nothing could be further from the truth. It has spiritual richness, and over the past few centuries has nourished a richer intellectual tradition than has Sunni Islam. It has generated wonders of architecture, literature (poetry and prose), calligraphy and painting. The apparent puritanical cultural aridity of Iran may only be a brief phase in a brilliant history.
activities
1. What are the origins of the division between Sunni and Shia Muslims and how do they differ in their beliefs? 2. For the Shia, Ali is not regarded as the fourth Caliph but the rst Imam. Why is this statement so signicant? 3. What happened to Husayn in his battle to regain the caliphate? 4. Why is this battle so important to the Shia identity? 5. How is Husayn linked to the fourth Caliph? 6. Research the Imami, or Twelvers, and explain what they are waiting for. 7. This wing of the Shia (question 6) are located in which regions? 8. What are the fundamental differences between these two traditions of Islam? Do these differences necessarily lead to armed conict or even mob violence?
113
Principal beliefs
The Aqida
The Islamic Aqida (creed) consists of six articles of faith. A Muslim believes in the divine unity, angels, the books of God, the messengers of God, the hereafter and the nal decree. This denition of the content of belief is derived both from the Quran and the hadith. From the Quran, it is found in sura 2:285: The Messenger believes in what has been revealed to him from his Lord, and so do those who believe. All believe in Allah, His angels, His Books and His Messengers. (Sura 2:285) From the hadith, it is based on the narration of Umar, who tells how on one occasion he and others of the Companions were with the Prophet when a man (later to be identied as Gabriel in human form) approached them. His garment was radiantly white, his hair jet black and he had no trace of journeying upon him. He put to the Prophet three questions: what is Islam? what is faith? what is righteousness? The Prophet answered each of them. In answer to the question what is faith? he replied: It is that you should believe in God, and His angels, and His books, and His messengers, and the last day, and that you should believe in the decree (qadar), whether it is for good or ill. (a hadith attributed to Umar) It is on these two texts that Islamic theologians elaborate the six components of what is referred to as Aqida, or Dogmatics. Each of these six components is explained at length. Tawhid Belief in Allah means a declaration and commitment to the belief that he is One. This is the meaning of the Arabic verbal noun tawhid. The word Allah has no plural or feminine form, so many Muslims prefer to use this name in English discussions since the word God can be used in
FIG 5.9 Muhammads name in calligraphy
declaration and commitment to the belief that he is One.
Belief in Allah means a
multiple senses. It may be used of the Supreme Being but is not exclusive to him. By denition, for Muslims Tawhid excludes the concept of a Trinity, or triune God. Allah is transcendent, beholden to none and in need of no partner or associate. The Quran says of him: He does not beget, He has not been begotten. Aspects of Gods nature are revealed through his attributes and names as they are presented in the Quran.
Angels In Islamic thought, angels are spiritual beings, created from light. They are sinless. In their myriad ranks they constantly praise and celebrate God and bear his throne. Although invisible to human eyes, they may take on human form. They have diverse tasks. Several angels are mentioned in the Quran by name, including Gabriel, messenger of God. It was Gabriel who brought the Quran to Muhammad; it was Gabriel who announced to Mary that she, though a virgin, would give birth to a pure son. Other angels are named in the hadith, including Isral, who is to sound the trumpet that will announce the end of the world and resurrect the dead; Izrail, who is the angel of death; and Munkar and Nakir, who interrogate the dead in their tombs. Angels accompany human beings in their lives, guarding them, helping them
114
in their difculties, protecting them against the wiles of Satan, and recording their good and evil deeds. Angels were ready to help the Prophet in his battles, and there are popular stories of the thousands that were present at his rst battle against the Meccans, the Battle of Badr, ensuring his victory. The books of God The books of God are the revelations that God made to his messengers, who came with his authority to preach his single unchanging message: that he is One, and that he sends messengers, each with a book that presents knowledge of himself and the law that he wishes individuals to live by. Along with this is the warning of a day on which the world will come to an end, and all the dead from the beginning of time will be resurrected and judged. Those who have done evil will be sent to hell, those who have done good to Paradise. The Quran mentions three revealed books by name: The Tawrah (Torah) given to Moses, the Zabur (Psalms) given to David, and the Injil (Gospel) given to Jesus, son of Mary. It also refers to Suhuf Ibrahim, the pages or scrolls given to Abraham. The Quran tells of other prophetic gures given books or being told orally the principal doctrines of the book they are to deliver, but these are not identied by name. According to Islam, the only one of these books that now exists in the form in which it was revealed, and that claims universal authority, is the Quran, the book given to the last of the prophets and the seal of prophecy, Muhammad. The messengers of God Rusul (messengers; singular rasul) are men chosen by God to take his revelation to different peoples. There are 25 prophets named in the Quran, many of them known also in the Tanakh and celebrated as gures in history. Many other prophets are not mentioned in the Quran but known only to God. Of those whose stories are told or whose names are mentioned, the best known are Adam, father of humankind and the rst teacher of his progeny; Noah, who saved those who believed in his message from the universal ood; Abraham; Isaac; Jacob; Ismail; Moses; Joseph; David; Solomon; Zachary; Jesus son of Mary; and nally Muhammad. It is a principle of Quranic teaching that every prophet (with the exception of Jonah) was sent to his own people. No one people was uniquely
chosen as a vehicle of salvation. A particular people (for example, the Jews) might have more than one prophet sent to them. Jesus, like Moses, was sent to the Jews. Similarly Muhammad was an Arab sent to the Arabs. However, the Arabic revelation made to him was addressed not only to Arabs, but to every people. And every people had equal rights in the economy of salvation on accepting his message. The hereafter The world was created and, with it, time as it is experienced by creation. However, there will be a last day on which time will come to an end. No one knows when this last day will be. Muhammad, who warned of the certainty of its coming, said that this was something known by God alone. The Quran gives vivid accounts of what will happen on this last day. It will be announced by the blast of a trumpet, sounded by an angel. The sky will be split, the stars scattered, the oceans boil over and graves split open (Quran 82:4). Humankind will be judged, their good and evil deeds weighed in a scale before the individual prophets sent to them. This will determine the nature of their akhira (afterlife). Those who have done good will enter heaven while those who have done evil will be sent to a place of terrible eternal torment. The decree (qadar) The nal article of belief, the decree (qadar), its good, its ill, is understood in various ways. For some it means predestination, in the sense that on Judgment Day everything is as God foresaw and decreed it would be. For others it is whatever God decrees on that Day. In non-philosophical terms it is broadly understood as meaning that humankind recognises that ultimately everything is in Gods hands, but that humans nevertheless are responsible for their acts. Both these realities must be accepted even though how they are reconciled may not be fully understood.
activities
1. Outline the six components of what is referred to as Tawhid. 2. What are the implications of the Tawhid for Muslims? 3. How are prophets and prophecies incorporated into the Tawhid?
115

The Quran
Muslims believe the Quran to be the sum of divine revelations received by Muhammad from the time of his rst encounter with the angel Gabriel in the cave outside Mecca around 610 CE until his death in Madina in 632 CE. These revelations, of varying length, are understood to be Gods words addressed to him on signicant occasions over a period of about 23 years. The resulting book is about the length of the New Testament. The received text, howeverthe form in which Muslims encounter it and in which it has been known to the world virtually from the time of Muhammads deathis not arranged according to the chronology of these revelations. In fact, the rst revelation is sura 96:15 and the last is sura 5:5. The Quran consists of 114 suras (chapters), each one divided into verses. They are classied as being revealed at either Mecca or Madina. The longer chapters are composites and may contain passages revealed days, months or even years apart. They range in length from three to 286 verses. After the rst sura, al-Fatiha, which consists of seven verses, the sequence is roughly in order of decreasing length and in inverse order of revelation. For purposes of study and devotional exercises, it is divided into thirty equal parts, called juz, which are further subdivided into halves and quarters. The character of the Quran In mainstream Muslim theology, this arrangement of the revelations is considered to be of divine origin and makes the Quran a re-presentation of an archetypal Book kept at the throne of God above the seventh heaven. From there it was brought down to the heaven of this world, and then brought, revelation by revelation, to the Prophet to be preserved with total accuracy in human memory and writing. It therefore has a unique status, for no other revealed book has been preserved in so authentic a form. In its spiritual essence it is uncreated, and in it time meets eternity, as God, through the angel Gabriel, gives his Book through Muhammad to humankind. Being the very words of God, it must be handled with reverence and always kept in a place of honour. Everything necessary for the common good in human life, for knowledge of Gods ultimate covenant with humankind and salvation, lies between its covers. Muslims see the Quran as a miracle and the proof that Muhammad was a prophet. They argue that a book of such stylistic beauty, such a range of content, such spiritual riches, could not be the work of a human being, let alone an unlettered man living in the time and circumstances of Muhammad. The Quran itself declares he was unlettered. He did not write down the revelations himself but recited them aloud and
FIG 5.10 An open Quran is often set on a small table in the home. It is never put on the oor.
116
memorised them as they were placed on his lips. They were then memorised in turn or written down by a few of the Companions who were literate and acted as his scribes. God himself ensured that Muhammad held in his memory every word revealed to him. Reading and reciting the Quran The meaning and literary dimension of the Quran are not easily accessible to anyone outside of the Muslim tradition, or to those who cannot study it in Arabic. In part this is due to its internal organisation and the fact that it does not follow a narrative chronological line. It is also because it is the spoken word and marked by the characteristics of speech. What is said may often suggest what is unsaid. It may appear repetitive, and link together topics not obviously related. But it is God speaking in a variety of voices: all its words are believed to be Gods words, and any citation from the Quran by Muslims is prefaced by the phrase, God says For Muslims it is faith in the book and living with it that reveal the powerful internal dynamics of its unity. It is not possible adequately to understand it simply by picking it up and reading it through from cover to cover. It is not so much to be read silently as recited. To Muslims a great reciter puts into hisor herrecitation the whole of his heart and feeling. Those who hear him share in his experience of the sacred words. The recitation of its phrases awakes in the soul of reciter and listener alike a sense of the presence of God himself. For a Muslim, to hear the Quran is to hear God speaking. Given that its Arabic words are believed to be Gods very words, Muslims consider any attempt to express its sense in any other language to be only a human encounter with the Quran. Renderings in other languages are permissible provided they are accompanied by the Arabic text. They may communicate something of the Qurans sense and even its literary quality, but may not be used as an authority for legal judgments or a foundation for theological statements. The Quran speaks of itself, and of Muhammad as its recipient. It tells him that the call he has received is the same as the call given to the great gures of Judaism and Christianity, Abraham, Moses and Jesus. His role is to present the nal revelation of God to humankind. Earlier revelations, in particular the Tawrah (Torah), the Zabur (Psalms)
and the Injil (Gospel), are mentioned in the Quran as its predecessors. The Quran conrms what is authentic in earlier revelations, but it also replaces what was lost in their transmission by human hands, corrects what was distorted and ne-tunes the legal provisions of those earlier revelations to give them a universal dimension. The Quran condemns the Jews for refusing to accept Muhammad as a prophet, and asserts (sura 4:96) that Mecca was the rst place of worship on earth founded by Adam and Eve after their expulsion from the Garden of Eden. Among the revelations that comprise the Quran are stories of the prophets preceding Muhammad, and the hostility and rejection most of them endured. Moses alone is mentioned almost 600 times, and Joseph has a whole chapter dedicated to him. These prophets, along with David, Jonah, Jesus the son of Mary and others, are an elite community of religious leaders, transmitters of one and the same message: that God is One, that he sends messengers, and that there will be a day of resurrection on which all will be judged. The revelation of the Quran is generally held to begin with the words revealed to Muhammad in the cave: Iqra bismi rabbikal-ladhi khalaq (Recite/ declare in the name of your Lord). The sura is called Alaq, Congealed blood, and begins:
FIG 5.11 An Imam, his back to the mihrab (the niche in a mosque indicating the direction of Mecca), reciting the Quran
117
Recite in the name of your Lord who created [all things], created humankind from congealed blood. (Quran 96:12) The image created humankind from congealed blood has dramatic power. But the image cannot be seen as appropriate without an understanding of the medical knowledge of the time that saw conception as a result of the congealing of menstrual blood by semen. The Quran includes elements of family, religious and criminal law. It covers religious obligations such as the Fast, the Pilgrimage and the giving of alms. It includes lessons drawn from the campaigns Muhammad fought, his relations with his wives and their jealousies with each other. The chapters of the Quran are often mosaics of themes, of lessons to be emphasised, of promises of heaven for those who obey the divine laws and threats of punishment for those who disobey. It was during one of the last nights of the month of Ramadan that the Quran was brought from the divine throne down through the seven heavens to the heaven of this world. From there it was revealed to Muhammad. Islam believes that the rst revelation made to Muhammad in the cave was in this month. The night when it occurred is known as the Night of Destiny. For Muslims celebrating this anniversary the night has a nativity-like character, a night when all is at peace. In popular piety, at a moment on this night that no one knows, the event will be reenacted. The heavens will open, angels will pass from heaven to earth and the very trees will bow in adoration. Anyone who is awake and sees this will have whatever he or she wishes for the following year. Children struggle to stay awake and climb trees to keep a lookout in the hope of catching sight of the wonderful scene. But alas, invariably they fall asleep at the crucial moment, and the opportunity is lost until the next year. On this night in Muslim countries, streets, mosques and shrines are packed with worshippers. A chapter of the Quran tells of it: And who will tell you what the night of destiny is? The night of destiny is better than a thousand months. On it the angels and the spirit descend by leave of their Lord with every decree. There is peace till the rising of the dawn. (The Quran, sura 97:2-5)
activities
1. What is the Quran? 2. Where did it come from? 3. Discuss why the Quran is important for Muslims. Why is it central to their lives? What do they nd in it?
The hadith
Islam holds that the Quran records Gods words, not Muhammads. Linguistically, their style was immediately distinguishable from that of his everyday speech. However, once Muhammads status as a prophet was recognised, the Companions paid careful attention to his own sayings as a man. He was a revered and wise leader, so his followers tried to memorise all his signicant statements. The words the rst generation of Muslims heard were passed on to the next generation, and so on for a number of generations. The explanations he gave of verses of the Quran, what he said that complemented the Quran, the answers he gave to questions put to him, his responses to everyday situationsin the widest sense, how he lived his daily life and interacted with those around him were all remembered. Such was the reverence in which he was held as the Prophet that these sayings also had authority. They are called hadith. The hadith are the second foundation text of Islam. Along with the Quran, they are the basis of Islamic jurisprudence. They show the life of the Prophet as one worthy of being taken as a role model. They are a source for prayers, meditation and spiritual insight, as well as an elaboration of the ethical values taught by the Quran. There are differences of opinion as to when the hadith were rst recorded in writing. Some take the view that this was done from very early on. Others believe they circulated as oral traditions for some time because early Muslims were reluctant to write Muhammads words down in case they were given the same status as the Quran. By the early 700s, however, devoted individuals began to collect the hadith and put them in written form to preserve them. A hadith consisted of two parts: the text itself, which needed to be consistent with what was known of the Prophet and in accord with good sense, and its isnad, the chain of transmission of
118
individuals through whom the text had reached the collector. The transmitters had to be of good character and it had to be established that they had actually met. For a line of transmission to have full authority, it had to extend to a Companion, male or female, who had seen or heard the Prophet say or do what the hadith reported. There are a number of collections of hadith. The two collections carrying the most authority are those compiled by the ninth-century scholars Bukhari (810870 CE) and Muslim (817874 CE). Bukhari applied exacting standards to the hadith that he included. His collection contains over 7000 traditions that he selected out of 200 000 purported sayings (Muslim picked 4000 out of 300 000). Bukhari took the integrity of his informants seriously. There is an anecdote that as he travelled through central Asia, looking for individuals who might have heard some hadith, he was told that a certain man in a certain paddock had such knowledge and was taken to him. The man was standing in a eld trying to attract his horse. Since the horse refused to come, he lifted up and tossed his galabiya (outer robe) as though he had oats in it. Bukhari had no further interest in him, saying, If he cant be honest with a horse, he cant be trusted with a saying of the Prophet. In the collections, the hadith are organised into various categories so that they are accessible for use in complementing the Quran and resolving issues of jurisprudence. Examples are many. The Quran makes clear the obligation to perform ritual prayer. It does not, however, explain how the prayer is structured, or give details of what is to be recited or what physical posturesstanding, bowing, prostration with the forehead touching the groundshould accompany the recitation. Nor does it give the details of the call to prayer. These things are explained in the hadith.
foundation text of Islam. Along with the Quran, they are the basis of Islamic jurisprudence.
The hadith are the second
Examples of hadith Pay heed to the cry of the oppressed, for there is no barrier between it and God. Salomon was offered wealth, authority and knowledge. He chose knowledge, and wealth and authority were added to him. For Muslims, the best house is one in which the orphan is well treated; the worst is one in which the orphan is oppressed. Every good deed is an act of charity. It is an act of charity if you greet your brother with a smile; it is an act of charity if you put water from your bucket into his bucket. The Prophet sent Muadh [one of his Companions] to the Yemen, and said to him: Call on them to testify that there is no god but God. If they accept this, inform them that God requires that they pray ve times a day. If they accept this, then inform them that God requires that a tax be taken from the wealthy among them and given to the poor. A prostitute was forgiven She passed a dog lying next to a well, its tongue hanging out It was dying of thirst. She took off a shoe, lowered it into the well with her head shawl, and drew with it out of the well water for the dog to drink. Her sins were forgiven for doing this. Someone asked: Is there a reward for doing good to animals? The Prophet replied: For doing good to any living creature there is a reward. One of the Companions asked the Prophet: How does the angel of revelation come to you? The Prophet replied: Sometimes he comes to me in the sound of clanging bells, and this way is the most painful for me. Then he leaves me, and I retain in my memory what he has said. And sometimes he takes a human form. He speaks to me, and I remember what he says.
activities
1. What are hadith? 2. Who put them into writing and when? 3. Why are they so important to Muslims? 4. Undertake research to identify more examples of the content of the hadith. 5. Read the following examples of hadith and discuss their meaning and implications for the life of Muslims.
119

Ethical foundations: Islamic jurisprudence
The Quran, (the word of God) and the hadith (the words and example of the Prophet), present the values and principles that are the foundation of Islamic ethics. The divine revelation is supported, interpreted and developed by the practice of the Prophet and his companions. These values have a moral basis and a ritual meaning. The behaviour they present as pleasing to God relates to the human relationship with the divine (a vertical aspect) and the relations of humankind with each other (a horizontal aspect). Obedience to these laws and a realisation of these values constitutes virtue, which is rewarded; disobedience or rejection of them is sinful and will be punished. Sin, in a properly formed Islamic conscience, results in a sense of guilt at the wrong done, wrong which can only be expiated by repentance and (where appropriate) restitution, and then forgiven: for God is merciful and ready to forgive. The Quran and hadith give both general and specic injunctions. The Quran (sura 2 [al-Baqara] 177) denes godliness. Godliness is not that you turn your faces to the east or the west: godly rather is one who believes in God, the last day, the angels, the Book and the prophets; one who gives of his property, despite his love of it, to his kin, to the orphan, to the poor, to the traveller, to the beggar: [godly is] one who frees slaves, who performs the ritual prayer and pays the poor tax. Godly are those who are faithful to a pledge they have made; who are patient in bearing difculty, hardship and trials. It is such as these who [when they say they believe] are speaking the truth. It is such as these who are devout. (sura 2:177) Other examples of ethical injunctions in the Quran include: Worship God, set nothing alongside Him. Be gracious to your parents, your kin, the orphan, the poor, the neighbour,
whether of your kin or not of your kin, the traveller, the wayfarer and your slaves. (sura 4 [al-Nisa]:36) Have you reected on the one who rejects the teaching of religion? He is the one who rebuffs the orphan and does not urge the feeding of the poor. (sura 107:13) These ethical principles cover many other areas of life. Among them are faithfulness to ones word, even at the cost of loss to ones self; honesty in trading; never to murder; never to fail in trust of Gods providence; and to guard against impurity in body and mind. Islamic jurisprudence (qh) is a systematic organisation of and guide to Islams legal provisions (whether ritual observances, family, commercial or criminal) and its ethical values. It is comprehensive and covers every area of life. It is a guide to the sharia, the over-arching divinely laid out highway of life and conduct set out in the two foundation texts of the religion. To be legally obliged to follow the rules of qh, an individual must be mentally competent and physically mature (physical maturity being dened by the onset of menstruation for females and nocturnal emissions for males). For jurisprudential purposes, broadly speaking, human acts are classied as obligatory, recommended, neutral, undesirable or forbidden. They are sub-divided into two categories: those that have to do with duties to God, (ibadat), and those that concern human relationships (muamala). Food and drink are classied as either permitted (halal) or forbidden (haram). The intellectual edice of qh is of extraordinary richness and complexity, as well it might be, for its eld is so vast. And reecting its importance, along with tafsir (Quran exegesis), is one of the core Islamic disciplines which demand years of study. Fiqh developed out of the need to make jurisprudential judgments in the face of rapidly developing situations which went beyond what was explicitly provided for in the Quran and tradition.
120
Professional legal scholars elaborated the use of four sources on which to base legal decisions. In the rst place, there was the Quran. To complement it, there was hadiththe record of the sunna (practice of the Prophet). If these did not yield an answer, recourse was then had to the use of qiyas, analogy, which entailed a search for situations in the foundation texts or already established rulings that had common elements with the issue to be decided. A fourth source was ijma (consensus) of scholars and the wider community. There is considerable discussion about the denition and authority of this source. Sura 6:1513 gives an overview of the core ethical rules incumbent on Muslims. In addition to those set out in suras 2:177 and 4:36 above, it includes (in summary form) these injunctions: have nothing to do with whatever deles body or mind; give full weight and measure as justice demands; lay no hand on the property of an orphan, except to give it increase; slay no one whom God has protected without just cause; never kill your children out of fear of poverty, for you and they will be provided for. The range of ethical precepts in the Quran and hadith is much wider than this. They establish a basic code of honesty, a work ethic, and the necessary principles for family and community loyalty and solidarity. One group should not deride, defame or insult another (sura 49:11) and backbiting is specically condemned (sura 49:12). It is necessary to respect ones self, and to respect the other, and one way of showing this respect is by a proper modesty in dress. There must be courtesy in all human relations and transactions. One has responsibilities to ones neighbours and a duty of care, even to animals.
activities
1. What is Islamic jurisprudence and what community needs is it designed to meet? 2. What are the principles on which Islamic jurisprudence is based? 3. Outline the basic rules of the Islamic moral code and explain their ethical implications. 4. Explain what is meant by the terms halal and haram.
Ethics and modest clothing Hijab is an Arabic word meaning barrier or partition. In Islam it is a principle of modesty, an ethical behaviour imposed by the religious tradition. But it goes beyond the headscarf (Khimaar) many Muslim women wear. Muslim women are required to wear the hijab in front of any man they may possibly marry. While it does not have to be worn when with other women, it often is. Modesty rules are ethical behaviours, but they vary between Muslims just as they do in other religious traditions. Some women wear full body garments with only their eyes showing while others wear no special clothing at all. The Quran makes a few references to Muslim clothing, but prefers to point out more general principles of modest dress. Say to the believing men that they should lower their gaze and guard their modesty: that will make for greater purity for them: And Allah is well acquainted with all that they do. (Sura 24:30)
And say to the believing women that they should lower their gaze and guard their modesty; that they should not display their beauty and ornaments except what (must ordinarily) appear thereof; that they should draw their veils over their bosoms and not display their beauty except to their husbands, [a list of relatives], [household servants], or small children who have no sense of the shame of sex; and that they should not strike their feet in order to draw attention to their hidden ornaments. And O ye Believers! turn ye all together towards Allah, that ye may attain Bliss. (Sura 24:31)
FIG 5.12 The hijab is an outward sign of an ethical behaviour.
121
The Five Pillars of Islam

Muslims speak of Islam as built on ve pillars that summarise the essence of Islamic practice. These pillars give Muslims both a denition of that essence and a sense of identityof belonging to a community that declares its submission to One God, and to the laws he has revealed to his Prophet. The ve pillars are: to testify that There is no god but God and that Muhammad is the Messenger of God to perform a ritual prayer ve times daily to pay a poor tax to fast during the daylight hours of the month of Ramadan to make the pilgrimage to Mecca once in a lifetime, if one has the means and physical health to do so. Each of these pillars is a way of behaving, and together they form the visible framework of the house of Islam. Each complements the other. To a Muslim, brought up with these practices since childhood, the words setting out the pillars are self-explanatory. To an outsider, they raise many questions. The words are simple, but what do they mean? should be constantly and consciously present in the heart of every Muslim. In the Islamic community one lives with these two sentences, hears them, utters them time and again during the day. They are part of the ritual prayer, the second of the ve pillars. Five times a day they are part of the call of the muezzin.
The rst pillar: the profession of faith

The two sentences of the profession of faith, There is no god but God and Muhammad is the Messenger of God, summarise Muslim belief. To declare them of ones own volition, provided one is of age, is the essential act of Islam. Becoming a Muslim, then, is simple (though the observance of the religious law to which one is then subject is demanding, physically and morally, in its material and ritual requirements). The declaration There is no god but God is celebrated in the Quran and hadith as the most wonderful of all expressions. It is not simply a proposition to which one gives intellectual assent, but an existential reality of which one is part. It, and the words Muhammad is the Messenger of God, are the rst words a newborn child should hear, and should be the last words heard by the dying. Both
FIG 5.13 Men standing (one of the postures of the ritual prayer). They are performing the noon prayerwhen the sun has just passed its zenith. Prayer is forbidden when the sun is at its zenith.
The second pillar: prayer

The second pillar is performance of salat, the ve daily ritual prayers. For validity, the performance of these prayers is set about by ritual requirements regarding the time they are performed, ritual purity, the dress to be worn, the direction to be faced (towards Mecca) and the appropriateness of the place where prayer is conducted. The words to be uttered and the movements to accompany them are set out in meticulous detail.
122
The call of the muezzin consists of the Arabic of the following words: God is most great God is most great God is most great God is most great I testify there is no god but God I testify there is no god but God I testify that Muhammad is the Messenger of God I testify that Muhammad is the Messenger of God Come to prayer Come to prayer Come to security Come to security [At dawn is added: Prayer is better than sleep Prayer is better than sleep] God is most great God is most great There is no god but God.
in whose hand is the day of Judgment. You it is we worship, You we ask for aid. Guide us along the right path, the path of those on whom rests Your blessing, Not that of those against whom is your anger, nor that of those who go astray. (sura 1:17)
The third pillar: the poor tax

The third pillar is zakat, the payment of a poor tax. Despite its ranking as one of the pillars of Islam, it is complex to explain at several levels: as regards the categories of those who are obliged to pay it, the different rates on different kinds of property, and the different methods of collection in different Muslim countries. There are rates for crops of the eld, for livestock, and for gold, silver and merchandise. On the latter the rate is 2.5%. More important than the details of administrating the tax, however, is the principle it establishes: that the poor have a claim against the wealth of the rich and that this is to be channelled through an administrative structure.
The melodic line of this call may be simple or ornate, and often is of inspiring beauty. The ve prayer times are determined not by the clock but by the position of the sun in the sky. The rst, fajr (the dawn prayer), is called when there is merely the slightest glimmer of light on the eastern horizon and homes are still in total darkness. It must be performed before the sun appears over the horizon. It includes the words Prayer is better than sleep. Each of the prayer times is announced in the same way. The time of the second prayer, zuhr (the noon prayer), is just after the sun has reached its zenith; that of the third, asr, is just after the sun has reached the mid-point between its zenith and the western horizon. Maghrib, the fourth prayer, is performed when the sun has touched the western horizon, and isha, the fth and nal prayer, when the last glimmer of red has faded from the western sky. The recitation that is essential for every unit of every prayer is al-Fatiha, the rst chapter of the Quran, which in Muslim devotional and public life fulls the role that the Lords Prayer does in Christian countries. In the name of God the Merciful, the Compassionate. Praise be to God, Lord of the Universe, the Merciful, the Compassionate,
The fourth pillar: the fast of Ramadan

The fourth pillar is the fast of Ramadan, the ninth month of the Muslim year. It is decreed in the Quran, Sura 2:185. This fast requires abstention from food, drink, smoking and sex from rst light until sunset. The Muslim year being lunar, it is the appearance of the new moon in the evening sky that signals that fasting is to begin the following day. In fasting, Muslims resolve to turn away from sin, and to seek reconciliation and forgiveness for wrongs done within the family and the wider community. In the hunger of fasting, they experience and share in the suffering of the poor. The fast is physically and spiritually demanding. The sick and elderly are excused it on the payment of a compensation to contribute to the feeding of the poor. Observance of it is lightened in Muslim countries by community support and the fact that the ordinary responsibilities of daily life are geared to it. An early morning meal, the sahur, nished well before rst light, has to sustain those fasting until sunset. It is very difcult in a country such as Australia where Muslims are a minoritythere is little scope for adjustment of working hours and, when the lunar fasting month falls between December and February, the period of fasting may
123
extend to almost 18 hours. It is accompanied by special prayers and devotions at the mosque. The central event of each day is the iftarthe breaking of the days fast at sunset. Friends, neighbours and family members, even those from far away, take it in turns to gather at each others houses to share the event. The end of the fast is signalled by the appearance of the next new moon in the evening sky. This heralds on the following day the festival of the ending of the fast, the id al-tr, a day which begins with a mass public prayer service, followed by an exchange of greetings paid by children to parents and juniors to seniors over all generationsall wearing new clothes for the occasion. Open-house feasting is the general rule, and with it the resolve to put aside all quarrels and disagreements of the past year and to make a fresh start.
The fth pillar: the Hajj

The fth pillar is performance of the rites of the pilgrimage to Mecca, the Hajj, from the seventh to the tenth day of dhul-hijja (the 12th month of the Muslim calendar). This is an obligation for every Muslim who is of age and stable health, and who has the nancial means. Mecca has a central role in Muslim religious life. The ritual prayer must be performed facing towards Meccain Australia this is to the north-eastand
when a body is placed in the grave, it is laid on its side, facing towards Mecca. Why Mecca? It is not because it is the birthplace of Muhammad. Muhammad, though the greatest of the prophets, is a messenger only. Madina, which became his centre of political authority, is his city. Mecca, on the other hand, is the city of God. At the centre of Mecca is the Sacred Mosque, built around the cube-shaped structure known as the Kaba. In Muslim belief, Mecca has a unique status that goes back to the dawn of time. The Quran tells the story of the disobedience of Adam and Eve, and their expulsion from the Garden of Eden for eating the forbidden fruit, in much the same way as does the book of Genesis. There are a number of popular stories about where they fell. One is that Adam fell on Sri Lanka, on the top of what is now known as Adams Peak, and that Eve fell in Arabia. They spent many years looking for and at last met each other on the site of one of the great rituals of the Hajj, not far from Mecca: the plain of Arafat. Millions of pilgrims congregate here each year. The word Arafat in popular etymology means recognition, and the plain has this name as the place where Adam and Eve at last met, recognised each other and were reunited. Adam built the original Kaba, to be known as the House of Godthe rst place of worship on earth. It thus preceded any other sacred site on earth.
FIG 5.14 In Australia, Muslim groups invite the local community to join in their end-of-Ramadan festivities.
124
The original Kaba was destroyed in Noahs ood and the site abandoned for millennia until the time of Abraham. Abraham rebuilt it and re-established it as a holy place. However, the ceremonies performed at it became contaminated with fertility rites and idol worship. The rituals performed there included naked processions around the Kaba, with participants whistling and clapping their hands. Part of Muhammads task, then, was to restore this Meccan shrine to its authentic and original purpose, dedicated to the one God. The Quran gives vivid accounts of the importance of the Meccan shrine. The rst House [of worship] established on earth is indeed that at Bakka [Mecca], [set there] as a blessing and guidance for all peoples. In it are signs that give testimony. [In it is] the place where Abraham stood. Whoever enters it is secure from harm. The Pilgrimage to the House is a duty humankind owes to God. (Sura 3:9697) Another sura, similar in tone, gives a remarkable vision of the role of the shrine in days to come: Proclaim to humankind the Pilgrimage! They will come to you on foot, they will come on every scrawny camel, they will come from every distant valley to behold the blessings prepared for them and recite the name of God on the appointed days, [as they sacrice] the beasts and cattle He has provided for them. Then eat of these cattle, and feed the poor and destitute. (Sura 22:2728) These Five Pillars dene the external observances by which an individual may be recognised as a Muslim.
activities
1. Outline each of the Five Pillars. 2. Can one be a believing Muslim without fullling faithfully the requirements of all the pillars? Why or why not? 3. Research the site of Mecca. Why do Muslims believe it has been so important in world religious history? What does Mecca have to do with Adam and Eve? Would Jews and Christians visit Mecca in throngs if it played the same role in their religious history as it did in that of Muslims? What conicts are still occurring because of events that happened at Mecca 1400 years ago?
125
Review and assess

Review
1. Find a map that displays Arabia. On this map, identify the locations where Muhammad rst experienced Allah, and the areas he lived and worked. Present this as a PowerPoint and include photographs that illustrate the type of landscape and environment Muhammad may have lived in. Construct a graph that clearly illustrates the number of Muslims found in 10 of the most populated countries. Are these countries Islamic and, if they are, how can this be determined? Draw up a childrens book that clearly illustrates the ve essential Islamic practices or the Pillars of Islam. The book needs to have clear diagrams and simple explanations. Write a journal about a young woman who is sponsored by her community to take part in the fth pillar of IslamHajj. Include information about the following: 5. the benets for her the benets for her community how she prepares what she experiences there what steps are involved in Hajj.
2.
3.
4.
Why is it necessary to read the Quran and hadith to gain an adequate understanding of how to be a Muslim? Is it possible to be a Muslim through reading the Quran alone? Create a chart that identies the Four Rightly Guided Caliphs. State who they were, the years they were active and what they attempted to do for their community. Compare this chart with one that identies the Imams. What did the Imams do and in what way are they different from the Four Rightly Guided Caliphs? Construct a glossary of the Arabic terms in this chapter. Clearly state and dene each term. Dene what it is to be Sunni or Shiite. Use the Internet to locate two cultural groups that state themselves as Sunni and Shiite. What differences are there? What are the similarities? Which group would you have an affinity for and why?
6.
7.
8.
126
9.
Give an account of twenty-four hours of the fast of Ramadan, from the sunset and breaking of the fast one day until the sunset of the following day.
22. Name and explain the importance of the Quran and the hadith. 23. Describe the importance of sacred writings to Islam. 24. Explain the terms halal and haram. 25. Name and describe one of the Five Pillars. 26. Outline the Five Pillars. 27. Explain the signicance of Ramadan to the Muslim believer.
10. Construct a media le on Islamic issues that contain a minimum of 10 articles and answer the following questions: What Islamic issue is being presented? In what way do the presented issues relate to information found in this chapter? How objective is the information that is presented? What audience is it aimed at?
11. It is easy to become a Muslim but very hard to practise what it is to live as a Muslim. Write a response to this statement, using the knowledge you have gained from this chapter and other sources you may have read.
Longer response (500650 words) 28. Explain the process of decision making in Islamic jurisprudence. 29. Explain why the Prophet Muhammad as the nal messenger is the model for Muslim life. 30. Explain the signicance of the Five Pillars as the key to the Islamic lifestyle.

Short response (100150 words) 12. Outline the principal events in Muhammads life. 13. Outline the historical context in which Islam began. 14. Explain why the Prophet Muhammad is regarded as the last prophet. 15. Name the Four Rightly Guided Caliphs and briey describe each. 16. Account for the emergence of the Sunni and Shia. 17. Describe Tawhid. 18. Explain the importance of Tawhid. 19. Outline the principal Muslim beliefs concerning life after death. 20. Outline the principal ethical teachings of Islam. 21. Name three principal beliefs and describe each.
127
Judaism
The focus of this study is Judaism, one of the major religious traditions, as a living religious system.
Outcomes
Content
Students learn about: Origins Abraham and the Covenant Moses, the Exodus and the giving of the Torah modern Judaism Conservative Judaism Orthodox Judaism Progressive Judaism Principal beliefs belief in a single God who is the creator and ruler of the universe the concept of a moral law prescribed by God the idea of the Covenant Sacred texts and writings the Hebrew scriptures the Hebrew Bible the Talmud Core Ethical teachings the commandments of the Torah the Prophetic Vision the book of Proverbswisdom, righteousness, purity and generosity of spirit Personal devotion in the home Shabbat
Prelim | Chapter 6 Judaism
129
BAT MITZVAH CHASSIDISM
rite of passage for a girls coming of age. a revival movement that began in eastern Europe in the 18th century. A mystical and ecstatic movement, it questioned many of the traditional views of established Judaism. a stream that believes that Judaism should be constantly evolving according to the times and peoples needs. It values modern culture and scholarship alongside traditional sacred texts and ritual observances. the relationship between God and his people that came through Abraham and Moses, carrying with it special rights and responsibilities. a non-Jewish person. the way of Jewish law given to Moses on Mount Sinai and transmitted throughout the generations by rabbis and sages. a modern term, also known as the Tanakh. a member of the Israelite people. a term rst used about 2000 years ago to explain the Jewish religion to non-Jewish people. a mystical strand of Judaism. a form of Judaism that takes a more liberal approach to the interpretation of the Law than other streams. from the Hebrew mashaih or masheach meaning the one who is anointed. When the Messiah comes he will free the Jewish people from oppression and restore peace and wholeness. a box attached to a doorpost. Gods name is engraved inside. The Shema is written on a scroll and placed inside this box. part of the Talmudic literature, compiled over a period of 400 years. It is legal material written down since the time of Torah. It aims to clarify matters through repetition and discussion. law given to the community of believers. It is covenantal, a contract with God. the traditional form of Judaism, characterised by the belief that the Written and Oral Law given to Moses on Mount Sinai cannot be changed.
PROGRESSIVE JUDAISM
a stream of Judaism that believes that while the Torah came from God, it is up to people to apply it to modern-day situations. It sees Jewish law as dynamic rather that a static set of rules from the past. teachersomeone noted for their knowledge and their ability to teach others. Judaism as it developed after the destruction of the Second Temple in Jerusalem c. 70 CE. The rabbi replaced the priest; the synagogue replaced the temple; study of the Torah replaced sacrice. founded in the United States in the 1920s by Rabbi Mordecai Kaplan, this form of Judaism rejects the concept of a supernatural God and asserts that Judaism is a people, a culture and a faith community. the Sabbath or seventh day of the week when Jews abstain from work. The Sabbath begins on Friday evening and concludes one hour after sunset on Saturday. morning prayer service. the prayer that states the oneness of God: Hear, O Israel: the Lord is our God, the Lord is One (Deuteronomy 6:4). the collective name for rabbinical writings composed from the rst century BCE to around 500 CE. an acronym taken from the three sections of the Hebrew Bible: Torah (also known as the Pentateuch), Neviim (the prophets) and Ketubim (scriptures, writings or wisdom books). phylacteriessmall boxes containing a small piece of parchment on which is written the Shema. These boxes are strapped on the arm and forehead at morning prayers. the accountability of each person for their own deeds and personal introspection. the rebuilding or repair of the world. the rst ve books of the Hebrew Bible. the unutterable name of God, revealed to Moses at the burning bush (Exodus 3:14). It is often translated I am who I am. the language used by Ashkenazi Jews. It is written in the Hebrew script and has many Hebrew and German words.
RABBI RABBINICAL JUDAISM
CONSERVATIVE JUDAISM
COVENANT
RECONSTRUCTIONIST JUDAISM
GENTILE HALACHA
SHABBAT
HEBREW BIBLE JEW JUDAISM
SHACHARIT SHEMA
KABBALAH LIBERAL JUDAISM MESSIAH
TALMUD
TANAKH
TEFILLIN
MEZUZAH
MISHNAH
TESHUVA TIKKUN OLAM TORAH YHWH
MOSAIC LAW ORTHODOX JUDAISM
YIDDISH
130
Origins of Judaism
Abraham and the Covenant
The sacred history of Judaism begins with Abraham, the rst father or patriarch of the Jewish people. Responding to Gods command, Abraham left his homeland in Mesopotamia and embarked on a journey to an unknown place, later revealed to be the land of Canaan (Genesis 1215). Abrahams trust in God, and his obedience to Gods command to undertake the journey and to implement the rite of circumcision, are fundamental to Judaism. Essentially, Abrahams religion was a simple one. It did not need priests or elaborate temple structures, and it did not depend on formal political and social organisations. The Abrahamic belief reected a semi-nomadic lifestyle and promoted a personal relationship between one man and one God. This relationship was covenantalthat is, it was based on a covenant, an agreement between the divine and the human. God said to Abraham: this is my covenant with you: You shall be the ancestor of a multitude of nations I will make you exceedingly fruitful; and I will make nations of you, and kings shall come from you. I will establish my covenant between me and you, and your offspring after you (Genesis 17:47) Genesis 22 tells of Abrahams greatest act of faith. Take your son, your only son Isaac, whom you love, and go to the land of Moriah, and offer him there as a burnt offering on one of the mountains that I shall show you. (Genesis 22:2) Without questioning the obviously cruel command, Abraham put his trust in God and began to make the necessary preparations for the sacrice. Genesis recounts that he bound the boy and was about to slash his throat when an angel appeared and prevented the sacrice from proceeding. Do not lay your hand on the boy or do anything to him; for now I know that you fear God, since you have not withheld your son, your only son, from me. (Genesis 22:1213)
The sacred history of Judaism begins
with Abraham ...
FIG 6.1 Abraham offering his son Isaac as a sacrice
131
Terms in Judaism The term Judaism was coined about 2000 years ago in order to explain the peculiarities of the Jewish religion to non-Jews. It is not found in any of the Jewish sacred writings. Even the noun Jew makes only a rare appearance in the Jewish scriptures, and until the fourth century CE it meant someone or something belonging to the region of Judaea in Palestine. The rarity of these concepts is not surprising since throughout its history Judaism has had to develop a vocabulary capable of providing two kinds of explanations concerning history, identity and religion: one for the Jewish people themselves and another for non-Jews interested in the principles of the Jewish religion. The two explanations are complementary, telling the same historical and religious story but from different perspectives. The Hebrew Bible recounts the sacred beginnings and history of the Jewish people. It is intended to offer a religious meaning for the situations described in its pages, highlighting the instructive and educational role of the Hebrew Bible. The name Torah is given to the rst ve books of the Hebrew Bible, meaning to teach and guide. The term Hebrew Bible is modern. In the Jewish religion the Hebrew Bible is called Tanakh, which is an acronym derived from the three sections of the work: Torah, also referred to as the Pentateuch: Neviim, meaning prophets; and Ketubim, meaning Scriptures, writings or wisdom books. In Christian tradition the Hebrew Bible is referred to as the Old Testament; however, the sacred books are arranged in a different order. Christians read the books in the light of the New Testament while Jewish people read the Tanakh with the aid of Jewish commentators and interpreters. Although modern biblical scholarship calls the people depicted in the Tanakh Israelites, and their religious practices and beliefs Israelite, for the Jewish believer the Tanakh marks the starting point for Judaism, and the people who adhere to its beliefs and practices are referred to as Jewish.
At that moment Abraham looked up and saw a ram, which he sacriced to God, whereupon the angel reappeared, this time with a blessing for Abraham and his descendants. In Judaism, Abrahams willingness to sacrice Isaac serves as an example of supreme piety and devotion. Throughout Jewish history, particularly at times of harsh persecution, the Abrahamic model comforted the Jewish people by assuring them that divine blessing would follow true acts of faith.
activities
1. Research the word Judaism and where it comes from. 2. What is the name of the Hebrew Bible? Explain the three sections within it. 3. Why is Abraham so important to the Jewish religion? 4. Describe the nature of Abrahams religion of his time. 5. Empathy task 1: Imagine that you are Abraham and God has told you that you must sacrice your son Isaac. Write a journal entry for how you are feeling and how you are reacting to Isaac for each day on your journey until you nd the ram in the thicket. 6. Empathy task 2: Imagine you are Sarah (Abrahams wife) and your husband has insisted on taking your son Isaac on a long journey. Abraham has been acting very strangely lately. Write a journal entry on your misgivings about this journey and your relief when they return home safely. Abrahams descendants in Egypt The children of Abraham maintained their personal relationship with God through prayer and the ritual sacrice of animals. When famine forced Jacobs family to move to Egypt, they lived there for several years in peace and continued their ancestral traditions without persecution. Changing political circumstances, however, meant that within a generation or so Jacobs descendants became slaves. Responding to the peoples prayers for physical and spiritual salvation, God sent Moses to organise their escape from Egypt. This event and its miraculous consequences are referred to in the Hebrew Scriptures as the Exodus.
132
Moses, the Exodus and the giving of the Torah

Moses is regarded as the founder of the Jewish religion. He transformed Judaism from a cult of ancestral worship into a tradition based on divine revelation. He was born into a family of Hebrew slaves in Egypt in approximately the thirteenth century BCE. His parents, Amram and Jochebed, were from the tribe of Levi. As an infant, Moses was adopted by Egypts royal family and grew up in a social, religious and political environment very different from that of his kin and ethnic group. After killing an Egyptian guard, Moses, fearing for his life, ed to the desert. It was here in the desert that he experienced his rst encounter with God. Moses was minding the ock of his father-in-law, Jethro. When approaching Horeb, the mountain of God, he saw a bush in ames, but the re was not consuming the bush. Moses approached it and heard a voice calling out his name: Moses, Moses! Come no closer! Remove the sandals from your feet, for the place on which you are standing is holy ground. (Exodus 3:45) As Moses followed the command, the voice was revealed to be that of the God of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob, Moses forefathers. Moses immediate reaction was to cover his face as he did not want to gaze at God. Expressing his concerns for the fate of his people, God revealed his plan to rescue the children of Israel from slavery and lead them back to their ancestral homeland in Canaan. Moses would have a special role to play as Gods messenger and prophet. From this time on he would be the only person in a position to converse with God directly. This unique position would set Moses apart as an example for all future prophets and religious teachers within the Jewish tradition. At rst Moses was reluctant. He asked for Gods name so that he could convince the children of Israel that the message was authentic. If I come to the Israelites and say to them, The God of your ancestors has sent me to you, and they ask me, What is his name? what shall I say to them? God said to Moses, I AM WHO I AM. He said further, Thus you shall say to the Israelites. I AM has sent me to you. (Exodus 3:1315) After much persuasion, Moses agreed to accept Gods command. He returned to Egypt with a request to the pharaoh to release the children of Israel from slavery and to let them go to their promised land. On a personal level, the revelation at the sight of the burning bush represented the end of Moses search for his origins. Socially, it was the starting point for the Israelites deliverance from slavery and return to their ancestral homeland. Theologically, it was the site of the disclosure of Gods name. After God spoke from the burning bush, Moses asked God for his name, and God replied, I am who I am. This self-revelation, disclosed in a miraculous event, is the unutterable name of God in Judaism, YHWH.
FIG 6.2 Michelangelos statue of Moses
an example for all future prophets and religious teachers within the Jewish tradtion.
Moses ... [is]
activities
1. Write a paragraph supporting the claim that Moses is the founder of the Jewish religion. 2. Why is Moses religious experience so different from that of Abraham? 3. Research the meaning of the word theophany. Explain how the story of the burning bush is a theophany.
133
The Exodus and the giving of the Law

The Hebrews ight from Egypt was nally achieved through Gods direct intervention. God sent ten plagues in order to punish the Egyptian pharaoh. In the rst of these, the waters of the Nile were turned to blood. The land of Egypt was then infested with frogs and maggots. The plagues continued to escalate in intensity, and the tenth was the most horric of all. God directed that the rstborn child of every Egyptian family would die. The Hebrew slaves, however, were told to place a special mark on the doorposts of their houses so that God would know which houses to avoid. In the Hebrew Bible this is described as the passing over, a miraculous event that would form the basis of the Passover celebration. As prescribed by the Hebrew Bible, Jewish people observe the Passover in order to remember and give thanks to God, who, keeping the promise of the Covenant, delivered them from bondage to freedom. This day shall be a day of remembrance for you. You shall celebrate it as a festival to the LORD; throughout your generations you shall observe it as a perpetual ordinance You shall observe the festival of unleavened bread, for on this very day I brought your companies out of the land of Egypt. (Exodus 12:1417)
FIG 6.3 The plagues sent by God to punish the Egyptian pharaoh when he refused to release the children of Israel (14th-century Hebrew manuscript)
The last plague convinced the pharaoh to release the Hebrews. Seizing the moment, Moses escaped with the children of Israel. Their ight from Egypt marked the beginning of the most crucial transition in the history of Judaism. After the Exodus the simple tradition of Abraham would be transformed by Moses into a religion based on shared memory and expressed in the form of binding laws and ethical values, the most important of which were the Ten Commandments. Exodus chapter 20 recounts how Moses received the Ten Commandments. Again Moses spoke directly with God and received the commandments alone. Even priests, who were elected so that rituals such as the Passover would be properly conducted, were barred from approaching Mount Sinai. The Ten Commandments covered all aspects of life, from ones personal relationship with God to family and neighbourly obligations. Most importantly, the rst commandment, I am the LORD your God, who brought you out of the land of Egypt (Exodus 20:2), re-established the supremacy of Israels living relationship with the one God who was also known to Abraham, Isaac and Jacob. This afrms the continuous history of the Jewish people.
FIG 6.4 Mount Sinai: note the wild, rugged landscape that the people of the Exodus had to travel through.
134
Mediterranean Sea
Rosetta Damietta Sais Pelusium
Dothan Shechem Luz (Bethel) Ai Succoth
LAND OF CANAAN
Ephrath Mamre Hebron Gerar Dead Beersheba Sea
LAND OF GOSHEN
Etham Sukkol Heliopolis Memphis
Wilderness of Shur
Wilderness of Zin
Kadesh Barnea
LAND OF EDOM
Mount Hor
LAND OF MOAB
Wilderness of Etham
EGYPT
Nile
Makah Elim
Wilderness of Paran LAND OF MIDIAN

Ezion-geber
Mediterranean Sea
Tigris River
EGYPT
Euphrates River
Nile River
Persian Gulf
Wilderness of Sin
Rephidim
Wilderness of Sinai
Red Sea
Mount Sinai
FIG 6.5 Moses and the people of Israels path through the wilderness to their promised land
The Exodus and the revelation of the Ten Commandments occupy central positions in the foundation of the Jewish religion as an independent tradition. Throughout Jewish history these two events have served as afrmations of Gods care and support for his people in times of crisis. Moses role in both events was crucial. Just as Abraham is considered to be the father of the Jewish people, Moses is universally acknowledged as the founder of the Jewish religion. For the next 40 years Moses led the people of Israel through the desert to the promised land. (See map above.) Moses was a sensitive but uncompromising leader. The model for future prophets, Moses is depicted as communicating directly with God. Moses the political leader forged a unied national identity for the people of Israel, thus bringing unity out of diverse and disparate beginnings. Moses established Judaism as a monotheistic religion at a time when all other religions in the region still worshipped a multitude of gods. His teachings were signicantly focused on ethical concerns and were aimed at building a just society. Moses leadership can be seen as an unsurpassed example of humility and integrity based on strong religious convictions in the one God who provided Moses moral strength, and these virtues proved to be a constant source of inspiration for future Jewish teachers.
activities
1. Outline the major events starting with Abraham leaving his homeland in Mesopotamia until the end of Moses leadership of Gods people. 2. If you have access to a program such as Comic Life, make up a cartoon strip to tell the story of the Exodus. 3. Empathy task: How must Moses have been feeling when Pharaoh kept going back on his word? Use some examples from the plagues. How do you think he would have felt when they had nally crossed the Sea of Reeds and left the Egyptians behind them? 4. The Ten Commandments are divided into two key sections. Prepare a visual presentation of the Commandments in each section. 5. Debate the topic: the Ten Commandments helped form a nation out of a wandering people. 6. In your own words, explain the story of the Passover.
135
Modern Judaism
Orthodox Judaism
Modern Orthodox Judaism found its most eloquent proponent in Samson Raphael Hirsch (180888). His rst task was to isolate certain aspects of modern European life that were considered to be acceptable to Judaism. Hirsch did not raise an objection if, for example, a person chose to dress like a Gentile or speak in English rather than Yiddish. Such practices were not thought to affect the persons Jewish identity. He did object, however, to any modication of the patterns of life established by rabbinical Judaism. Although a Jewish person could speak in English or any other language when conducting personal or secular affairs, rituals must be conducted in Hebrew and the segregation between the sexes must be maintained during worship. The Jewish believer, according to Hirsch, is a person for whom Judaism encompasses all of life, in the synagogue and in the kitchen. Hirschs orthodoxy merges the basic aspects of Judaism with high moral and ethical concerns for the worlds well-being. The orthodox believer is perceived as modern in outlook, yet strict in the way he or she keeps the commandments, which, according to Orthodox belief, were given to the Jewish people at Mount Sinai.
FIG 6.7 Jewish man praying at the Wailing Wall in Jerusalem
There are many Jewish communities that have not been exposed to the pressures of modernity (such as those from Eastern Europe) whose traditions and practices have changed very little over time. Although referred to as Orthodox, their Orthodoxy is quite different from that prescribed by Hirsch, relying mainly on religious writings of medieval writers such as Maimonides. Each of the Hassidic groups follows the teachings of their rabbi, which can vary from group to group.
activities
1. Name four visual features of Orthodox Jews that distinguish them from others. 2. In what ways are Hassidic Jews different from other Orthodox Jews? 3. Create an oral presentation to your class from the perspective of an Orthodox Jewish man. Assuming the class knows little about Judaism, explain the importance of your prayer shawl and your phylacteries. Use photos and aids to help your presentation.
FIG 6.6 The Great Synagogue, Sydney
136
Reform Judaism
The main task of Reform Judaism has been to negotiate a way between ancient religious tradition and contemporary lifestyle. This movement originated in the early 19th century. Unlike Orthodox Judaism, the Reform movements concentrate on the ethical teachings of the biblical prophets rather than on Moses religious prescriptions or on the rabbinical commentaries in the Talmud. In the Reform movements the prophets are shown to have pointed to a golden age in which moral values will be cherished more strongly than religious ritual, and in which divisions between religious, ethnic and national groups will be overcome by the force of a universal ethic. Reform Judaism Reform Jews call their synagogues temples. Women are ordained as rabbis and cantors. Children of mixed marriages are often regarded as Jewish even if their mother is not Jewish.
Conservative Judaism
Often referred to as the middle ground, Conservative Judaism is distinguished by its strong rejection of any kind of dogmatism or inexible thinking. Conservative Judaism represents a mixture of Orthodox and Reform beliefs and practices. The three principles of Conservative Judaism commit their adherents to the unity of all Jewish people, the continuation of Jewish tradition and the maintenance of Jewish scholarship. The basic tenet of Conservative Judaism is that any religious tradition exists for the sake of the people who follow it and not vice versa. Judaism, according to Conservatism, is always secondary in its importance to the Jewish people. Since the people come rst, Judaism should not be understood as a monolithic tradition. Rather, it can be thought of as taking many forms and shapes, all of which are valid if practised from a strong moral and ethical base. Conservative Judaism accepts the rabbinical belief framework, though with certain modications. Thus, in Conservative Judaism, as against Orthodoxy, men and women sit together in synagogue, women are allowed to read from the Torah and girls may undergo a bat mitvah. Worship is conducted in both Hebrew and English, and many synagogues have choirs accompanied by music.
Judaism is that any religious tradition exists for the sake of the people who follow it and not vice versa.
The basic tenet
of Conservative
FIG 6.8 In Conservative Judaism men and women sit together in the Synagogue.
137
FIG 6.9 In Progressive Judaism women can become a rabbi.
Progressive Judaism
Progressive Judaism is a collective term encompassing Reform, Liberal, Reconstructionist and Progressive Jews. At the beginning of the 21st century there are more than 1.7 million people belonging to the movement known as Progressive Judaism. This movement began in the 1800s with men like Abraham Geiger and Sigmund Stern, but it was not until the 20th century that reform movements started to take hold with the formation of the World Union for Progressive Judaism. This umbrella movement was to play an active role in the rebuilding of the small congregations that were decimated during the Second World War. Today different Progressive Jewish groups subscribe to a common set of beliefs, goals and organisational structures but disagree over the role of tradition. This means that there can be many differences between groups. Progressive Jews embrace tradition but try to make their religion meaningful in todays world. They accept the core values of pluralism, modernity, equality and social justice and place an emphasis on tikkun olam, the rebuilding or repair of the world.
As are all branches of Judaism, Progressive Judaism is built on the Law of Moses as set out in the ve books of the Torah. They emphasise ethical behaviour as guiding their way of life, working to make them meaningful parts of contemporary life. Particular emphasis is put on rebuilding the world or tikkun olam, which is the belief that people are in partnership with God in creating the world as it should be, through both social and environmental action. While the Torah comes from God, it is the responsibility of people to apply its teachings to their time in history. The important point here is that Jewish law, rather than being the province of past rabbis, is dynamic, a process requiring continuing engagement with the core beliefs of Judaism in the context of the current world. All individuals are responsible for developing their own understanding of what God wants of them. In order to nd this, Progressive Jews place emphasis on education, especially in Jewish texts and traditions. Men and women are seen as equal partners with no division of seating within synagogues, and both sexes enjoy the opportunity to participate equally in services. It is not unusual to see women in the role of rabbi.
138
Progressive Judaism The Australia Progressive Jewish Congregation of the city of Brisbane sets out the values of Progressive Judaism as follows: Respect. All views are listened to, and everyone is accepted without judgment. Learning. We treasure learning as the core of Jewish life and our hopes for the future. Inclusiveness. There is a place here for all Progressive Jews, and all those who are studying to become Progressive Jews. Openness. Our decisionmaking processes are clear, transparent and fair. Family. We value every member as part of our Progressive Jewish family, whatever their own family circumstances.
In Progressive Judaism, prayers and rituals are essentially the same as in other branches of Judaism, but with minor alterations to maintain their relevance to the community. It is not uncommon to use the vernacular as well as Hebrew in the service. Music may be included in the service, which is often shorter than an Orthodox service. It is often thought that Progressive Jews reject Jewish law, Shabbat observance and dietary laws, but this is not the case. They set aside a sacred time for Shabbat and other festivals, but Progressive Jews reinterpret the Torah in ways meaningful to modern-day lives.
activities
1. Historical research: a. What was the Trefa Banquet and why was it signicant? b. Outline the main elements in the debate between Kaufmann Kohler and Alexander Kohut. Discuss the signicance of the Pittsburgh Platform and the resulting outcomes. 2. Explain why some Jewish people choose to belong to one of the Progressive congregations. 3. Draw up a table with the column headings Orthodox Judaism, Conservative Judaism and Progressive Judaism. On the vertical axis list the following: Language of worship, Women, Dress of worship, Organisation. Complete the table. 4. Discuss which features of each of the three groups of Judaism appeal to you and explain why that is the case.
but try to make their religion meaningful in todays world. They accept the core values of pluralism, modernity, equality and social justice and place an emphasis on tikkun olam
Progressive Jews
embrace tradition
139
Principal beliefs
Belief in a single God, the moral law and the importance of covenant
(See also Origins of Judaism: Abraham and the Covenant pages 131132.) The most fundamental aspect of Jewish belief concerning God is the afrmation of Gods oneness. According to Judaism, spiritual entities cannot be divided. The belief in Gods oneness is found in the Hebrew Bible and forms the basis of the central Jewish prayer, the Shema: Hear, O Israel, God is our God, God the One and Only. (Deuteronomy 6:4) The Shema calls upon all Jewish people to afrm their belief in the one, only and unique God of Israel who saved them from slavery in Egypt more than 3000 years ago. In commemoration of the Exodus from Egypt, the Shema prescribes the binding of phylacteries or tellin: small boxlike objects containing passages from the book of Exodus that are usually worn by Jewish men on the arm and forehead during morning prayers. Another example of the belief in Gods oneness and uniqueness is found in the morning prayer, the Shacharit: Exalted be the Living God and praised, He existsunbounded by time is His existence. He is Oneand there is no unity like His Oneness Inscrutable and innite His Oneness. He has no semblance of a body nor is He corporeal The Shacharit also conveys another principle of Jewish belief concerning God, namely Gods incorporeality. God is above matter and form and therefore is intangible. God is free of the limitations of bodily life. Although religious and liturgical language may employ human metaphors when speaking of God, these gures of speech are never understood literally. In the book of Genesis, God is depicted as having completed the act of creation. However, Gods involvement in creation continues in a loving and
FIG 6.10 A Jewish man wearing phylacteries or tefin
The most fundamental aspect of Jewish belief concerning God is the affirmation of Gods oneness.
140
caring way. Evil in the world derives mainly from disobedience. Gods continuous involvement in human affairs does not contradict the Jewish belief in free will. Everything is foreseen, says a rabbinical phrase, yet free will is given. Free will also entails personal responsibility. In Judaism, each person is accountable for their own deeds, and personal introspection (teshuva) is an essential aspect of religious behaviour. Repentance is a biblical precept. According to the prophets in the Hebrew Bible, repentance is that which heals the relationship between God and humanity. It is in direct opposition to sin, which aims to break the covenantal bond between God and Gods people. One implicit biblical doctrine is the belief in the afterlife. Early rabbinical Judaism afrms this belief and regards the afterlife as the time when the righteous are rewarded in the days of the Messiah. According to Judaism, the messianic fullment will end all evil and suffering and the wicked will be punished. The nal triumph of good over evil, however, is reserved for, and will disclose, the true goodness of the Creator and of all creation. In most religious traditions there is a tension between religious law and ethical thinking. In the case of Judaism the Mosaic Law was given to the community of believers. It is covenantala contract with God. The rabbinic law is the basis of the halacha. Jewish people are encouraged to follow the divine law and holy teachings because such laws transcend both religion and society. According to Judaism the divine law is liberating because it gives a person the means to sanctify their life. It is the way to salvation. Jewish theology is based on a close afnity between tradition and moral precepts. Reverence for Jewish traditions involves the upholding of the divinely inspired moral law. Honouring ones parents, for example, is prescribed in the Ten Commandments as an ethical and moral duty and is rewarded by ones own longevity. The halacha also exemplies the bond between tradition, ethics and morality. It is the legal tradition that provides a framework for the Jewish way of life. Tradition holds that the moral and ethical principles of the halacha were given by
So now, O Israel, what does the Lord your God require of you? Only to fear the Lord your God, to walk in all his ways, to love him, to serve the Lord your God with all your heart and with all your soul, and to keep the commandments and the statutes of the Lord your God and his decrees that I am commanding you today, for your own well-being. (Deuteronomy 10:1213)
The law of the Lord is perfect, reviving the soul; the decrees of the Lord are sure, making wise the simple; the precepts of the Lord are right, rejoicing the heart; the commandment of the Lord is clear, enlightening the eyes; the fear of the Lord is pure, enduring forever; the ordinances of the Lord are true and righteous altogether. More to be desired are they than gold, even much ne gold; sweeter also than honey, and drippings of the honeycomb. (Psalm 19:710)
Moses to the prophets of the Hebrew Bible, and from them to the early rabbis of the Jewish religion.
activities
1. Learn the Shema. 2. Explain the term covenant and in one paragraph explain its importance to the Jewish people. 3. How would a Jewish person explain the path to salvation?
141

The Hebrew scriptures
In Judaism, sacred writings seek to clarify the meaning of the covenantal relationship between God and the Jewish people. One of the most evocative images in the Talmud depicts God sitting and studying the Torah, the heart of the Covenant. The Hebrew Bible is of foremost importance to Judaism. It recounts the sacred history and literature of the Jewish people for a period of over 2000 years. The main language of the Bible is Hebrew; however, small sections of some books are written in Aramaic, the spoken language of the Jewish people during their exile in Babylonia in the sixth century BCE. The Hebrew Bible is divided into three sections: 1. Torah: the Pentateuch or rst ve books 2. Neviim: the Prophets 3. Ketubim: the Writings or Wisdom books. These three sections are often given the acronym Tanakh.
Bible ... recounts the sacred history and literature of the Jewish people for a period of our 2000 years.
The Hebrew
FIG 6.11 The Hebrew Bible is written on scrolls and is not touched by human hands. Note the use of the yad, or pointer.
142
Extracts from the Torah According to Jewish tradition, the Torah was revealed to Moses. Its ve books are the most sacred in all Jewish literature. They are: Genesis Genesis tells of the creation of the world and the unfolding of the Covenant between God and Abraham and his descendants. As a result of famine, Abrahams descendants leave Canaan and settle in Egypt. Exodus Exodus tells of the miraculous way in which Moses led the Israelites out of captivity in Egypt and received the Ten Commandments from God at Mount Sinai. These commandments formed the basis of the Jewish religion. Leviticus Leviticus prescribes the rules of conduct for an ethical and religious life. Numbers Numbers relates the difcult journey of the Israelites in the desert and the peoples complaints. Deuteronomy Deuteronomy repeats the Ten Commandments, tells the story of the death of Moses and describes the nal preparation for entering the promised land.
In the beginning when God created the heavens and the earth, the earth was a formless void (Genesis 1:12) but God will surely come to you, and bring you up out of this land to the land that he swore to Abraham, to Isaac, and to Jacob. (Genesis 50:24) Then Moses stretched out his hand over the sea. The LORD drove the sea back by a strong east wind all night, and turned the sea into dry land; and the waters were divided. The Israelites went into the sea on dry ground (Exodus 14:2122) If you follow my statutes and keep my commandments and observe them faithfully I will walk among you, and will be your God, and you shall be my people. (Leviticus 26:3, 12) Then all the congregation raised a loud cry, and the people wept that night. And all the Israelites complained against Moses and Aaron; the whole congregation said to them, Would that we had died in the land of Egypt! would it not be better for us to go back to Egypt? (Numbers 14:13) Moses was one hundred twenty years old when he died; his sight was unimpaired and his vigour had not abated Never since has there arisen a prophet in Israel like Moses, whom the LORD knew face to face. (Deuteronomy 34:7, 10)
activities
1. Learn the books of the Torah in correct order. 2. Why are these books considered so important? 3. Discuss as a class why the scrolls are kept in the ark, why they are still used as scrolls and why you should not touch them with your hands.
FIG 6.12 The scrolls are kept in the ark at the eastern wall of the Synagogue. This ark has a curtain, but can also have doors.
143
Extracts from the Neviim The second section of the Hebrew Bible contains the books of the Neviim, or the Prophets, and combines historical events with religious teachings. Most of the events described in these books have been conrmed by archaeological evidence. The longest section in the Hebrew Bible, the Neviim is subdivided into the First and Last Prophets. The First Prophets Joshua Joshua describes the entry and conquest of the promised land of Canaan. Judges Judges deals with the wars between the Israelites and their neighbours. The Israelites were saved by judges who were appointed to act as military leaders. Although the people were grateful at rst, and thanked God for their success, within a few generations they began to worship the gods of the neighbouring tribes. 1 and 2 Samuel First and Second Samuel describe the foundation of the Israelite monarchy and the origins of the line of David. 1 and 2 Kings First and Second Kings outline the history of the Judaean and Israelite kings from the establishment of the First Temple in Jerusalem to its destruction and the beginning of the Babylonian Captivity. The following books describe the religious teachings of the prophets, who warned and consoled the people of Israel and Judah throughout their troubled history.
the LORD spoke to Joshua Now proceed to cross the Jordan, you and all this people, into the land that I am giving to the Israelites. (Joshua 1:12) Then the LORD raised up judges, who delivered them out of the power of those who plundered them. (Judges 2:16) But the people refused to listen to the voice of Samuel; they said, No! but we are determined to have a king over us, so that we also may be like other nations, and that our king may govern us and go out before us and ght our battles. (1 Samuel 8:1920) When Davids time to die drew near, he charged his son Solomon, saying: I am about to go the way of all the earth. Be strong, be courageous, and keep the charge of the LORD your God, walking in his ways and keeping his statutes so that you may prosper in all that you do and wherever you turn. (1 Kings 2:13)
FIG 6.13 Joshua leading the Jews across the Jordan River into Canaan, completing their ight from Egypt
144
The Last Prophets Isaiah The prophetic visions of Isaiah, the Judaean court prophet, focus on the corruption of the ruling classes of Judah and its dangerous consequences. However, Isaiah promises great rewards for those who follow in Gods path. Jeremiah Jeremiah, a prophet of priestly descent, consoled the people of Judah after the destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem. Ezekiel Ezekiel is the prophetic voice of the Babylonian Captivity. His prophecies are a mixture of laments and visions of future events such as the resurrection of the dead and the rebuilding of the Temple. The twelve minor prophets This section presents twelve books, comprising the prophetic visions of Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah and Malachi.
[God] shall judge between the nations, and shall arbitrate for many peoples; they shall beat their swords into plowshares, and their spears into pruning hooks; nation shall not lift up sword against nation, neither shall they learn war any more. O house of Jacob, come, let us walk in the light of the LORD! (Isaiah 2:45) Thus says the Lord: The people were survived the sword found grace in the wilderness; when Israel sought for rest, the Lord appeared to him from far away. I have loved you with an everlasting love; therefore I have continued my faithfulness to you. Again I will build you, and you shall be built, O virgin Israel! (Jeremiah 31:24) Then [the LORD] brought me to the gate, the gate facing east. And there, the glory of the God of Israel was coming from the east As the glory of the LORD entered the temple by the gate facing east, the spirit lifted me up, and brought me into the inner court; and the glory of the LORD lled the temple. (Ezekiel 43:12, 45) Those who worship vain idols forsake their true loyalty. But I with the voice of thanksgiving will sacrice to you; what I have vowed I will pay. Deliverance belongs to the Lord! (Jonah 2:89)
FIG 6.14 Ezekiels vision of a chariot in the sky and a hand in the clouds holding out a book to him, 1804. Ezekiel was one of the four great Hebrew prophets. One modern explanation for the vision seen by him is that he observed parhelia (mock suns), a phenomenon caused by reection from water droplets or minute particles in the earths atmosphere. From the Bible (Ezekiel II:9).
145
Extracts from the Ketubim The third set of works is the Ketubim, the Writings or Wisdom literature. The Wisdom books are as follows: Psalms Psalms is a liturgical compilation ascribed to King David. Its main subjects include songs of praise and piety. Proverbs Proverbs is a book of wise phrases, short parables and fables, many ascribed to King Solomon. Job This book is a dialogue between Job and three friends concerning the question of evil and the relations between human actions and divine reward and punishment. The Song of Songs A love story attributed to King Solomon, the Song is an allegory for the love between God and the people of Israel. Ruth Ruth tells the story of a womans conversion to Judaism and the origins of Davids family. Lamentations Attributed to Jeremiah, Lamentations is a poem lamenting the sorrows of Zion following the exile and the Judaeans. Ecclesiastes This book is a compilation of theological reections ascribed to King Solomon, revered for his wisdom. The main subjects include the question of faith and its relation to human endeavour. Esther The story of Esther, the Jewish wife of the king of Persia, concerns the miraculous salvation of the Jewish people in Persia. Although the historical elements of the story might be disputed, the book forms the basis of the Jewish celebration of Purim, during which parties are held and gifts exchanged. Daniel Daniel is a book partly of dramatic visions concerning the end of time. One of its main subjects is the destiny of the faithful and their salvation by Gods powerful intervention in their lives. Ezra Ezra deals with the Jews return to Jerusalem after the Babylonian Captivity Nehemiah Nehemiah tells the history of the rebuilding of the Temple after the return of the Babylonian captives to Jerusalem.
1 and 2 Chronicles First and Second Chronicles recount the history of the Jewish people from Adam to the end of the Babylonian Captivity. I will extol you, my God and King, and bless your name forever and ever. Every day I will bless you, and praise your name forever and ever. Great is the Lord, and greatly to be praised; his greatness is unsearchable. (Psalm 145:13) How happy is the one whom God reproves; therefore do not despise the discipline of the Almighty. For he wounds, but he binds up; he strikes, but his hands heal. (Job 5:1718) I slept, but my heart was awake. Listen! My beloved is knocking. Open to me, my sister, my love, my dove, my perfect one; for my head is wet with dew, my locks with the drops of the night. (Song of Songs 5:2) How lonely sits the city that once was full of people! How like a widow she has become, she that was great among the nations! She that was a princess among the provinces has become vassal. She weeps bitterly in the night, with tears on her cheeks; among all her lovers she has no one to comfort her Judah has gone into exile with suffering and hard servitude. (Lamentations 1:13) For everything there is a season, and a time for every matter under heaven: a time to be born, and a time to die; a time to plant, and a time to pluck up what is planted; a time to kill, and a time to heal a time for war, and a time for peace. (Ecclesiastes 3:13, 8)
146
The Talmudrabbinical writings

The Talmud is the collective name for certain rabbinical writings composed from the rst century BCE to around 500 CE. Its name is derived from the Hebrew verb to teach. Talmudic literature is organised in the form of conversations between two or more rabbis. At the end of each scholarly conversation a binding conclusion is given. Talmudic literature is subdivided in the following manner: 1 Mishnah: edited by Rabbi Yehuda haNassi, who promulgated the text in 200 CE. 2. Gemara: The Jerusalem Gemara, edited by Galilean rabbis and completed in the early 400s CE. The Babylonian Gemara, edited by Babylonian rabbis and completed around 500 CE. 3. The Midrash: a collection of biblical interpretations completed at various times. The Mishnah According to the Jewish tradition, Moses was given two types of Torah: written (the Pentateuch) and oral. The oral Torah is a compilation of traditions that were handed down in verbal form over the generations. After the destruction of the Second Temple and the subsequent exile of the Jewish people from their homeland c. 70 CE, the rabbis feared that some traditional practices might be forgotten. As a result, they decided to commit the oral law to writing. The textbook of Jewish oral law is the Mishnah. The word Mishnah means to explain through repetition and discussion. There are six sdarim (orders) in the Mishnah: 1. Zeraim (seeds) deals with agricultural matters and the working of the land. For example, it repeats the law from Leviticus that requires a Jewish farmer to leave the corners of the eld unharvested so that the poor can have food throughout the year. 2. Moed (feasts) provides details concerning religious festivals such as Passover, Jewish New Year and the Day of Atonement. 3. Nashim (women) deals with issues that affect women such as engagement, marriage and divorce. The Gemara Although the Mishnah addressed most traditional Jewish practices, there was still a great deal of additional material that needed to be covered by the rabbis. For 300 years after the completion of the Mishnah, schools of rabbinical commentators in Galilee and Babylonia worked on the Mishnaic texts in order to provide further clarication of the oral law. Gemara means to summarise and complete issues raised by the Mishnah. There are two Gemaras: the Palestinian Gemara or Talmud, often called the Jerusalem Talmud, even though it was written in Galilee; and the Babylonian Gemara or Talmud. Both Talmuds were written in Aramaic, the spoken language of the Jewish people during the rst centuries of the Common Era. Although the two Talmuds differ in some aspects, they overlap in many areas. The Babylonian Talmud covers more subjects than the Jerusalem Talmud, and as a result is given more weight in matters of dispute. 4. Nezikin (damages) covers matters of civil and criminal law, and also addresses issues of ethical and moral concern. 5. Kodashim (holy things) deals with sacricial rites of the Temple. Although the Mishnah was written after the destruction of the Temple, the inclusion of this order points to the rabbis belief in its imminent rebuilding. 6. Toharot (purity) addresses issues of purity and cleanliness, such as burial practices and duties relating to the prevention of plagues.
activity
Select one biblical extract from the previous pages for each of the following and expand on its meaning and importance for life today. Torah: the Pentateuch (the first five books) Neviim: the Prophets Ketubim: the Writings or Wisdom books.
147

Two basic precepts inform the Jewish ethical system. The rst is proper conduct between an individual and God, and the second is proper conduct between two or more people. The rst precept caters for the religious aspects of ones life; the second allows for an ethical and just society. Both of these basic rules derive from the halacha, which literally means the way, or more correctly, the way of life. For the Jewish person, Judaism provides an ethical and moral framework for life. In Judaism action always takes precedence over intent. If a person means to help another human being but does not do so, the intentions are essentially worthless. Similarly, if the intention was to inict harm on another but no harm was done, there is no fault. The Jewish emphasis on action necessitates the assumption of responsibility for ones behaviour and provides the Jewish person with the means to distinguish between good and evil. The commandments of the Torah The Jewish ethical system is based on the Ten Commandments, also known as the Decalogue or Devarim. These ten statements form the fundamental code of behaviour given by God to Moses on Mount Sinai. They are the basis of the Covenant between the Jewish people and God. The code is divisible into two parts. The rst ve commandments deal with the proper conduct that takes place between the believer and God. They are concerned with the method of worship. These commandments are formulated in a positive and afrmative way: I am the LORD your God you shall have no other gods before me You shall not make for yourself an idol You shall not make wrongful use of the name of the LORD your God Remember the sabbath day, and keep it holy Honour your father and your mother, so that your days may be long in the land that the LORD your God is giving you. (Exodus 20:24, 78, 12)
FIG 6.15 Children studying the Torah with a rabbi
The remaining commandments deal with relationships within the Jewish community. These commandments are formulated in a negative way: You shall not murder. You shall not commit adultery. You shall not steal. You shall not bear false witness against your neighbour. You shall not covet your neighbours house; you shall not covet your neighbours wife, or male or female slave, or ox, or donkey, or anything that belongs to your neighbour. (Exodus 20:1317) The Ten Commandments have never lost their value as spiritual and moral guidelines for the Jewish people. However, modern times present an ever-increasing number of new ethical problems. Abortion and other biomedical issues need contemporary answers. These answers are supplied by rabbis and other learned persons in the community. Since the rabbis cannot transgress biblical and Talmudic regulations, they must reformulate the old precepts in a way that is meaningful today.
148
There are 613 mitzvot (commandments) that provide the framework for living, according to the Torah. These mitzvot were established from the Torah in the Talmudic age. This was from 2 to 7 CE when the rabbis isolated these teachings. The mitzvot, accompanied by extensive rabbinical commentaries, cover all aspects of life, from dietary laws to the proper prayers for religious festivals. They seek to explain the reasons for the unique features of the Jewish tradition. There is no special set of rules for any particular group in the community: the halacha applies equally to all Jewish people. These are the building blocks of Jewish life and custom. Thus ethical behaviour is divinely ordained.
than power. The rabbis emphasise the concept of tzedakah, or hidden charity. Those who practise tzedakah hide their identity so that the recipients need not feel ashamed when they meet their benefactors at social or communal functions. There is one aspect of charity in Judaism that is more important than tzedakah. This is known as gemilut chasidim, acts of loving kindness performed for no return. Examples are: giving hospitality to strangers visiting the sick assisting a poor or orphaned bride accompanying the dead to the grave. In recent times the phrase tikkun olam, meaning repair or betterment of the world, has come into common usage alongside the concept of social justice. It has been used as a platform for the fullment of mitzvot and tzedakah. Historically the phrase tikkun olam is rst found in the Mishnah in discussions of social policy. Later it is found in 16th-century Jewish mysticism, specically in Kabbalah, as an abstract concept when the Rabbi Isaac Luria taught that the world was made up of good and evil. He was referring to his belief that it was humans who caused the separation between that which was holy and that which was material. In the 1950s Shlomo Bardin taught that Jews were obligated to work towards achieving a perfect world. This placed importance on the sentence from the concluding synagogue prayer, the Aleinu: Ltaken olam bmalchut Shaddai (when the world shall be perfected under the reign of the Almighty). Tikkun olam is the underlying motivation behind social action and volunteer projects that work towards the repair of the world through human action. It is a means of aiding people to take responsibility for their world. Jewish teaching is quite clear that these acts must not be limited to the Jewish community but spread throughout the wider society according to need.
The Prophetic Vision and tikkun olam

The vision of the prophets of the Hebrew Bible has inspired Jews from all ages to full the ethics inspired by the Covenant, a world governed by righteousness and justice, a Messianic vision to inspire each generation to work towards such a reality. In todays society Judaism regards prophets as people who can distinguish between justice and injustice and who have the courage to speak out, even if it means challenging those in power. They are people who remember the Covenant with God and who serve as the conscience of a generation. Such people offer a vision for a better future. They speak on behalf of the weak, the powerless and the oppressed. They shape prophetic Judaism. They serve as messengers from God. Amos set out the template for the Prophetic Vision when he said Seek good and not evil, that you may live Hate evil and love good, and establish justice in the gate (Amos 5:1415). In order to achieve this, the Jewish people must align their behaviour with the ethical precepts of the Covenant. Isaiah says, Observe what is right and do what is just. For soon My salvation will come and My justice will be revealed (Isaiah 56:1). Although this prophecy has not yet been fullled, it is a powerful vision of a world where justice and peace are paramount. In the contemporary sense this means the relief of human suffering, the achievement of peace, mutual respect among peoples and the protection of the earth from destruction. The basis of Jewish ethics represents the inherent fellowship of all Jewish people and embodies the principle of a community based on care rather
activities
1. Prepare an oral presentation outlining the Prophetic Vision. Use examples to support your presentation. 2. Research the importance of tikkun olam for Jews of the 21st century. Give examples of what projects could be undertaken to achieve this.
149
Jewish observances and the importance of Shabbat

The destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE brought about the loss of a central place of worship. As a result, two different places were allocated in Judaism for the purpose of worship. The rst was the communal gathering-house known as the synagogue and the second was the family home. Together these two places ensure that the Jewish religion functions as an integral part of the life of each member of the tradition. The family home is an important place of worship. In addition to being a safe haven for the familys physical and mental well-being, the family home plays a part in forming Jewish identity. It is here that the Shabbat is celebrated and the various Jewish holidays are marked, either by a festive meal or simply by the family gathering together. The family home is often referred to as a small temple, and each family member participates in maintaining its sacredness and moral purity for the benet of others. According to the rabbis, it is the Sabbath that keeps the Jewish people, not the Jewish people who keep the Sabbath. The importance of the Sabbath to Judaism cannot be overestimated. The Sabbath, the seventh day of the week, is the time when, according to the Hebrew Bible, God ceased (shavat) creating the world. The Sabbath is the weekly reminder of Gods grace towards the world. It is a holy day and, according to the halacha, a day on which all ordinary activity is forbiddena regulation that can be breached only in regard to matters pertaining to life and death. It is a day that is dedicated to God and marked by a special set of rituals. The Sabbath begins on Friday evening and includes several rites called Kabbalat Shabbat, the Sabbath welcoming. First, the women of the family light the Sabbath candles and say a blessing for the health and well-being of the family members. Only when the candles are lit does the service begin. The main part of the service is the kiddush, or sanctication of the sacramental wine. By your leave, rabbis and teachers, Blessed are You, God, our God, King of the universe, Who creates the fruit of the vine. Blessed are You, God, our God, King of the Universe, Who has sanctied us with His commandments, took pleasure in us, and with love and favour gave us His holy Sabbath as a heritage, a remembrance of creation. For that day is the prologue to the holy convocations, a memorial of the exodus from Egypt. For us did You choose and did You sanctify from all the nations.
The mezuzah The sacred nature of the home is marked by the mezuzah. Often attached to the doorpost, the mezuzah is an ornate box made of wood or metal upon which Gods name is etched or engraved. Inside, the Shema is written on a scroll, acting as a sign of Gods protection.
150
It is customary for everyone present to drink some wine from the kiddush cup. Afterwards, the head of the household recites the blessing of the bread over the challah, the sweet Sabbath bread, which is broken and distributed among family members. The family then sits down for a special meal accompanied by the Sabbath liturgy, which focuses on the feminine aspect of the Sabbath: How beautiful and pleasant you are with the lights, O Sabbath, joy of the grieving, from evening to evening, hearts delight, when your time arrives, a time of love people bother, never resting, all six days, then you set them freeclothes of linen, satin too, in your honour they put on and say, Come, O bride, why delay? Behold a table and your lamp prepared. Because your light has come, arise and be my light. During the Sabbath day, readings from the Torah and other special prayers are held in the synagogue or temple. A midday meal, conducted with religious teachings, marks the spiritual apex of the day. The Sabbath ends on Saturday evening with the Havdalah service, which separates the Sabbath from other days and marks the beginning of the Jewish working week: Blessed are You, God, our God, King of the universe, Who creates the illuminations of the re. Blessed are You, God, our God, king of the universe, Who separates between holy and secular, between light and darkness, between Israel and the nations, between the seventh day and the six days of labour. Blessed are You, God, Who separates between holy and secular.
activities
1. What is the Hebrew word for Sabbath? 2. What would an Orthodox Jew consider as work to be avoided on the Sabbath? Give ten examples that show differing aspects of life. How would an Orthodox Jew overcome these restrictions? 3. Why does a Jewish person place such importance on the keeping of Shabbat? 4. Empathy task: You are a Jewish teenager. How do you explain to your friends that you cannot come out with them on Friday nights so that they will understand and respect your decision? 5. What does the Sabbath meal reveal about the Jewish conception of God? 6. Ahad Ha-Am (18561927) said, More than Israel has kept the Sabbath, the Sabbath has kept Israel. Discuss what you think he meant.
FIG 6.16 Family enjoying Sabbath meal together
FIG 6.17 Family blessing is said before the Sabbath meal.
151
Review and assess
Review
1. 2. Who was Abraham and why was he signicant to the Jewish people? What was the Covenant and how did it form the basis of Gods promises to his people? Why was the Covenant so important? Retell the story of the Exodus and the role of Moses. Discuss the importance of the Exodus to the Hebrew people. What is meant when Jewish people talk about the giving of the Law at Sinai? In table form, list the unique features of Orthodox, Progressive and Conservative Judaism. Outline the principal beliefs of Judaism. Based on what you have read, explain what you think is meant by the divinely inspired moral law.
3. 4. 5. 6.
7.
8. 9.
10. Explain the importance of sacred writing to Judaism. 11. Describe the content of the Hebrew Bible. 12. What is the Talmud? Why is it important? 13. List the principal ethical teachings of Judaism and describe the main features of each. 14. Explain each of the Commandments, and give an example of each. 15. Explain what is meant by the Prophetic Vision. 16. Discuss the signicance of the Book of Proverbs to the study of ethics. 17. Describe tikkun olam. 18. Research and prepare a written report on what takes place and why during the Friday night meal in a Jewish household. 19. Research and prepare a written report on the Shabbat, outlining what part each member of the family takes in the celebration.
152

Short response (100150 words) 20. Explain how the story of the Exodus underpins the beliefs and practices of Judaism. 21. Outline the differences between Orthodox and Conservative Judaism. 22. Describe Shabbat and its importance to the Hebrew people. 23. Who were the patriarchs and what was their role in the origins of Judaism? 24. Explain how the qualities of wisdom, righteousness, purity and generosity of spirit underpin the Prophetic Vision. 25. What is the Law and what is its signicance to the Jewish people? 26. Name and describe the sacred texts of Judaism. 27. Outline the commandments of the Torah. 28. Explain the importance of ethical teachings in the life of adherents. 29. What is tikkun olam and what is its importance in Jewish ethical thinking? 30. What are the unique features of Orthodox Judaism? 31. What is Shabbat and why is it important? 32. Explain the importance of the Shema. 33. Analyse the importance of the Book of Proverbs to the ethical teachings of Judaism. 34. Explain why Abraham is important to the origins of Judaism. Longer response (500650 words) 35. Explain how the principal beliefs of Judaism underpin the life of Jewish adherents. Give examples to support your answer. 36. Using the three major branches of Judaism Orthodox, Conservative and Progressiveexplain the development of Jewish thought. 37. Describe the Shabbat and explain its signicance to the Jewish family.
153
Religions of ancient origin

The focus of this study is the response of religions of ancient origin to the human search for ultimate meaning and purpose. The five religious traditions of Buddhism, Christianity, Hinduism, Islam and Judaism are NOT to be studied.
Outcomes
A student: P1 P2 P6 P7 P8 P9 describes the characteristics of religion and belief systems identies the inuence of religion and belief systems on individuals and society selects and uses relevant information about religion from a variety of sources undertakes effective research about religion, making appropriate use of time and resources uses appropriate terminology related to religion and belief systems effectively communicates information, ideas and issues using appropriate written, oral and graphic forms
Content
Students are to select two religions of ancient origin to study from the following: Aztec or Inca or Mayan Celtic Nordic Shinto Taoism an indigenous religion from outside Australia Students learn about the nature of two religions of ancient origin in relation to: origins of the universe principal beliefs supernatural powers and deities rituals inuence in the society the human search for meaning
Prelim | Chapter 7 Religions of ancient origin 155
ANTHROPOMORPHIC CHINAMPA
human-like. a manufactured oating platform of woven reed mats on which silt, dredged from the surrounding lake, was piled and vegetable matter was added to decompose into a rich soil in which crops were planted. Willow trees were planted around the edges to keep the soil in place. the use of the magical or the supernatural to foretell the future. holding two things together. collections of folk tales of the Vikings. a ve-sided wooden board on which prayers have been written (Shinto). a Shinto prayer hall. the kamis prayer hall, situated behind the haiden. This is a sacred space which only the priests can enter. the Incan nature spirits. a small, house-like shrine constructed for Shintos kami. the Shinto spirits that are associated with a particular place. a sacred text that is said repeatedly. any ritual occasion where the offering of thanks and praise is made to the kami at a shrine. the name given to Shintos female clergy. an early race of people, thought to have inhabited the same region as the Aztecs, c. 1400400 BCE.
OMEN PANTHEON PARADISE RITUAL
a sign that foretells of good or evil. a collection of gods. another term for heaven or the afterlife. an ordered means of communicating with the god(s), often including the giving of gifts. stories of the Vikings. a Japanese tree, branches of which are used to sprinkle holy water on worshippers. a medicine man. a person or animal that takes on the features of another animal or person by physically changing their appearance. the way of the spirits (Shinto). the name given to Shintos male clergy. a place where people come to worship. an object which is believed to hold special powers. the empire preceding the Aztecs. gateways, made of timber or stone, which dene the sacred space of Shinto shrines. a Mayan term for the underworld. a Mesoamerican tribal group thought to have been present c. 500 BCE 1000 CE.
SAGAS SAKAKI TREE
DIVINATION DUALITY EDDAS EMA BOARDS HAIDEN HODEN
SHAMAN SHAPE SHIFTER
SHIN TAO SHOTEN SHRINE TALISMAN TOLTEC TORII
HUACA JINGA KAMI MANTRA MATSURI
XIALBA ZAPOTEC
NAI-SHOTEN OLMEC
156
The Aztecs of Central America

The people known as the Aztecs were part of the Mesoamerican civilisation inhabiting the region now known as Central America. Geographically this is a very diverse region, ranging from mountains and tropical rainforests to deserts. The Aztec Empire arose in the 14th and 15th centuries CE, after the disintegration of the Toltec civilisation. The Aztecs brought their gods with them and absorbed many of the existing gods into their pantheon. The capital of the Aztec Empire was the city of Tenochtitlan, later to become the modern day Mexico City. By all accounts it was an amazingly beautiful city. It was at the site of Tenochtitlan that the Aztecs had seen the sign of their god Huitzilopochtli in the form of an eagle perched on and eating a cactus. This was to become the emblem of modern Mexico. Many people once incorrectly regarded the Aztecs as a purely warring society displaying little intelligence. This concept was due in part to the low priority the Aztecs placed on writing, preferring to use pictorial images. But their development and use of calendars was far in advance of many other indigenous civilisations of their time. Their stone masonry was exacting, as can be seen in many of their archaeological remains.
TARASCANS
Tenochtitlan TLAXCALA
Gulf of Mexico
TEOTITLAN MIXTEC Core States Tributary States Allied States the Road to Xoconochco
ZAPOTEC PACIFIC OCEAN
FIG. 7.1 Aztec Empire, c.1519
FIG. 7.2 The faade of the National Palace in Mexico City depicts the Aztec god Huitzilopochtli in the form of an eagle with the Spanish conquerors on either side.
They were a farming people, but their capital, Tenochtitlan, was built on an island in the middle of Lake Texcoco. Here they created their own areas of farmland, or chinampas, by weaving reed mats and placing them on top of the water. They fenced them and covered them with silt from the lake. Adding vegetable matter to rot down provided a rich compost. Quick-growing willow trees were planted on all sides of these chinampas, their roots holding the soil in place. It was here that the Aztecs grew their crops, thereby adapting to their growing population.
FIG. 7.3 An example of an Aztec calendar
The origins of the universe

There are, in fact, at least three different Aztec myths of creation. Two of these are retold below. First there were two gods, Quetzalcoatl and Tezcatlipoca. Quetzalcoatl was known as the light one and Tezcatlipoca was known as the dark one. They both lived in the sky and there was only water below them. But when they looked down they saw a goddess oating on the water. She took the form of a huge monster with many mouths, devouring everything the two gods created. In order to stop her, Quetzalcoatl and Tezcatlipoca changed themselves into snakes. They then went down into the waters, where one of them grasped the monsters arms while the other grabbed her legs. Then they pulled and pulled until they pulled her limb from limb. The earth was made from her head and shoulders. The sky was formed from the lower part of her body. This angered the other gods, so they created the trees and grass and owers from the goddesss hair. Her eyes became the wells, and the rivers came from her mouth. Her shoulders became the mountains and her nose the hills and valleys. But at night she could be heard crying because she could not give nourishment to the earth. Human hearts were required to nourish her so that she could give food to the earth. Another creation story tells of the wars between the gods. In the beginning there was nothing but darkness. All alone Ometeotl, the great god, watched over the darkness. Then four gods were born to Ometeotl. These four gods were responsible for the creation of the world. They put giants in the world. Then Tezcatlipoca, the jaguar god, made himself into the sun and proceeded to rule the world. So Quetzalcoatl took a club to Tezcatlipoca, knocking him into the ocean. Then Quetzalcoatl became the sun and put himself in charge of the world. He made humans to live in the world. But Tezcatlipoca knocked Quetzalcoatl out of the sky. Now strong winds ripped across the earth, razing all in their path. Those that survived were turned into monkeys. Not to be outdone, Tlaloc turned himself into the sun so he could repopulate the world. But Quetzalcoatl wouldnt give in. In a t of temper he set re to the world. Many people died and the few that survived were changed into birds. This process continued with the goddess Chalchiuhtlicue turning herself into the sun. This time was known as the war between the gods. It was a time of chaos when oods covered the land and many people drowned. Any who survived were turned into sh. Now the entire earth was covered with water. It was not until Tezcatlipoca and Quetzalcoatl stopped ghting that the waters dried up. Tricking Mictlantecuhtli, the god of the underworld, Quetzalcoatl retrieved the bones of the dead, returning them to the world. There he dripped his own blood onto the bones, bringing them back to life as the Aztecs. Ever grateful to Quetzalcoatl, the Aztecs regularly made human sacrices to please him.
activities
1. On a map of South America locate the region that is believed to be the Aztec Empire. 2. Describe Aztec society. 3. Research on the Internet to nd a third creation myth. Write a concise account of the story.
FIG. 7.4 Mictlantecuhtli, Aztec god of the dead
158
Principal beliefs
Based on their creation stories the Aztecs believed that the universe was made up of many different layers. The bottom layer was the underworld and the top two layers belonged to the gods of creation. In between these realms was earth, where it was believed the forces of heaven and the underworld came together at the Great Temple in Tenochtitlan. The Aztecs held that the underworld was made up of four paradises. The Eastern Paradise was reserved for souls of warriors killed in battle and for sacricial victims. Souls resided here for four years before they returned to earth as hummingbirds or some other exotic bird. A variation on this belief was that when Aztec warriors died they would join the sun for four years before returning to the earth as hummingbirds. The Western Paradise was for women who died in childbirth and the FIG. 7.5 Azlec wall decoration. What symbols can you identify and what do you think they might represent? Southern Paradise for those who died from lightning strike or sickness. The Northern Paradise was for everyone else and interpretation of archaeological evidence. While it took four years to reach. In order to help people symbols were used extensively by the Aztecs, reach this paradise, the deceased were buried in a writing was not a skill they valued highly. It is also squatting position with the essentials of life such as possible that both beliefs were variations of an water provided for them to sustain them when they earlier belief. faced trials along the way. What is known is that the Aztecs believed there In yet another version of creation, the earth and were ve stages in creation, each of which was the surrounding atmosphere was viewed in vertical called a sun. They believed they were living in the and horizontal planes. The four directions of north, last and nal sun. Each sun was 2028 years long, south, east and west fanned out from the centre. and each one began and ended with a natural There were 23 horizontal planes, 13 above the earth disaster. Different humans were destroyed or and nine below. Life was believed to have been transformed in each period. created by the Lord and Lady of Duality. They bore The fth and nal sun was the time of four sons, each of whom represented a different recreation, when Tezcatlipoca and Quetzalcoatl cardinal direction. Then two of the four sons, reformed the heavens and the earth and all its Quetzalcoatl and Huitzilopochtli, created the gods, people. But the god Tonatiuh needed to be fed the heavens, the waters and their respective deities, human blood, as did Huitzilopochtli. Wars had to not to mention the earth. be fought in order to secure people to sacrice by It is difcult to determine many of the removing their hearts and so appeasing the gods. Aztecs beliefs with any degree of certainty. As we have already seen, there were two different activities views about what happened when a warrior 1. Explain what is meant by saying that the universe died. Since both views have a similar core belief, was built in layers. perhaps different variations were held at different 2. Describe the ve stages in creation. times, or in different geographical regions. Or perhaps archaeologists have still to agree on the
Supernatural powers and deities

The Aztecs believed there were many different deities, most of which were anthropomorphic in form. Some of the major gods are listed on page 161. There were often different representations of the same god. The Aztec gods accounted for nearly all of nature and human culture. For every deity there were prescribed rituals designed to give a desired outcome such as a plentiful harvest or nourishment for the sun on its travels.
The inuence of religion on Aztec society

All aspects of Aztec society, whether cultural or political, were ordered according to the religious rituals that punctuated peoples daily lives. Their economy was well regulated, and they had a ruling class based on both ability and birth, a legal system and a strong moral code that gave great importance to family and community life. There were two major aspects to the Aztec life cycle. When at home most lived a settled farming existence, planting crops and grazing animals, performing rituals to make their crops grow and ensure their Aqueduct ritual animals thrived. The gods, it was If the water in a particular believed, could ensure them a plentiful aqueduct got too high, the harvest. They developed sophisticated level could be dropped if methods of agriculture, including an important ofcial was the building of chinampas (articial sacriced and his heart islands) over shallow lake beds and thrown into the water. then cultivating these islands to grow maize, beans and chillies. But the Aztecs were also a warring people, seeking victims to sacrice to their blood-hungry gods. The warriors were among the elite of Aztec society, especially the Eagle and Jaguar warriors, who represented the sun and the moon respectively. A man qualied to become a member of one of these groups by taking four or ve prisoners in a single battle. These men were usually from the nobility and were full-time warriors. The Eagle warriors were adorned with feathers while the Jaguar warriors wore the skins of ocelots, each warrior having a helmet in the shape of his animal.
FIG. 7.6 The jaguar warrior wore a helmet representing the jaguar.
activities
1. Explain how the Aztecs religious beliefs inuenced their daily lives. 2. How did warriors reach Eagle status?
Rituals
It was through religious rituals that the Aztecs attempted to communicate with their gods. Over time they developed a complex and elaborate set of rituals to honour their various powerful deities. They gave at least half of each month to religious ritual. The best known of these rituals was human sacrice. Typically people would fast before ceremonies, which usually commenced at sunset with singing and dancing that lasted well into the night. This often continued for several nights, the dancing coming to a climax with the offering of incense, gifts of food and animals (often quail) to the gods, followed by the ceremonial sacrice of humans.
FIG. 7.7 Depiction of Aztec temple sacrice, from the Codex Magliabicciano, Museo de America
160
TABLE 7.1 Major Aztec deities DEITY CHALCHIUHTLICUE FEATURES Known as jade skirt, Chalchiuhtlicue was the goddess associated with lakes, rivers and seas. The goddess of youth and beauty, she was the wife of Tlaloc, the rain god. It was she who released the ood that destroyed the fourth world. She was depicted as a river from which a prickly pear tree grew. Coatlicue was the serpent skirt, the earth goddess and one of Quetzalcoatls wives. Huitzilopochtli was the Hummingbird of the South, the great sun deity and warrior god, founder of the Aztecs and son of Ometecutli. He was associated with war and power and was the patron deity of the city of Tenochtitlan. He was usually depicted as a man, painted blue and fully armed, with hummingbird feathers on his head. His name refers to the Aztec belief that warriors who died in battle would return from the Southern Paradise as a hummingbird, another exotic bird or a buttery. He was constantly in battle with the forces of darkness. The Aztecs believed they had to feed him with human blood every day because blood was the life force. If they did not do this, then they and the world would die. Sometimes known as Xiuhtecutli, Huehueteotl was the god of re and lifegiving warmth. He was particularly important to the householder. This was the Lord of the Realm of Death, the god of the underworld. The supreme deity who was both male and female. The name meant Two Lord. Portrayed as a feathered serpent, Quetzalcoatl was god of the sky and son of Ometecutli. He was the symbol of death and resurrection. Tezcatlipoca was god of the night and son of Ometecutli. He carried a smoking mirror that could magically kill his enemies and enable him to see into the hearts of men. Many regarded him as the supreme god. He was a magician and a shape-shifter, the patron of royalty. He was usually represented with a black band across his face and a withered foot that ended in an obsidian mirror. The rain god. He was the son of Ometecutli and was particularly important to the Aztecs. He brought both nourishing and destructive rain. He had four huge jars from which he poured rain, disease, frost and drought. Each year young children were sacriced to him, their tears being seen as particularly auspicious. People whose death was the result of drowning or lightning strikes were believed to be taken to his home on one of the 13 celestial planes in the sky. Xipe Totec, the ayed god, was god of spring and new vegetation, symbolising the cycle of death and rebirth. He was depicted as a young man whose skin had been removed by aying and who wore that skin as a garment. Each spring the Aztecs sacriced people to him. The sacricial victims were skinned alive. During the rituals of renewal and rebirth the priests wore the victims skins. For a young warrior, it was a rite of passage to capture a victim to be sacriced at the spring festival. These two were brother and sister. Xochipilli was known as the Flower Prince and was the god of maize, owers, love and feasting. He was the guardian of the souls of slain warriors. His twin sister, Xochiquetzal, was a goddess of owers, fertility, games, dancing and agriculture.
COATLICUE HUITZILOPOCHTLI
HUEHUETEOTL MICTLANTECUHTLI OMETECUTLI QUETZALCOATL TEZCATLIPOCA
TLALOC
XIPE TOTEC
XOCHIPILLI AND XOCHIQUETZAL
But everyday actions were also ritualised. Although bathing usually took place in the local lake or river, most houses had a steam room outside that would be used on ceremonial occasions such as the purifying of newlyweds or mothers before and after giving birth. Even games had religious connotations. Climbing the pole, for example, was an important activity at religious festivals. The board game Patolli was played on 52 squares representing the 52 years in each Aztec cycle. It was sometimes used to foretell future events but more often for gambling.
The stone of Tizoc Tizoc, the Aztec emperor from 1481 to 1486 CE, is depicted on this carved stone. One metre high and two metres in diameter, its edge is carved with fteen pairs of gures, each an Aztec warrior holding a captive by the hair. Tizoc is wearing a hummingbird headdress of the god Huitzilopochtli. A large solar disc with eight ears engraved on the top of the stone had a dual purpose: to celebrate Tizocs victories and to carry out sacrices.
Temple life
The remains of the sacred buildings of the Aztecs also help us to understand their religious beliefs. The temple was at the centre of each community. The bigger the community, the bigger the temple. As a community grew and needed a larger temple, it just built over the top of the existing building. Each new temple was more extravagant than the previous one. One temple was found to have been built over six times. The temple was the centre of sacrice, a common practice throughout much of Mesoamerica. The building of temples for this purpose is thought to have begun around 7000 BCE with the Olmec in association with the harvest, samples of which were offered to the gods. Other shrines were built to the Eagle and Jaguar warriors and still others to the sun. Attached to the temple was the community school. Children were given religious training as well as lessons in history, ritual dancing, singing and rhetoric. Public speaking was considered an essential skill for both men and women. Boys entering the
FIG. 7.9 The stone of Tizoc
youth house were given military training whereas girls were taught about the various religious rituals.
The decline of the Aztec Empire

As in other societies of this region, the Aztec ruling classes took their authority from their religion. Their religious beliefs justied war and provided unity to their society. Religion dominated politics and thus in turn dominated the economy. These became the determining factors in the success or failure of the empire. The need to obtain captives for human sacrice meant that the empire had to expand. This created many enemies and strong opposition that contributed to its eventual downfall. Then the Spanish conquistadors arrived in 1519. Some three years before, the appearance of a comet in the sky had been interpreted as a fateful sign of impending downfall, much to the distress of the Aztec emperor, Motecuhzoma II (Montezuma). When the Spanish ships appeared off the coast of Mexico, Aztec religious leaders concluded that the white-skinned Spaniards were the descendants of the god Quetzalcoatl. Motecuhzoma II welcomed the Spanish commander, Hernn Corts, into Tenochtitlan, only to be imprisoned. The nal days of the Aztec Empire had begun.
FIG. 7.8 The Pyramid of the Sun at Teotihuacan near Mexico City
162
activities
1. Referring to the manuscript in Fig 7.10, what can you discern about the Aztec way of life?
FIG. 7.10 An Aztec manuscript of Zapotec origin
2. What can you nd out about the role of the god Teotleco? 3. What is the signicance of Xipe Totec in Aztec ritual? 4. Aztec warriors were regarded very highly in their society. The most impressive were the Eagle warriors and the Jaguar warriors. Explain their role in Aztec society. 5. What was the signicance of the temple in Aztec society? Refer to Fig 7.11 in your response.
FIG. 7.11 The Lunar Pyramid at Teotihuacan
The Maya people of South America

The classic period of the Maya, another Mesoamerican civilisation, existed between 250 and 900 CE. The following are some interesting facts about the ancient religion of the Mayan people. the Underworld in a ballgame, and this became a metaphor of the life force of the sun, which emerged from the underworld every morning. The only way that this rebirth could occur was after a human sacrice. This would keep the world in balance. They also believed there was an eternal struggle between good and evil. It was believed that if a person died as a sacrice, a warrior in battle, a woman in childbirth, a priest or a ruler, then that person would go directly to Paradise.

As with most ancient societies, the Maya had their own ideas about how the world came into being. However, they did not have just one creation myth but several, with various degrees of interrelationship. The basic myth was called Popol Vuh. The creator god was Itzamna, Kinich Ahau was the sun god, and the god of death and destruction was the Old Woman Goddess. She held the bowl from which the oods occurred. The Mayans believed in several cycles of birth then a destruction that would take the form of a ood.
Sacred spaces
Any opening in the earths surface was considered to be an entrance to Xibalba, the underworld. These places were considered to be both sacred and very dangerous. The places where the Maya lived were seen as symbolic representations of their universe. Power and prestige was in direct relationship to the size of the pyramid temple and its surrounding structures. It was the focal point of the area, with the business district and homes built around it.
Principal beliefs
The Mayans believed that the Hero Twins, Hunahpu and Xbalanque, defeated the Lords of
FIG. 7.12 The Mayan temple of Kukulkan at Chichen Itza in Mexico
164
each night. The aim of the game was to see which team could cause the sun to leave the underworld by hitting the ball through one of two rings, positioned on each side of the court. The Maya honoured those who were decapitated. Eventually the Mayans gave up this practice in favour of sacricing captives from other tribes. These sacrices might occur on mountain tops, temple steps or the top of a temple, according to the requirements of the ritual. Prisoners of war became the desired sacrices. This practice also meant that the Maya Empire expanded as its soldiers conquered neighbouring people, exacting tribute from those they subjugated.
Search for meaning

FIG. 7.13 The locals of the small highland town of Chichicastenango in Guatemala in traditional Mayan dress
Rituals and ceremonies

It is a well-known fact that the Maya played a deadly ball game in which the captain of the winning team was decapitated. The court on which this game was played symbolised the suns return to the underworld
In all societies, when something not understood requires explanation, stories grow up that offer that explanation or a means of understanding. This is often done as a way of putting order into the unknown. Thus the Mayans fostered unity among their people through shared beliefs. Those beliefs also provided the rulers with a means of justifying their warring raids on surrounding peoples.
activities
1. What does the complexity of the Mayan calendar indicate about Mayan society in general? 2. Describe the image these masks portray. What does this tell us about Mayan search for meaning?
FIG. 7.14 Mayan calendar
FIG. 7.15 Mexican masks
The Incas of South America

The Inca Empire ourished in South America from the 13th to the 16th century CE, and covered an area from Ecuador to northern Chile. The following are some interesting facts concerning the ancient religion of the Incan people.
Principal beliefs
The Incas worshipped the sun, Inti, whose rays were believed to nourish both human beings and the earth. They believed in ancestor worship, divination and dualityfor example, the duality between Hanin and Hurin, where Hanin was seen as superior, right and masculine and Hurin was seen as inferior, left and feminine. Another duality was that of the sun and the moon, where the sun was male and the moon was female, being both the sister and wife of the sun. The Incas believed that each person had two souls. At death one soul tried to return to its place of origin while the other soul stayed with the body. After death good people joined the sun in heaven and revealed themselves on earth as huacas, the spirits of nature.

The Incas believed that the god Viracocha created all things, including the sun, moon and all of humanity. They believed the world was made up of three aspects: * the past, called Uku Pacha * the present world, called Kay Pacha * the future world, called Hanan Pacha. People could access all three worlds because they were not viewed sequentially but were represented as three concentric circles.
FIG. 7.16 Ancient Incan temple ruins at Machu Picchu
166
Sacred spaces
Certain places such as mountains, rivers, buildings and ancient shrines were believed to possess supernatural powers. At many of these places the Incas built impressive temples.
Rituals
The Incas worshipped the dead, their ancestors, the heroes of the beginning of time, their king and the cycles of nature, making daily offerings and sacrices. Animal and human sacrices only occurred on special occasions. For example, the enthronement of a king necessitated the sacrice of two hundred children. Other occasions for animal and human sacrices might be times of crisis such as famine or disease. Crises were considered to be the result of the breaking of taboos and required a confession of sins. During early Incan times these confessions were made in public but in later times they were made in private. Every month there was a different festival. For example, the month Intip Raimi was dedicated to the sun god, Inti. The festival was opened by the king and his family, offerings were made to the god, omens were given and inevitably an animal was sacriced, usually a llama. Feasting and drinking followed, bringing the festival to an end.
Religion and society

The Incas imbued the calendar with religious meaning because it epitomised the fact that both time and space were considered sacred. Consequently they developed a sophisticated method of telling the time. Religious beliefs permeated all aspects of society. The Incas embalmed their dead and treated them as sacred. Sacrices were made for the dead by the priests, whose prayers were important and were offered on behalf of believers. They also listened to peoples confessions and were responsible for divination, while the priestesses made chicha (maize wine) and fabrics used in religious celebrations.
FIG. 7.17 Incan mummy in the desert, probably a sacricial victim
Search for meaning

As in all the Mesoamerican religions, the Incas sought to keep the gods happy so that their world would remain in balance. By following rituals to support their beliefs, they believed that their gods would be happy and in turn would look after them.
activities
1. Use the photograph of the mummy (Fig. 7.17) as a stimulus to research the Incan practices of human sacrice and burial. You will nd some interesting articles at the National Geographic website. 2. Why is the isolation of Machu Picchu (see Fig. 7.16) signicant for understanding the Incan people? What are some of the signicant facts that the study of this site has revealed about Incan society and religious beliefs?
Shinto
Shinto is a religion with ancient beginnings. This animistic belief system was already present in Japan by 500 BCE. There is no known founder, no written scripture and no dogma. In the eighth century CE it took its name from shin tao, meaning the way of the spirits. In its early form shamans led adherents in nature worship, fertility cults and the practice of divination. Shinto is the traditional indigenous religion of Japan, still practised by the majority of Japanese people today. During the late 19th and early 20th century CE, Shinto became established as the state religion. This linked it to Japanese nationalism. Many still regard it as the national religion of Japan, even though the emperor no longer holds divine status. When Buddhism came to Japan somewhere between the sixth and eighth centuries CE, these two religions developed a strong symbiotic relationship. One of the reasons for this was that the followers of Shinto regarded death as unclean and so were reluctant to be involved in anything to do with it. They welcomed the Buddhists, who looked after everything to do with death and funerals. Another reason these two religions were compatible was because adherents of Shinto regard Buddha as another kami (spirit), whereas the Buddhists saw the many kami as manifestations of the Buddha or of bodhisattvas. As in many other indigenous religions in other parts of the world, people believed that the shamans were the link between them and the kami. As animists they believe that all things are inuenced by the spirits that dwell in nature.
activities
1. How was the current Shinto religion formed and what role did Buddhism have in its development as a religion? 2. Why were these two religions so compatible?
FIG. 7.18 A Shinto shrine
168
The different forms of Shinto

There are four different forms of Shinto. Koshitsu Shinto In Koshitsu Shinto (State Shinto or Shinto of the Imperial House), the Japanese emperor is responsible for carrying out the rituals. He is symbolic of the state. This form of Shinto is enshrined in the Japanese constitution. The male and female clergy assist the emperor in the offering of the rst pickings of each years harvest. Jinja Shinto Jinja Shinto (Shrine Shinto) is the dominant group of believers, being closest to the original form of Shinto. Shrine Shinto was associated with State Shinto until the end of the Second World War. Up until this time the Japanese emperor was worshipped as a living god.
Shuma Shinto Shuma Shinto (also known as Kyoha Shinto) consists of some 13 different sects started by different people. Each has distinct beliefs centred around a particular deity, with some being almost monotheistic. Minzoku Shinto Minzoku Shinto (Folk Shinto) is the traditional noninstitutionalised Shinto, practised by the ordinary Japanese people. It is not a separate sect, nor does it have a centralised organisation or creed. It is seen in rural areas where there are lots of small images. Often rural communities will select a layman each year to be responsible for organising community worship, and individuals may practise their own agricultural rituals.
activities
1. a. Outline the four different forms of Shinto. b. Which is important today, and to whom in Japanese society is it important?
Shinto shrines The majority of shrines in Japan belong to Jinja Honcho, the Association of Shinto Shrines. This association lists the following points to guide followers: 1. To be grateful for the blessings of Kami and the benets of the ancestors, and to be diligent in the observance of the Shinto rites, applying oneself to them with sincerity, brightness and purity of heart. 2. To be helpful to others and in the world at large through deeds of service without thought of rewards, and to seek the advancement of the world as one whose life mediates the will of Kami. 3. To bind oneself with others in harmonious acknowledgement of the will of the emperor, praying that the country may ourish and that other peoples too may live in peace and prosperity. (Shinto Online Network Association)
2. How has the importance of the four forms of Shinto changed over time? (You may need to do more research on the Internet to develop a fuller answer to this question than the text provides.)
Origin of the universe

The story is told that earth and heaven were made up of In and Yo, who formed an egg-shaped mass without clear limitations. Heaven was formed by drawing out the cleaner, more pure part that rose to the top, while the rest settled to the bottom to become the earth. The earth required more work because of its impurities and so took longer to develop than heaven. Next the deities were formed, eight in all. A reed that sprouted from the earth became the god Kunitoko-tachi no Mikoto. Next, seven more generations of male and female kami were born. First Kuni no sa-tsuchi no Mikoto and Toyo-kumi-nu no Mikoto, both pure males, were born. Then came: Uhiji-ni no Mikoto Suhiji-ni no Mikoto Oho-to nochi no Mikoto Oho-to mahe no Mikoto Izanagi no Mikoto and Izanami no Mikoto.
When Izanagi no Mikoto and Izanami no Mikoto descended from heaven, their union produced the islands of Japan. They became the parents of the kami. One of their daughters, Amaterasu Omikami, the sun goddess, became the dominant deity. It is said that she gave birth to the rst emperor and therefore is the ancestor of the imperial family of Japan. It is her descendants who are believed to have unied the country. Her shrine is called Jingu and is at Ise. As with most other religions, the mythology surrounding creation forms the basis of Shinto beliefs. It is this mythology that permeates the lives of Shinto adherents. For a fuller and more precise account students may refer to the Shinto text, the Kojiki, or by consulting suitable websites.
FIG. 7.19 Heian Jingu Shrine
Supernatural powers and deitieskami

The kami are spirits associated with particular places, families and communities. In Shinto there is no sense of the supernatural, or of one supreme transcendent god; instead there are the kami. These spirits are not regarded as gods, neither are they regarded as all-powerful, each having its limitations. The kami are seen as protectors of the different aspects of nature, of families and of land. The kami are associated with particular locations such as a distinctive rock by the seashore, a grove of trees or a waterfall. The kami may be the spirits of deceased ancestors, emperors or prominent military gures, or the spirits of important animals such as tigers or different elements of nature such as waterfalls. Generally the kami are benevolent, but when angered they can become vengeful and must be placated.
Shinto texts
There are four signicant texts, but none that contain dogma, creeds or rules for ethical living. Rather, they are compilations of ancient myths and traditional teachings previously passed down orally. In these stories the foundation of Japan and the relationship between the people and the kami are explained. Most of the stories date from the eighth century CE. The four texts are: * The Record of Ancient Matters (the Kojiki), written in 712 CE * The Six National Histories (the Rokkokushi) * The Continuing Chronicles of Japan (the Shoku Nihongi and Nihon Shoki), written in 720 CE * a study of Shinto and Japanese policies and history, the Jinno Shotoki, written in the 14th century CE.
FIG. 7.20 A torii gate in Kyoto, marking the entrance to a waterfall, believed to be the home of a kami. The kami are spirits associated with special places such as a waterfall.
activities
1. Who or what is In and Yo? 2. Outline in point form the formation of the universe according to Shinto beliefs. 3. What is the role of spirits in this religion?
170
Principal beliefs
As a starting point it needs to be understood that there are four aspects of Shinto. These are: 1. Tradition and family. These must be honoured. 2. Love of nature. Most shrines are built in special places such as groves of trees, beside a waterfall or at the edge of a village. 3. Physical cleanliness. Ablutions must be carried out before prayers or when approaching a shrine. Purity is at the heart of the understanding of good and evil. 4. Festival and ceremonies. Matsuri, as they are called, are joyful occasions with lots of colour and activity. Shinto adherents believe that all life comes from the kami and therefore they are children of the kami. In early times the role of the clan was central, and worship of the kami was associated with where ancestral spirits and local agricultural deities were believed to be located. Today the idea of community brings together ancestors, descendants and individuals for each member of society. Shinto displays a positive attitude towards life and the nation. Pollution, including decay, bodily waste that must be cleansed and spilt blood, is a delement. Through time this concept of purity developed into the modern attitude of the need for each person to keep his or her heart pure. For purication to be effective the ritual words must be recited by a qualied practitioner. Within the Shinto traditions there is a loosely organised priesthood. These priests preside over rituals and ceremonies after rst purifying themselves by bathing and abstinence from sex and certain foods. The words used in rituals are like sacred mantras. Typical items found in rituals include a mirror representing the sun disc, jewels for talismans and branches of the sacred sakaki tree. By presiding over rituals the priests mediate with the kami to bring harmony between people and nature.
FIG. 7.21 Offertory box and bell rope. The bell is rung by the worshipper before offering their prayers to the kami.
adherents believe that all life comes from the kami and therefore they are children of the kami.
Shinto
activities
1. Is the Shinto religion an oral tradition, a written tradition or both? Explain your answer, and the good and bad aspects associated with each. 2. What are the four aspects of the Shinto religion? 3. Purication and cleanliness also form part of Buddhism. How has this been incorporated into Shinto? 4. What is the importance of community to Shinto followers?
Shrines and rituals and their inuence in society

In Shinto, visiting shrines and taking part in rituals brings the community together. A matsuri is any ritual occasion where the offering of thanks and praise is made to the kami at a shrine. Rituals include the rites of passage of birth, celebrations for boys at ages three and seven and girls at age ve, marriage and the celebration of family ancestors. Offerings such as food and drink are made to the kami. Priests use a branch from the sakaki tree to sprinkle holy water on the people, thus bestowing the kamis blessing on them. Then everyone shares the food that has been prepared for the kami. It is through rituals such as these that communication with the kami takes place. Shrines do not have to be buildings but can be different aspects of nature, including rocks, trees or mountains. They are located at places where people sense the presence of kami. However, in many places shrines have been constructed at sites where it is believed kami are residing and a jinga, or small house, is constructed for them. Probably the best known feature of Shinto shrines is the distinctive timber or stone gateways called torii, which dene the sacred space of the shrines. At the entrance to each shrine is a source of running water from which people will ladle water to rinse their mouths and wash their hands. Worshippers then proceed to the haiden (prayer hall). They clap their hands twice to alert the kami to their presence. A monetary donation is placed in the offertory box and a bell rung, and then the
FIG. 7.23 Granite Shinto lantern with cherry trees in blossom
devotees bow deeply in respect to the kami. It is then time for the worshippers to offer their prayers. Within each shrine there will be a wall where the ema are hung. These are ve-sided wooden boards on which prayerful requests are written. At New Year priests will burn these ema to make way for the next years prayers. Behind the prayer hall is another hall called the honden. Only priests can enter this sacred space, which is inhabited by the kami. At other times the priests might leave the shrine to purify and bless something or someone that cannot be brought to the shrine. Yasukuni shrine was founded in 1869 under the orders of Emperor Meiji and is dedicated to the souls of all those who have fallen in battle for Japan since that time. Festivals During festivals the image of the kami may be taken out to the community on wheeled trolleys called mikoshi, to be paraded throughout the town in order to bring blessings to the whole community. Celebrations will vary from community to community, but they are always colourful, with oats and dancers in beautiful costumes, boats and bonres. Many of their rituals are intended to entertain the kami as well as the people. A wellknown example of this is sumo wrestling. Each community will have its own shrines, which will be looked after by a committee of prominent citizens. Worship is a means of bringing the community together in a happy and joyful manner.
FIG. 7.22 Ema boards are small wooden plaques on which Shinto worshippers write their prayers or wishes.
172
Commonly celebrated Shinto festivals OshogatsuNew Year This is a very large festival with large attendances, when people thank the kami and make resolutions for the New Year. Seijin ShikiAdults Day This is a coming-of-age celebration. Haru MatsuriSpring Festival Springtime is an occasion for many festivals, often surrounding the planting of crops. Aki MatsuriAutumn Festival This is a time to thank the kami for a good harvest. Shichigosan This is when parents give thanks for their childrens lives and pray for their futures. Rei-sai This is an annual festival celebrated on a date relevant to the shrine where it takes place.
religious traditions. Emphasis is placed on right practice, sensibility and attitude. There is no concept of the transcendent because everything, including the spiritual, is a part of this world, one single unied creation, with no founder, no god, no sense of exclusivity. Adherents can even follow other religions, but Shinto is rarely practised outside of Japan. Through its local shrines and the shrines in peoples homes, Shinto could be said to be a grassroots religion. It is a system of beliefs and practices that individuals can identify with closely. The rituals enable humans to communicate with kami, and at its essence Shinto is the fullling of the ritual rather than the belief. It is easy for individuals to comply with and is readily accessible to all. In one of its four forms it is widely practised throughout Japan.
activities
1. Why is it incorrect to call the kami gods? 2. Explain the importance of ritual purity to Shinto and how it is practised. 3. Write an account of a year in the life of a Shinto family.
activities
1. Why are shrines important to the followers of Shinto? 2. What is the importance of shrines if they can be anything? Or can they be anything? 3. How can this be a gate (Fig 7.24) if it is surrounded by water? 4. How is sumo wrestling part of this religion?
Search for meaning

Shinto is not a way of explaining the world. It is not thought of as a religion in the Western sense. Rather it is an integral aspect of Japanese life. It is accepting of the validity of other religions, commonly paying respect to other faiths, their practices and objects of worship. This is one reason why it can coexist with Buddhism. Shinto sees people as basically good and has no concept of original sin. With no canonical scripture there is a sense of morality but no actual ethical commandments. In order to please the kami adherents aspire to makoto (sincerity of heart), revering the kamis mushi (powers of creation and harmony). Morally speaking, people must do no harm and their actions should benet others, but there is no code of ethical behaviour as in other
FIG. 7.24 Floating torii gate outside Itsukushima Shrine at Miyajima
Nordic religion
The following are some interesting facts about the ancient religion of the Nordic or Viking people of Scandinavia.
Norse mythology
The majority of information concerning Norse mythology comes from the Icelandic sagas, the Poetic Edda (copied into the Codex Regius in the 1270s) and the Prose Edda, written c. 1220 CE by Snorri Sturluson.
FIG. 7.25 A burial site where stones have been laid out in the shape of a boat
Principal beliefs
There were originally two families of gods, the Aesir (newcomers) and the Vanir (older indigenous gods). In a war the Aesir overcame the Vanir and the two groups became one. It was this family of gods that the Vikings worshipped. The chief god was Odin while Thor was the most popular god. Other well-known gods were Frey and Freyia. All the gods were in relationship with each other, as well as with giants, dwarfs and humans. But the giants were the enemies of the gods. The gods held different societal functions. Some were militaristic, others religious and yet others economic. Icelandic sagas also talk of magic, including foretelling the future, shape-shifting, healing and cursing, implying the existence of shamans. After death a person would travel to the afterlife. The best way to do this would be accompanied by the gods. The bravest warriors would accompany Odin and his Valkyries to Valhalla (the hall of the dead). Here soldiers would engage in much feasting until Ragnarok. Later the Vikings adopted Christianity while the old Nordic beliefs were retained as folk tales told in the Eddas. At rst Christ was just one god tolerated among many, but it was not many generations before the Vikings adopted the new faith. During this process pagans lived alongside Christians.
archaeologists to nd and study, few clues to be gained from remaining artefacts. There was a sacred grove at Gamla Uppsala in Sweden where it is believed that human sacrices took place. There may have been temples here but no remains have been found. When people died it was believed they went to the sacred place of Valhalla (the hall of the dead or Odins Hall).
Rituals
Little is known about Nordic rituals. It would appear that they did not practise devotional rituals, nor worship as we think of it, nor did they have a doctrinal body of law or knowledge. There is, however, some evidence of ritual associated with the goddess of fertility, Freyia. Despite the fact that there was no priesthood, the chieftains often appointed themselves as priests, though they would be more accurately regarded as shamans. Death, however, commanded complex arrangements, especially in the case of chieftains. It is from the Vikings burials that we learn most about both their society and religious beliefs. The Vikings believed that after they died they would join their gods in the afterlife, so they were buried with the goods they would require in the next life. These grave goods have been found at most burial sites. For men there were weapons and the tools required for their trade. For women there were items required in the home as well as jewellery. Food and drink were also considered necessary provisions for the dead. It was not unusual in the case of a warrior for his horse and dogs to be sacriced and buried with him. Other forms of burial included being laid to rest in wooden chambers or being buried in oval,
Sacred spaces
Sacred spaces tended to be environmental locations where people felt they could commune with the gods. This means that there are few remains for
174
circular or rectangular pits. In Denmark, wealthy women were sometimes buried in wagons. In some regions cremation was practised. A funeral pyre would be built, the body burnt and the remains buried in a clay pot with a mound of earth marking the spot. This was particularly common in Sweden.
Religion and society

The importance of the sea to the Vikings is obvious from the fact that many of the burials were in ships. In some cases a stone shaped like a longboat was placed on top of the grave. Perhaps the boat was believed to be the vehicle in which the person would travel to the afterlife. The wealth of people was evident from the artefacts placed in their graves. For example, the grave goods found with the queen buried in the Oseberg ship indicate that she must have been a very wealthy woman.
The Norse gods today In Iceland today there are still people who worship the Norse gods. This pantheon of Norse gods is referred to as Asatru (belief in the gods). The Icelandic state recognises marriages and funerals as legal when they are performed according to these rites.
Search for meaning

Peoples from the Scandinavian region sought answers to the mysteries of life in their pantheon of gods. Evidence comes from their myths contained in the Eddas, which have come down to us from the Icelandic peoples. These stories were a means to understand the world in which they lived, a world where little farming land was available to support their families. Was their plundering a means of surviving their difcult situation?
activities
1. The double-headed snake is a creature of Norse mythology. What can you nd out about its meaning? 2. Research Viking burial. Use the following three examples to support your ndings: The Scar Viking boat burial in the Orkneys The Ladbyskibet Viking burial in Denmark The Oseberg ship in Norway. 3. Using library resources and the Internet (you may nd the Jorvik Heritage Centre in York helpful ), build a picture of the life of a person of your age and sex in Norse society. How would you have understood your world? What place would there have been for magic and superstition? How important would a good burial have been? 4. After reading further on the Viking people, decide which of the following contrasting descriptions of Viking civilisation is the most likely and why. (This could also be set up as a class debate.) The Viking world was a world of warriors who conquered peoples across the sea and looted whatever bounty they could. They would ght to the death believing they would travel to Valhalla where there would be much feasting until the coming of Ragnarok. The Vikings were a peaceful immigrant people seeking an opportunity for trade and eager to assimilate with Anglo-Saxon society.
FIG. 7.26 Viking attacks on the English coast
Review and research

Review
1. Create a visual presentation which identies the differences and similarities in religion between: the Aztecs the Maya people of South America the Incas of South America Shinto Nordic. 2. Use the visual presentation you completed for Review 1 as the basis for an oral presentation. Explain to the class explain how two religions of ancient origin differ in regard to their: origins beliefs religious practices inuence on life of society. 3. Discuss the importance of Valhalla to the Vikings. 4. The Aztecs are often considered to have been very bloodthirsty. Is this a fair assessment? Why or why not? 5. Compare the method of disposal of the dead between the followers of Shinto and Nordic religions. 6. What is the signicance of the location of Machu Picchu to the Inca people? 7. Explain the signicance of the torii gateways to the practice of Shinto. Can you nd anything similar in other belief systems?
176
Research
This chapter lends itself to discovery and exploration. There are several ways that this could be approached. The development of a research task is one way of going about this. One approach would be for the teacher and the class to study one belief system and the students to select another belief system to research. Another option may be for students to compare two different belief systems. Students may be required to present their research to the class as an oral, a PowerPoint presentation or in some other medium. Possible research questions 8. How does the (Aztec, Maya, Inca, Shinto, Nordic etc.) belief system answer the search for meaning? Discuss the importance of human sacrice to Mesoamerican belief systems. 13. Using the information in this textbook about the Shinto faith, research the religion of Taoism and compare the two faith systems. How did each of them satisfy a persons search for meaning? 14. Religion gave authority to the rulers and elites of ancient societies to justify war and provide social unity. Explain how this was so. Give examples. 15. Aztec religion and its priestly caste were intertwined with political, military and economic institutions in such a way that it led to the rise and fall of the Aztec Empire. Discuss. 16 Compare the principal beliefs of two different religions of ancient origin. 17. Explain the interconnection of beliefs and society in two different religions of ancient origin.
9.
10. People often confuse the Maya and the Aztecs. Why do you think this is the case? In your response, outline the similarities and differences between the two belief systems. 11. Who do you think the Incas most resemble, the Maya or the Aztecs? Why? 12. Mythology is an important aspect of all belief systems discussed in this chapter. Explain its signicance in two belief systems.
Religion in Australia pre-1945

The focus of this study is the establishment and development of religious traditions in Australia pre-1945.
Outcomes
A student: P2 P3 P4 P5 P6 P7 P8 identies the inuence of religion and belief systems on individuals and society investigates religious traditions and belief systems describes the inuence of religious traditions in the life of adherents selects and uses relevant information about religion from a variety of sources undertakes effective research about religion, making appropriate use of time and resources uses appropriate terminology related to religion and belief systems effectively communicates information, ideas and issues using appropriate written, oral and graphic forms
Content
Students learn about: Religious traditions in Australia pre-1945 arrival and establishment of Christianity and TWO other religious traditions in Australia issues related to the development of Christianity in Australia pre-1945: sectarianism social welfare the contribution of ONE religious tradition in Australia to each of the following pre-1945: rural and outback communities education public morality
Prelim | Chapter 8 Australia pre-1945
179
ADHERENT AGNOSTIC
person who follows or upholds a religion or doctrine. person who holds the view that you can neither prove nor disprove the existence of God and that the essential nature of things is unknowable. anti-Jewish sentiment. Opposition to and persecution of the Jewish people and their religious beliefs and practices. a bishop is a priest promoted to a position of leadership and appointed to oversee a diocese (a geographical region). From the Greek word episkopos, meaning supervisor. a ministry of the Church of England to the people of the Australian outback. Taking vows of poverty, chastity and obedience, the men travelled in pairs through different regions of the countryside. Their ministry included conducting church services, weddings, baptisms and funerals to people in places that may not have seen a clergyman for months or even years. people, such as ministers or priests, who are trained or ordained for religious duties. assistant to a bishop. person who believes, on the basis of reason rather than revelation, in the existence of a God who created the earth but is not involved in it. group of religious congregations with their own organisation and distinctive faith. a region administered by a bishop. Protestants who left the Church of England after 1662, including not only those who disagreed with the worship, the government and the theology of the Church of England, but also those who believed that the legal establishment of one church was wrong. Also referred to as nonconformists. moral or religious principles taught by a particular group. the Church of England as it was in Englandthe state church, controlled by the Government. As such it enjoyed a higher status than other Christian denominations.
EVANGELICAL
those with a distinctive view of personal conversion, the authority of the Bible and missionary outreach. relating to or promoting the ardent preaching of the Christian gospel. a descriptive term used to describe AngloCatholic worship within the Church of England (now Anglican Church). all the people in a religious organisation who are not clergy. a person from one of several Protestant denominations beyond the Church of England who believed in a different set of doctrines and/or a different style of worship. Often coming from the Baptist, Methodist, Presbyterian or Congregationalist denominations. a geographical region centred on a particular Christian church. related to or located in a parish. an organised massacre or persecution of a particular ethnic or religious group. the Christian conviction that the Fourth Commandment was part of Gods moral law and that Sunday should therefore be kept with the same strictness as the Jewish Sabbath. Civil courts enforced observance in Britain, its colonies and the United States. sacred rite or ceremony involving change for the individual. excessive devotion to a particular religious denomination. person who believes that government and education should not be connected to religion. a group of church delegates convened to discuss and decide on church affairs. abstinence from alcohol. the right of all adult citizens to vote. a common view among Protestants from the 1890s on that openly disapproved of consumption of alcohol, gambling, dancing and Sunday leisure time activities in general. (Wowser is an acronym for We Only Want Social Evils Remedied.)
EVANGELISTIC HIGH CHURCH
ANTI-SEMITISM
LAITY NONCONFORMIST
BISHOP
BUSH BROTHERHOOD
PARISH PAROCHIAL POGROM SABBATARIANISM
CLERGY COADJUTOR DEIST
SACRAMENT SECTARIANISM SECULARIST
DENOMINATION
DIOCESE DISSENTERS
SYNOD TEMPERANCE UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE WOWSERISM
DOCTRINE ESTABLISHED CHURCH
180
The arrival of Christianity in Australia

Coming ashore at Sydney Cove on 26 January 1788 were followers of the Church of England, Catholics, Methodists, Presbyterians, Jews, deists, agnostics and unbelievers. Though they brought with them a growing tolerance of this diversity of beliefs, they also brought the sectarian intolerance that had characterised England, Wales, Scotland and Ireland since Henry VIII broke from the Roman Catholic Church in 1534. From that time, kings and queens had persecuted in turn Catholics, then Protestants, then Catholics and some Protestants back and forth for over 250 years. An amendment to Englands Act of Toleration in 1779, despite popular protest, accepted the coexistence of virtually all Protestant denominations and Catholicism in England. However, it was not until the Test and Corporation Acts of 1828 that British law permitted nonconforming (that is, nonChurch of England) Protestants to hold government ofces, be members of parliament or attend university. Catholics received the same rights after the Roman Catholic Relief Act of 1829.
FIG. 8.1 Pamphlet regarding a directive for convicts to attend church, 1814
Official sectarianism
Early colonial Australia was marked by this imported sectarianism and by swings between ofcial tolerance and intolerance. The rst governor, Arthur Phillip, supported the Church of England by insisting that all convicts, no matter what their beliefs, should attend that churchs services on Sundays. Marriages in the colony were not considered valid unless performed and recorded by a Church of England clergyman. Many refused to legalise their union.
Phillips successor, Lieutenant-Governor Grose, apparently suspicious of any evangelism, was less tolerant of the work of Richard Johnson, the colonys rst Church of England minister, who had arrived with the First Fleet. Governor Hunter, a Presbyterian who accepted some denominational diversity, was particularly intolerant of the public immorality that he ascribed to the colonys many irreligious people. In 1800 Governor King appointed Father James Dixon, who had been transported for involvement in the Irish Rebellion of 1798, to minister to Catholics. After an Irish convict rebellion in 1804 (The Battle of Vinegar Hill), King removed Dixon and insisted on the primacy of the Church of England. William Bligh, governor from 1806 to 1808, supported the denominational diversity of small farmers and traders against threats from the Church of Englanddominated New South Wales Corps, but was disturbed by the general lth of moral corruption he found in the colony.
181
Official establishment of Christianity in Australia

Governor Macquaries replacement in 1821, Thomas Brisbane, was mainly supportive of the Church of England. However, he broke its monopoly on government grants by giving some assistance to Catholic and Methodist ministries to help reduce the barbarous ignorance and total want of education of the convicts. At rst he did not include the Presbyterian Church, but after a rebuke from the Colonial Ofce in London, he extended subsidies to the Church of Scotland. Governor Darling in New South Wales and Governor Arthur in Tasmania continued this policy until 1836, when Governor Bourke accepted the passage of the Church Act. This provided government subsidies for salaries and church buildings for what now became the four ofcially recognised Christian denominations in Australia: Church of England, Catholic, Methodist and Presbyterian.
activities
1. Describe the religion followed by the convicts who came to Australia. 2. Research the religious life of a convict in the early years in Australia. You may like to research this further by examining: the practices that were forced on the convicts why and how the government thought this would help the convicts the battle for souls between the Catholic Church and the Church of England in the early years.
heritage. But other Protestants and Jews also rose to prominence, especially in the mercantile world. Lower administrators, professionals, small farmers and skilled tradespeople tended to be non-conforming Protestants; this included a substantial number of immigrants with Scottish (Presbyterian) and Welsh (Methodist) heritage. A proportion of the working class was Catholic and identied strongly with Ireland. By 1845 almost 99 per cent of the population described themselves as Christian, predominantly Protestant, but with a quarter stating allegiance to the Catholic Church. The 1861 census found that 88 per cent of the population was Christian: 43 per cent Church of England, 24 per cent Catholic, 13 per cent Presbyterian and 8 per cent Methodist. Another 0.5 per cent was Jewish and 12 per cent belonged to Other religions. With the exception of a small but signicant Lutheran population of Germanic descent, Australian society as revealed in the 1901 census was dominated ethnically and denominationally by Anglo-Celts. Forty per cent of the population was Church of England, 23 per cent Catholic and 34 per cent other Christian. Only about 1 per cent professed non-Christian religions. The Church of England held a favoured position in the early colony, but relations were often tense with governors like Grose and Macquarie. They tried to make the church an instrument of government policy. However, ministers like Richard Johnson,
Christian and Church of England dominance

The rst New South Wales census in 1828 categorised the colonys almost 37 000 residents into four religions, ranging from those with the most adherents to those with the least: Protestant, Catholic, Jewish, and Mohammedans and pagans (there were 19 Mohammedans). There was a degree of class and ethnic afliation among these groups. Many government ofcials and senior administrators, exNew South Wales Corps pastoralists, and a growing group of entrepreneurs tended to support the Church of England and their English
FIG. 8.2 St Matthews Anglican Church, Windsor, New South Wales, designed by the emancipist architect Francis Greenway
182
who arrived with the First Fleet in 1788, and Samuel Marsden, who arrived in 1794, insisted on independence. After Johnson left the colony in 1800, Marsdens moral and evangelical fervour earned him the popular epithet of the ogging parson as well as disdain from Governor Macquarie for his Methodistical and other Sectarian Principles. In 1798 Marsden welcomed Congregationalist and Methodist missionaries to New South Wales, but over time he sought an unrivalled ascendancy for the Church of England. This antagonised the growing number of members of other Protestant denominations and Catholics. The rst church, St Johns at Parramatta, was opened in 1803 and more Church of England ministers arrived after 1809. The emancipist architect Francis Greenway was commissioned by Governor Macquarie to design three churches, including St Matthews in Windsor. These were often the rst large public buildings in rural areas and acted as focal points for community activities, serving as schools and meeting halls as much as places of worship. Archdeacon William Broughton, arriving in New South Wales in 1829, complained that the lower orders had little disposition to attend church regularly. While doing little immediately to remedy this, he did establish the Kings School (named after his school in Canterbury, England) at Parramatta in 1831 for the sons of the wealthy. It failed a few years later. In 1836 Broughton was appointed the Church of Englands rst and only Bishop of Australia. In the same year These (churches) the government attempted to remedy were often the first the shortage of church large public buildings ministries in the colony by distributing in rural areas and subsidies among the acted as focal points four main Christian denominations for community according to the activities, serving as number of adherents each one claimed. With schools and meeting this act, the Church of halls as much as England was no longer in an established and places of worship. exclusive relationship with the government. Broughton fought against this concession to popular government. As a member until 1844 of the hand-picked Legislative Council, he argued for
restricting the right to vote to wealthier citizens, most of whom favoured the Church of England. Broughton also lobbied against the appointment to Australia in 1836 of the Catholic archbishop John Bede Polding. Apart from establishing dioceses and personally consecrating church buildings far and wide (including St John the Baptist Church in 1845 in what was later to become Canberra), Broughtons main contribution to strengthening the presence of the Church of England in Australia was to encourage church self-government separate from English control. The British government eventually relented, and in 1856 decision-making passed to an Australian synod of bishops, clergy and laity. A cast of Broughtons tomb in Canterbury Cathedral can be seen in St Andrews Cathedral in Sydney. In 1861, the Church of England could boast of having 43 per cent of the population as adherents. However, this proportion slowly declined until by 1901 the church could claim only 40 per cent. In this position, and with global tensions rising, the church became ever more Empire-loyal and conservative. The churchs Mothers Union, established in Tasmania in 1892, declared in its journal Mothers in Australia in 1914 that its role was to protect marriage and to train children to be the future mothers and fathers of the Empire. Fund-raising for church charities and mutual help were the Mothers Unions main welfare activities. In 1919 the Sydney diocese established the Bush Church Aid Society to assist rural and remote parishes to provide welfare and ministry services and to overcome the generally parochial nature of charitable activity that had developed within the Church of England. The term Anglican became associated with the church in 1851, and the Australian church changed its ofcial title to the Anglican Church of Australia in 1981.
activities
1. What was the religion of the working class and what nationality did most belong to? 2. By 1845 what were the percentages of different religions in the population? 3. How did the above percentages change by 1901? 4. In the late 1700s there was conict between the church and the government. Discuss in a group the nature of this conict.
183
Catholics
After Father James Dixon returned to Ireland in 1808, there were no ofcial Catholic priests in New South Wales until Phillip Connolly and Joseph Therry were appointed in 1820. (A controversial Irish priest named Father Jeremiah OFlynn ministered in the colony during 1817 and 1818, but without British Colonial Ofce permission.) Connolly ministered in Tasmania while Therry so antagonised Governor Darling in Sydney that in 1826 he was offered 300 pounds to leave the colony. Dr William Ullathorne was sent in 1833 to restore some order to the church in both Sydney and Hobart, and in 1837 Therry was reinstated. On the advice of Ullathorne, John Bede Polding was made Australias rst Catholic bishop in 1834 and archbishop in 1842. Polding and others published widely and regularly, arguing for relief for working people and farmers affected by the Depression of the 1840s and criticising the degree of political inuence wielded by squatters and gentry. By the late 1840s, political factions both within and outside parliaments in New South Wales and Tasmania had support from the Catholic leadership.
FIG. 8.4 Caroline Chisholm was often outspoken in support of universal sufferage.
FIG. 8.3 Roger Bede Vaughan, appointed coadjutor archbishop to John Bede Polding in 1873
It was in this period that Caroline Chisholm undertook her work. She lobbied governments to provide assisted passage to Australia for female migrants and families, eventually helping 11 000 settlers. Living in London from 1846 to 1854, she gathered funds to establish a hostel in Sydney for both local women and new arrivals and to pay for their transport inland. Her grand scheme was to establish a class of devout small farmers, and she cast her net well beyond assisting only Catholics. Chisholm was especially concerned by frontier abuses and supported Governor Gipps decision to retry the seven men acquitted of murdering 28 Aboriginals at Myall Creek in 1838. She also campaigned to end convict transportation to mainland eastern Australia, which was achieved in 1840. Caroline Chisholm was especially outspoken in favour of universal suffrage and against the concentration of political power in the hands of squatters. Another contribution to social welfare came in 1857 when Bishop Polding founded the Good Shepherd Sisters (after 1866 the Good Samaritan Sisters), the rst Australian religious order of women. Their purpose was to undertake charitable works including a womens refuge in Sydney. The initial dominance of the Catholic leadership in Australia by clergy of English and Scottish origin altered when six Irish bishops were appointed in the eastern colonies between 1859 and 1869. To assist in the production of native-born clergy, Cardinal Moran founded St Patricks seminary at Manly in 1889. Along with this went the slow expansion of Catholic education. This included Mother
184
Mary MacKillops Sisters of Joseph, who between 1866 and 1871 established 35 schools in Adelaide with a special mission for the poor. By 1836 Polding had also established, with government nancial assistance, 13 primary schools, seven for boys and six for girls. But it is his successor, Roger Bede Vaughan, who is remembered for seeking to entrench a system of Catholic schools in Australia. Vaughan was appointed coadjutor archbishop to Polding in 1873, much to the consternation of the Irish-Australian bishops, who found him to be too English. By 1875 he had taken on much of the ofcial work of leading the church while Polding devoted the last two years of his life to missionary work. Vaughan sought to expand the number and range of Catholic schools despite growing resistance by governments to religious schools. For instance, a government committee in 1844 decided that denominational schools were both too costly and too sectarian. In 1880 it became clear to Vaughan that Henry Parkes Public Instruction Act (1880) would abolish government funding of church schools in 1882, and that only public schools would be subsidised. In response Vaughan railed that such schools would become seed-plots of future immorality, indelity and lawlessness, being calculated to debase the standard of human excellence, and to corrupt the political, social and individual life of future citizens. Slightly earlier, Archbishop Goold of Melbourne had called public schools Godless, to which the Attorney-General replied that Catholicism was a fungus on the country. In this atmosphere of sectarian and anti-sectarian animosity, between 1872 and 1893 every state passed laws ending government subsidisation of church schools. It was from the 1870s that the Catholic Church began deliberately to project a distinct culture and set of values. It set out to establish an independent education system and shape Australian politics even in the face of popular or political opposition. This was probably a result of the principles expounded by Pope Pius IX in his Syllabus of Errors of 1864. This culture also had a distinctly Irish avour, with the arrival of considerable numbers of clergy from Ireland and the appointment of six Irish bishops to Australia between 1859 and 1869. St Patricks seminary was established to educate Australian clergy in an Irish way. Probably less deliberately but to the same effect, the Australian Labor Party, founded in 1891 in Queensland during Australias worst economic collapse to that point in time, became the political party capturing the allegiance of most Catholics. It drew its leaders from both Protestant and Catholic ranks. It was also during the 1890s Depression that the St Vincent de Paul Society came to the fore as a leading agency for social welfare, establishing 26 branches by 1895 to assist needy families.
FIG. 8.5 Mother Mary MacKillop window at St Bedes Church, Braidwood, New South Wales, 2003
185
By 1914 almost 300 000 Irish Catholics had emigrated to Australia, joining the Italian Catholic migrants who arrived with the gold rushes of the 1850s in the east and the 1890s in Queensland and Western Australia. This gave Catholicism the second greatest proportion of adherents after the Church of England. About one-quarter of the population in the eastern states and slightly higher in Western Australia and South Australia was Catholic. The Catholic Womens Social Guild was established in Melbourne in 1916 and sought to better womens working conditions and to tackle welfare issues like poverty and child neglect. By the 1930s branches of the Guild could be found in most dioceses. Over time its welfare work became considerably more focused on local concerns, in the manner of most womens auxiliary organisations, and away from the more political and trade union involvement envisaged by its founders, Mary Glowery, a doctor, Anna Brennan, a lawyer, and Julia Flynn, a teacher. The eucharistic congresses in 1928 in Sydney and 1938 in Newcastle helped to keep the Catholic Church in prominence.
activities
1. Research Caroline Chisholm and why she made such a huge impact on Australia. 2. What was the role of Mother Mary MacKillops Sisters of Joseph? 3. What work was undertaken by Bishop Polding? 4. From the 1840s to the 1880s the NSW government tried to remove God from government schools. Debate whether you think this worked. Who were the key people in this debate and what was the outcome? 5. In the 1890s Catholic leaders were involved in the birth of a political party. Which party was this, and do you think the events of the previous 50 years had an impact on this decision? Justify your answer.
Congregationalists and Methodists

Until 1812 it was illegal under English law for religious services to be held by dissenting congregations. Nevertheless, such services were held in New South Wales from 1810 by the Congregationalist William Crook, much to the consternation of Samuel Marsden. A focal point for the evangelical enthusiasm of both denominations was the founding of Sunday schools for biblical instruction, the rst being conducted by the Anglican Thomas Hassall in 1813. The arrival of the Methodist missionary Samuel Leigh in 1815 was initially welcomed by Marsden but not by the High Church Governor Macquarie. A Methodist chapel was built west of Sydney in 1817 and two more in Sydney in 1819. The steady alienation of Methodism from the Church of England was mirrored by relations in New South Wales and Van Diemens Land (Tasmania). Disputes over membership, doctrine and services led to the rapid establishment of separate institutions. A Congregational Church was constituted in Hobart in 1832 and attracted some well-off parishioners who, like the businessman Henry Hopkins, funded libraries, schools, and savings, temperance and benevolent (charitable) societies. Methodism spread to all colonies and in 1854 became independent of Britain. In 1902 the many branches of Methodism came together in the General Conference of the Methodist Church of Australasia. Methodist women were strongly involved in one of the most signicant social and political organisations in Australia, the Womens Christian Temperance Union. Founded in the United States and established in Australia in 1882, the unions concern was with the social issues of eliminating alcohol abuse (temperance) and improving family life, accompanied by a political concern for extending voting rights to women (female suffrage).
Methodist women were strongly involved in one of
the most significant social and political organisations in Australia
186
Methodists were keen missionaries, particularly active in Papua New Guinea and the Pacic Islands. In Australia they were heavily involved in education, hospitals, homes for the aged and other social welfare concerns. The church established an Inland Mission in 1927 to provide welfare and ministry services similar to those of the Presbyterians. The Methodist denomination virtually disappeared in 1976 when the Uniting Church was formed, though most of its beliefs and concerns were carried over into the new church as it was the dominant partner.
activities
1. When was Methodism welcomed into Australia? 2. What were two key areas of Methodist inuence in Australian society in the late 1800s?
FIG. 8.6 John Dunmore Lang addressing the New South Wales Legislative Council
Presbyterians
Presbyterianism is Scottish in origin, having broken from English control in the mid-1600s. The rst Presbyterian service in Australia was held in 1795 by Thomas Muir, a Scottish elder and convict, one of ve Scottish Martyrs transported for their support of trade unions. The young and energetic minister John Dunmore Lang arrived in New South Wales in 1823. He immediately demanded that the privileges extended by the colonial government to the Church of England be applied to his church. Beginning the construction of the Scots Church in Sydney in 1824, Lang sought the support of the British Colonial Ofce which, against Governor Brisbanes wishes, granted him a large stipend. In 1830 Lang instituted a migration program to bring Scottish tradesmen to Australia. The rst Presbyterian school opened in 1831. Unlike Presbyterian minister John McGarvey who founded the conservative Sydney Morning Herald in 1831, Lang regularly produced a muck-raking newssheet, the Colonist, whose political radicalism and disdain for inherited privilege at times outraged the political, and the Presbyterian, establishment. His campaigning against the privileged position of the Church of England in the provision of education, enshrined in the Church and Schools Corporation of 1825, probably hastened its abolition in 1833.
Lang also had concerns about Catholicism in Australia. He was known to call the Pope a man of sin and claimed that Caroline Chisholms ecumenical welfare and immigration schemes were part of a plot to take over Australia. The Presbyterian Womens Missionary Association, established in New South Wales in 1891, collected funds to support the churchs missionary activities in Australia and overseas. At the same time, and in the midst of the 1890s Depression, the church in Victoria set up Dorcas Societies, whose women provided assistance to the sick and destitute. John Flynns 1912 report on the need for an inland ministry led to the establishment of the Australian Inland Mission, with its patrol ministers and their treadle radios, a network of mission and welfare centres in places like Cloncurry and the West Australian goldelds, and nursing centres in Alice Springs, Halls Creek, Thursday Island and other remote centres. These centres later provided bases for the Flying Doctor Service. Flynn insisted that these services be made available to all.
activities
1. Outline three key contributions of the Presbyterians in early Australia. 2. Research the work of John Flynn that has made his name so well known to Australians even today.
187
Lutherans
South Australia, founded without convicts in 1836, attracted many who had deep religious convictions and who chafed at religious discrimination in Europe. It proved a haven for Lutherans escaping religious persecution in Germany. Lutherans also settled in other colonies, especially Queensland. As early as 1837 Lutheran missionaries were working with Indigenous peoples in Queensland and soon after in South Australia and the Northern Territory. This work spread to New Guinea in 1886. Lutherans were quick to take up new technologies such as radio, both for evangelising with shows such as The Lutheran Hour and for linking isolated groups of worshippers.
Greek Orthodox
The Sydney Gazette of 1818 mentioned the presence of Greek Orthodox adherents in Eastern Australia. Greek nationals took part in the gold rushes, and by the end of the 19th century there were Orthodox communities in Sydney and Melbourne. The rst church was consecrated in Surry Hills, New South Wales, in 1898. By 1911 the Orthodox Church probably had 2364 members, though they were recorded by the census as Greek Catholic. Orthodox communities in Australia were under the control of the Patriarch of Jerusalem until 1903 when control moved to Athens and in 1908 to Constantinople (present-day Istanbul). In 1924 the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople established the Holy Metropolis of Australia and New Zealand, with Bishop Christophoros in charge.
FIG. 8.7 Departure of the rst Lutheran missionaries from Tanunda, South Australia
activity
Prepare an oral presentation on the work of the Lutheran and the Greek Orthodox churches in pre1945 Australia.
188
Non-Christian religions in Australia pre-1945

Buddhism
Buddhism may well have come to Australia with the inux of Chinese during the 1850s gold rushes in New South Wales and Victoria. Many mining towns in Australia cherish remains of socalled joss houses, some with statues of the Buddha. Buddhist Sri Lankans who were brought to Australia to work in the sugar industry and the pearl sheries in the 1890s also brought their beliefs with them. Like many Pacic Islanders (also indentured in the sugar industry), a lot of Sri Lankans were deported from Australia with the enactment of the Immigration Restriction Act soon after Federation, but some managed to stay. Buddhism attracted some Westerners too. In the 1920s there was disillusionment in the Western world with Christianity and an increasing fascination with the East and its religions. Australians were no different, starting a Buddhist Society in 1925: the Little Circle of Dharma. In Australia, as in other Western nations, this type of adherence to Buddhism did not expand very far and remained an esoteric and rather elitist fad.
Islam
It is possible that Islam reached Australia with the Macassan trepang shers in the 16th century. They buried their dead here and some of their practices were observed by local Aborigines, but their beliefs did not have a very great impact. Pakistani, Afghani and Turkish camel drivers (popularly called Afghans and mainly Muslims) were brought to Australia in the second half of the 19th century to assist in opening up the inland. Their work on the overland telegraphcompleted in 1861is commemorated in the name given to the central Australian train, the Ghan. They built the rst Australian mosques in Adelaide about 1895, Perth in 1905, and later in Broken Hill and Alice Springs.
FIG. 8.8 Buddhist monk standing on steps of Nan Tien temple, near Wollongong, NSW
Australia cherish remains of so-called joss houses, some with statues of the Buddha.
Many mining towns in
189
Hinduism
Hinduism came to Australia in the 19th century through Australian employers need for labour to work on the sugar plantations in the tropical north. It is difcult to ascertain from ofcial records how many of the Indians recruited for the plantations were Hindus and how many were Muslims or Sikhs. It is estimated that by 1911, when the Indian population was recorded as 4106, probably about 1000 were Hindus. The Immigration Restriction Act 1901 (enacting the so-called White Australia Policy) stopped the further arrival of Indians and prevented the spread of Hinduism.
Australia since the First Fleet. By 1820 there Jewish convicts. were several hundred
Judaism has been in
Judaism
Judaism has been in Australia since the First Fleet. By 1820 there were several hundred Jewish convicts. Others came in the late 1820s as free settlers, many of them merchants, and organised worship in 1828, at rst in a private house and, in 1844, in a synagogue in York Street, Sydney (now recreated at Sydneys Jewish Museum). By 1878 a government grant of 23 000 pounds went towards erecting the Great Synagogue, still standing in Elizabeth Street, Sydney. Meanwhile, Jews emigrated to the other colonies, and by the 1840s there were congregations worshipping in Hobart, Launceston, Melbourne and Adelaide. With many Jews taking part in the various Australian gold rushes, congregations were established in 1864 in Brisbane and 1892 in Perth. Anti-Semitic pogroms in eastern Europe and Russia in the 1890s and the Nazi regimes attempt to exterminate Jews in Europe resulted in uctuating emigration to Australia, peaking in the 1930s and late 1940s.
activity
One thing these non-Christian traditions have in common before 1945 is how they came to Australia. Prepare a report discussing this hypothesis. Use supporting evidence.
FIG. 8.9 The Great Synagogue was built in 1878 with the help of a government grant. It still stands in Elizabeth Street, Sydney
190
Issues in the development of Christianity in Australia pre-1945

The impact of sectarianism
In the early years, the Church of England was the ofcial church of the colony. Roman Catholic clergy were refused entry until it became clear to the authorities that Church of England chaplains could not effectively minister to signicant numbers of Irish Catholic convicts. Other Protestant bodies such as the Congregationalists and Wesleyans were grudgingly given permission to hold services. Presbyterians, who were members of the other national established church, the Church of Scotland, were initially treated like Dissenters until the Rev. John Dunmore Langs lobbying concerning a government grant for a Presbyterian building in 1824 changed that. Members of the Church of England enjoyed various exclusive privileges. Catholics and Dissenters, for example, were often denied employment in public ofce. The Constitution of the Commonwealth of Australia (1900) made it absolutely clear that there were to be no religious tests in relation to government employment. However, job discrimination against Catholics continued well into the 20th century in some companies and small businesses. Quite early on, the various churches insisted on their right to marry and bury their own members. Struggles broke out over cemeteries that, while nominally public, were actually controlled by the Church of England. The right of nonChurch of England clergy to bury their dead was not always clear, especially in country districts. In the larger towns and cities the problem was solved by the creation of general cemeteries, with divisions included for all the major denominations. Disputes also occurred about the place of clergy at state functions (the symbolism of clerical presence pointed to an ofcial, public profession of Christianity). Prayers in parliaments and special services to mark the opening of the legal year made the same point, that even though there was no established church in Australia, there was nevertheless a willingness to publicly recognise the centrality of Christianity in the nations life. By 1861, when the census registered the healthy number of 428 759 Anglicans in New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania and Queensland, government subsidies began to be withdrawn from the Church of England. This withdrawal of government funds coincided with the churchs desire for independence from the British crown, as well as the local government. The rst had been responsible for the appointment of senior clergy, trained in Britain, to the Church of England in Australia. In addition to this, the local goverment had consistently interfered in the churchs affairs. The Church of England in Australia maintained strong ties to Britain through the education of its clergy and the appointment of senior clerics in the church. The Irishness of the Catholic Church gave it a cohesiveness born from both a common heritage and a desire among Irish people to see their home country break from English rule. Anti-English sentiment, therefore, was a predictable feature of Irish Catholicism in Australia. It found its most public expression in the political arena, where the tendency of the middle- and working-class Irish to vote for the Labor Party contrasted with the English and Scottish Protestants preference for conservative parties such as the Nationalist Party of Australia (now the Liberal Party) and the Country Party (now the National Party). Catholicism in Australia proceeded largely through the inspiration of pioneering Irish leaders. In 1833, for example, Father John McEnroe arrived in New South Wales, putting a strong case for democratic government and protesting against
191
convict transportation. Many of his liberal ideas were expressed in the newspaper that he founded, the Freemans Journal. Though the Irish connection in the Catholic Church in Australia was strong, it is important to note that around the rst decade of the 20th century about 25 per cent of Australian Catholics born outside the country were not Irish. For example, many Italian Catholics who came to Australia in the 1850s made their permanent home here. One of Australias most important historical documents is the chronicle of the Italian-born gold digger Raffaello Carboni (181775), who witnessed the military attack on the Eureka Stockade in 1854. By the turn of the 20th century, Victoria registered 1525 Italian-born persons, virtually all of whom would have been Catholics. One Australian-born child of Italian Catholic immigrants would make an enormous impact on Australian society and on the Australian Catholic community. Bartholomew Augustine Santamaria, born in 1915, was involved in the national Secretariat of Catholic Action, a lay movement initiated by Archbishop Daniel Mannix (18641963). Ofciating rst as assistant director (194754), Santamaria was a powerful voice for the Catholic Churchs position on social issues ranging from industrial labour to rural community life. Santamaria, who was also president of the Catholic Social Movement (194357), spearheaded a split in the Labor Party over its attitude towards communism. Claiming that the Labor Party was being manipulated by pro-communist sympathisers, Santamaria set himself the task of ghting against all manifestations of communism in Australia.
The contribution of Christianity to social welfare pre-1945

Through their churches, people became involved in voluntary associations and their management. This gave many Australians experience in civic and moral responsibility. Churches encouraged people to give freely of their time to service the community. The result has been a fascinating network of caring organisations staffed mainly by volunteers. This was a most important area of church inuence, helping to make life more bearable for thousands of Australians. Today, many of these organisations have become large professional organisations employing many people and receiving considerable government assistance. The Salvation Army, St Vincent de Paul conferences, city missions and the Sydney Anglican Home Mission Society are examples of voluntary caring undertaken on a scale that could not be matched by government departments.
activities
1. What is sectarianism? 2. Give examples of religious discrimination in pre-1945 Australia. 3. Being a member of a certain church may also have had advantages. Give examples of these privileges. 4. How did this discrimination and these benets affect government leaders and government policy during this period? 5. Some Australian-born children of Italian Catholic immigrants made a big impact on Australia. Who were they and what did they do? 6. Research the role of early churches in social welfare. What activities did they initiate and are any still operating and relevant today?
a powerful voice for the Catholic Churchs position on social issues ranging from industrial labour to rural community life.
Santamaria was
192
The contribution of Christianity to Australia

Religious traditions in rural and outback communities pre-1945
Ministry in the Australian outback brought with it a unique set of problems. Population was so sparse that is could take hours or even days to journey from one family to another. Transportation was not good, and loneliness in this isolated land was a constant presence for ministers who ventured into the outback. Bush brotherhoods were established by the Church of England in the late 1880s. The men who joined these orders agreed to vows of poverty, chastity and obedience. Ten of these brotherhoods were active in the outback regions of Australia, with the Brotherhood of the Good Shepherd being the most active in New South Wales country areas. These men travelled from one outback station to another. Working in pairs in an attempt to offset some of the dangers of distance and loneliness, they were often the only people that station families saw from one year to the next. These men conducted services wherever they could, whether it was in an old barn, in hotel bars or under the stars. They administered the sacrament of baptism, and conducted both marriages and funerals. Some years later, in 1919, the Evangelical wing of the Church of England established the Bush Church Aid Society (BCA). Both men and women took active roles in bringing Gods message to those who dwelt in inland regions. Unlike the bush brothers, some BCA workers would stay in one location where they established hospitals and hostels. Others travelled from one place to another, preaching Gods word and teaching the children. It was not long before all the major Christian denominations had established similar ministry teams. A leading gure in the Presbyterian Churchs outback ministry was the Rev. Dr John Flynn (18801951). Flynn was appointed the churchs superintendent of Central Australia and the Northern Territory, to which he both ministered and brought a range of medical and social services. In 1912 the Presbyterian Church founded the Australian Inland Mission. It was Flynns aim to bring the church to the people of the outback. He established his rst centre of ministry in Oodnadatta in South Australia. Transportation was by camel, horse or van, but Flynn was not shy of modern innovations and soon capitalised on the invention of the pedal radio and the aeroplane. In 1928 he founded the Australian Inland Mission Aerial Medical Service. So began what today is the Royal Flying Doctor Service. Flynn and his ideas revolutionised both ministry and service in the outback for those people who lived in such remote locations.
activities
1. For Christ and Continent was John Flynns motto. To what extent do you think Flynn achieved what he set out to do? In your response consider the tyranny of distance, making sure you outline the signicance or otherwise of the radio and the aeroplane. 2. What were the bush brotherhoods, who was involved and what did they do?
FIG. 8.10 Reverend John Flynn
193
Religion and education in Australia pre-1945

The rst colonys troubled and divided beginnings ensured that colonial religious life reected the sectarian rivalries that had fragmented the churches of Britain. Colonists concerned to leave such religious divisions behind believed that ties between church and state should be ended and that the churches should be supported by their own adherents. Baptists, Congregationalists, some Presbyterians and Wesleyans took this view. Initially, such concerns were partly met by the granting of nancial aid to the major religious groups as well as the Church of England. Each church moved to maximise its religious and educational inuence. However, even though each colony imposed a cap on religious expenditure, some inuential colonists wanted such aid ended. Their goal was to eliminate duplication and ensure that public instruction was controlled and nanced by each colonial government. Some Christians combined with secularists and revenue-conscious politicians to bring an end to this form of state aid. This was a major blow to the inuence of the Protestant churches. Even though secondary schools and university colleges were strong inuences on colonial elites, the Roman Catholic Church showed that its schools also provided a potent cultural and religious inuence. By the end of the 19th century, an impressive Catholic school system was in place in every colony. It built on the work of religious orders such as the Sisters of Mercy, the Australian-founded Josephites, and the Marist and Christian Brothers, who came to Australia at the invitation of bishops such as Polding and Moran. Polding helped to ensure unity of action in Catholic communities. Lutherans also had their own school system, but it was much smaller. Many Protestants argued that such denominational schools were sectarian and divisive. Catholics, however, insisted that it was a matter of conscience to have schools run on religious principles in every part of the curriculum. They claimed that they were denied justice by the Protestant majority because they paid taxes for public schools that they could not in conscience send their children to, while at the same time having to nance their own schools.
activities
1. Throughout this chapter there are examples of many Christian churches involved in establishing and developing a church-based education system. Research why church leaders thought this was so important in a convict settlement, and indeed why it continued well after convict transportation stopped. 2. In direct contrast, early governments favoured religious-free education. Why was this view and that of the churches so different? 3. Is this debate still continuing in Australia? Search recent newspaper archives and identify whether the reasons have changed from pre-1945 to the present.
FIG. 8.11 St Francis Convent school and adjoining Catholic church, Hughenden, Queensland
194
Religion and public morality pre-1945

Christian inuences on public morality can best be seen by looking at the examples of Sabbatarianism, family law and laws relating to the consumption of liquor and the regulation of gambling. Sabbatarianism Sunday observance has always been followed differently in the different churches. In the 19th century an inuential coalition of Protestants fought any attempts to weaken the sanctity of the Christian Sabbath. They pointed to the Fourth Commandment (Remember the sabbath day, to keep it holy, Exodus 20:8) and argued that its observance was no less vital than the observance of the other commandments. Honouring God by worship was a guarantee of divine blessing on the nation. Such groups opposed Sunday work, as well as the sale of goods, the playing of sport, the opening of hotels and theatres, and the running of public transport on the Sabbath. Roman Catholics rejected the justication offered by Protestants. Catholics were obliged to attend mass and to abstain from servile labour, but once religious obligations had been met they were free to pursue recreation. Sabbath observance was often lax in the bush, and some radicals saw Sabbatarianism as another form of oppression against the working class. Nonetheless, many ordinary families who were not especially religious clearly valued the opportunities for rest and recreation that Sunday offered. They had no desire to see a repeal of the legislation governing Sunday observance, even if they neither understood nor agreed with the evangelical Protestant theology that had provided the original justication for the legislation. Divorce In the 19th century there were bitter struggles over attempts to liberalise the divorce law. In New South Wales in 1886, an eminent judge, Sir Alfred Stephen, a devout Anglican, led the campaign to widen the grounds for divorce. The campaign was pursued in spite of opposition from bishops. The reforms became law in 1892. Alcohol, gambling and censorship Many Protestants were so concerned about the severe problems caused by drunkenness and alcoholism that they wanted to ban the sale of liquor altogether. Such a ban was unlikely to be legislated, for too many Christians saw no harm in responsible drinking and believed that legal prohibition would create more problems than it solved. The high point of temperance campaigns was reached during the First World War, when a signicant majority voted for 6 pm closing of hotels. Strongly inuenced by the Protestant churches, that legislation persisted until the 1950s. Local opinion still ensures that some suburbs have no licensed hotels today. Church opposition to the restriction of gambling lasted much longer, with roots lying in the 19thcentury denunciation of gain by methods other than honest labour. Such attempts at social control have been called wowserism. These views were strongly cultivated in Protestant churches, which vented their hostility at fashionable dress, the exposure of the body that attended public bathing, indulgence in liquor and gambling, the breaking of the Sabbath and the pursuit of unconventional sexual behaviour. Based on the ideal of a disciplined spiritual and moral life and the service of God and neighbour, wowserism easily lent itself to derision and parody. Christian attempts to control ideas can also be seen in the troubled history of censorship. The prohibition of the sale of certain books and magazines, the banning of some plays and lms, and the cutting of the text of various plays, lms, songs and imported television programs grew out of the Christian conviction that there were certain forms of behaviour that were intrinsically corrupt or blasphemous, and that these should not be published, performed or broadcast.
activities
1. What is Sabbatarianism? 2. Who practised it prior to 1945? 3. Many social issues of pre-1945 Australia were of signicant concern to churches. Give some examples of the issues and the view taken by the churches.
195
Review and assess

Review
1. 2. Outline the early arrival of Christianity and its impact on the colony. What different religious orders established themselves in Australia before 1945? When did they come and why? Did non-Christian religions have any impact on pre-1945 Australia? Explain your answer. Explain how churches developed inuence in many aspects of: a. b. c. d. rural and outback communication education public morality politics.
3.
4.

Multiple choice 5. A person who believes that the existence of God can neither be proved nor disproved is: a. b. c. d. 6. a humanitarian an atheist an agnostic an Episcopalian.
Anti-Semitism is: a. b. c. d. a love of Jews ambivalence towards Jews hatred of Jews none of the above.
196
7.
The people that make up a church congregation are referred to as: a. b. c. d. laity clergy audience squad.
11. Who was the official Catholic priest in New South Wales? a. b. c. d. Father James Dixon Father Mick OBrien Father Gerald OFlannigan Father Joseph Therry.
8.
A synod is: a. b. c. d. a group of church delegates a group of Uniting Church ministers the congregation government politicians.
12. Who was the colonys rst Catholic bishop? a. b. c. d. Caroline Chisholm William Broughton John Bede Polding Father William Vaughn.
9.
Marriages in the early colony were not considered valid unless they were conducted by: a. b. c. d. a clergyman
13. Missionisation is the term that is used for: a. b. establishing a mission in a developing country preaching about Christianity in a Buddhist culture forced conversion of Aboriginal people to Christianity from their own beliefs building a mission in a remote area of Australia.
a Church of England clergyman a Catholic priest the governor of the colony. d. c.
10. The Bush Church Aid Society was established by which denomination? a. b. c. d. Presbyterian Catholic Methodist Church of England.
14. Circumcision, re ceremony, nose piercing and tooth extraction are all examples of: a. b. c. d. funeral practices rites of initiation for Aboriginal babies rites of initiation for young male Aboriginals marriage ceremonies.
197
Introduction to Part 2, the HSC Course
HSC
The HSC section of this textbook begins with Religion and belief systems in Australia post-1945, including contemporary Aboriginal spiritualities. This topic addresses the fact that Australia is not only a multicultural country but also a multi-faith community. Aboriginal spirituality is an important part of the Australian religious landscape. Readers are challenged to allow an understanding of Aboriginal spirituality to inuence their own thinking about Australian society, particularly in the area of Christian spirituality. This chapter attempts to clarify and inform students about Aboriginal spirituality from the Aboriginal point of view. The NSW Studies of Religion syllabus aims to increase students knowledge of whole religious traditions, with One-Unit students studying two religious traditions and Two-Unit students studying three. Areas of study include signicant people and schools of thought, ethical positions (bioethics, the environment and sexual ethics) and public devotional practices. Each chapter builds on the study of the religious traditions presented in the Preliminary section of this text. The focus here is not just to develop an understanding of the religious tradition itself and how it inuences the lives of the believers, but also to illustrate the ways in which religion can be said to be an integral part of the human experience. The authors have shown the unique response that each tradition makes in developing its own self-understanding and pursuing its own practices. Religions have always been a part of Australian culture. They have inuenced the way in which this country has developed, particularly since the arrival of the rst Europeans, who brought to these shores a mix of faiths and attitudes. The HSC section also looks at the religious diversity that prevails in Australia today. Current statistics about the distribution of religious traditions are included in order to illustrate the changing patterns of belief among Australians. Much of the development of modern Australian society is a reection of the inuence of Christian beliefs and practices. From the legal system to public holidays, Christianity has had an enormous inuence on the way Australians live. The response of Christians to the social needs of Australians, and the initiatives taken by the churches in stimulating the development of community in Australia, are shown to be matters that are worthy of signicant consideration. The new Two-Unit study of Religion and peace focuses on the distinctive response of religious traditions to the issue of peace. This topic is approached from both the position of individuals and their inner response and the global position of world religions on issues of peace. Each chapter contains Activities that will assist students in revision. Review and assess questions will assist with preparation for assessment tasks and examinations. While not attempting to predict possible examination questions, these tasks provide a strong basis for the revision that students will need to undertake.
Religion and belief systems in Australia post-1945

The focus of this study is religious expression in Australias multicultural and multi-faith society since 1945. The study includes an appreciation of Aboriginal spiritualities and their contribution to an understanding of religious beliefs and religious expression in Australia today.
Outcomes
A student: H1 explains aspects of religion and belief systems Contemporary Aboriginal spiritualities Aboriginal spirituality as determined by the Dreaming issues for Aboriginal spiritualities in relation to: the effect of dispossession the Land Rights movement Religious expression in Australia1945 to the present the religious landscape from 1945 to the present in relation to: changing patterns of religious adherence the current religious landscape religious dialogue in multi-faith Australia ecumenical movements within Christianity Interfaith dialogue The relationship between Aboriginal spiritualities and religious traditions in the process of Reconciliation
Content
Students learn about:
H2 describes and analyses the inuence of religion and belief systems on individuals and society H3 examines the inuence and expression of religion and belief systems in Australia H4 describes and analyses how aspects of religious traditions are expressed by their adherents H5 evaluates the inuence of religious traditions in the life of adherents H6 organises, analyses and synthesises relevant information about religion from a variety of sources, considering usefulness, validity and bias H8 applies appropriate terminology and concepts related to religion and belief systems H9 coherently and effectively communicates complex information, ideas and issues using appropriate written, oral and graphic forms
HSC | Chapter 9 Australia post-1945
201
ADVOCACY
actions by churches or Christian groups on behalf of minorities disregarded by those in authority. Government Policy adopted in 1951 that required all Aboriginal and partAboriginal people to live as members of a single Australian community. a at piece of wood or stone that is swung around on a thong. the ofcial numbering of a population.
PENTECOSTAL
ASSIMILATION
a group within Christianity that is characterised by enthusiastic prayer, contemporary music, large stadium style events and informal liturgy. Speaking in tongues is an important characteristic. British policy enacted to a protect the natives. It became a mechanism of control over Aboriginal people. those religious groups whose formation was the result of the 16th-century Protestant Reformation. religious or secular in nature, and can be described as a patterned series of activities that are capable of being repeated. natural land formations where Aboriginal Ancestral Spirits interacted with creation. government practices and policies that set Aboriginals physically apart from white settlements. bloodline of Aboriginal people. a theory assigning a hierarchy of the human race according to skin colour. supreme controlling power, or the power by which a people is self-governing. the taking of Aboriginal children from their parents by the authorities and the placing of these children in institutions far removed from their families. Latin words literally meaning land belonging to no one. An erroneous British concept according to which the continent of Australia was not inhabited by Indigenous peoples, and therefore was available for claim and colonisation. an entityplant, animal or natural objectthat has become the token or emblem of an individual or a language group. The entity cannot be gathered, hunted or even painted by those who have it as their totem since it is believed to link them to the spiritual force responsible for their existence. a religion that holds that there are beings that exist beyond the known universe that are not subject to the laws of nature; polytheism and monotheism are the two principal types of transcendent religion. the government policies that restricted the immigration of non-whites to Australia from 1901 to 1973.
PROTECTORATE SYSTEM REFORMED TRADITION RITUALS
BULLROARER CENSUS
CEREMONIALISM the use of dance, song and symbolism to ritualise the connections between totemism and ceremony. CHARISMATIC those Christians possessing Gods spiritual gift of the ability to speak in tongues (glossolalia). the way in which a state is organised, the body of legal principles regulating the relation of state authorities to each other. a European term that refers to the essence of truth in Aboriginal religious beliefs. a commitment to the equality of all people regardless of their social, economic or political situation. the belief that pleasure is the chief good. networks of relationships governing interactions between members of Aboriginal language groups. the inherent rights of Aboriginals to their land, forming the basis of a movement designed to ensure the preservation of Aboriginal spirituality and culture. the policy of forcing Aboriginal people to reject their own religion and to accept Christianity. the exclusive title, rights and interests that Aboriginal people have in regard to land. Australian federal legislation that recognises the existence of Aboriginal native title in Australian federal law and the native title rights of Aboriginal people. judgment of the High Court of Australia, delivered on 3 June 1992, declaring that the Meriam people were entitled to the Murray Islands as owners, possessors and occupiers. The judgment recognised the existence of Aboriginal native title. those who have revived the old forms of paganism.
SACRED SITES SEGREGATION/ PROTECTION SKINLINE SOCIAL DARWINISM SOVEREIGNTY STOLEN GENERATIONS
CONSTITUTION
DREAMING EGALITARIANISM
HEDONISM KINSHIP SYSTEM
LAND RIGHTS
TERRA NULLIUS
MISSIONISATION
TOTEMISM
NATIVE TITLE NATIVE TITLE ACT 1993
NATIVE TITLE (MABO) JUDGMENT
TRANSCENDENT RELIGION
NEO-PAGANS
WHITE AUSTRALIA POLICY
202
Contemporary Aboriginal spiritualities

Aboriginal spirituality and the Dreaming
Aboriginal religion is a living religion. This is because the whole of creation is linked together and every action or event of social signicance has a spiritual signicance. For Aboriginals, the correlation between their created world, their social world and their spiritual world means that their religion is holistic and living, that it touches everything. Aboriginal people lived in peace and harmony with their land for over 40 000 yearsmore than 1600 generations. In that time Aboriginals numbered up to (and perhaps over) one million people, living in some 600 to 700 tribeseach with its own land, laws and political system. There were at least 500 separate languages and even more dialects, each as distinct from another as English is from Dutch, or Chinese from Korean. Just as the Aboriginals had land, politics, self-government, languages, culture and arts, so they also had their own unique religion and spirituality. They lived in communion with the Creator and with each other.
FIG. 9.1 The landing of Captain Cook at Botany Bay, Sydney, April 1770, by William MacLeod
Aboriginals exercised the right of sovereignty, or supreme controlling power, over their own lands. They lived freely, in tribal communities, across every corner of the continent. For centuries Aboriginals traded with Macassans. During the 17th and 18th centuries they saw explorers come and go, from places as far away as the Netherlands, Portugal and Spain. Some groups even made contact when such explorers landed on the continent. Aboriginal religion is not so much a series of complex religious practices as it is a way of life, a way of living and being. Aboriginal religion is grounded in direct links to the land. Out of these vital relationships come responsibilities, and these lead in turn to religious practices.
activities
1. Re-read the material on the Dreaming in chapter 1 pages 1727. Why is the Dreaming so interconnected with the land? 2. In small groups, discuss the impact this relationship between the Dreaming and the land may have on Aboriginal people today, including political activities.
203
Obligations to the land and people

The Dreaming, the land and an individual or group of people are inexorably linked. The link between human beings and creation is made through what Europeans have called totemism. A totem can be any object, such as a bird, plant or even some particular landmark, through which a person is connected to the creative spiritual force responsible for his or her existence. The person, through the totem, becomes inextricably linked with the land and to the Spirit governing that territory. Each totem has its own sacred sites and sites of signicance associated with the mythology of that totem. This means that ultimately the land, through its totemic link, owns the people. Totemism is a system of belief that gives rise to the existence of that special link, and also gives effect to the relationships between the Ancestral Beings through participation in a ceremonial event. Such an event enables communication with the Ancestral Spirit(s) and participation in the rejuvenation of that life-force that ensures the stability of human experience. Aboriginals may have a combination of individual and group totems so as to ensure that the whole range of human expression is covered. Totemism is formalised through ceremonialism. It is through dance, song and symbolism that aspects of creation are linked with the creative lifeforce. Thus the balance and integrity of all creation is sustained and the stability of life preserved. While totemism itself is not a religion, it contains religious elements because of the link that it makes between creation and the Ancestral Beings. Value systems The spiritual signicance of the environment is seen in Aboriginal peoples adaptation to it, rather than in any manipulation of it. It is seen in rules governing hunter-gatherer technology. It is seen in the protection of sacred sites and sites of signicance. These values are very different from those that are apparent in non-Aboriginal society in Australia. The rules governing the hunter-gatherer economy are designed both to enable Aboriginals to carve out an existence in harsh climates, and to protect and maintain the ecological balance of their environment. Thus the sharing of food
and resources according to kinship guidelines is designed to minimise waste and maximise benets for the whole community. The rules of kinship promote the value of cooperation rather than that of competition.
FIG. 9.2 Walpa Gorge, Kata Tjuta (the Olgas), Northern Territory. Access is restricted by the Pitjantjatjara elders. This is a place of Aboriginal ceremonial and gender-specic business (mens business).
Other rules that govern the protection of sacred sites strictly control the type of people who may visit those sites as well as the frequency of such visits. Different totems have different totemic sites, and visitation to those sites is usually prohibited by both the owners of the sites (those who are linked to the totems) and the keepers of the sites (those who are charged with the responsibility of caring for them). Together these sets of rules that govern Aboriginal existence form the basis for societal values that govern the action and interaction of the whole society. It would be useful to contrast some of these values with those that prevail in Western society.
activities
1. Dene totemism. 2. What is the role of ceremonies in relation to totemism? 3. What is meant by Aboriginal religion being holistic and living? 4. Research Aboriginal values and compare these with the values of another tradition such as Christianity. What similarities and differences occur? Why do you think these differences or similarities have evolved?
204
Kinship and family The dynamic wholeness and living spirituality of Aboriginal religion are expressed tangibly in the structure of Aboriginal social and cultural institutions. The most dominant of these is the kinship system. Kinship refers to the highly sophisticated networks of relationships that govern interactions between members of language groups. These relationships are so complex that even today many academics have difculty in fully understanding them. In order to function within an Aboriginal society, one must have not only a relationship to a language group but also a position within it. Aboriginals nd it very difcult to interact with people outside their communities; the order governing social behaviours tends not to accommodate interaction with outsiders if they do not belong. Relationships are cultivated within an extended family in which each person has a dened position. For example, it is not unusual for a person to have many mothers and fathers, aunties, uncles, sisters, brothers, nieces and nephews. When one is part of an Aboriginal community, what becomes important is the position held and the role played within this community. There are strict rules and obligations assigned to each relationship. When the structure of relationships is mapped out it tends to resemble a spiders web: all relationships interlink and overlap, and every person is bound to every other person. Each of these positions, relationships and obligations is known by every member of the community. Even children, from a very young age, are made aware and taught their position and functions within their community. In short, Aboriginal spirituality is expressed through the Dreaming, through the land and people, and through totems, values and kinship systems.
FIG. 9.3 Aboriginal cave paintings, such as these in Kakadu National Park, often told of relationships between clans, and the relationships between family members.
activities
In an extended response, explain the statement Aboriginal spirituality is expressed through the Dreaming, through the land and people, and through totems, values and kinship systems.
Ceremonial life
Initiation Initiation is the Aboriginal ritual ceremony or religious rite of passage denoting the transition from childhood to adulthood. There is a male initiation and a female initiation. Although there are various stages of initiation, and different forms of initiation from one language group to another, the laws governing these practices are xed, maintained and passed on from generation to generation. Initiation brings with it responsibilities and obligations in both spiritual and social life. Male initiation Circumcision marks the stage at which an Aboriginal male moves from boyhood to manhood. The initiate begins to learn skin relationships as well as kinship, land and ceremonial obligations. His relationships with and behaviours towards females will change. He is taught how to know whom to approach and how to distinguish between acceptable and nonacceptable behaviour, such as with mothers-in-law.
205
For boys the age at which such initiation rites are performed varies from six years to twelve years, depending on the language group; there is no consistent process within Aboriginal Australia. The initiation rite is seen as the ritual death of a boy and his spiritual rebirth into manhood. Usually, the boy is taken from his community by the male elders as the women begin to wail for him. Not far from the camp the sounds of the bullroarers are heard. These sounds symbolise the voice of the Ancestral Being that will ingest the boy (which results in his ritual death) and then spew him back (which constitutes his rebirth and entry into manhood). From this point forward he is no longer considered to be a boy but has gained a newfound status and is assimilated with other initiated males into his community. The initiation ritual is characterised not so much by the boys performance of certain acts as by his submission to the initiated elders, who act ritually upon him. During this period the boys formal teaching at the hand of male elders begins, as does discipline and training for his new role. This is a critical time in a young mans life. Only through initiatory rites can young boys ever acquire the standing of an adult and the right to marry and participate in ritual life. Not all knowledge is obtained during the rst initiatory rites; rather, the journey of knowledge begins here. Sacred knowledge will be imparted to a man through the course of his life. Throughout Australia there are many forms of Aboriginal initiation. They include circumcision, cicatrisation (scarring of the body), re ceremony, depilation (removal of hair), nose piercing and tooth extraction, to name a few. Circumcision is considered to be the most important and widespread riteonly a very small number of groups do not perform it. In some Aboriginal communities the various initiation rites are performed at different stages in a males life. Female initiation In Aboriginal society female initiates do not have to undertake the vigorous training and learning that is required of males in their initiation rituals. This does not mean, however, that the transition from female adolescence to adulthood is not as important as the male equivalent. Whereas many community members are involved in a boys initiation ritual,
this is not the case for a girlsthe number of participants is smaller and they are conned to female relatives. At the rst sign of puberty a young girl is taken from the community to an isolated area, where shelter has been prepared. There the old women, ensuring that food taboos are observed, pass on myths and songs to the girl. They teach the girl her new responsibilities. They teach her how her roles change and instruct her how to behave in married life and how to look after herself. No longer is the girl allowed to behave in girlish or childish ways. Her peers now become the women elders. They teach her the skills required in gathering food sources, medicines and food preparation. She learns ceremonial Womens Business. She learns respect for the boys. She learns about relationships. Her behaviour towards the male gender will change according to the kinship system and taboos governing these relationships and associations. She learns about her mothers land and her fathers land, as well as about the relevant ceremonies, obligations and so on. Depending on her language group, at sunrise following the isolation (menstruation) period, she may be taken to the nearest river or billabong where she will be ritually bathed with other young women. Then she will be painted and decorated and led back into the community. This symbolises physical maturityno longer is she a child but a woman, and she will be treated as a woman. If she has not been promised (betrothed), such arrangements are then made by the family. Initiation in Aboriginal society denes the gender roles of men and women and differentiates between childhood and adulthood. Initiation brings increased status, responsibilities and obligations to kinship, land, ceremonies and rituals. It does not mean, however, that adulthood has been fully reached. There are many stages in the passage to adulthood yet to be completed, and only at marriage is adulthood nally recognised. Funeral ceremonies Funeral ceremonies are among the most important of Aboriginal ceremonial occasions. Songs and ceremonies ensure that the spirit of the deceased is carried back to a specic Ancestral Beings land, and that the responsibilities of the deceased are passed on. Communities acknowledge the skinline
206
or bloodline of the deceased, thus indicating relationships with specic ancestors and with a specic land and creation. The communities also remember the persons life and responsibilities. Ceremonies vary from days to weeks, depending on the importance and gender of the person. During mourning, or what Aboriginal people call sorry business, the names of people who have died are not spoken for up to three or four years, as a sign of respect. After this the eldest son or daughter can renew usage of the name by passing it on to an infant.
activities
1. Outline the initiation ceremonies for males and females. 2. What are the similarities and differences? 3. Why do females and males place importance on different aspects of initiation? 4. Why is ceremony such a key part of initiation? 5. Why are funeral ceremonies so important to Aboriginal people?
FIG. 9.4 The British attempt to gain possession of Aboriginal land was often met with resistance.
Issues for Aboriginal spiritualities in relation to land

Dispossession In 1768 an English naval ofcer, Lieutenant James Cook, was instructed by the British Navy to gain the consent of the natives before taking possession of the land in the name of the King of Great Britain. In 1770 Cook attempted several landings along the eastern coast of Australia. More than once his landing parties were repelled by Aboriginal people from the very beginning of British contact with Australia, there was signicant resistance from the original inhabitants of the land. For example, from 1788 to 1802 a skilled Aboriginal warrior named Pemulwuy led the rst operations of Aboriginal armed resistance, routinely routing the British. Coastal tribes were not the only ones to oppose Europeans. The resistance efforts of Pemulwuy were joined by those of other individuals such as Windradyne, Yagan, Multeggerah, Barak, Nemarluk, Tjandamarra, and the Kalkadoon tribe in many parts of Australia.
The colonists, however, as representatives of the British government, ignored the sovereignty and strong resistance of the Aboriginal people and claimed discovery of a new land. Further, the British declared the place terra nullius, or land belonging to no one, and proceeded to make three separate declarations of British sovereignty (1788, 1824 and 1829). From then on, the Aboriginal nationswhich had existed uninterrupted for tens of thousands of yearswere supposed to be no more. Terra nullius was, and still is, a deliberate social construction designed to enable European settlement without compensation for the dispossession of the Aboriginal peoples. The human cost of discovery White Australia often refers to its early years as the age of discovery and the pioneer era. Aboriginals remember something different. Terra nullius led to the attempted extermination of the Aboriginal people. Genocide is the deliberate extermination of a people or nation. White Australian colonists employed direct genocidal practices, such as: mass poisonings of water holes, rations and blankets so-called dispersalsa white euphemism for the murders of Aboriginal people discriminate shootings revenge parties that murdered Aboriginal men, women and children, and at times wiped out entire language groups. Most enlightened Australians will acknowledge at least a minimal level of white mistreatment of Aboriginals, but few will realise the severity of the bloodstain on white history in this land.
207
FIG. 9.5 The Slaughterhouse Creek massacre, 1838, New South Wales, resulted in the deaths of over 200 Aboriginal people.
Aboriginal deaths Many Australians know of the smallpox epidemic of 1789, but not many realise that it killed half the tribal groups in the Sydney region and is believed to have been initiated and spread intentionally. In 1824, 100 Aboriginals were killed in the Bathurst massacre. In the 1830s, in the Fighting Hills massacre, over 50 Aboriginals were shot. In 1837, over 200 Aboriginals were killed in the (appropriately named) Gravesend massacre. In the rst half of 1838 alone, 100300 Aboriginals were killed in the Waterloo Creek massacre (January), 80 Aboriginals were killed in the Gwydir River massacre and a further 28 Aboriginals were killed in the Myall Creek massacre (June). In 1840, over 100 Aboriginalsa whole tribal groupwere killed in the Long Lagoon massacre. In 1841, 30 Aboriginals were killed in the Rufus River massacre. Britain waged war against [the Aboriginal] Nation. Massacres as systematic as those waged against the Jews in the twentieth century were carried out in the name of God, anthropology, money, and land. The jolly swagman was not especially jolly; the billabongs ran with blood. Few or none of these events were recorded and remembered by white Australians. (John Pilger, quoted in Pattel-Grey, 1991, p.17)
activities
1. The early Europeans called the period of exploration in Australia the age of discovery and the pioneer era. Discuss why Aboriginal people might think of this period differently. 2. In your opinion, would it be hard for Aboriginal people to forget this part of our history? Why? 3. Use the Internet to research other impacts of white settlement on Aboriginal people in the early years of settlement. Through your research, identify the key reasons behind the disastrous impact on Aboriginal people of white people moving into the area.
208
FIG. 9.6 Bloomeld Aboriginal Mission, North Queensland, 1900 was one of many missions where Aboriginal children were taken to be assimilated into white society.
Colonisation and missionisation From the very beginning of contact, European interests have worked to the detriment of Aboriginal people, their religion and their culture. This can be seen most clearly, perhaps, in the collusion between state power (colonisation) and church power (missionisation). This collusion was expressed in the practices and policies of segregation/protection and assimilation. These issues have dominated AboriginalEuropean relations for most of the past two centuries. Social Darwinism and theories attempting to explain the hierarchy of human beings (with whites at the top, peoples of colour in the middle and black peoples at the bottom) were very popular in Europe. When imported to Australia they were rmly embraced by Euro-Australian colonists, who rmly believed that Aboriginals were inferior and a dying race. Colonisation was the establishment, often by violent physical force and military power, of British colonies (so-called settlements) on the Australian continent. It removed Aboriginals from their own traditional lands, destroyed their sacred sites and essential resources, disrupted their systems of hunting and gathering, and killed their means of sustenance. Colonisation introduced foreign diseases such as tuberculosis, measles and whooping cough. It brought vices such as alcohol. It made Aboriginals dependent on white rations and handouts of sugar, our, tea and blankets. Colonisation institutionalised the systematic exploitation of Aboriginal peoplein colonial Australia, segregation walked hand-in-hand with slavery. Aboriginals were compelled to become labourers. Young Aboriginals girls were made to serve as domestics and often forced to double as
sexual partners, and young Aboriginal boys were made to work as stockmen or drovers. Aboriginals were relegated to gathering and sleeping in fringe camps on the outskirts of white towns, farms and other settlements. The church, instead of condemning this shameful state of affairs, made it worse. Claiming a higher calling, the churchwith the full support of colonial societyinstitutionalised the policy of segregation. Early on, clergymen called for the establishment of racist institutions that physically separated Aboriginals from whites. This won the full support of colonial governments. Missionisation was the policy of compelling Aboriginal peoples to reject their own religion and accept Christianity. Aboriginals were forced to adapt to Christian norms and values. Through missionisation, Aboriginal children were taken from their mothers and fathers, and Aboriginal families were split up and put into institutions far distant from each other. This created what are known as the Stolen Generations and destroyed the very fabric of Aboriginal family and cultural life.
FIG. 9.7 Children saying Christian prayers at Ooldea Mission, South Australia
activities
1. In his recent novel on Africa, James North Patterson wrote that the white people brought the Bible to the black people who owned the land. Now the white people own the land and the black people have the Bible. How different is this from Australia? 2. Why is separation of Aboriginal people from their land so important? 3. Debate: Was missionisation good for Aboriginal children?
209
Separation Separation, sometimes called segregation or even protection, denotes the practices, and later policies, that deliberately set Aboriginals physically apart from white settlements. Aboriginals were removed from their traditional lands, their sacred sites, their families, and their food and water sources and forcibly herded into holding camps, in order to keep them away from the sight of white colonists. Segregation/protection dispossessed Aboriginals. People were forcibly removed to missions (run by churches) and reserves (run by governments). Authorities treated Aboriginals as if they were children. They changed peoples names and decided if, who and when they could marry. They totally controlled their employment and wagesthey determined whether or not Aboriginal people were to be paid, and how much, and put their wages into bank accounts controlled by white administrators. Most often Aboriginals never saw their money at all. By law, Aboriginals were not permitted even to leave missions and reserves. If caught attempting to do so they were severely punished. Segregation/protection was a deliberate attempt to destroy Aboriginal peoples spirituality and their religious links to the land. It shattered their kinship
system. It destroyed their traditional gender roles. They were not allowed to speak their languages or pass them on to their children. Segregation/ protection prohibited them from practising traditional religion, so a great deal of their language, culture and ceremonies went underground. As global opinion and pressure about the rights of Indigenous peoples changed, and in an effort to keep up appearances in the eyes of the world (and especially in the eyes of its British parent), Australia embarked on a campaign of protection of the natives. British policy established the protectorate system in Australia, which, though intended for good, became a mechanism to control the Aboriginal pest and keep Aboriginals physically removed from their own land. The laws gave socalled protectors and assistant protectors vast powers over the lives of Aboriginal people. Private citizens, government employees, humanitarians, clergymen, missionaries and, ominously, policemen were chosen for these positions. Experiences such as mental and physical deprivation and torture, and the indignity of being made a ward of the state, are within living memory of many Aboriginals who lived under such protection. Some describe it as intended extermination.
FIG. 9.8 Maloga Mission Station, Moama
210
Vi Stanton, one of the Stolen Generations, remembers: You had virtually no freedoms whatsoever. It was put out in the 1950s that if you dared identify yourself as an Aborigine you would come under the Protector of Aboriginals. Its invidious, but people thought they were being protected! Do you know what protection was? The police would go into your home into a tribal or non-tribal Aboriginals home without a warrant and search it any time they felt like it. And the police used this to extend where in 1968 I had to tape a conversation between a policeman and a woman and threaten police with it. (Gilbert, 1997, pp.89) And Elizabeth Pearce recalls: Everyone who elected to come out from this ordinance of the time was not, in future, to claim they were Aboriginals. Therefore they were no longer to be protected. They were virtually free. Now my father and others who had some dignity refused to be protected. The authorities to this day say to tribal people that when the choice was given to such peoplethats usthat we chose not to be known as Aboriginals. Its not true! They were saying that for their own purposes! It was all caused by that repressive ordinance! (Gilbert, 1997, p.9) Thus, segregation/protection was simply an exercise in semantics. Aboriginals continued to suffer injusticein many cases at the hands of their protectors. Certain protectors did do some good; nevertheless, overwhelming evidence makes it clear
FIG. 9.9 Aboriginal children in missions and settlements were made to dress, talk and act like white children.
that the protectorate system was an abysmal failure. In the end, the Australian protectorate system was abandoned. Aboriginal people were on their own.
activities
1. Why were Aboriginal people removed from their land and community to be settled in missions or reserves? 2. The separation had a much stronger impact on Aboriginal people because the authorities and missionaries did not understand the Aboriginal relationship to their land and kinship groups. Discuss this statement and offer suggestions as to how or why this occurred. 3. What was the protectorate system, and did it fail or succeed? 4. Create an oral presentation which explains the meaning of the term Stolen Generations.
Assimilation On 1 January 1901, the Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act 1900 came into force. Aboriginal people were never asked about their opinions on the matter, were never included in the vote and, indeed, were not included in the nation itself. Section 127 of the Australian Constitution excluded Aboriginal natives from being counted in any population gures. Aboriginal people had been part of the land from time immemorial, yet they were specically and explicitly excluded from the text of the Federation document. The high ideals of egalitarianism had clashed with the harsh realities of so-called frontier life. Aboriginals were not dying out as had been predicted, and the economic burden of protection was ever increasing. The Australian government and the churches began to look for scapegoats. Neither could seem to solve the native problem, and racism led white Australians to blame the Aboriginals themselves. After Federation the Australian government completely reversed its position on Aboriginals again and moved from segregation/protection to developing national practices and policies of assimilation. Assimilation began as theory and practice and later became formal state and federal policy (adopted in 1961). That year the Native Welfare Conference of federal and state ministers dened assimilation this way:
211
all Aborigines and part-Aborigines are expected
eventually to attain the same manner of living as other Australians and to live as members of a single Australia community, enjoying the same rights and privileges, accepting the same responsibilities, observing the same customs and inuenced by the same beliefs and hopes as other Australians. (Native Welfare Conference, 1961) Assimilation did not recognise Aboriginals as the continents Indigenous people bearing inherent rights. Supported strongly by the church, the policy of assimilation theoretically worked towards the goal of one nation, whereby all nationalities and races in Australia would see themselves as one people. Assimilation was supposed to establish true justice for all people of the country. In reality, however, assimilation practices and policies showed a clear intent to eliminate the Aborigines as an independent race and culture [without] any possibility of the Aborigines being allowed to develop as a community within Australian society, sharing the wealth of that society. (World Council of Churches, 1971, p.26) To some people the words may have sounded like justice, but to many Aboriginals they sounded like cultural genocide all over again. If the black-skinned race could not be destroyed or separated off, then they might just be absorbed. Assimilation, then, became the driving socio-political force in Australia and held sway throughout much of the 20th century. Some believe that assimilation still strongly inuences white attitudes towards Aboriginals today. Although it is no longer the ofcial policy of Australian governments, it is still the ofcial attitudeand the social ideal against which Aboriginal people are judged. Assimilation remains the unofcial policy, and at times the hidden agenda, according to which white society determines its interaction with the Indigenous people.
Self-determination The most recent trend in Aboriginal administration is the concept of Aboriginal self-determination. In this Aboriginals are supposed to be able to determine and control their own business. In 1973, the Australian states agreed to transfer their policy-making and coordinating functions in Aboriginal affairs to the Commonwealth. This led to the development of several government agencies for Aboriginal self-determination, including the National Aboriginal Council, the Aboriginal Development Commission, various ministries, departments and state ofces of Aboriginal affairs, the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Commission, and the Council for Aboriginal Reconciliation. These have, in turn, developed government programs for Aboriginals, including the Training for Aboriginals Program, the Aboriginal Enterprise Incentive Scheme and the Community Development Employment Program. In fact, however, self-determination is dictated to Aboriginal people by Australian government policy and practice. Commonwealth government coordination of Aboriginal affairs began an era of Commonwealth control of Aboriginal interests via grants and other direct and indirect nancial manipulation of Aboriginal communities. Many Aboriginal people still feel that Australian government (and social) understandings of Aboriginal self-determination are awed. Even after the death of the terra nullius myth, these understandings do not admit a true and full Aboriginal sovereigntyin law, politics, society, economics, culture or religion. In summary, the impact of European contact has been destructive to Aboriginal religious beliefs, systems and society. Yet Aboriginal people have transcended this oppression through the strength and continuity of their beliefs.
activities
1. What was the impact of the Commonwealth government taking control of Aboriginal affairs? 2. Were its objectives met in the eyes of the Aboriginal people? Why or why not? 3. What is the policy of self-determination? Is it more effective than past policies? (You may need to research this question further before answering, or keep it in mind until the last section of this chapter and re-answer it.)
activities
1. What was the policy of Aboriginal assimilation? 2. Was it effective for those groups of people involved: Aboriginals, politicians, church leaders? 3. By forming small groups, debate the difference between official policy and official attitude in respect to Aboriginal affairs.
212
FIG. 9.10 Aboriginal and Anglo- Australians with Aboriginal ags at a protest march over Aboriginal land rights
The land rights and native title movement

Aboriginal religion is based on land. Land is the heart of Aboriginal Dreaming and provides the assurance needed for the continuation of rituals and ceremonies. All relationships within Aboriginal communities are determined through relationships to land. Aboriginals live their lives being at one with the land, and land must be made secure for Aboriginals so that their religious beliefs, tradition, languages and culture will be preserved. Because Aboriginal people are so passionate about their relationship to their land, and because their identity, life and spirit are bound up in it, they actively share and pass on to future generations this deep spiritual relationship with the land. So the struggle of land rights is a struggle that will continue into the future. The untold story The Aboriginal land rights movement is a religio-political movement that seeks to secure the inherent rights of Aboriginals to their land, and to ensure that their religious, spiritual and cultural integrity is preserved. From the beginning of the European invasion of Australia in the late 1700s, Aboriginal people have been ghting for their land. At rst this was through direct, active resistance and so-called frontier wars. During the 19th and early 20th centuries, Aboriginal resistance was expressed less directly but no less actively. During the reign of the assimilation policy, resistance often took the form of non-cooperation and passive resistance (for example, in the missions and reserves); basic community initiatives (for example, the 1938 Day of Mourning); and strikes (for example, the 1946 Pilbara pastoral strike). More recently, Aboriginal resistance has taken the form of national and international action in support of land rights (for example, the 1988 March for Justice, Freedom and Hope, and many delegations to the United Nations). Aboriginals have thus been able to challenge the legal and legislative bases of terra nullius.
213
FIG. 9.11 Prime Minister Gough Whitlam talks to Aboriginal people at the Aboriginal Tent Embassy outside Parliament House, Canberra.
Four examples show the Aboriginal resolve in this regard. 1. In 1884, in Queensland, the Kalkadoons came to prominence in colonial Australianot because they were massacred, but because they fought a pitched battle against the white Europeans at what is today remembered as Battle Mountain. Contrary to passively accepting their fate, a force of about 600 Kalkadoons fought to the last man. They gained notoriety in white eyes for their erce resistance but have been remembered by Aboriginals as heroic. 2. On 26 January 1938 Aboriginal people in New South Wales took the unheard-of steps of publishing a strong manifesto entitled Aborigines Claim Citizen Rights, and of holding a public Aboriginal Conference and Day of Mourning and Protest in Sydney. They followed this up with a delegation that presented a ten-point plan for Aboriginal equality to the Prime Minister. Though they did not gain much positive action, the events generated signicant public and media interest. 3. On 1 May 1946 some 800 Aboriginal pastoral workers took the unprecedented step of walking off a white station on strike in the north-western Pilbara region of Western Australia. The strike lasted until August 1949 and made it abundantly clear that the pastoral industry indeed was dependent upon Aboriginal labour. 4. In 1972 Aboriginal people established the Aboriginal Tent Embassy in Canberra. This became a focal point for Aboriginal protest against denial of rights, abysmal living conditions and political inaction in Aboriginal affairs by both federal and state governments. This original tent embassy was taken down, violently, in full view of the national press, an action that created an international furore. Twenty years later, in January 1992, Aboriginals took over the old Parliament House building in Canberra in order to commemorate the establishment of the rst tent embassy. A Declaration of Aboriginal Sovereignty was presented to the federal Minister for Aboriginal Affairs, and a few hours later all protesters were thrown out by Federal Police. Four Aboriginals were arrested, laying the groundwork for subsequent appeals to the Australian High Court and the International Court of Justice in The Hague.
214
Land rights struggles In the 1950s the Aboriginal struggle for justice became heavily focused on land rights. Since then Aboriginals have taken many actions, both against governments and in the courts. Not surprisingly, until 1992 all of these actions were unsuccessful in law. In 1963 the people of Yirrkala, on the Gove Peninsula in north-east Arnhem Land, sent a bark petition to the Federal Parliament. The petition was ignored, and a church-backed multinational corporation began massive bauxite mining operations that desecrated the traditional lands of the Yolngu people. Unbelievably, things got worse. In 1971 the Northern Territory Supreme Court determined that the Yolngu had no legal rights to their traditional land (Reynolds, 1989, p.86). During the previous year the Aborigines Advancement League had sent a petition to the Secretary-General of the United Nations, requesting that the body use its powers to uphold Aboriginal rights to land. This plea, too, went unheeded. Since direct appeal was failing, Aboriginals began to try their hand in the High Court of Australia. Until very recently, they gained nothing but frustration. For example, in 1971 the Yolngu people took their concerns to the High Court in the landmark case Milirrpum v. Nabalco, but were denied justice. In 1978 Aboriginals from the southern part of the country returned to the High Court in Coe v. Commonwealth, but again were defeated. In 1982, in Koowarta v. Bjelke-Petersen, Aboriginals made a historic gain in law that, nevertheless, was limited in its impact and did not yield title for the traditional owners. Indeed, until 1992, every major case saw substantive defeat for Indigenous people.
Native title In June 1992 Aboriginal people nally won a case in this area of law. Ten years earlier, ve Indigenous plaintiffs from the Murray Islands in the Torres Strait, off the northern tip of Australia, set in motion what has become one of the most signicant legal challenges to the Australian nationstate. These plaintiffs brought an action against the State of Queensland for declarations that the Meriam people were entitled to the Islands as owners, possessors, occupiers or as persons entitled to use and enjoy the Islands and that the State of Queensland was not entitled to extinguish the title of the Meriam people. (Mabo v Queensland [No 2], 1992, 175 CLR 1) In a landmark judgment known as the Native Title (Mabo) Judgment (from Mabo et al. v. Queensland)notably not unanimousthe High Court of Australia declared: the Meriam people are entitled as against the whole world to possession, occupation, use and enjoyment of the lands of the Murray Islands (Mabo v Queensland [No 2], 1992, 175 CLR 1). Further, the judgment by Justice Brennan indicated that continued adherence to terra nullius constituted a perpetuation of injustice. In other words, the Australian High Court nally admitted that terra nullius was dead, and that British claims to sovereignty did not extinguish Aboriginal native title to the land. The Native Title Act 1993 is the legislation that recognised the existence of Aboriginal native title in Australian federal law and the native title rights of Aboriginal people. The act came into force on 1 January 1994.
activities
1. What is meant by the land is the heart of Aboriginal Dreaming and why would this have an impact on land rights issues? 2. Why are land rights considered by Aboriginal people to be an important part of their future? 3. What is meant by the phrase the land rights movement is a religio-political movement? 4. Research examples of actions by Aboriginal people to regain their land rights. Have these been violent? Have they been successful? Why or why not?
FIG. 9.12 Eddie Mabo and members of Mabo legal team
215
The Native Title Act has many provisions that have led to positive outcomes for Aboriginal people. For example, the Act established a National Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Land Fund for the purpose of enabling dispossessed Aboriginal people (those who would not benet from the Act) to acquire land. The Act also established the National Native Title Tribunal, which since its formation has received almost 500 claims from Aboriginal peoples around the country. The Act has provisions for Regional Agreements in which native title claimants, native title representative bodies and industry groups (such as pastoralists or miners) can negotiate with each other and come to a generally accepted agreement about use and management of land. One such negotiation, the Cape York Land Use Agreement, has been hailed as an excellent model for the future of what can be achieved between Aboriginal traditional land owners and pastoralists. There are major problems, however, with both the Native Title Judgment and the Native Title Act. Both recognise the rights of Aboriginals, but both focus exclusively on traditional people. That is, both will affect only about 34 per cent of the total Aboriginal population. Further, within that small percentage, the rights are limited to an even smaller segment that can show a direct ongoing connection (based on Aboriginal tradition, custom or Law) with a parcel of vacant crown land. Also, neither the Native Title Judgment nor the Native Title Act resolves the issue of continuing coexistence of native title and pastoral leases. Even worse, problematic as it might be, the Native Title Act is under attack. In 1996, the Australian government proposed complicated amendments to the Act, virtually all of which weaken it. One of the amendments, for example, severely restrictsand in some cases removesthe right of Aboriginal people to negotiate. Beyond weakening the Act, many of the proposed amendments breach the Radical Discrimination Act 1975, as well as several other international treaties to which Australia is a signatory. One year after the Native Title Judgment, another important case came into play. In June 1993, the Wik peoples (later joined by the Thayorre people) claimed native title in the Australian Federal Court over some of their traditional lands on the Cape York Peninsula in Queenslandland that contained two pastoral leases granted by the government of Queensland. In December 1996,
in another landmark judgment known as the Wik Decision (from Wik Peoples v. Queensland), the High Court determined that native title may coexist with pastoral leases, and that, where there is conict between the two, pastoralists rights will prevail. This decision did not determine whether or not native title exists over the pastoral leases, but it did allow the Wik and Thayorre peoples to continue their legal claim for native title in the Federal Court, and it did highlight the importance of negotiation with Aboriginal people. Sadly, the Wik Decision is also under attack. In 1997, Prime Minister John Howard proposed a tenpoint plan that would severely undermine not only the gains made by the Wik Decision but also the Native Title Act itself. The plan was widely opposed by all sides. The Native Title Judgment, the Native Title Act and the Wik Decision are only the rst steps towards addressing the injustices of over 200 years of European subjection of Aboriginal people. They show a fundamental change in the way that the native title rights of Australias Aboriginal people interact with Australia law. However, Aboriginal people still struggle for more than words on paper. They require the enactment of visible justice, where Aboriginal people have a pride of place and heritage that can be shared as well as respected. The Aboriginal struggle for land rights, which runs in conjunction with the Native Title Judgment, the Native Title Act and the Wik Decision, could be a catalyst for full and proper recognition of the rights of Australias Aboriginal peoples to land and social justice. They may secure land, which in the long run may contribute to the continuation of Aboriginal traditions, languages and culturesand therefore Aboriginal religion and spirituality.
activities
1. Why are the Native Title (Mabo) Judgment and the Wik Decision so important to Aboriginal people? 2. Outline the importance of the Native Title Act 1993. Has it been effective? 3. Has the legislation actually changed the lives of Aboriginal people? 4. Many Aboriginal people do not have the same basic human rights as white people in Australia. Research this statement, outlining any government programs to redress this situation.
216
Legacies of Australian Prime Ministers Beginning from 1992, Aboriginal Australia has experienced a range of political leadership. The character of each Australian Prime Minister since then (Paul Keating, John Howard and Kevin Rudd) has differed dramatically and their impact will have a lasting legacy. Paul Keating From an Aboriginal point of view, Paul Keating was one of the few Prime Ministers who proved to be a man of his word and a man of moral integrity. Aboriginal people held him in high regard because of his courage in challenging Australian attitudes and the untruths about Aboriginal history. Indigenous people found his leadership to be bold, courageous and heart-felt.
The High Courts Native Title Judgment, which discarded the myth of terra nullius, and Keatings public acknowledgment in December 1992 of white guilt in the dispossession and murder of Aboriginal people (The Redfern Statement), raised a storm of controversy and uncovered shocking displays of racism. Fearmongering, along with omissions and distortions of fact, were the order of the day. Nevertheless, the Native Title Judgment became law. John Howard In 1996 Australia elected a new Prime Minister, John Howard. He was a very different kind of leader from his predecessor. Under the Howard Government, Aboriginal people experienced harsh outcomes and lost basic human rights and elected representation. The gains of the Mabo Judgment were undermined to the point where Aboriginal people soon realised that they had native title in name only. Howard also refused to say sorry to Aboriginal people for past atrocities, an action that Aboriginal people felt would have enabled the Australian people to move closer towards reconciliation. He spent the rest of his time as Prime Minister fending off questions about his inability to apologise to Aboriginal Australia. On 30 June 2005, Howard abolished the national peak representative body known as the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Commission (ATSIC) even though the recommendation of a review into ATSIC was not to abolish it. Now Aboriginal people found themselves without a voice and without representation at the national level. With no one to speak, advocate or lobby for their rights, they found themselves further removed from the decision-making table. On 21 June 2007 the Howard Government announced the Northern Territory Emergency Response (NTER) to Aboriginal communities. The aims of NTER were to protect Aboriginal children and make Aboriginal communities safe. The intervention was intended to create a better future for Aboriginal communities in the Northern Territory in the long term. However, for the purposes of the NTER, the operation of the Racial Discrimination Act 1975 was suspended and the protection of anti-discrimination law in the Northern Territory was removed. Aboriginal people all across Australia protested against the intervention as a racist policy that debased Aboriginal peoples human rights.
FIG. 9.13 Paul Keatings speech at Redfern, December 1992
217
On 13 February Minister Kevin to the Stolen Generations.
2008, new Prime Rudd apologised
FIG. 9.14 People in the rural NSW town of Kempsey on the day that Prime Minister Kevin Rudd delivered an apology on behalf of Parliament for the injustices visited on the Aboriginal Stolen Generations
Kevin Rudd On 13 February 2008, new Prime Minister Kevin Rudd apologised to the Stolen Generations. The Apology was received by Aboriginal people with warmth, along with tears for those who had not lived long enough to hear it. Many Aboriginal people were consumed with thoughts of sadness for both those who had died and those who still had to live with deep scars of physical and emotional abuse. Rudd invited the Federal Opposition to cooperate in a bipartisan approach to addressing the centuries of disadvantage faced by Aboriginal people. In 2008 the Rudd Government also set up an independent review of the Northern Territory Emergency Response (NTER) initiated by the previous government. The reviews report was critical of the suspension of the Racial Discrimination Act 1975 and recommended that it be reinstated. However, the report did not recommend that the NTER be stopped. Also in 2008 the Rudd Government established national consultations with Aboriginal people to discuss their views and input on the possible establishment of another Aboriginal peak body in place of ATSIC. Thousands of Aboriginal people wrote submissions, seeking the establishment of another such body and providing thoughts on its possible role and structure. Awaiting the governments response with anticipation, Aboriginal people nonetheless felt that only time would tell whether it would be able to provide the leadership required to tackle Aboriginal disadvantage.
activities
1. One of the key instruments of change for Aboriginal people is politics, and one of the key leaders of change in politics is the Prime Minister. What have recent political leaders been able to achieve for Aboriginal people? 2. The Rudd governments Apology on behalf of all Australians was a key event in Aboriginal and white Australian history. Read the speeches by the Prime Minister and the Opposition leader and outline the key points both were making. How well do you think these speeches were received by Aboriginal people and Australians generally? 3. Research the events that have occurred since the Apology that have improved, or potentially will improve, Aboriginal land rights and the standard of living of Aboriginal people.
218
Religious expression in Australia 1945 to the present

The changing pattern of religious adherence
Census data A question on religious afliation has been asked in every census taken in Australia, with the voluntary nature of this question being specically stated since 1933. In 1971 the instruction if no religion, write none was introduced. This saw a seven-fold increase from the previous census year in the proportion of people stating they had no religion. Since 1971 this proportion has progressively increased to about 19% in 2006. Table 9.1 provides a summary of the major religious afliations at each census since 1901. TABLE 9.1 Major religious afliations, 19012006
Christianity Anglican Catholic Other Total Other religions No religion Not stated/ inadequately described % 2.0 2.9 1.9 12.9 11.1 9.7 10.7 10.3 6.2 11.4 11.4 12.4 10.5 9.0 11.7 11.9 Total
activities
Questions on census data in Table 1: Major religious afliations, 19012006. 1. In 1947 what was the Anglican Church still being referred to as? 2. In what year were there 10 percentage points difference between Anglican and Catholic affiliation? 3. What is notable about the Anglican and Catholic gures in 1986?
Census year 1901 1911 1921 1933 1947 1954 1961 1966 1971 1976 1981 1986 1991 1996 2001 2006
% 39.7 38.4 43.7 38.7 39.0 37.9 34.9 33.5 31.0 27.7 26.1 23.9 23.8 22.0 20.7 18.7
% 22.7 22.4 21.7 19.6 20.9 22.9 24.9 26.2 27.0 25.7 26.0 26.0 27.3 27.0 26.6 25.8
% 33.7 35.1 31.6 28.1 28.1 28.5 28.4 28.5 28.2 25.2 24.3 23.0 22.9 21.9 20.7 19.3
% 96.1 95.9 96.9 86.4 88.0 89.4 88.3 88.2 86.2 78.6 76.4 73.0 74.0 70.9 68.0 63.9
% 1.4 0.8 0.7 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.7 0.8 1.0 1.4 2.0 2.6 3.5 4.9 5.6
% 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.8 6.7 8.3 10.8 12.7 12.9 16.6 15.5 18.7
000 3 773.8 4 455.0 5 435.7 6 629.8 7 579.4 8 986.5 10 508.2 11 599.5 12 755.6 13 548.4 14 576.3 15 602.2 16 850.3 17 752.8 18 769.2 19 855.3
4. In which year did the total number of people responding to the census number 17 753 800? 5. Describe the difference in the other religious affiliations between 1947 and 2006. 6. Explain the increase in percentage points in the no religion category. 7. Describe the pattern of religious affiliation in the category other between 1947 and 2006. 8. Why do you think people object to state their religious affiliation? 9. What are the most signicant changes in religious affiliation between 1947 and 2006?
Source: Australian Bureau of Statistics 2006 Census of Population and Housing.
219
TABLE 9.2 Change in religious afliations, 19962006

1996 Religion Christianity Catholic Anglican Uniting Church Presbyterian and Reformed Eastern Orthodox Baptist Lutheran Pentecostal Other Christian Non-Christian Buddhism Islam Hinduism Judaism Other Non-Christian Inadequately described No religion Not stated Total 000 12 582.8 4 799.0 3 903.3 1 334.9 675.5 497.0 295.2 250.0 174.7 653.1 616.4 199.8 200.9 67.3 79.8 68.6 54.2 2 948.9 1 550.6 17 752.8 % 70.9 27.0 22.0 7.5 3.8 2.8 1.7 1.4 1.0 3.7 3.5 1.1 1.1 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.3 16.6 8.7 100.0 000 12 685.8 5 126.9 3 718.2 1 135.4 596.7 544.2 316.7 251.1 219.7 776.9 1 105.1 418.8 340.4 148.1 88.8 109.0 133.8 3 706.6 2 224.0 19 855.3 2006 % 63.9 25.8 18.7 5.7 3.0 2.7 1.6 1.3 1.1 3.9 5.6 2.1 1.7 0.7 0.4 0.5 0.7 18.7 11.2 100.0 Growth 19962006 % 0.8 6.8 -4.7 -14.9 -11.7 9.5 7.3 0.4 25.7 19.0 79.3 109.6 69.4 120.2 11.3 58.8 147.1 25.7 43.4 11.8
Source: Australian Bureau of Statistics 2006 Census
activities
Questions on data in Table 9.2: Change in religious afliations, 19962006. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. What does it mean when there is a negative growth rate? Identify the denominations of Christianity that remained constant between 1996 and 2006 (that is, those that have changed between 0 and 0.1 percentage points). Is there anything that surprises you here? Give three examples of Other Christian religions. What denominations do you think might be included under Eastern Orthodox? Explain the percentage increase in Non-Christian traditions between 1996 and 2006. Why do you think Buddhism has increased more than Islam? Give three examples of Other Non-Christian religions. How can the Lutherans decrease in percentage points between 1996 and 2006 but still show a positive growth?
10. Write a paragraph to describe the changes in religious affiliation of Non-Christian religions between 1996 and 2006.
220
TABLE 9.3 2006 CensusReligious afliations by state/territory

NSW Religion Christianity Buddhism Hinduism Judaism Islam Other religions Inadequately described No Religion Not stated Total persons (000) % 67.7 2.6 1.1 0.6 2.6 0.6 0.6 14.3 10.1 6 549.2 Vic % 60.5 2.7 0.9 0.8 2.2 0.5 0.7 20.4 11.2 4 932.4 Qld % 66.3 1.2 0.4 0.1 0.5 0.4 0.7 18.6 11.7 3 904.5 SA % 59.8 1.5 0.3 0.1 0.7 0.6 0.7 24.2 12.0 1 514.3 WA % 59.3 1.8 0.4 0.3 1.2 0.6 0.8 22.9 12.8 1 959.1 Tas % 64.2 0.5 0.2 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.7 21.5 12.2 476.5 NT % 54.6 1.5 0.3 0.1 0.6 2.0 0.7 23.1 17.1 192.9 ACT % 60.2 2.2 1.0 0.2 1.3 0.7 0.8 23.4 10.2 324.0 Total persons 000 12 685.8 418.8 148.1 88.8 340.4 109.0 133.8 3 706.6 2 224.0 19 855.3
Source: Australian Bureau of Statistics 2006 Census.
Christianity remained the dominant religion in Australia, although non-Christian religions continued to grow at a much faster rate. Since 1996, the number of people reporting that they are Christian grew from around 12.6 million to 12.7 million, but as a proportion of the total population this number fell (from 71% to 64%). Over the same period, those afliated with non-Christian faiths increased from around 0.6 million to 1.1 million people, and collectively accounted for 5.6% of the total population in 2006 (up from 3.5% in 1996). Australias three most common non-Christian religious afliations were Buddhism (2.1% of the population), Islam (1.7%) and Hinduism (0.7%). Of these groups, Hinduism experienced the fastest proportional growth since 1996, more than doubling to 150 000, followed by Buddhism, which doubled to 420 000. People afliated with the main non-Christian religions were clustered in Sydney and Melbourne. In 2006, 47% of Hindus and 47% of those afliated with Islam lived in Sydney. Around 46% of Australians afliated with Judaism lived in Melbourne. Similarly, the most common locations of people afliated with Buddhism were in Sydney (37%) and Melbourne (30%). Source: ABS 2006 Census
activities
Questions on data in Table 9.3: 2006 CensusReligious afliations by state/ territory. 1. What do you think is meant by the category inadequately described? 2. Why do you think the gures for Judaism are higher in New South Wales and Victoria than elsewhere? 3. Why do you think the Northern Territory has the greatest percentage of Other Religions?
221
The current religious landscape

Christianity as the major religious tradition in Australia Though Australia is rapidly becoming a multi-faith society, the majority religious afliation is still strongly Christian, as can been seen in the census data presented above. The Anglican Church and the Roman Catholic Church still hold the dominant roles, numerically speaking. Although the Anglican Church still maintains ties to Britain, these have weakened considerably. A new constitution passed in 1962 dissolved legal ties to Britain. This meant that the Church of England in Australia was now free to determine all matters of faith, worship and discipline for itself. In keeping with the aims of independence, the Church of England in Australia changed its name in 1982, dropping the reference to England and calling itself the Anglican Church of Australia. Other efforts to forge a distinctly Australian idiom among Anglicans resulted in the publication
of An Australian Prayer Book by the national governing body, the General Synod, in 1978. This followed the publication of The Australian Hymn Book in 1977, an initiative sponsored by ve Protestant denominations. The modernisation of the Anglican prayer book continued, amidst much controversy, culminating in the publication in 1995 of A Prayer Book for Australia, notable features of which are inclusive language, prayers for Aboriginal reconciliation and the adoption of a broad range of metaphors for describing God. In recent years the proportion of Anglicans has continued to decline. In 1981 Anglicans represented 26.1% of the Australian population, but by 2006 their presence declined to 18.7%. The Anglican Church no longer holds the greatest proportion of Christian adherents. That place has now been taken by the Roman Catholic Church, which in 2006 held 25.8% of the population. The Australian Catholic community has changed considerably from its Anglo-Celtic origins. From its preSecond World War percentage of 17.5% of the Australian population, the post-war Catholic community rose to 20.7 percent, with Europe contributing many nationalities under the Catholic banner, such as Croatians, Germans, Italians, Spaniards and Maltese. In the roughly ten-year period between 1975 and 1984, the migration of Indo-Chinese refugees and migrants from the Philippines brought a sizeable Asian contingent into the Catholic Church. Over 30 ethnic groups constitute the Catholic Church in Australia today. The Catholic Church now claims the largest number of adherents of all denominations in the Australian religious landscape. Among the Protestant churches is the relatively newly formed Uniting Church in Australia, founded in 1977. Initially the Uniting Church was made up of Methodists, Presbyterians and Congregationalists. Their unity made them the largest of the reformist tradition of Protestantism in Australia. Now the third largest Christian denomination in Australia, the Uniting Church constitutes a signicant voice in the Australian religious landscape. One of the consequences of union is the variety of worship forms found in the Uniting Church, from formal liturgical styles to informal and creative forms of worship. Like its Anglican and Catholic cousins, it uses a three-year lectionary, which not only gives a sense of continuity within each
FIG. 9.15 Large Catholic cathedral in Melbourne
222
congregation but also a sense of relationship with other Christian denominations. Ministry in the Uniting Church recognises that both men and women can be called to preach the gospel. The church is committed to issues of social justice through its Board of Social Responsibility and a range of agencies, projects, hospitals and senior citizens institutions. Unlike most Christian churches in Australia, the Pentecostal churches have shown signicant growth, with 185 000 attending on a typical Sunday. Organised around inuential preachers and their individual churches or groups of churches, Pentecostal Christianity is distinctive for its profusion of churches. As a consequence there is a great tendency for followers to switch between churches. The practice of enthusiastic prayer, the use of contemporary music, the staging of large stadium events and the avoidance of formalised liturgy have made Pentecostal churches particularly attractive to the younger generation. Churches that belong to this tradition include the Assemblies of God (which has well over 500 congregations), the Christian Revival Crusade, the Foursquare Gospel Churches and the Christian and Missionary Alliance. Further Pentecostal churches, many of which refer to themselves as community centres, include Hills Christian Centre in Baulkham Hills and the Christian Growth Centre in Sutherland, both in New South Wales. Other Pentecostal groups include the Bethesda Movement and Associated Christian Assemblies International. The impact of immigration We have already seen that the Christian church in Australia is an immigrant church, with the convict years contributing to both Catholic and Anglican denominations. The arrival of people of other religious traditions added to this Christian expression of faith in the early years of the colony; however, their numbers were relatively small and had little impact on the overall religious landscape. It wasnt until the 1900s that this picture began to show signicant change. In the space of a few short years, Turkish-born Australians grew from 2475 in 1966 to ten times that number in 1981. By 1986, the Muslim Turkish population (including children born of Turkish parents) was about 50 000. Muslim migrants also came from Lebanon, particularly after civil war began there in 1975. Although Lebanese Muslims had already settled in south Sydney in the 1960s, a signicant numberabout 1400migrated to Australia between 1975 and 1977. Currently there are approximately 35 000 Lebanese Muslims in Australia, of whom about 20 000 are Sunni, 11 000 Shia, and 5000 Druze and Alawi Muslims. Migrants from other Muslim countries such as Egypt, Iraq, Syria, Jordan and Indonesia have also settled in Australia. The total Australian Muslim population is composed of migrants from about 35 countries.
FIG. 9.16 Mosque at Sunshine, in Melbourne
223
Buddhism There has been a considerable increase in the numbers of Buddhists immigrating to Australia since the suspension of the White Australia policy in the mid-1960s. Before this, however, the Englishman Leo Berkeley, a keen protagonist of Buddhism, had migrated to Australia from London. The year was 1947. He soon formed a society for those interested in Buddhism, holding lecture evenings with guest speakers. The year 1950 saw the founding of the World Fellowship of Buddhists and the subsequent Australian visit of the Buddhist nun Dhammadinna (18811967), who came to spread Buddhist teachings. An American convert, she gave impetus to the formalisation of Berkeleys society, which was formally constituted as the Buddhist Society of New South Wales on 4 May 1953. It continues to this day as the oldest Buddhist society in Australia. A year later saw Buddhist societies being founded in both Queensland and Victoria. The Buddhist Federation of Australia was formed in 1958, taking over from the New South Wales society as the organisational member of the World Federation of Buddhists. These early Western-based developments of Buddhism stand in stark contrast to the later expressions of Buddhism in Australia, which came on the back of immigrants. In 1973 all barriers to non-Europeans were nally removed and Australia became attractive to Asian migrants. Currently there are well over 200 000 ethnic Chinese in Australia, drawn from several Asian countries including China, Papua New Guinea, Singapore, Vietnam and Malaysia. Many of the Chinese immigrants from Hong Kong and Singapore, both previous British colonies, tend to be Christian. The Vietnamese account for the largest ethnic group of Buddhists in Australia. Sri Lankans, Indians, Tibetans and Nepalis, Thais, Burmese, Cambodians and Laotians are represented in signicant numbers among Australias various Buddhist communities. Indo-Chinese migrants began arriving in 1975. There are over 35 000 Vietnamese Buddhists in Australia, coming from both Theravada and Mahayana traditionsthe Mahayana followers bringing their own monks and establishing their own organisations. Smaller numbers have arrived from Laos and Cambodia. These Theravada Buddhists have tended to join already existing groups.
FIG. 9.17 New Buddhist temple built by the Vietnamese and Asian community in Australia
Census gures indicate that during the decade 1981 to 1991, Buddhism was the fastest-growing religion in Australia, with an increase of over 100 000 to nearly 140 000 people. Today the Buddhist community in Australia is very diverse, with representatives from the Theravada, Mahayana and Vajrayana (Tibetan) traditions as well as signicant numbers of Zen and Pure Land Buddhists. The popularity of the Dalai Lama has meant that Tibetan Buddhism has taken on a higher prole in Australia.
FIG. 9.18 Inside a Buddhist temple
224
Judaism After the Second World War, in which almost six million Jews were killed by the Nazis throughout Europe, Jewish survivors made their way to Israel or Western countries such as Australia. Between 1945 and 1960 approximately 30 000 Jews arrived from Europe (excluding Britain), joining the already long-established Australian Jewish communities of Melbourne and Sydney. As a result of this wave of Jewish migration, the Australian Jewish community has become one of the more distinctive of the Jewish communities outside Israel.
FIG. 9.19 Jewish temple in suburban Australia
Almost parallel to the European migration, Jews from Egypt, Iraq, Iran and even India migrated to Australia. This was mainly in the 1940s and 1950s. These were Sephardi Jews who, unlike the European Ashkenazi Jews, have an Arabic-Spanish tradition of prayers, music and religio-cultural customs. Some Sephardi Jews intermarried and integrated with Ashkenazi Jews and adopted their tradition, but many attempted to remain distinct, gathering in their own synagogues in the cities of Sydney, Melbourne and Perth. Diversity and unity As can be seen, contemporary Australia is becoming increasingly diverse in its religious composition. The presence of synagogues, Buddhist temples, Eastern Orthodox churches, mosques and Hindu temples has changed the Australian religious landscape, diminishing in some areas the predominance of Anglo-Celtic Christianity. But the diversity has not developed without resistance, at rst ofcially through the White Australia policy and then in other unofcial ways (such as protests against the building of mosques and their associated schools, and notably against the building of a largely underground Hindu temple near Minto in New South Wales). But before it is concluded that hostilities are the result of recent migration, it should be remembered that conict has also been a signicant feature of Catholic and Protestant relations in Australia. Discriminatory hiring policies were the norm before they were widely rejected in the late 1960s and early 1970s and made illegal with the passing of antidiscrimination legislation.
FIG. 9.20 Inside the Jewish synagogue above
225
Sadly, it is at the times when as a nation Australians must try to come to terms with tragedy that religious traditions show the world that unity within diversity is possible.
Modern developments in Australian religion

Denominational switching Denominational switching is one of several factors inuencing the face of Christianity in Australia today. The term is used to describe the phenomenon of people changing from one denomination to another. Although a feature of Christianity, as a process it can occur within or across the boundaries of any religious tradition. Most commonly seen in Protestant churches, denominational switching enables a person to nd a spiritual home where he or she feels most at ease with the style of worship and the views put forward by the ministerial team of the parish. It can be likened to the concept of shopping around for the best deal and is often poorly regarded by more conservative Protestantsunless, of course, it means welcoming a new member into their congregation. In order to visualise the effect of denominational switching, it is necessary to look at the census data from the Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS). The National Church Life Survey (NCLS) regularly produces its own material from extensive surveys of worshipping Christians. Coupled together, these survey results give us a fairly accurate picture of the religious landscape. One of the facts learnt from these survey results is that in many cases loyalty is to parish rst and denomination second, especially among the younger members. Leaving the churches of their parents, these people are seeking places where the average age of congregations is younger, the music modern and the message clear. Many seek Pentecostal or charismatic churches to the detriment of the older and more traditional congregations.
denomination second, especially among the younger members.
loyalty is to
parish first and
activity
Look up the ABS census data and describe the changes in adherents in the different Protestant denominations. Can you nd out the age breakdown for these changes? By consulting National Church Life Survey information, outline what you think may be the reasons for these changes.
The rise of New Age religions It was the counterculture movement of the 1960s that opened the way for the New Age movement, which can be described as a loosely structured network of individuals and organisations holding new visions of enlightenment and harmony while subscribing to a common worldview (Ron Rhodes, New Age Movement [1995]). The counterculture movement was a time when people became open to new ways of thinking and doing. These were seen in peoples acceptance of new religious beliefs and cosmologies. Hinduism and its different deities became popular,
226
FIG. 9.21 New Age religions are usually supportive of protection for the environment.
prompting people to think again about the divine. For example, many saw the countercultural way of life of the Hare Krishnas as appealing. Considerable diversity is found within the movement today, encompassing a great number and variety of religious and secular philosophies. Included are holistic health professionals, ecologists, political activists, educators, human potential advocates, goddess worshippers, reincarnationists, astrologers and many others. New Agers, as they are often referred to, have certain characteristics in common, such as the belief that it is possible to draw the truth from a variety of sources. This often results in a syncretic philosophy informing their worldview. Rather than being exclusivist in their approach, New Agers tend to be inclusive, with all reality being seen as both interrelated and interdependent. New Age spirituality is multifaceted, drawing on Eastern meditation, altered states of consciousness, reincarnation, spiritualism and many other sources. These spiritualities are afrming rather than guiltladen. Within this movement are the neo-pagans, who have revived the paganism of old that rejected organised religion, male domination and the abuse of nature. Like-minded people include goddess worshippers, who seek the inner divinity that they believe is present in everyone.
Secularism There is a general trend in modern society to replace religious belief and practice with other kinds of knowledge and activity, drawn largely from the secular disciplines of sociology, psychology and the hard sciences. Secularism is when religious perspectives have been abandoned in favour of a more nonreligious response to lifes questions. Many see it as an abandonment of religion in order to move to a more hedonistic stance. Others see it as an attempt to abandon attitudes that instil guilt in the individual. Still others would see secularism as an option that excludes any form of religious adherence. Sociologist of religion J. M. Yinger points out that secular philosophies such as Positivism with its faith in science, Marxism with its faith in revolution and Freudianism with its faith in psychoanalysis serve as secular alternatives to religion, not as religions in themselves. But he also points out that each only ever succeeds in providing a partial response to the question of the human condition. Alternatively, there need not be anything to replace a religious stance, but simply an abandonment of those concerns that the secularist sees as restrictingperhaps almost in the sense of reductionism, the abandonment of that which is no longer seen as relevant to the comfortable life in modern-day society.
activity
Each year Sydney hosts the Mind, Body, Spirit Festival. Find out when and where this is held. What is the purpose of this festival? Is it correct to say it is a celebration of New Age spiritualities? Explain your response.
activities
1. In your own words write a denition of secularism. 2. Your friend does not take the subject Studies of Religion and is puzzled by your use of the term secularism. How would you explain it to them?
227
Religious dialogue in multi-faith Australia

Ecumenism and ecumenical movements
One of the signicant features of post-war Australian Christianity is its development of ecumenism, stressing the common values and teachings that prevail across the many churches and denominations making up the Christian world. The biblical justication for ecumenism The vision in Johns Gospel (17:21): that they may all be one so that the world may believe. Gods plan for the fullness of time, to gather up all things in him [Christ], things in heaven and things on earth. (Ephesians 1:10) Milestones in the development of the ecumenical movement 1910 World Missionary Conference in Edinburgh 1921 Formation of the International Missionary Council 1925 Universal Christian Conference of Life and Work (Stockholm) 1927 World Conference on Faith and Order (Lausanne) 1948 First assembly of the World Council of Churches (Amsterdam) brings together Protestants, Eastern Orthodox (including Russian Orthodox) and Old Catholic bodies 1960 The Vatican formally recognises the existence of the ecumenical movement, establishing the Secretariat for Promoting Christian Unity 1961 The World Council of Churches unites with the International Missionary Council 196265 Protestant and Eastern Orthodox observers are invited to the Second Vatican Council 1964 The Second Vatican Councils Decree on Ecumenism encourages Catholic dialogue with Protestant and Orthodox churches 1966 Pope Paul VI meets with the Archbishop of Canterbury 1968 Fourth Assembly of the World Council of Churches sees Protestants, Orthodox and Catholics working together 1969 Pope Paul VI visits World Council of Churches headquarters in Geneva 1995 Pope John Paul IIs encyclical Ut Unum Sint reafrms the Roman Catholic Churchs commitment to Christian ecumenism 1999 Pope John Paul II becomes the rst Pope to visit Orthodox nations 1999 Catholics and Lutherans sign a joint declaration on the doctrine of justication, resolving some of the issues that led up to the Reformation
Characteristics of ecumenism the uniting of professing Christians of all denominations cooperation across denominations focus on things in common.
Although the foundations of ecumenism were set in the early 1900s, it wasnt until the formation of the World Council of Churches in 1948 and the groundswell of the 1960s that it became a movement within the Christian church that drew peoples attention. The Greek term oikoumene is synonymous with the ecumenical movement. It is a word for the whole inhabited earth and was rst used to mean ecumenical in a statement from the World Council of Churches in 1951.
228
[The word ecumenical] is properly used to describe everything that relates to the whole task of the whole Church to bring the Gospel to the whole world. It therefore covers both Unity and Mission in the context of the whole world. (World Council of Churches Central Committee, August 1951) It is both a relational and dynamic concept, extending beyond the fellowship of Christians and churches to the human community within the whole of creation. It is the transformation of the inhabited earth into the living household (oikos) of God, that remains the calling of the ecumenical movement. The Catholic Church dened the term ecumenical movement in its Decree on Ecumenism (1961) as the initiatives and activities planned and undertaken to promote Christian unity. The Orthodox churches have been participants from the beginning and talk about ecumenism in timethe rediscovery of the shared history and ethos of all Christians. At the Third Assembly of the WCC (World Council of Churches) in 1961 (New Delhi) they stated, the immediate objective of the ecumenical search is a reintegration of the Christian mind, a recovery of the Apostolic Tradition, a fullness of Christian vision and belief, in agreement with all ages. The churches of the reformed traditions (e.g. the Dutch Reformed Church and the Presbyterian Church) have professed no common understanding of ecumenism. Some would dene it as the external relations between churches, others as the coming and being together of churches, and still others the manifestation of Christian concern for a world community in justice and peace. Modern examples of the ecumenical movement are: the Taiz community in France the formation of the Uniting Church in Australia the Week of Prayer for Christian Unity. The National Council of Churches in Australia In Australia, state-based ecumenical councils as well as the National Council of Churches in Australia (NCCA) seek to voice common concerns to the government on issues that directly affect Christian life. In 1994 the Catholic Church joined the already strongly functioning Australian Council of Churches and so the National Council of Churches in Australia came into being.
229
Changing alliancesreligion in Australia today One of the best religious developments in Australia during the last half of the 20th century is the growth of ecumenism, a growth in love, knowledge and cooperation between the Christian Churches. Ecumenism has now become so widely accepted and taken for granted that younger Christians people born after the 1960swith their generally poor knowledge of history are sometimes surprised to learn that dialogue and cooperation between the different Christian denominations, between Catholics and Protestants, between the Orthodox and Catholics is a relatively recent phenomenon, the exception rather than the rule in the history of post-Reformation Christianity, and indeed for most of the time since the 1054 rupture between Rome and Constantinople The weekend news reports told us of the latest riots in Northern Ireland between Protestants and Catholics. Indeed part of the Australian achievement is that we are so different from Northern Ireland In 1984 I was in charge of a wonderful Irish-Australian parish in western Victoria, where the Catholic majority lived in prefect harmony with their non-Catholic neighbours, even if there was not always perfect peace between the different constituent villages of the parish. That year saw the rst ever ecumenical service, held in the Anglican Church, which was extremely well attended by both sides. One of the Catholic men mentioned to me that he had been to this Anglican Church only once before, as a child to stone its roof. These examples serve to remind us of how far we have come and how much has been achieved. Although it is impossible to imagine an aboutturn away from ecumenism they also serve as a caution against taking this achievement too much for granted. (Extracts from the Halifax-Portal Lecture, May 2002 By Cardinal George Pell, Archbishop of Sydney)
activities
1. Look up the following New Testament references containing the word oikoumene (inhabited world). What can you learn about oikoumene from them? Luke 4:57 Luke 2:1 Acts 17:6 Revelation 16:14 Hebrews 2:5
activity
Read the above extracts from the 2002 Halifax-Portal Lecture. (The entire lecture can be found on the Archdiocese of Sydney website). Using dot points, outline the major points that Cardinal Pell makes in this portion of his lecture.
The NSW Ecumenical Council The NSW Ecumenical Council is a network of 16 Christian churches throughout New South Wales and the Australia Capital Territory. It aims to promote the working together of Christian churches. The council works by three major principles: 1. to maintain the unity of the Spirit in the bonds of peace (Ephesians 4:3) 2. to be committed to the gospel and to proclaiming it together 3. to live out the implications of the gospel for service in the world. The life of the NSW Ecumenical Council is centred on the unity and core truths of God in Jesus Christ.
2. Research the Taiz Movement of France. Who was Brother Roger? What is the purpose of the community? What is the composition of the community? Who visits the community? How is the liturgy of the community structured? Why do they use Latin in many of their hymns and choruses? 3. Australian churches celebrate the Week of Prayer for Christian Unity. What is it and when is it held? Who celebrates it and what are some of the activities that are undertaken?
230
Interfaith dialogue
Interfaith dialogue can no longer be the luxury of a few. Positive relationships need to be established among the religious traditions themselves. Such dialogue must become the catalyst for personal, social and cultural transformation. Catholic theologian Dr Gerard Hall SM states eight facts as to why interfaith dialogue is essential. 1. We live in a postmodern world in the sense that no single religion, culture, system or ideology has any convincing claim to be the one voice of truth. 2. We live in a democracy so that everyone has the right to present and defend his/her own system of beliefs and practiceseven if we consider these to be inferior or in error. 3. We live in a secular society which is, at best, ambivalent about the role of religionespecially organised religionin politics and the affairs of state. 4. We live in a global world in which our national identities in no way preclude our responsibilities for the well-being of all humanity and the one earth we share. 5. We are yet to grasp the full reality that Australia is a pluralistic, multicultural, multi-religious society in which dialogue among people of different traditions and with indigenous peoples is a requirement of social cohesion. 6. Spirituality, truth and goodness are not the domain of religion alone so that the religions need to be open to dialogue with indigenous, secular and non-religious voices. 7. The religious traditions have a particular responsibility in promoting strategies that enable dignity and justice for Australias rst peoples and other marginalised groups (including more recent victims of governmental policy such as refugees, asylum seekers and the mentally ill). 8. Finally, dialogue is rooted in the nature and dignity of the human person and is an indispensable step along the path towards human self-realisation both of each individual and of every human community [Ut Unum Sint, n. 28]. An example of interfaith dialogue Dialogue between Christian groups is complemented by dialogue between religious traditions. For example, the Catholic Churchs commitment to maintaining
FIG 9.22 Muslims visiting a Jewish synagogue to establish a positive relationship between the two traditions
an open dialogue with other faiths bore fruit in 1992 with its Guidelines for CatholicJewish Relations, produced under the auspices of the Bishops Committee for Ecumenical and Interfaith Relations of the Australian Catholic Bishops Conference. The establishment in 1991 of the Australian Council of Christians and Jews has also fostered understanding between Christians and Jews and has countered anti-Semitism. One of the councils most signicant achievements is its formulation of a set of guidelines for Christian teachers and preachers that is intended to help them deal more sensitively with various passages in the New Testament that have traditionally been used against Jews and Judaism. Entitled Rightly Explaining the Word of Truth, the guidelines were developed with the cooperation of the heads of the Anglican, Roman Catholic and Uniting Churches, as well as other Christian denominations such as the Lutheran Church. Other independent interfaith associations have emerged in Australia, the best known being the World Council on Religion and Peace (WCRP) composed of representatives from the major religious traditions. The WCRP was the major recipient of a 1995 federal government grant in honour of the United Nations Year of Tolerance. Occasional resistance to other faith traditions is part of the reality of religiously diverse societies, but the predominant trend in Australia is a live and let live ethic. In some cases a profound interest in learning about other groups is evident.
activity
Internet research: Read the paper by Gerard Hall SM (The call to interfaith dialogue, Australian EJournal of Theology, Issue 5, August 2005 [available online ]). Select ten points that you think aid in the understanding of interfaith dialogue. Compare these with the points other students in your class have selected and as a class make a list of the ten most important points.
231
Aboriginal spiritualities and religious traditions in the process of reconciliation

Aboriginal theology offers a vast spectrum of styles, ranging from the traditional (or non-Western) to the Aboriginal (or post-Western). Each of these reects a differing measure of encounter with European missions and theologies, and each has its own characteristics, limitations and contributions. Western Christianitys impact on Aboriginal society The history of the encounter between traditional Aboriginal religion and Western Christian mission theology provides a framework for understanding how the various forms of Aboriginal theology are expressed today. The history of contact between Aboriginal and Western cultures is full of racism, classism, sexism and other forms of colonial, expansionist oppressionwith the Aboriginal people bearing the brunt of the violence. The church was very much a part of this assault, drawing its personnel from the same society, and its theology from the same lines of thought and analysis, as the European invaders who stole the continent by force of arms and legal hocus-pocus. The church preached the language of love, yet it enforced mission policies based on hate, fear, violence, division and denominationalism. Church and state worked together, and the results of this two-pronged onslaught have been nothing short of genocidal. Aboriginal peoples experiences of the transcendent were expected to be limited to Western understandings. Indeed, their expressions of God, church, faith and life were assimilated into Western expressions. Most European Christians actually came to take the land, and preached falsehoods and heresies to Aboriginal people in order to rationalise the takeover. One of the most notorious examples of this Western theological deceit across Australia was the teaching of the Hamitic curse, which supposedly condemned all black-skinned peoples to eternal inferiority. Sadly, some missionaries were quite efcient, and a few older Aboriginal people still believe they are condemned by God to be less than whites.
is full of racism, classism, sexism and other forms of colonial, expansionist oppressionwith the Aboriginal people bearing the brunt of the violence.
The history of contact between
Aboriginal and Western cultures
In this vein, it is important to know that Aboriginals have never been given the critical tools to understand the Christian Bible fully. From the very rst missions to later, more organised denominational initiatives, the Australian churches read-out the meaning of the text of the Bible in a way that distorted more than just the words. The churches had the benet of thousands of years of analytical study of the biblical text, and yet they consistently omitted from their interpretations the numerous instances of black people and people of colourin the scriptures. On the whole, Western Christian missions have left a legacy of a missionised theology that continues, to this day, to have a negative impact on Aboriginal thinking. This way of doing theology remains self-righteous, judgmental, oppressive and full of institutionalised racism and sexism. There are various expressions of missionised theology being practised in Australia today. Nominal theology Over the years, many Aboriginal people have been forced into mission stations and reserves by Christians of good will. People in their thousands were preached at, baptised and converted to the Christian religionoften by force, sometimes by violence, and almost always under duress. Aboriginals were made to attend church services, sing hymns, go to Sunday school and so on. If they did not, their food rations would be cut, they would be isolated from other members of their family and community, or they would be punished in some other way for their heathenism. Many Aboriginals became nominal Christians as they really had no other choice.
232
In time, this forced contact led to theological osmosis. Aboriginals were survivors, and therefore they absorbed white, European, conservative theology. This legacy continues today in Aboriginal fundamentalist, Pentecostal and evangelical expressions. Mostif not alladherents of conservative theology reject their own Aboriginal identity, culture and languages. Most are concerned with personal sin and salvation, with individual conversion and piety, as opposed to institutionalised or corporate sins such as white racism and greed. They maintain a very narrow and apocalyptic worldview, believing that land rights and justice are all in heaven, and that ghting for these here and now on earth is wrong, indeed sinful. Some acknowledge the existence of traditional spirituality, ceremonies and other cultural practices, but they generally discourage them. In one way or another, all of these conservative expressions deny various aspects of Aboriginal personhood, socio-cultural identity and Indigenous religious being. They betray a direct, interventionist, white, European missionised theology. Liberal theology There is a liberal tradition in Aboriginal theology. This is characterised by dependencetheological, ecclesiological, social, structural, economic on Western church structures and entities. The representatives of this tradition are ercely loyal to their denominational allegiances, but at times are open to working ecumenically. Motions and resolutions come easily, but direct action is not always forthcoming. As far back as the 1930s, Tom Foster, an Aboriginal evangelist from La Perouse, raised important issues of justice and equality, and criticised white missionaries as constituting a destructive inuence on Aboriginal people and culture. In 1976 Pastor Douglas Nicholls (Churches of Christ) became Governor of South Australia, thus mixing a deep faith as a pastor with political commitment. In the latter part of the 1970s, the Rev. Djiniyini Gondarra (Uniting Church) was part of the leadership of a major spiritual revival at Galiwinku, in north-east Arnhem Land. His writings have focused on this revival, and on contextualising the Christian gospel for Aboriginal people. In 1985 the Rev. Arthur Malcolm became the rst Aboriginal Bishop in Australia, as Anglican Assistant Bishop of North Queensland. He is truly a gifted pastor, counselling and nurturing Aboriginal people in their pain, suffering, hope and visions. He is deeply committed to reconciliation. Pastor Cecil Grant (Churches of Christ) is active in contextualising the gospel and is involved in lay theological education.
activities
1. Outline the position of the Aboriginal contributor to this section of this chapter in regard to the impact of religious traditions on Aboriginal people.
2. Explain the difference between For many years, spanning this entire period, Pastor George Rosendale nominal theology and liberal (Lutheran Church) has worked on a holistic approach to Aboriginal theology. theology, encompassing traditional Dreaming stories as well as modern theological method.
233
FIG 9.23 Patrick Dodson
Story-telling theology Aboriginal story-telling theology embraces traditional and cultural teaching, and preserves a link between the Dreaming stories and the biblical scriptures. Many Aboriginal theologians use this form of teaching both to maintain the Aboriginal oral tradition and to bring Aboriginals a greater understanding of theology so that they can make it relevant to their daily lives. It is a non-Western, non-intellectualised method of teaching the highest truths about creation and life. By using the Dreaming stories, Aboriginal theologians are able to bring to life the teachings of the gospel, which may then be sung and danced to life through traditional Aboriginal ceremonies. One outstanding Aboriginal person who is very gifted in this tradition is Pastor George Rosendale, from the Hopevale community in far north Queensland. Through this practice he is able to make the gospel more meaningful and relevant to the Aboriginal way of life. Aboriginal theology Aboriginal theology is a radical movement in theology. It aims at creating an Indigenous theology, leaning heavily on the notion of biblical justice. It is autonomous (post-Western, post-denominational) and emphasises liberation, prophetic obedience, and action. It treasures traditional Aboriginal religion as the divine grounding for contemporary faith and identity. It keeps traditional practices such as ceremonies as potent reminders of important cosmic and temporal truth. And it holds the Dreaming as a timeless guide for active engagement. In the 1960s the Rev. Don Brady worked with the Methodist Church in Brisbane. He was a gifted and passionate preacher, and a tireless campaigner for Aboriginal rights. He was always to be found leading Aboriginal land rights marches. His strong theological stance, combined with his persistent efforts at direct action for justice, eventually led the church to remove him from the ministrya measure that broke him.
234
In the 1970s the Rev. Charles Harris followed Brady in the ministry in Brisbane. His work continued the prophetic stands for justice, eventually culminating in his vision of the Uniting Aboriginal and Islander Christian Congress in 1985. His subsequent writings reveal a true passion and thirst for justice. In 1975 Patrick Dodson became the rst ordained Aboriginal Roman Catholic priest. Like Brady and Harris, his stands were far too threatening for the hierarchical, institutionalised church, and he left both the priesthood and the church. These great leaders have been followed by others with a strong theology and passion for justice. Fr Dave Passi, a Torres Strait Islander priest of the Malo cult, is also a fully qualied and ordained priest of the Anglican Church of Australia. He was one of the ve original plaintiffs in the landmark native title (Mabo) land rights case, which shattered the legal ction that the Australian continent was terra nullius. Passi was led by his strong theological commitment to justice. The Rev. Dhalanganda Garrawurra (Uniting Church) was assistant to the president at Nungalinya College in Darwinthis despite the fact that he was denied food rations by Christian missionaries when he did not go to church on the Aboriginal reserve as a youth. Though he probably did not consider himself to be an Aboriginal Christian theologian, Kevin Gilbert (19331993) nevertheless provided one of the most comprehensive critiques of Christian theology and Christianity itself. His works demonstrated vast knowledge of both the Bible and Christianity, though he stood at the fringe of Christian hermeneutics. His sharp insights offered a major contribution to Aboriginal theology. Aboriginal theology encompasses everything from the timeless oral tradition of Dreaming stories to the modern written tradition of biblical scholarship. It
preserves the ancient wisdom of Aboriginal culture and tradition, and also reinterprets and reformulates more recent Western theological concepts. It is very diverse and has much to offer to those who are willing to learn. The Aboriginal and Islander Commission of the National Council of Churches in Australia Finally, as an organisation, the Aboriginal and Islander Commission of the National Council of Churches (NCCA) in Australia during its rst decade took unprecedented and dramatic strides towards discerning and embodying an Aboriginal, autonomous theology. In 1991, under the leadership of Dr Anne PattelGray, Aboriginal religion/spirituality took the World Council of Churches (WCC) by storm. Demonstrated throughout the WCC Seventh Assembly in Canberra, Aboriginal music, art, dance and spirituality took precedence on a world platform. This was the rst time Aboriginal religion/ spirituality had been showcased to the world. It was to have a lasting impact, challenging the world of religious leaders to open the door for future conversations with the Aboriginal world.
activities
1. What is Aboriginal theology? 2. How does this theology treat the Dreaming? 3. Outline the work of the Rev. Don Brady and others in this movement. 4. Research the Aboriginal and Islander Commission of the National Council of Churches in Australia and the work it has done for reconciliation. 5. How have such organisations, including recently the World Council of Churches, helped the process of reconciliation?
235
Review and assess

Review
1. 2. To what extent is Aboriginal religion a way of life? Prepare an oral report for the class on the importance of native title to the land rights movement in Australia. Debate: The link between the Dreaming and the land rights movement was made for political reasons. Prepare a visual and textual presentation for a particular audience (for example, Year 7 students) on the importance of kinship to Aboriginal spirituality. Research the Wik decision and form a hypothesis on the impact of the decision on the land rights movement. Describe the connection between the Dreaming and the land and their interrelationship with Aboriginal spirituality. Account for the religious landscape in Australia today in a visual display of the various religions and their history. Discuss the diversity of religious traditions present in Australia today. Evaluate the importance of interfaith dialogue to multi-faith Australia.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8. 9.
10. Describe the rise of New Age religions in Australia and discuss their impact on religious expression in Australia today. 11. Explain the impact that immigration has had on the religious landscape of Australia in the latter part of the 20th century. 12. Describe the role of the various religious traditions in the process of reconciliation.

Multiple choice questions 13. Aboriginal people received recognition as Australian citizens in: a. 1901 b. 1938 c. 1967 d. 1972
236
14. Aboriginal liberal theology has developed from: a. the union of Presbyterian, Methodist and Congregational churches b. the forced acceptance of Christianity c. nominal theology d. Aboriginal Christians who operate from a Western-style church model 15. The 1986 Australian census gures show that: a. Anglicans outnumber Catholics b. Uniting Church members number more than Anglicans c. there are more members of other religions than the total number of Christians d. the number of people who stated No religion was greater than the number of Christians. 16. The Church of England in Australia changed its name in 1982 to become known as: a. the Uniting Anglican Church b. the Anglican Church c. the Church of Anglicans in Australia d. the Anglican Church of Australia 17. The Uniting Church was made up of: a. Presbyterians, Methodists and Baptists b. Anglicans, Catholics and Methodists c. Presbyterians, Baptists and Anglicans d. Methodists, Presbyterians and Congregationalists 18. The fastest-growing Christian denomination is: a. Catholics b. Anglicans c. Pentecostals d. Orthodox 19 Denominational switching is common within: a. Christianity b. Hinduism c. Buddhism d. Islam 20. Which of the following factors did not contribute to the stolen generations? a. missionisation b. reserves
c. the arrival of Europeans d. totems 21. When people use the term self-determination, they mean that: a. people are able to determine and control their own business b. the authorities determine the affairs of others c. Indigenous people have assigned responsibility to white authority gures to determine their future d. none of the above 22 Native title is another name for: a. Wik b. Mabo c. Yolngu d. Koori Short response (5 marks) 23. The churches should act together in all matters except those in which deep differences of conviction compel them to act seperately. Conference on Faith and Order, 1952 Using the above statement and your own knowledge, describe the impact of Christian ecumenical movements in Australia.
(Studies of Religion II HSC Examination Paper Board of Studies NSW for and on behalf of the Crown in right of the State of New South Wales, 2007)
24. Discuss the contribution of Christianity to social welfare since 1945. 25. Explain the impact of the Wik decision on the land rights movement. 26. Describe the role of one religious tradition in rural and outback Australia. 27. For Aboriginals, the correlation between their created world, their social world and their spiritual world means that their religion is holistic and living, that it touches everything. Discuss. 28. Explain the importance of kinship to Aboriginal people. 29. What is the importance of the sacred to Aboriginal people?
237
Buddhism
The focus of this study is the contribution of significant people, ideas, practices and ethical teachings to an understanding of Buddhism as a living religious tradition. The study of Buddhism is to be of the WHOLE tradition where applicable.
Outcomes
A student: H1 explains aspects of religion and belief systems Guru Rinpoche (Padmasambhava) Sister Dhammadinna Tenzin Palmo XIVth Dalai Lama Pure Land Soto Zen Won Buddhism another person or school of thought signicant to Buddhism the effect of that person or school of thought on Buddhism Ethics one of the following areas of ethical teaching in Buddhism: bioethics environmental ethics sexual ethics Signicant practices in the life of adherents
H2 describes and analyses the inuence of religion and belief systems on individuals and society H4 describes and analyses how aspects of religious traditions are expressed by their adherents H5 evaluates the inuence of religious traditions in the life of adherents H6 organises, analyses and synthesises relevant information from a variety of sources, considering usefulness, validity and bias H7 conducts effective research about religion and evaluates the ndings from the research
H8 applies appropriate terminology and concepts related to religion and belief systems H9 coherently and effectively communicates complex information, ideas and issues using appropriate written, oral and graphic forms
Content
Students learn about: Signicant people and ideas the contribution to Buddhism of one signicant person or school of thought other than Buddha drawn from Asoka Nargajuna Vasubandhu
one signicant practice within Buddhism other than daily prayer drawn from: Pilgrimage Temple puja Wesak
HSC | Chapter 10 Buddhism
239
ABSOLUTISTS AHIMSA ANATTA ANICCA BODHISATTVA
those who believe that certain ethical teachings are always to be applied. the teaching that no sentient life form is to be harmed. the teaching that there is no soul. the teaching that everything changes and is impermanent. a being who has achieved ultimate perfection and aids all sentient beings in achieving nirvana. the Enlightened One, born as Siddhartha Gautama. the teaching that all things have the same reality or basis of existence. the Buddhist teaching on cause and effect. a Chinese school of philosophy and ethics. generosity. the teachings of the Lord Buddha and the laws of the universe. the teaching that all aspects of life have an element of suffering or incompleteness. choosing certain aspects of a system of thought without accepting the whole of the system. the act of bringing about a persons death out of a desire to relieve the person of suffering. meditation hall in Vajrayana (Tibetan) Buddhism. the symbol of ultimate reality adopted by Won Buddhists. the consequence of all acts that are done willingly. a good act. the School of the Great Wheel in Buddhism found in northern countries of Asia. Tibetan prayer beads.
MISSIONARIES
men and women who travel outside their homeland to spread the teachings of their religious faith. the teaching of the ultimate destiny for all sentient life forms. the ethical precepts of Buddhism. people who journey to a sacred shrine for spiritual development. wisdom and insight into what reality truly is. private or public ritual. the practice of meditation. the teaching that at death a persons karma will nd a new life form. the ethical system within Buddhism. monuments that house relics of holy men and women, in particular, relics of the Lord Buddha. void, emptiness as the basis of all reality. ancient system of religion and philosophy originating in China. Tibetan spiritual images. the School of Elders in Buddhism found in South-East Asia. the principal teachings of Buddhism on the Buddha, the Dharma and the Sangha; also known as the Three Jewels. the three baskets, one of the sacred texts of Buddhism. those who believe that circumstances are important in deciding the rightness of an act. the school of Buddhism found in Tibet and Nepal. shrine room in Theravada Buddhism.
NIRVANA PANCASILAM PILGRIMS PRAJNA PUJA SAMADHI SAMSARA SILA STUPAS
BUDDHA BUDDHA NATURE CONDITIONED ARISING CONFUCIANISM DANA DHARMA DUKKHA
SUNYATA TAOISM THANGKAS THERAVADA THREE REFUGES
ECLECTIC
EUTHANASIA
TRIPITAKA UTILITARIANS
GOMPA IRWONSANG KARMA KUSALA MAHAYANA
VAJRAYANA VIHARA
VOTIVE OFFERING offering given in fullment of a vow or to gain favour. WESAK an annual festival celebrating Gautama Buddhas birth, enlightenment and paranirvana.
MALAS
240
Significant people and schools of thought

The contribution of Asoka
Buddhism in the third century BCE was one of the major religious traditions in India. During the 300 years since the death of the Lord Buddha, it had adapted to local customs and was practised within various tribes and cultures. Furthermore, it was a religion that was exible since the Lord Buddha had left many important issues open to interpretation. Because it was a religion that gave the individual sole responsibility for his or her own spiritual development, it required no central structures or shrines in order to dene the individual as a Buddhist. Consequently, it was popular with merchants and traders. It was tolerant of other religious traditions, and did not seek to convert people through proselytising (active conversion) but through example and witness. The Sangha (the community of monks and nuns) was an important witness to the claim that Buddhism was a means to a successful spiritual life. The educated members of society were attracted to its teaching since, like Hinduism, it had developed sophisticated ways of answering philosophical problems and had a high-quality body of literature. Asoka was made emperor of the Mauryan Empire in India in 268 BCE. Much of the information about him comes from two sources. First, during his reign he erected pillars and carved out messages in rock (Rock Edicts) by which his teachings were outlined. These are an important source for studying how Asoka understood Buddhist teachings. Second, both during his life and after it, many stories arose about him that indicate how people thought about him and how important they thought he was for Buddhism.
FIG. 10.1 The triple-lion icon of the great emperor Asokas famous pillar has been adopted as modern Indias state symbol.
The Mauryan Empire stretched over most of India and into modern-day Iran. Asoka was the rst Buddhist emperor. Before his coronation he had served as a prince (kumara, governor) along with at least four other princes. He seems to have gained control of the empire through his erceness and skill in battle. Initially he belonged to a Hindu sect, the Ajivakas, which had the religious allegiance of his father, the Emperor Bindusara. Stories written about Asoka describe him as a harsh ruler before his conversion to Buddhism in 261 BCE. After this conversion he was known as Dharmasoka (Asoka the Just or Asoka of the Teachings), indicating a radical change in character.
Taxna
Indraprastha
Mathura Pattala
Mauryas
Ujjain Sanchi
Pataliputra
Bodh Gaya
Arabian Sea
Bay of Bengal
FIG. 10.2 Kingdom of Mauryas

241
His conversion did not immediately change his political and imperial efforts to strengthen and expand his kingdom. On coming to the throne, he was in a strong position to attack Syria and other parts of the Persian Empire. In 261 BCE he was quick to put down an uprising for independence in the kingdom of Kalinga (central-eastern India). An inscription of 256 BCE, Rock Edict 13, describes the devastation brought about by this war. Not only were there massive casualties on both sides but also many innocent people, including holy men, massacred. Asokas response to this war was to recommit himself to the principal teachings and ethical behaviour of Buddhism. A rock edict of 258 BCE describes Asoka going to the Sangha in the previous year (259 BCE) to commit himself more strongly to the teachings of Buddhism. He saw that wars were inconsistent with the teachings of Buddhism, particularly that of ahimsa (the First Ethical Precept, which demands that no sentient life form be harmed). He further concluded that war damaged the reputation of Buddhism, did not prevent further evil and harmed innocent people. Asoka also realised that Buddhism could be used as a practical basis for governing and maintaining his kingdom. The rock edicts express his conviction that ahimsa and dana (generosity) were the most important bases for administering his kingdom. In the Kalinga Edicts he instructed his ofcials to seek affection from the people and be impartial in their judgments. In 255 BCE he set up ofcials to maintain relationships with the other major religious traditions and to increase the proper understanding of Buddhism, both within his kingdom and outside it.
Asokas contribution to the development of Buddhism Asoka contributed to the development of Buddhism in three signicant ways. First, he maintained it as a signicant religious tradition within his kingdom. Second, he supported and encouraged missionaries to expand Buddhism beyond his borders. Third, and most importantly, he showed that Buddhism could be the basis for government and foreign affairs. Though Buddhism was one of the major religious traditions before Asoka came to the throne, he ensured that the other religious traditions also received his support and generosity. His policy of toleration of all traditions reects his understanding of Buddhism as only one way to achieve spiritual development. Asoka believed that all sects were fundamentally good and that peaceful coexistence was essential in maintaining harmony in his empire. He knew that individuals had different needs and abilities and should be able to choose which religious traditions suited them best. Asoka also found ways of instructing his people about Buddhism. For the educated he erected pillars and created rock carvings to outline his religious understanding. For those who had no education he used storytelling, poetry, sculpture, Buddhist symbols (such as the lotus, the tree and the wheel) and paintings to inform them about the life and teaching of the Lord Buddha. He also strengthened the position of Buddhism by building stupas that contained the relics of the Buddhas so that ordinary people had access to important shrines and sites.
activities
1. Who was Asoka? 2. How did he gain control of the Mauryan Empire? 3. Was he always a Buddhist? If not, why did he change to being a Buddhist? 4. How did Buddhism impact on his rulings? 5. Create a brief dot-point biography of Asoka including the following information: birth, socio-political background, key events, achievements, death.
FIG. 10.3 The Sanchi stupa and gateway in Bhopal, India, built by Asoka
242
FIG. 10.4 Asoka pillar in Lumbini
Asoka believed that Buddhism was a way of spiritual development for all people. His pillars and rock edicts were placed throughout his kingdom and written in various tribal dialects so that the teachings could be widely disseminated. He also communicated Buddhist teachings in Greek and Aramaic for foreigners. This showed that Buddhist concepts were able to be translated into other languages and cultures. Another of Asokas signicant contributions to Buddhism was the active missionary activity that he supported and encouraged. Though there had been Buddhist missionaries before the time of Asoka, without his nancial and political support there could not have been such widespread missionary activity. In 257 BCE King Tisya of Sri Lanka welcomed Asokas son, Mahendra, a monk, as ambassador. There is a possibility that Asokas daughter established the female Sangha in Sri Lanka. King Tisya accepted instruction in Buddhism and was converted, along with his court and many aristocratic families. Under Asoka, the number of Buddhists increased in southern India, while missionaries travelled to Kashmir, the Himalayas, the western coast of India and lower Burma. This expansion was made possible by Asokas decision that only ve monks were needed to consecrate new monks outside his
empire. The number required within the empire remained at ten. Asoka showed that Buddhism could be a strong basis for government and foreign policy. Though dealing with hostile neighbours, he made it clear that his foreign policy was one of peaceful coexistence and diplomacy. Likewise, his internal affairs were based on toleration and acceptance of difference. He established structures of social welfare by planting medicinal herb gardens for his people and trees to give shade for pilgrims. He supported and maintained the administrative structure of the Sangha by generous donations and the building of new viharas (shrine rooms). He also applied Buddhist teachings to his system of law and punishment. Criminals who were to be executed were given three days during which their families could plead for mercy or the criminals had opportunities to make donations in order to receive a better life after death.
activity
Research Asokas contribution to the development of Buddhism by maintaining it as a signicant religious tradition, by encouraging missionary activity and by using it as the basis for government and foreign affairs. Give examples.
243
Asokas contribution to the expression of Buddhism Buddhism is expressed through its beliefs, sacred texts, rituals, structures and symbols. Asoka contributed to all of these expressions. Asoka believed that Buddhism was a religious tradition for all people. It was not restricted only to wealthy and educated people. There is, however, little evidence that he saw the need to spell out the important beliefs of the tradition. Indeed there is no evidence that he wrote about key teachings like samsara (though he was aware that a person was reborn), anatta or nirvana. He probably believed that the practice of Buddhism was more important than any discussion about its teachingsa view also held by the Lord Buddha. It was ethics that seemed most important for Asoka. He understood ethics as the practical application of belief. Many of his writings were about how to live a good life as a Buddhist, and a large part of administrating his empire was devoted to the correct observance of the Dharma. He believed that all people were, like him, responsible for their own development. He was concerned to ensure that they understood what was correct. He emphasised the importance of respect for elders and striving after the truth. For him the rst ethical precept, ahimsa, was most important. He abolished the hunting of animals, sh and birds by his court, converted his court to vegetarianism and forbade animal sacrices. In the edict of 243 BCE, he stresses the importance of compassion, generosity, truth and purity and the need to avoid anger, cruelty, pride and jealousy. Much of the sacred text known as the Tripitaka had been formed before Asokas time. He did, however, convene a meeting of the Sangha in his capital, Patiliputta, around 250 BCE. At this council the third book of the Theravada Buddhist Abhidharma Pitaka (the Book of Discourses) was composed. This council, known as the Third Buddhist Council, also expelled monks who did not agree with the correct teachings and their heresies were examined. This council became known as the Third Rehearsal of the Tripitaka. Asokas contribution to Buddhist ritual was primarily in creating new pilgrimage sites and making pilgrimage easier for people. This gave the ordinary person greater access to key relics and greater contact with the Sangha, for Asoka established monasteries at these new pilgrimage places. He himself undertook pilgrimagesfor example, he travelled to Bodh Gaya, where Buddha was enlightened, in 259 BCE and held discussions with the monks there, generously donating gifts to the community and teaching the people about Buddhism. In 255 BCE he built a stupa in Nepal and in 249 BCE travelled to Lumbini, the site of Buddhas birth. Asoka did not hesitate to intervene in the workings and administration of the Sangha. Realising its importance in maintaining Buddhist teaching, he directly intervened in deciding which teachings were correct. He undertook to ensure that the Sangha would remain without schism. At times his intervention had disastrous results. One of his directives was misinterpreted by ofcials who consequently killed some of the monks opposed to his decision. Asoka worried about his part in this and needed to nd out whether he was guilty for this offence from a much-revered monk, Thera Tissa. Tissa pronounced that Asoka was not responsible.
FIG. 10.5 Bodhnath Stupa in Nepal
244
Asoka further outlined in the Bhabra Inscriptions that the monks should be satised with their humble possessions. He also spoke in this inscription about the attractiveness of life in the Sangha.
activity
Complete the following chart. BUDDHIST CONTRIBUTION EXAMPLES EXPRESSIONS BY ASOKA AND EVIDENCE beliefs ethics symbols rituals structure (Sangha) sacred texts
and vegetarianism) he acted as a model for his fellow believers. Asoka provided the means of spreading the teachings of Buddhism throughout his empire. He used symbolism and graphic art forms to instruct ordinary people, provided ofcials to teach the Dharma, and used the written text on pillars and in rock carvings to teach the educated and foreigners. Furthermore, in translating Buddhist ideas into other languages he showed the adaptability of Buddhism to other ways of thinking. Asokas signicance after his lifetime Another important contribution to Buddhism was Asokas support and encouragement of missionaries. The establishment of Buddhism outside of India (where it nearly died out) ensured the religious traditions ongoing existence and contribution to Asian culture and thought. The conversion of the court in Sri Lanka was essential for the development of Theravada Buddhism, while expansion north into Nepal and beyond would eventually see the development of the Mahayana and Vajrayana schools of Buddhism. Asoka also became a model for later Buddhists. His commitment to Buddhist teaching and its use as a basis for politics and administration established it as a religious tradition well able to adapt to different forms of government and policy. Asoka believed that Buddhism was not just a passive acceptance of the teachings but required application in a persons life and ethical practice. These virtues continued to impress Buddhists beyond his death. He demonstrated the practical application of belief to the everyday life of adherents.
Asokas significance during his lifetime Asokas signicance for Buddhism during his lifetime was principally in strengthening and maintaining it as a major religious tradition in India. Under him there was no essential reinterpretation of Buddhist teachings or major development in understanding as to how to live as a Buddhist. Asokas most important contribution to Buddhism was his ability to apply its teaching to government and foreign policy. Buddhist teaching became the means of ensuring security and peace among his subjects, while at the same time indicating to possible hostile neighbours that his foreign policy was based on toleration and diplomacy rather than further expansion of his empire. Within such a peaceful society, Buddhism could expand. This environment also allowed for strengthening the Sangha and maintaining the correct teachings. It is clear that Asoka made no major contributions in his lifetime to the principal expressions of Buddhism. He did, however, accept these as important and chose to support and maintain them. By his own life (for example, in practising the values of pilgrimage, ahimsa
activities
1. How and why did Asoka apply Buddhism to government and foreign policy? 2. How did he inform the ordinary people about Buddhism? 3. Create a visual presentation showing how Asoka expanded the inuence of Buddhism through neighbouring countries. 4. Why was this important to Indian Buddhism well after his death? 5. Discuss the signicance of Asoka for Buddhism. Discuss why he still remains an important gure in Buddhism.
245
The contribution of Won Buddhism

Won Buddhism was founded in Korea in 1915 when its founder, Soe-tae San, became enlightened. At the time Korea was undergoing internal political struggles with the Japanese occupation. During this occupation the practice of Buddhism and any ideology that might have been a means of cultivating opposition to the occupying forces were banned. After enlightenment, Soe-tae San began an intense study of all major religious traditions that had been practised within Korea. This included reading the major works of Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism. Having studied these religious systems, Soe-tae San determined that the means of achieving enlightenment was best brought about through Buddhism. However, he acknowledged that some teachings from the other traditions were also useful. The eventual teaching of Won Buddhism would be eclectic, that is, it would draw not only on the ideas and concepts of Buddhism but also on appropriate teachings from other religious traditions. He attracted disciples but did not establish the Association for the Study of the Buddha-Dharma until 1924 in Iksan. Though enlightened, Soe-tae San was hesitant in the political climate of his country to announce his teachings. His wife was very supportive, and Soe-tae San eventually had a dream that convinced him to establish the new understanding of Buddhism. In the dream his companions, set the task of building a wall but unable to do so, committed themselves to Won Buddhism by offering to sever one of their ngers. This demonstration of the validity of Won Buddhism helped convinced Soe-tae San to make public his insights and teachings.
FIG. 10.6 Rituals in a Won Buddhist temple
(circle) can also be seen posted high above Won Buddhist temples like the cross on Christian churches.
The symbol
The Scriptures of Won Buddhism (Bongkil Chung)
246
The principal teaching is that of the Irwonsang, or Circle. This symbol expresses the key teaching of Won Buddhism. All reality is one, and the understanding that reality is made up of different parts is delusional. Soe-tae San taught that all religions, if investigated closely, demonstrate this Oneness of Reality, and that enlightenment is nothing other than coming to realise and become one with this unity of all things. This unity is not an interconnection of all things into a system that operates as a whole according to the laws of nature, as modern physics understands the unity of the universe. Rather, it collapses all things into a formless unity. In Mahayana Buddhism this ultimate formless reality is known as nirvana or sunyata (void). The purpose in life is to attain this understanding. This concept of the ultimate nature of all things as nothing is not a new teaching. It is central to an understanding of Buddhism, in particular Mahayana Buddhism. In this school the Lord Buddha is understood in a number of ways. First, he is a historic human who gained enlightenment 2500 years ago. The Buddha is also that fundamental reality that underlies all thingsthe Buddha Nature. This is what each aspect of the world has and what gives it its true identity and purpose. Another way to understand the Buddha is to acknowledge that the Buddha is the ultimate reality, which is made up of not things but is nothing. The Buddha is nirvana or sunyata. For Soe-tae San the teaching symbolised in the Irwonsang had ethical application as well as consequences for how he structured the administration of his school and the practice of adherents.
Contribution to development of Buddhism Won Buddhism is a modern reinterpretation of the teachings of the Lord Buddha. It is situated within Mahayana Buddhism; however, since it is eclectic, culturally determined (it is very much a Korean understanding) and inuenced by the events and thoughts of the 20th century, it is distinct from other schools of Buddhism, and in some teachings unique. Soe-tae San reinterpreted Buddhism in the religious context of northern Asian schools of religious thought. He accepted that Confucianism offered many practical teachings that could indicate to people how they should live their lives. Confucianism emphasises the need to pay due reverence to those better than you. It particularly emphasises the recognition of authentic rule in society, the signicance of a persons ancestors, and the duties and responsibilities of a person towards parents, teachers and others who have gained wisdom. Won Buddhism also spells out the obligations of people to observe and obey the legitimate laws of society. For Won Buddhists, paying respect and honouring the wise are means by which one carries out the ethical obligations symbolised by the Irwonsang. Since older people and more learned people have better insight into reality, it is important to pay attention to them so that a person may move closer towards enlightenment. Though all schools of Buddhism emphasise the need to pay respect towards elders and authentic government, Won Buddhism expresses it more within a social system where clearly dened levels of honour are recognised. From Taoism, Soe-tae San accepted that the universe was a harmony of balanced forces. Taoisms principal teaching is that there are complementary
activities
1. Where did Won Buddhism begin and what were the circumstances in the country at that time? 2. Why did Soe-tae San believe Buddhism was the best religion for his country? 3. How did Soe-tae change Buddhism and why? 4. What is the fundamental teaching of Won Buddhism? 5. As a group, discuss nirvana and create a concise denition. 6. Create a visual presentation outlining the principal teachings of Won Buddhism.
FIG. 10.7 Yin yang symbol of Taoism
247
forces that require balance (earth and heaven, male and female), and that individuals too must strive in life to achieve this balance, this harmony, for themselves. Won Buddhism teaches that this harmony can be learned both from those who are wise and from a persons own striving for enlightenment through meditation, study and compassionate work. Adherents are expected to devote time to the study of the teachings of Soe-tae San and his successors. They are also expected to attend retreats that give them time to meditate on the Irwonsang and its implications, and to work towards a more just society. Unlike most schools of Buddhism, Won Buddhism does not have a priestly caste. Though organised around men who have demonstrated wisdom and those who are able to instruct and guide other believers towards enlightenment, there are no monks or priests. Rituals are conducted by lay people, and there is no requirement for these ofcials to abandon the life of the secular world. Won Buddhism is also a product of the 20th century and incorporates many aspects of modern living. It recognises that people have to live in a secular world and maintain careers in order to care for family. It accepts that people live in a capitalist economy but teaches that believers must attempt to respond differently to this system. Accumulation of wealth at the expense of others is forbidden. Won Buddhists are obliged to assist others less fortunate than themselves and to ensure that all members of society receive the benets of society. In order to achieve this, Won Buddhism emphasises both social welfare and, in particular, education. Soe-tae San understood that through education a person will come to understand what is needed to change society from greed and self-centredness to compassion and generosity. Education of the young is given high importance, for Won Buddhism focuses not only on achieving enlightenment for the individual but also on transforming the world.
activity
Debate how Won Buddhism has contributed to the development of Buddhism by maintaining it as a signicant religious tradition while at the same time adapting ideas from other religious traditions and ideologies of the 20th century. Include examples.
Contribution to the expression of Buddhism Won Buddhisms emphasis on achieving enlightenment within a secular world and bringing about a more compassionate society determines its expression. With the importance of understanding ones own situation within society and the universe, three activities become highly signicant: meditation, education and ethical application. There are no intermediaries for the believer to seek extraordinary assistance, as there are Bodhisattvas in Mahayana Buddhism. And since the ultimate reality is beyond that of the historical Buddha, there is no central importance to his image within a shrine. This has been replaced by the Irwonsang, the great Circle. This image is not an object of worship but a symbol that draws believers into an understanding of what ultimate reality is. Since meditation and education are highly signicant, Won Buddhists attend institutes that offer instruction on the better practice of meditation and a deeper understanding of the teachings The great circle through study. There is not an object are educational of worship but a institutes, training institutes and others symbol that draws that inform the believers into an believer about society, culture and industry. understanding Without a of what ultimate priesthood, the practice of the religious reality is. tradition is divided into two spheres: rst, public or common forms of instruction and meditation, and second, private meditation and study within the home. Like other modern religious organisations, Won Buddhism has congregations of believers attached to specic temples (similar to those found within European Christianity, which has parishes and churches specic to local congregations). Important also as an expression is the ethical behaviour of believers. There is to be no separation between the teachings and a persons social obligation. Respect for the old and wise, for teachers and governments, is a way of expressing ones faith in the Irwonsang. Ethical behaviour is also shown through abstaining from alcohol and smoking, and
248
through collaborative work in bringing about a more just society.
activities
1. What is the Irwonsang? 2. Explain how education is an important element of Won Buddhism. 3. How does this religious tradition survive without a priesthood? 4. Complete the following chart. BUDDHIST CONTRIBUTION EXAMPLES EXPRESSIONS BY WON AND BUDDHISM EVIDENCE beliefs ethics symbols rituals structure (Sangha) sacred texts the importance of the laity in bringing about a transformation of society, Won Buddhism is characterised by less reliance on monastic supervision and dependence. Won Buddhism has established centres outside Korea in America, Europe and Japan. The number of these centres is small. Won Buddhism has not fundamentally changed the essential teachings of Buddhism. It has applied them within a certain context of the modern age but is not a radical departure from them. The teachings and ethics it holds as central have been part of the Buddhist tradition throughout its history. Even though it has incorporated teachings from traditions other than Buddhism, in particular social and ethical teachings, these are not foreign to those found within the other three schools of Buddhism. That the other schools of Buddhism seem to be more popular, both in the countries of Asia and in the West, may be due to the fact that they do not respond too specically to the demands of a given time or country but rather offer a means of transcending all social, historic and economic contexts. These schools would argue that, through their teachings and ethical systems, they too will bring about the transformation of all societies.
FIG. 10.8 Won Buddhism centre in New York. There are a small number of Won Buddhism centres in America, Europe and Japan.
Impact of Won Buddhism on Buddhism Won Buddhisms major contribution to Buddhism is its reapplication of Buddhist traditions within a given social, historic and economic context. Though maintaining the fundamental teachings of Buddhism, Won Buddhism positions itself well within the 20th century, and in particular in the country of Korea. This adoption of new ideas, or the integration of ideas from other systems of religion, is not foreign to Buddhism. As Buddhist teaching has encountered new cultures and societies, it has always shown a great ability to assimilate new ideas and practices and to apply its teachings to new circumstances. Won Buddhism continues this process of adaptation. Won Buddhism continues to demonstrate that Buddhism is pertinent to the modern world and can survive in a secular society. The fact that it has moved away from Buddhist forms such as priesthood (the Sangha) represents an understanding that certain structures existing in other schools are no longer pertinent to the expression of Buddhism. In its emphasis on
activity
Evaluate the signicance of Won Buddhism for Buddhism. In the evaluation, present arguments to show that Won Buddhism is not fundamentally different from Mahayana Buddhism.
249
Buddhist ethical teachings

A common ethic There are 350 million Buddhists worldwide. They follow many different forms of Buddhism, but all traditions and teachings stress non-violence, tolerance of differences, following Dharma and the practice of meditation. Any discussion of ethics in Buddhism must recognise that there are two possible approaches to deciding what is right or wrong. Some Buddhists (absolutists) argue that certain teachings are to be applied in all cases because they are universally true. So, for example, the teaching of ahimsa (the avoidance of harm to any sentient life form) is to be applied in all cases. On the other hand, there are also Buddhists (utilitarians) who, though recognising the truthfulness of these teachings, argue that consideration of circumstances and overall happiness (lessening of dukkha) should be taken into account. Bioethics is the understanding of what makes for a good moral response to issues connected with the start of human life (abortion), its dignity and development throughout life (cloning and organ transplants), and the termination of that life (euthanasia).
Buddhist teachings on bioethics

In Buddhism, ethics is the practical application of beliefs in the everyday life of believers. The principal beliefs in Buddhism are to take refuge in the Buddha, the Dharma and the Sangha, and therefore all ethical behaviour will be determined by these beliefs. Furthermore, the direct consequence of any acts that the person chooses to do is karma, which increases as a result of good acts and decreases as a result of bad acts. Therefore, an act has consequences in regard to a persons samsara (rebirth) and the individuals advancement towards nirvana. There is an important inter-relatedness between a persons ethical behaviour (sila), development in understanding (prajna) and practice of meditation (samadhi). Increasing in prajna enables Buddhists to better understand what they must do ethically and therefore gives them greater peacefulness of mind to practise samadhi. In all ethical behaviour there is always a direct link with the essential components in developing the spiritual life. Unlike other religious traditions, Buddhism holds that advancement in the spiritual life depends on the individuals own efforts, though he may seek guidance from others. There is no assistance from a god or any sense of divine reward or punishment. While a changeless soul would not be affected by any moral choice or activity, Buddhism recognises that there is no constant, unchanging soul (anatta) and thus there is a need for ethics. Because everything undergoes change (anicca) and thus everything contains some form of suffering or unsatisfactoriness (dukkha), ethics is a way by which the individual reduces suffering and draws closer to the unchanging condition of nirvana. These three human conditions (anatta, anicca and dukkha) underpin the whole of Buddhist ethics.
activities
1. Why is ethical behaviour important to Buddhists and their advancement towards nirvana? 2. What are two possible approaches for a Buddhist to decide what is right or wrong? Abortion The rst critical bioethical issue is to establish when a human person comes into existence. The consistent teaching of Buddhism is that a human person is formed at the moment of conception, though some argue that full personhood is not achieved until birth. At conception, therefore, a sentient human life has begun, and any means used to end that life is the killing of a human person. The second critical bioethical issue is whether the taking of human life through abortion is ever justied. The absolutist position is that any killing of a human person is to be avoided and that the act brings about bad karma. According to the teaching of the Buddha, there are certain conditions that have to be present in order for an act to be called killing. First, the victim must be a human being and the person doing the killing
250
must understand that it is a human life being ended. Second, to gain bad karma the person must be free and willing to kill the person and choose the means by which it is done. Finally, the act must actually kill the human being. For an act of abortion to be unjustied, all conditions would have to be present. Therefore, both the doctor who performs the abortion and the mother would gain bad karma as a result of their decision to terminate the pregnancy if the circumstances do not permit it. The foetus also suffers bad karma in that it is not permitted to gain existence as a human person and must return to the cycle of rebirth. Its spiritual development is prevented. Even though an act of killing is judged to bring about bad karma, there are some Buddhists who see that circumstances must be taken into account. The Dalai Lama has stated: If the unborn child will be retarded or if the birth will create serious problems for the parent, these are cases where there can be an exception. I think abortion should be approved or disapproved according to each circumstance. (Dalai Lama, New York Times, 28 November 1993) This utilitarian position would argue that the health of the foetus or mother, the conditions under which the child will live, and the ability of the parents to raise the child well should also be taken into account. The freedom and willingness of the pregnant woman would be of great importance in determining the rightness or wrongness of the abortion. The resulting bad karma would depend on the knowledge, freedom and situation of the pregnant woman. The doctors intention to assist in limiting suffering is also of signicance in determining the karmic result. In some understandings of the teaching, abortion is considered an act creating less bad karma than the murder of an adult human being. This is because the size of the sentient life form and the effort needed to kill it changes the amount of bad karma created.
activities
1. For an act of abortion to be unjustied, what conditions would have to be present for a Buddhist? 2. What was the Dalai Lamas view on abortion of a child that will be retarded when born? 3. How is karma related to abortion?
Cloning and organ transplants Cloning is the reproduction from a single cell of exact copies of a living organism, or of exact copies of organs of a living organism that may be used for organ donations. The fully cloned human being offers an opportunity for karma to re-enter the process towards enlightenment. For Buddhists the opportunity to become human is highly signicant. As a human the being is able to take up the three essential processes that will assist the person on the path towards nirvanathat is, the person is able to gain wisdom (prajna), act on it (sila) and gain less desire and grasping through meditation (samadhi). It is also as a human that a person may accept the Dharma given by the Buddha and may undertake the disciplined life of the Sangha. Enlightenment can only happen as a human being. Since Buddhists believe that there is no permanent soul (anatta), there is no problem about the identity of the cloned individual. It does not share with its host a part of the hosts soul or personality, even though it is identical in genetic makeup. Cloning is accepted by Buddhists since it allows greater opportunity for karma to take human form. Whether a human is produced sexually or without sex is not a concern in Buddhism. As in all ethical decisions, the intention of the people involved in producing the clone is signicant. If the cloning is undertaken for selsh reasons or for purely monetary gain or fame, then the act will produce bad karma for the practitioner. Similarly, the intended use of the clone is signicant in that any planned abuse of the clone would result in bad karma for the practitioner. For Buddhists the cloning of organs for transplants in patients is a good act. Again, production of organs for reasons other than assisting the ill or undertaking legitimate medical research (for example, nancial gain or as selsh organ reserves) would result in bad karma. The donation of an organ from one person to another is an act of generosity (dana) and is therefore a good act, particularly if that donation saves a life or reduces the suffering of another. If, however, the intention is other than generosity or reducing suffering (for example, the selling of an organ for nancial gain), then the act would bring about bad karma.
251
activities
1. What is the Buddhist view of cloning and the reasons for it? 2. Why is the persons intention with cloning the key to good karma or bad karma? 3. Debate: How can organ donation bring good and bad karma?
activities
1. What are passive and active euthanasia? 2. What are the two signicant issues regarding euthanasia for Buddhists? 3. Is euthanasia a clear-cut decision for all Buddhists? Why or why not? 4. Complete the following chart. PRINCIPAL SIGNIFICANCE EXAMPLES FROM TEACHINGS FOR ETHICAL ABORTION, TEACHINGS CLONING AND ORGAN TRANSPLANT, EUTHANASIA Dharma Sangha karma samsara ahimsa dana
Euthanasia There are two types of euthanasia (mercy killing). Passive euthanasia is where a persons death is brought about by removing life-support equipment or medication and by the administering of painrelieving drugs that hasten a persons death. Active euthanasia is the direct intention to terminate a persons own life or that of another in order to relieve that person of suffering or loss of dignity. For a Buddhist there are two signicant issues. First, what is the intention of the person undertaking or performing the act of euthanasia? Second, what is the condition or value of the life being terminated? For an absolutist, the teaching that no killing of a human person is ever right means that all acts of active euthanasia bring about bad karma. Both the doctor and the patient who asks for the act of killing will receive bad karma. For some absolutists, however, the removal of extraordinary means to sustain life and the administering of drugs to alleviate suffering are not seen as intentional acts of killing. Rather, they are understood as a humanitarian way of allowing a person to die with dignity. For a utilitarian Buddhist, the issue is not as clear. Consideration of the reduction of suffering for the ill person is important, as is consideration of the quality of life for that person. If the suffering is such that it reduces the quality of human life, then to end such suffering may well be judged to bring about a lessening of bad karma, even though there is the intent of killing. If, however, the intention to kill has other selsh reasons (for example, that the death relieves the burden of care from the family), then such a killing would bring about greater bad karma. Some Buddhists would argue that the suffering of the person is a means of reducing bad karma. Euthanasia would prevent possible development of the person towards achieving nirvana more quickly.
Buddhist teachings on sexual ethics

One of the ve precepts of pancasilam (ethical behaviour) directly relates to sexual conduct: I undertake the precept to avoid misconduct in matters of sensual pleasure. For Buddhists, the primary undertaking is to avoid causing suffering either to oneself or to others when engaged in sensual pleasure. There are no laws or specic codes that spell out misconduct, only that people must ensure that they are not harming themselves or others. Given that Buddhism exists in many cultures with differing understandings of family structure and, in particular, of marriage relationships, what might be judged adultery will vary. Adultery with anothers wife, even with her husbands agreement, will always create bad karma. Bad karma is produced even when sex is had with someone who is in a permanent relationship with another person outside of marriage, such as those engaged or under the protection of another (such as young girls). There are some cultures that see premarital sex as
252
breaking this precept (Sri Lanka). Others judge the seriousness of the act according to the virtue of the woman. Since the Four Noble Truths clearly spell out that the cause of suffering is desire and that the end of suffering takes place when a person reduces or ceases to desire, any compulsive sexual behaviour would be seen to be against this precept. Likewise, any sexual behaviour that would bring about scandal or disgust to another person would produce bad karma. Any sexual act that is undertaken against the will of another (for example, rape) would bring about a great deal of bad karma. Masturbation, though not primarily a breach of this precept, entails the person in fantasy and desire, which are causes of suffering. It is, however, signicant for a monk in that an intentional emission of semen requires a meeting of the Sangha. This is because the monk has entered a life by which he has committed himself to removing all desires and cravings. There has been a consistent condemnation of homosexuality throughout most of Buddhist tradition. There is some acceptance of homosexuality today as long as it avoids harm to the person and to other people.
intimately inter-related. Thus, what is done by one part of the environment affects all other parts of the environment. Though the human has entered a privileged state of existence that may bring about enlightenment, this human state is not considered superior to any other state in nature. Indeed, the human state is characterised by prajna (wisdom), samadhi (reection) and sila (ethical action), so human beings are obliged to treat nature in a way that demonstrates their wisdom and compassionate application of that understanding. As always in Buddhism, ahimsa is of primary importance in understanding human obligations towards nature. Since the human is caught up in the cycle of rebirths because of karma, the human realises that all other sentient beings are equally caught up in this cycle. It is on account of karma that there are so many different sentient beings. The human person, to have arrived at human existence, must have previously lived as other forms of nonhuman sentient life. Since a life lived badly may well bring about a rebirth in non-human sentient life, it is necessary for the Buddhist to treat other life forms as possible rebirths of close relatives or acquaintances.
activities
1. What is the primary undertaking of Buddhists engaged in sensual pleasure? 2. Discuss which sexual activities would be considered bad karma. 3. How has the Buddhist view of homosexuality changed recently? Research this further. 4. In Buddhism good acts are understood as those that lessen cravings and desire. These acts, therefore, produce good karma. Discuss this quote using the information about Buddhist sexual ethics.
Buddhist teachings on environmental ethics

Buddhist teachings on the environment reect the understanding of the principle of conditioned arising. This concept sees all states of existence coming out of another state. It is the Buddhist understanding of cause and effect. All of nature arises from other natural causes. Nature is
FIG. 10.9 Learning from a visiting Buddhist monk in a small home temple in Melbourne
253
Within Buddhism there has been a very clear understanding that non-sentient nature also contributes to the path towards enlightenment. Harmony with non-living nature creates a means of deeper reection about a persons own nature and that of nirvana. In Buddhist paintings, gardens and other forms of art, the human is not central to the scene but is demonstrated to be a part of the landscape.
paintings, gardens and other forms of art, the human is not central to the scene but is demonstrated to be a part of the landscape.
In Buddhist
FIG. 10.10 Waterlily garden at the Binglin Si Bright Spirit Buddhist Temple, Lanzhou, Gansu Province, China
There has also been a strong tradition for the members of the Sangha to move outside the monastery and retreat to the forest. In groups or alone, the monks use the natural environment to nd seclusion from the distractions of everyday life and a basis for deeper meditation. The teaching of ahimsa forms the basis for how human beings treat animals. The eating of meat, animal experimentation and animal exploitation must be decided on this principle. Most Buddhists believe that an animal should not be harmed or killed in order for humans to benet from such action. Though vegetarianism is not compulsory, the eating of meat known to have been killed for the sole purpose of feeding humans would be seen as willingly accepting a breach of the teaching of ahimsa. Likewise, animal experimentation and exploitation would also be seen as violating this teaching.
activity
Discuss in groups the consequences of Buddhist ethical teachings for the conservation of the environment.
254
Significant practices in the life of Buddhists

Pilgrimage
In Buddhism, pilgrimage is an outward journey to a sacred shrine that brings about an inner growth and development of the pilgrims faith and spirituality. The Lord Buddha himself expressed the importance of pilgrimages and instructed his disciples that after his cremation his ashes were to be collected and placed in a stupa. In the Mahaparinirvana Sutta, three signicant pilgrimage sites are noted: Lumbini, the place of the Lord Buddhas birth; Bodh Gaya, the location of his enlightenment; and Sanath (Benares), where he preached his rst sermon. This sutta also tells of the dispute among the eight surrounding kingdoms about which of them should possess his ashes. Finally, the ashes were divided among the kingdoms while the urn containing the ashes became another important pilgrimage site. Later, the very ground upon which the Lord Buddha was cremated became a site for pilgrimage.
FIG. 10.11 Buddha, Mehabodhi Temple, made out of gold around the 13th century
The practice of pilgrimage, therefore, has been always signicant for Buddhists. In the third century BCE the rst Buddhist emperor, Asoka, undertook pilgrimages to the three major sites of Lumbini, Bodh Gaya and Sanath. He also showed what had by then become traditional for pilgrims to do when reaching the site. He attended discussions with the monks of the Sangha, gave generous donations to the Sangha and offered temple puja. He understood that pilgrimage was a means of strengthening and uniting the Buddhist tradition and so created many new sites for ordinary people to gain access for their own spiritual development. He sent cuttings of the Bodhi Tree under which the Lord Buddha was enlightened to Sri Lanka after the king there was converted, thus making a visible connection with the Founder and the tradition. Pilgrimages may be made to places containing the relics of the Lord Buddha (such as the Temple of the Tooth in Kandy, Sri Lanka), those of other Buddhas (such as the Shwedagon Stupa) and those of Bodhisattvas (such as the shrine to Avalokitesvara in Kyoto). They can also be made to places famous for their learning or guidance in the spiritual life (such as the Potala Palace in Tibet). Pilgrimages may be undertaken to celebrate festivals at important shrines.
255
FIG. 10.12 Tibetan Buddhist pilgrims on the Kora, walking around Mount Kailas, Tibet, which is sacred to Buddhists
The reasons for making a pilgrimage may vary from person to person. Adherents may wish to gain good karma to balance previous acts thought not to have been benecial. They may want to encounter the actual sites that are signicant for Buddhism. The merit gained through contact with relics and the guidance undertaken by holy men are further reasons for pilgrimage. A pilgrimage can also be undertaken to receive assistance from a Bodhisattva in matters of health, career or prosperity. A pilgrimage consists of three stages: preparation, the actual pilgrimage and the transformed life that follows. To prepare for a pilgrimage, adherents may increase practices of devotion (puja) or meditation (samadhi). They may undertake to observe more precisely the ve precepts of ethical behaviour or decide to adopt while on pilgrimage one or more of the ve extra precepts undertaken by monks and nuns (for example, to abstain from food after midday and to avoid distracting entertainment). On pilgrimage, adherents might choose to visit shrines and holy places other than the shrine of their destination. They may attend temple puja and be guided by monks or nuns at these shrines while also giving donations. On arrival at the main pilgrimage site, adherents will attend temple puja, performing most of the practices involved, joining in the chanting of the monks and being guided into a better understanding of prajna, sila and samadhi. On their return, pilgrims may well guide others into a better practice of Buddhism and inform them about their experience of the variety of Buddhism often found at important pilgrimage sites. (Major sites attract adherents from all schools of Buddhism and many countries.) They may bring back to their village religious objects for veneration by the community or texts to be used by the local community to develop understanding about the teachings of Buddhism.
activities
1. What is a pilgrimage? 2. Why is a pilgrimage important to Buddhists? 3. Where and when are pilgrimages held? 4. What happens on a pilgrimage? 5. Describe in point form the three stages of pilgrimage in Buddhism. Each stage should have information about what is done by the pilgrim.
256
Key beliefs and pilgrimages in Buddhism Belief in the Lord Buddha is expressed by the very act of pilgrimage. The practice is undertaken to progress towards enlightenment, which the Buddha achieved. The pilgrim will venerate the statue(s) of the Lord Buddha in the vihara (shrine room in Theravada Buddhism) or in the gompa (Vajrayana Buddhism). These statues may depict different stages in the Lord Buddhas life, or through particular hand gestures and body postures may indicate one or more of the virtues or practices of the Lord Buddha. In Mahayana Buddhism, pilgrims will also nd statues of other Buddhas (for example, Amitaba) or Bodhisattvas (for example, Avalokitesvara). The images of the Lord Buddha are higher than any other in the shrine room, indicating the central importance of the Buddha. Pilgrims place votive offerings before the images and offer prayers or petitions. These votive offerings vary but may be owers (particularly the lotus as a sign of the owering of Buddhism above the muddy waters of ordinary life), candles or incense. Before entering the shrine, pilgrims remove their shoes as a sign of reverence. They also make customary acts of reverence, such as bows or prostrations. They may make three prostrations to revere the Three Refuges (Buddha, Dharma and Sangha). Pilgrims may use this opportunity to acknowledge previous faults and make vows of future devotion and practice.
FIG. 10.13 Tibetan Buddhist pilgrims prostrating outside the Jokhong Temple, Lhasa, Tibet
Pilgrimage also recognises the Dharma. The Lord Buddha encouraged pilgrimage in his teachings and many of the pilgrimage sites present opportunities to listen to those teachings and receive instruction on them. Pilgrims can join in the recitation of the Dharma with the members of the Sangha, and the decorations of the temple and adjoining buildings may demonstrate parts of the Dharma. The Dharma can also be recited with the use of malas (prayer beads) and with the turning of the prayer wheels found at most Tibetan shrines. The Sangha is signicant for pilgrims. Monasteries are often attached to shrines and the monks lead adherents in chants, prayers and acts of reverence. They also deliver instruction and guidance to pilgrims. Pilgrims give donations of food and other items (for example, nancial assistance) to the Sangha, thus demonstrating dana. Buddhists realise that a pilgrimage contributes to their spiritual development by creating good karma. This has consequences for samsara and progress towards nirvana. In Tibet, in the chanting of Aum mani padme hum (To the diamond jewel of nirvana in the insight and mercy of samsara) the pilgrim recalls the reality of the afterlife and the goal of spiritual development. Pilgrims may, through dana, transfer their good karma to other people. On pilgrimage, adherents observe closely the three practices of spiritual development: sila, samadhi and prajna. In Vajrayana Buddhism pilgrims use thangkas (spiritual images) as aids for meditation and worship.
activity
Create a table with three columns headed Principal beliefs, Pilgrimage, Examples. The rst column should include the following principal beliefs: the Buddha, Dharma, Sangha, karma, Bodhisattvas. In the second column explain how pilgrimage demonstrates these beliefs. In the third column give examples.
257
activities
1. Why do individuals feel compelled to undertake a pilgrimage? 2. Why does a pilgrimage provide good karma? 3. Ritual is the celebration of beliefs. Demonstrate how pilgrimage is a celebration of an individuals beliefs in Buddhism. Give examples. 4. Empathy. Imagine you are on a pilgrimage which takes two weeks to reach. Write down your feelings after one week on the road on foot in an Asian country.
Significance of pilgrimage to the individual Buddhist Pilgrimage gives identity to the adherent. It is an outward sign that the pilgrim is a Buddhist and is committed to his or her beliefs. It also engages the individual in the development of the inner spiritual journey towards enlightenment and nirvana. It gives the adherent opportunities for deeper reection on life as a Buddhist. By undergoing pilgrimage, the adherent shows belief in a reality beyond ordinary life and that he or she is solely responsible for gaining this reality (nirvana). A pilgrimage site may well be understood to have powers or spiritual force that will aid the pilgrim in life. The pilgrimage may bring about heightened levels of the mystical for the adherent. The journey to a shrine removes the distractions and temptations of ordinary life and therefore reduces the cravings that bring about dukkha (suffering). It assists the pilgrim in ways of discipline and better practice. At the shrines, the pilgrim gains further insight into the life of the Lord Buddha and the signicance of his teachings. The act of pilgrimage brings with it good karma that will result in a better samsara, or it may reduce bad karma gained in previous lives. It also improves prajna through guidance and instruction. It provides opportunities for further acts of generosity and compassion, develops the ethical life of the pilgrim by the practice of humility and courage, and gives greater time and effort for meditation. Pilgrimage strengthens the adherents understanding of the importance of the Sangha. Their lives of detachment, learning and devotion act as models for the pilgrim. Their guidance is sought and teachings appreciated. Particularly at major shrines, pilgrims come into contact with forms of Buddhism different from those in their local village or city. These shrines introduce the individual to the great richness and diversity of Buddhism. This may well challenge the pilgrims beliefs and practices, but it may also be an experience of the celebration of a shared faith. The adherent will witness new forms of practice and devotion and will observe new expressions of Buddhist architecture and art. Pilgrimage allows adherents to experience the international community of Buddhists, and they gain personal support in understanding that their beliefs are shared by many.
FIG. 10.14 Pilgrims in monastery courtyard, Sakya, Tibet
258
Significance of pilgrimage to the Buddhist community As with the individual, pilgrimage gives identity to the community that is supporting and encouraging its members to undergo pilgrimage. The community recognises that this is a signicant and extraordinary means of developing the spiritual life. It shows clearly the beliefs held by the community. It may well strengthen the bonds of the community, particularly if the community has shared its resources so that the person can undergo the pilgrimage (for example, by providing support for the pilgrims family). The pilgrimage may be undertaken on behalf of the community. For those communities attached to the shrine or site, pilgrimage provides increased wealth and prestige. In particular, the community of the Sangha gains great benet from bequests and donations. Pilgrims will contribute to a better understanding of Buddhism for the home community by giving instruction and guidance on their return. The pilgrim may well become a model for others. Religious objects and texts may be brought back to enrich the communitys devotion and understanding. Through the experience of the pilgrim, the community is introduced to the variety of Buddhist teachings and practices. This informs the community of other schools of Buddhism and the international Buddhist community. Pilgrimage also connects the community to this ancient traditional custom. It therefore provides a link between the community and the broader religious tradition.
FIG. 10.15 Monks from Ki monastery preparing for holy puja
Temple puja
Buddhist puja (devotion)both at home and at the templeis not a form of worship of gods or goddesses. Though it may be a time of prayer, its most signicant characteristic is that it enables the individual and community to come to a greater realisation of the teachings of Buddhism, and of the need for each individual to attain, through his or her own responsibility, the fruit of enlightenment. It is not a sacrament at which a person is united with a god or goddess, nor is it an obligation to observe a key ritual, for enlightenment can be achieved without its practice. The temple is generally constructed with three main buildings or rooms. There is the shrine room containing the images of the Lord Buddha or Bodhisattvas; the meditation hall; and, for most, the monastery for monks. These buildings may also have attached to them stupas or pagodas containing the relics of the Lord Buddha (such as his hair, teeth or bones) or of other holy men and women. Many important temples will also have a Bodhi tree that is a descendant of the one under which the Buddha found enlightenment. In large temple complexes there may also be shrines to other Buddhas or revered men and women. The original design of the temples and vihara was simple, reecting the simple life of the Buddha and the Sangha. Over time temples have become beautifully decorated places, with precious images and leaves of gold placed by devotees on the outside surfaces. Unlike the practice in other religious traditions, devotion at a Buddhist temple is seldom a congregational act. There is no set period of time for devotion in a temple, and people are free to enter
activities
1. List ve reasons why pilgrimage is signicant to a Buddhist. Give examples. 2. What is the relationship between pilgrimage and the community? 3. How does a pilgrimage help the community? 4. Create a mind map that shows the connection between the signicance of pilgrimage to the individual and its signicance to the Buddhist community.
259
FIG. 10.16 Buddhist shrine room
during its opening hours and begin their puja along with a group that entered earlier. Devotees who attend the temple must ensure that they have dressed properly for it, and, in many cases, have washed their hands and faces before entering the shrine room. There may be areas outside the temple for these ablutions to take place. It is a mark of respect and reverence to remove the shoes before entering the shrine room, demonstrating that a person is leaving the ordinary world and embarking upon a sacred activity. Primarily devotees acknowledge the Three Refugesthe Buddha, the Dharma and the Sangha. They may bow three times in reverence to the Refuges and in acknowledgement that these Refuges will assist them in gaining enlightenment. While bowing devotees may hold their hands together and touch their head, their mouth and their chest, symbolising the importance of mind, speech and body in living out Buddhism. The Three Refuges may also be acknowledged by walking around a statue of the Buddha, the Bodhi
tree or a stupa three times while saying repetitive prayers. These circumambulations may be led by members of the Sangha. In the shrine room, devotees may offer food, owers, lighted candles or incense to the images of the Buddha on their raised platform. There is often another raised platform for the members of the Sangha, indicating their importance and separation from the life of the laity. Commonly the monks lead people in chanting. In all schools of Buddhism devotees may use strings of beadslike rosaries in some Christian traditionsto help them count the verses that are being chanted. From the raised platform the monks deliver sermons and instructions to the devotees. In Vajrayana Buddhism, devotees may also y prayer ags or turn prayer wheels.
FIG. 10.18 Prayer wheels in Nepal
In some temples, devotees donate money or gifts in order to have their wishes or prayers written on pieces of wood that will be burnt in the temple. The resulting smoke is symbolic of the prayers of the devotees going up into the heavens to be received by the Buddha or Bodhisattva. Devotees also give donations to the Sangha to receive merit from the visit.
activities
1. What is Buddhist puja? 2. What would you nd inside a temple? 3. Illustrate the layout of a temple in Buddhism. In particular, show the objects and oor plan of the shrine room and indicate the signicance of the layout and the decorations.
FIG. 10.17 Buddhist monks acknowledging the Three Refuges
260
FIG. 10.19 Man being ordained as a Buddhist monk. Only senior monks attend this ceremony.
Key beliefs and temple puja in Buddhism Clearly, temple puja is a signicant means of expressing the important beliefs of Buddhism. The temple itself represents the fact that the tradition of Buddhism is a sacred quest or journey that is both removed from ordinary life and central to it. The fact that many villages have their own public shrines continually reminds the community of its attachment to this religious tradition. Purifying the body before entering the shrine room and removing the shoes also indicate that Buddhism requires a reverence for the spiritual. Though enlightenment takes place within this world, it is not of this world. People must distance themselves from the desires of this life in order to gain nirvana. The Three Refuges are signicantly acknowledged. The most common gesture is that of three bows to show reverence to the Buddha, the Dharma and the Sangha. The presence of the images of the Lord Buddha and other holy men and women, the attendance of the members of the Sangha, and the listening to the chant of the Dharma and its explanation all recognise the central importance of the Three Refuges. Dana (generosity) is a strong part of devotion. Devotees do not merely attend ceremonies and rituals but are expected to donate money or gifts to the Sangha and to those less fortunate. Around the temple there may be pictures and images of the life of the Lord Buddha illustrating the important events and teachings in Buddhism. These illustrations particularly assist those who are unable to read the teachings in coming to a clearer understanding. The practice of meditation is also a part of the temple puja. Devotees may join monks in meditating or receive instruction in improving their own practice. Better meditation means a better understanding of the teaching (prajna) and therefore a more perceptive appreciation of how to live the ethical life (sila).
activity
Create a table with three columns headed Principal beliefs, Temple puja, Examples. The rst column should include the following principal beliefs: the Buddha, Dharma, Sangha, karma, Bodhisattvas. In the second column explain how pilgrimage demonstrates these beliefs. In the third column give examples.
261
FIG. 10.20 This new Australian Vietnamese community is proud of its new temple (see entrance gate, Figure 9.17).
Significance of temple puja to the individual Buddhist For the individual, temple puja is one means used for attaining enlightenment. It is a good act that should be freely chosen (kusala) and that will bring about good karma. This in turn ensures a better samsara and progress towards nirvana. At puja individuals acknowledge the importance of the Three Refuges. They further accept their own identity as Buddhists, and their participation with others may strengthen their commitment to Buddhism. The acts of generosity and compassion are also signicant in increasing an individuals good karma. Increasing prajna will bring about better practice in samadhi and result in a better sila. Listening to the sermons and instructions from the members of the Sangha assists the individual in coming to a better understanding of the religious tradition. The temple is also the site where men and women are ordained as monks and nuns. This ceremony may only take place when there are a certain number of monks to perform it. The ritual is highly signicant not only for the individual but also for his or her family. It is a time for the community to acknowledge the signicance of the Sangha and the need for an individual to commit more fully to the teachings and practice of the Buddhism If the individual attends temple puja as a pilgrim, all the benets of the pilgrimage will be achieved by that individual.
Significance of temple puja for the Buddhist community Every village is proud of its temple or public shrine. It is cared for and maintained. It is the focus of the communitys life and may well be situated close to public markets or squares in which the community gathers to celebrate signicant festivals and times of the year. It is a continual reminder of the communitys identity as Buddhist and is the central focus for village life. Its height may enable it to be seen from distant rice paddies and surrounding areas, again reminding people as they live their daily lives that attention to spiritual activities is important for them to gain enlightenment. Though there are no congregational rituals as such at the temple, the community does come together on feast days and during festival times to offer devotion to the Three Refuges. This strengthens the identity of the community as Buddhist. If the temple is of great signicance (for example, the Temple of the Emerald Buddha in Bangkok), it will attract Buddhists from around the world and, indeed, non-Buddhists. This allows the Buddhist community to experience the diversity of Buddhist practice and custom and may challenge a communitys understanding of Buddhism.
FIG. 10.21 While the community is new to Australia, it has built a large temple to strengthen their identity.
activities
1. Why is temple puja valuable for the individual? 2. What ceremonies take place in the temple?
262
Temples of great signicance may also house important libraries of Buddhist teachings and may well be Buddhist universities. Access to higher learning is therefore possible for the Buddhist community at these sites. Again, the greater the number of devotees attracted to the temple, the greater the wealth of the Sangha and the lay community associated with the temple.
Wesak
In Buddhism festivals are occasions for devotion and remembering important aspects of the religious teaching. Those who attend these festivals and offer devotion receive karma both for themselves and for their communities. Festivals may be localised and attended only by those who are devoted to a particular shrine or temple, or they may be occasions that attract Buddhists from all over the country. Festivals are celebrated according to a lunar calendar. Wesak puja is the celebration of the birth, enlightenment and paranirvana of the Lord Buddha. (The paranirvana is what was seen by those left behind as the death of the Buddha, but in fact it was the nal passing of the Buddha into nirvana.) It is celebrated at the time of the New Year, usually around the month of May, and is the culmination of one to three days of celebration. Buddhists start celebrating the New Year by ensuring there remains nothing of the old year present in their houses. This entails a good cleaning of the house. Any image of the Lord Buddha is cleaned with water. Lay Buddhists symbolically wash the hands of monks and elderly relatives, indicating acceptance of the need to develop personal purity and aid others in drawing closer to nirvana. In certain countries of South-East Asia, people build sand stupas or pagodas that represent the remains of the Lord Buddha and, symbolically, the deeds of the previous year. After standing for a day, the stupas are destroyed, acknowledging the desire to let go of all previous acts of bad karma. Though there is a focus on the evil done in the previous year and a wish to improve karma in the next, the festivals are joyous. People play games, listen to music, attend drama performances and come together to appreciate dance and movement. People may decorate their houses or villages for Wesak. They may erect stalls for food and refreshment in the streets and have neighbours join in feasting. In some countries, the members of the Sangha lead people in prayer, meditation and instruction. Wesak is an occasion for the participation of the Sangha. Particular importance is given to sermons and instruction, which may go on for a long time. Though it is a festival of happiness, Wesak is also a time to remember that all desires, including festivals, bring about suffering. People may also visit temple sites and look at images of the Buddha to remind them of the great events of his life and his important teachings.
activity
1. Why is the temple important for the community? 2. Create a mind map that shows the connection between the signicance of temple puja to the individual and its signicance to the Buddhist community. 3. List ve reasons why temple puja is signicant to a Buddhist. Give examples.
FIG. 10.22 Australian Buddhist community celebrating Wesak with a visiting West Australian monk
263
Key beliefs and Wesak Wesak celebrates the Three Refuges. It also acknowledges an ongoing living religious tradition that remains pertinent for believers today. In commemorating the birth, enlightenment and paranirvana of the Lord Buddha, the festival recognises the signicance of the birth of the Buddha as a human who becomes enlightened. This is an important belief in that it shows that every human is capable of enlightenment and all can gain it through their own efforts. Wesak further acknowledges the ultimate goal of Buddhismthe attainment of nirvana. In the acts of cleaning and of washing the hands of the monks, Buddhists acknowledge that acts of the will have a serious consequence. Good acts (kusala) bring about good karma that enables a person to draw nearer to the goal of nirvana and provides an opportunity for a better afterlife in the cycle of samara. Bad acts (akusala) that are freely chosen result in a bad rebirth. The festival of Wesak, with its emphasis on accepting The festival the responsibilities of Wesak, with of the ethical life, is also a celebration of its emphasis on the human spirit. The accepting the Lord Buddha preached that his way was the responsibilities Middle Patha life lived of the ethical between the extremes of life, is also hardship and frivolity. There is a place in the a celebration Buddhist life for joy and of the human celebration. The Sangha plays spirit. a signicant role in the feast of Wesak. Buddhists acknowledge the wisdom of the members of the Community and spend time listening to their advice and their explanation of the important teachings of the Dharma. The Sangha is further shown appreciation by gifts of food, clothing and donations at this time. Wesak, like other festivals, is also a time for compassion towards those who are in need. Believers demonstrate their generosity by giving to the needy and ensuring that all attending the festival enjoy this time of the year.
activities
1. Why are festivals important to Buddhists? 2. What is the celebration of Wesak puja? 3. Why is cleanliness so important? 4. What is the main emphasis of the festival of Wesak? 5. Create a table with three columns headed Principal beliefs, Wesak, Examples. The rst column should include the following principal beliefs: the Buddha, Dharma, Sangha, karma, Bodhisattvas. In the second column explain how Wesak demonstrates these beliefs. In the third column give examples.
Significance of Wesak for the individual Buddhist Wesak is a time for the individual to reect on the key teachings of Buddhism, especially the Three Refuges, and to examine his or her life according to these teachings. In acknowledging failure in the previous year and a sincere desire to act in a more appropriate way in the coming year, the individual acknowledges the signicance of karma and samsara. It is a time for individuals to afrm Buddhism as an important aspect of their identity. It is also a time for individuals to increase their generosity and compassion. Attending the celebrations and services at the temple, devotees accept that nirvana is achieved through selfdetermination and continuous practice. For individuals, to understand better the life and teaching of the Lord Buddha (prajna) will assist them in improving both their ethical life (sila) and their practice of meditation (samadhi). Wesak is also a chance for individuals to celebrate life and its joys with other members of the Buddhist community. For many Buddhists the ordinary demands of life are often harsh, and a festival like Wesak encourages them to persevere in their faith. It is a time to recommit personally to the lifelong challenge of the way to enlightenment.
activities
Create a mind map that shows the connection between the signicance of the festival of Wesak to the individual and its signicance to the Buddhist community.
264
celebration ties the community to the Buddhist tradition that stretches back 2500 years.
Wesak as an annual
activity
List ve reasons why Wesak is signicant to a Buddhist. Give examples.
Significance of Wesak for the Buddhist community Wesak, in one form or another, is a principal festival throughout the Buddhist world. The Buddhist community strengthens its identity by coming together to celebrate and remember the birth, enlightenment and paranirvana of the Lord Buddha. Though this festival has cultural differences throughout the world, all Buddhists recognise the basic components of the festivalthe centrality of the stories of the Lord Buddhas life, the need to accept responsibility for ones actions and a joyous celebration of being alive. The community further acknowledges the signicance of the Sangha in its life. This festival offers the opportunity to attend the local temple and listen, as a community, to the sermons and instructions of members of the Sangha. It is also a means of communally preparing festival meals for the monks and remaining with them as they join in the feast. The community may come together to decorate the temple and its surrounds or to decorate the village. These are seen to be acts of dana in that they involve putting aside ones own enjoyment in order to ensure that all feel a part of the festival. When Wesak is held at particularly important national shrines or temples, the community may well welcome pilgrims. This brings into the communitys life different forms of Buddhism and different ways of expressing Buddhism. This may either strengthen the belief of the community in accepting that different forms of Buddhism do not weaken its claim to bring about enlightenment, or challenge the communitys local understanding of Buddhism. Finally, Wesak as an annual celebration ties the community to the Buddhist tradition that stretches back 2500 years. It reconrms the tradition as a valid explanation of life and a means by which believers can attain happiness through its practice and teaching.
265
Review and assess

Review
1. Discuss the contribution of ONE signicant person or school of thought, other than Buddha, to the expression of Buddhism. Choose one signicant person or school of thought in Buddhism. Analyse how that signicant person or school of thought responded to the challenges being faced by Buddhism in the persons life or the development of the school of thought. Choose one signicant practice in Buddhismpilgrimage, temple puja or Wesak. Evaluate how that signicant practice contributes to the life of the adherent. Choose one signicant person or school of thought and evaluate its impact on contemporary Buddhism. Choose one of the following areas of ethical teachings in Buddhism bioethics, sexual ethics or environmental ethics. List the reasons why there are different teachings on this issue within Buddhism.
2.
3.
4.
5.
266

Extended response (15 marks) 6. a. Outline TWO contributions to Buddhism made by ONE signicant person or school of thought, other than Buddha. b. Describe the effect on Buddhism of one person or school of thought, other than Buddha. c. Explain how Buddhist ethical teachings inuence the lives of adherents. Choose an aspect from ONE of the following areas: bioethics environmental ethics sexual ethics.
Extended response (20 marks) 9. Analyse how ONE signicant practice expresses the beliefs of Buddhism. Choose from: pilgrimage; temple puja; Wesak.
10. Ethics is the practical application of beliefs. Choose one of the following ethical issues bioethics, sexual ethics or environmental ethics and demonstrate how a Buddhist applies his or her beliefs to this issue. 11. Choose a signicant person or school of thought in Buddhism. Discuss its signicance for the three schools of BuddhismTheravadan, Mahayana and Vajrayana.
Analyse the impact of ONE signicant person or school of thought, other than the Buddha, on both the development and expression of Buddhism. Explain how the beliefs of Buddhism are expressed in EITHER pilgrimage OR temple puja OR Wesak.
8.
267
Christianity
The focus of this study is the contribution of significant people, ideas, practices and ethical teachings to an understanding of Christianity as a living religious tradition. The study of Christianity is to be of the WHOLE tradition where applicable.
Outcomes
A student: H1 explains aspects of religion and belief systems Pope John XXIII Billy Graham Dennis Bennett Sarah Maitland Liberation theology Feminist theology another person or school of thought signicant to Christianity the effect of that person OR school of thought on Christianity Ethics
ONE
H2 describes and analyses the inuence of religion and belief systems on individuals and society H4 describes and analyses how aspects of religious traditions are expressed by their adherents H5 evaluates the inuence of religious traditions in the life of adherents H6 organises, analyses and synthesises relevant information about religion from a variety of sources, considering usefulness, validity and bias H7 conducts effective research about religion and evaluates the ndings from the research
of the following areas of ethical teaching in Christianity: bioethics environmental ethics sexual ethics
H8 applies appropriate terminology and concepts related to religion and belief systems H9 coherently and effectively communicates complex information, ideas and issues using appropriate written, oral and graphic forms.
Signicant practices in the life of adherents signicant practice within Christianity drawn from:
ONE
Content
Students learn about: Signicant people and ideas the contribution to Christianity of ONE signicant person OR school of thought, other than Jesus, drawn from: Paul of Tarsus Hildegard of Bingen Martin Luther Catherine Booth
baptism marriage ceremony Saturday/Sunday worship

HSC | Chapter 11 Christianity
269
BIBLICAL EXEGESIS BIOETHICS CATECHISM CATHOLIC EPISTLES CHRIST CONSCIENCE DISCIPLESHIP EKKLESIA EPISTLE ETHICS EUCHARIST
analysis and interpretation of scriptural texts. ethics concerned with health care and scientic research. summary of Christian doctrine. letters written to the new Christian communities that were general in nature. the Messiah, the anointed onefrom the Greek Christos. our individual sense of what is right and wrong. the fellowship offered by the Christian community. a church or congregation in the early Hellenic Christian communities. a letter with teaching or instruction contained within it. a system by which people decide what is right and good. Christian sacrament that commemorates the Last Supper of Jesus Christ. Also known as communion, holy communion or the Lords Supper. use of medical technology to end life. the movement to reconsider tradition and scripture from a feminist perspective, recovering new interpretations and new inclusive understandings of Christianity. a person who is not of the Jewish faith. emanating from the Greek world. the science of analysing and interpreting texts. associated with the Anglican tradition of Christianity. explanation of the Gospel given by the celebrant of the service. sexual attraction to or activity among members of the same sex. a remission of punishment for sins granted for good works done. a sect that developed in Jerusalem and Judaea after Jesus death. the Jewish food laws that determine what is clean and unclean.
LAST SUPPER LOW CHURCH MASS MORALITY NATURAL LAW PAPACY PATRIARCHY PHARISEES
the last meal shared by Jesus with his apostles that instituted the Eucharist. evangelical reformed Protestant Churches that rely on the Bible. the commemoration of the Last Supper in a formal ceremony. the decisions people make based on their ethical system. the order that governs the natural universe. the leadership of the Pope and Cardinals based in Rome. a society where males have primary responsibility and control. a rst-century Jewish group who valued the oral law of Moses and the Torah as guidance for how to live life as a Jew. a 16th-century movement to reform the Catholic Church that led to the formation of the Protestant Churches. the detailed description of a particular ritual, such as the Rite of Marriage. the prescribed actions and words that form part of a liturgy or act of worship. the day of rest established by the Jewish tradition. sacred rites or ceremonies involving change for the individual. deliverance from sin gained through the death and resurrection of Jesus. teaching about Christianity given usually by the celebrant during worship services. making the right choice according to the situation, often called the love ethic, popularised by Joseph Fletcher in 1966. the doctrine of justication which states that we are saved by faith alone. the doctrine that the Bible is the only authority for Christian faith. the responsibility given to humanity to care for the earth as outlined in Genesis. the study of religion and religious beliefs. arguments or ideas.
PROTESTANT REFORMATION RITE RITUAL SABBATH SACRAMENTS SALVATION SERMON
EUTHANASIA FEMINIST THEOLOGY
GENTILE HELLENIC HERMENEUTICS HIGH CHURCH HOMILY HOMOSEXUALITY INDULGENCES JESUS MOVEMENT KASHRUTH
SITUATION ETHICS
SOLA FIDE SOLA SCRIPTURA STEWARDSHIP
THEOLOGY THESES
270
Significant people and ideas

Signicant people who have reected upon, agitated for and initiated change have shaped Christianity, the worlds largest religion. The ideas raised by these people have been attempts to respond to the needs of Christian adherents in changing contexts throughout Christianitys two millennia of existence. At times viewed as heroes or heretics, these men and women undeniably changed the face of Christianity.
Paul of Tarsus
One of the core arguments advanced by Paul (c. 10 BCE67 CE) was that Christianity was a world religion. It was not a Jewish sect but open to everyone: Jews and Gentiles, all of whom were drawn to Jesus of Nazareths countercultural teachings of love, forgiveness and salvation for all believers (see Chapter 3, page 67). The Gospel writer Luke tells us that Paul was born in Tarsus, a town in Asia Minor (Acts 9:11). Originally known as Saul, he was a Roman citizen and a tentmaker by trade, and was well educated in his Jewish faith. Having grown up in the Hellenic world, he also understood both Greek and Roman culture. Although Saul was a contemporary of Jesus and became a great leader of Christianity, he never met Jesus of Nazareth. As a Pharisee, Saul actively persecuted Christians until, according to Acts 9:319, he was converted to Christianity through a supernatural event. His witness to this in Acts 22 and Acts 26 indicates that he had come to a dramatic realisation that Jesus was the authentic way to salvation for believers in God. Saul to Paul There are several theories as to why Saul changed his name to Paul after his conversion. One is that Paul is a Romanised version of Saul and would have suited his role as apostle to the Gentiles. A second possible reason is that the Greek name Paulos meant little, and for Paul it was appropriate for him as a little one in the service of Christ.
was converted to Christianity through a supernatural event.
... he (Paul)
FIG. 11.1 The Conversion of Saint Paul
271
Pauls mission Saul, now known as Paul, travelled to Arabia and Damascus, preaching salvation through Christ. He journeyed to Jerusalem to speak with Peter, James and John who were the leaders of the Jesus movement. From here Paul began his work as a missionary to the Hellenic world. Travelling on four major journeys around the Mediterranean, he spread the message of the Christ to all who would listen. Paul set up house churches with leaders in many of the major towns, including the trading ports of Ephesus, Corinth, Philippi and Antioch. Setting up these churches in seaports, through which vast numbers of people travelled, helped the message of Christianity to spread quickly across the Hellenic world. The cosmopolitan nature of this region meant that it was open to new religions and ideas, unlike Palestine where Jesus had lived and preached. This resulted in a dramatic increase in the number of converts to Christianity in the Greek-speaking world. The Pauline letters Paul wrote epistles to support the edgling house church communities around the Mediterranean. These became important sources of interpretation of the teachings of Jesus and helped the new Christian churches to nd their faith in a shared community. These letters, the rst writings of what later formed the New Testament, provided the foundation of what was to become Christian doctrine and ethical teaching. Paul was the rst Christian theologian, and later theologians such as Saint Augustine and Martin Luther were indebted to his work, which dened the signicance of Jesus as Christ and Saviour.
Rome
FIG. 11.3 Ephesus, an important centre of Christianity for St Paul
Puteoli
Neapolis
Adriatic Sea
Thessalonica Beroea Latisa
Black Sea
Philippi Neapolis Amphipolis Apollonia Troas Assos Nicopolis Mytilene Athens Corinth Sardis Smyrna Miletus Attalia Myra Rhodes Gortuna Paphos Sidon Salamis Palmyra Perge Antioch Iconium Lystra Edessa Tarsus Anatarbus Byzantium
Tyrrhenian Sea
Messina Rhegium Syracusa Melita
Ionian Sea
Sparta
ANTIOCH
Mediterranean Sea
Pauls first journey Pauls second journey Pauls third journey Pauls journey to Rome (traditional) Cyrene
Tyre Ptolemais Caesarea
JERUSALEM
Alexandria
FIG. 11.2 The journeys of St Paul
272
TABLE 11.1 Letters written by Paul or his disciples PAULINE CORPUS

Reections on the person of Jesus and living the Christian life. 1 Thessalonians 2 Thessalonians Galatians 1 Corinthians 2 Corinthians Romans Captivity letters written while Paul was in prison. Colossians Ephesians Philippians Philemon Those letters in bold are agreed to have been written by Paul. Other letters reect Pauls ideas but may have been written under his leadership or added to by one of his followers.
CATHOLIC EPISTLES
Letters written for all Christians. 1 Peter James Jude 1 John 2 John 3 John 2 Peter Pastoral letters written for leaders/ pastors. 1 Timothy 2 Timothy Titus
Pauls central ideas faith in God alone (Romans 2:45): that salvation was offered to all who believed in God humankind saved by the death and resurrection of Jesus Christ (1 Corinthians 1:18, 2125; Romans 1:16; 2 Corinthians 4:4) the church as the body of Christ (1 Corinthians 12:13) the mercy of God (Romans 4:5, 17) the call to a life of freedom and responsibility (Galatians 5:14) the centrality of the Lords Supper (1 Corinthians 11:2326)
Pauls challenge to Christianity As a member of the Hellenic world, Paul recognised the relevance of the message of Christianity beyond the Jewish faith. He became an advocate for the inclusion of the Gentiles among the true followers of Christianity. Until Pauls challenge, Jewish Christians believed that non-Jews had to convert to Judaism and follow the Law of Moses, which included food laws and circumcision. Paul challenged this belief at the Council of Jerusalem in c. 50 CE. Acts 15 recounts the events of the council and the decision that enabled Gentiles as well as Jews to be followers of Jesus of Nazareth and call themselves Christians.
activities
1. Biographical sketch: Create a brief dot point biography of Paul of Tarsus including the following information: key dates, socio-political background, signicant writings, key events and achievements. 2. Key event: Read Acts 15 and outline the impact of the Council of Jerusalem on early Christianity. 3. Ethical teachings: Read the following scripture passages and clarify how Paul modelled for early Christians the path to a Christian life: the importance of love (1 Corinthians 13) membership of the body of Christ (1 Corinthians 12:13) Christs call to a life of freedom and responsibility (Galatians 5:14) the physical self as the temple of the Holy Spirit (1 Corinthians 6:19) 4. Theological understanding: The four Gospels describe the story and teachings of Jesus, but Paul dened the role of Jesus as Saviour and the personal and communal responsibility of Christians. In small groups, examine the letters to the Romans, Galatians, Ephesians and Thessalonians to locate evidence to support this view of Pauls theology.
FIG. 11.4 Statue of the apostle St Paul
273
Paul of Tarsus contribution to Christianity Any one of his achievements would have made Paul of Tarsus a signicant gure in the history of Christianity. It is truly extraordinary that Paul was a teacher, a theologian, a missionary, a writer, and a rebel in challenging the leadership of the early church to make Christianity inclusive. Pauls writings make up over a quarter of the New Testament. His letters were the earliest Christian writings and inuenced the authors of the Gospels. His epistles were written to give guidance to early Christian communities. Paul outlined the ethical demands of being a Christian. He called on the new Church communities to share with each other, to work together for the good of the whole community and to live the life modelled by Jesus Christ. He reminded them that the church (the ekklesia) was the body of Christ. Pauls work as a missionary, establishing churches in centres of the Hellenic world such as Corinth, Philippi and Antioch, was a signicant development of Christianity. He took Christianity from a Jewish sect existing in Palestine to a religion reaching the known world, spreading east to Gaul, south to Egypt and north to Asia Minor. He used the name Christian positively when those before had used it as a derogatory term.
Paul opened up a challenge to the rst followers of Jesus to accept Gentiles as well as Jews into the community of the faithful. This permitted freedom from the laws of kashruth for all Gentile Christians, further encouraging the spread of the religion. Pauls teachings on salvation through grace and the resurrection of Jesus Christ are central to his theology and had an impact on the work of later theologians such as Saint Augustine, Martin Luther, John Calvin and Karl Barth. Paul taught that Jesus was the Son of God who was sent to overcome the power of sin (Romans 6:22) and that his combined death and resurrection was the saving event for all people (Romans 4:26). Paul was a martyr for his faith. Details of his life after 60 CE are not clear, but several theories ascribe his death to the Roman authorities. Pauls status as a Roman citizen had provided him with great protection, but his allegiance to Christianity cost him his life during the reign of Emperor Nero.
activity
Was Paul anti-women? Pauls letter to the Romans indicates that it was to be carried to Rome by Phoebe, a deaconess of the early church (Romans 16). Another woman, Priscilla, was acknowledged with her husband, Aquila, as house leader for the church at Ephesus. These roles suggest that Paul was rather countercultural in his approach to women, offering them leadership positions. Research the role of women in Pauls house church communities.
FIG. 11.5 St Paul of Tarsus announces the Holy Gospel
Paul of Tarsus impact on Christianity Paul is an important gure for all denominations of Christianity and his contribution is far-reaching. His writings continue to be a means by which many Christians learn about their faith. Pauls work most signicantly underpins the Christian belief in salvation through faith in Jesus Christ. One of the most signicant contributions that Paul made was to the establishment of the written tradition of Christianity. Paul is considered Christianitys second founder. It was Paul who explained to the early Christians the message and mission of Jesus Christ. Paul spread the message of Christianity in the Graeco-Roman
274
FIG. 11.6 St Paul in Rome with the emperor Nero. A mural in Kykkos Monestry, Cyprus
world. This inclusive approach led to the concept of the universal church open to all, Gentile or Jew, servant or free (Galatians 3:28). Interpretations of Pauls teaching though history (for example, in the Protestant Reformation) have seen different understandings of how that belief is expressed. What began as a means by which Gentiles could access salvation has led to divisions that have separated expressions of Christianity up to today. Paul enabled the translation of the message of Christianity from its Palestinian origins to the urban environment of the GraecoRoman world. He made the faith relevant to a range of situations culturally and religiously different from that of Jesus. In the GraecoRoman world the Christian communities met in house churches. The houses were able to provide room for all to meet and share a meal. Membership of the Hellenic Christian church was different and included tradespeople as well as nobility or the wealthy, such as the cloth merchant Lydia (Acts 16:1115, 40). In his many writings, Paul taught about the nature of Jesus himself, as human and divine. He claried the theology of Christ and the church in his letters to various church communities. This clarity, however, was not to last. The Council of Nicaea in 325 CE debated the nature of Jesus and formulated the doctrine of the Trinity. The EastWest Schism in 1054 CE was in part caused by a disagreement about the nature and relationship of the persons in the Trinity. Pauls writings provide direction on how to live a Christian life. The letters offer guidance in ethics, such as what is involved in community-membership of the body of Christ, and in religious practice, such as how to commemorate the Last Supper to remember Christs sacrice (1 Corinthians 11:24). He also warned Christians to live a life that is worthy, for we are Gods work of art (Ephesians 2). Pauls teaching was fundamental in the development of Protestant thinking. Martin Luther took the concept of justication by faith from the teaching of Paul. John Calvin also looked to Paul for fundamental understanding of Christian teaching. Pauls role as a missionary provided support for the evangelical Christian churches. Today the different expressions of Christianity look to Paul for direction in clarifying teachings on the role of women and sexuality.
activity
Use the following headings and subheadings to create a table of information on Pauls contribution to Christianity. Contribution to development: Reform, Reinterpretation, Redirection, Expansion Contribution to expression: Principal beliefs, Sacred text and writing, Core ethical teaching, Devotion and ritual Signicance to Christianity: Contemporary inuence, To later generations, To the whole tradition
275
Martin Luther
Martin Luther (14831546 CE) brought about signicant change to Christianity during his lifetime and his impact continued into later centuries. He challenged the role of the papacy and the importance of priesthood as well as debating what was the true path to salvation. Luther translated the Bible into German, wrote sermons on Christian life and is credited with beginning the Protestant Reformation.
A bolt from the blue A lightning bolt struck the ground near Luther as he was returning from a trip to the university, convincing him to join the priesthood. He cried out and vowed to become a monk if he lived.
FIG. 11.7 Martin Luther
Luther grew up in Eisleben, attended university in Erfurt and then entered the church as an Augustinian monk. He studied for a Doctorate of Theology and began to teach at University of Wittenberg. His study of Pauls letters convinced him that faith alone mattered to the Christian. Luther challenged church teaching on indulgences and responded by posting 95 Theses on the door of the church of Wittenberg, hoping to encourage church leadership to end the practice of indulgences. The response of church authorities was to excommunicate him in 1521, and Luther went into hiding at Wartburg Castle. During this time of seclusion, Luther translated the New Testament into German. The development of the printing press by Johannes Guttenberg a century before now meant that Luthers translation could be made accessible for all Germans, an important rst for Christianity. Until then, the clergy had always explained the Bible to the community, but now Christians could read the passages of scripture and interpret them for themselves. The era that was ushered in by Martin Luthers challenge to church teaching was to be later called the Protestant Reformation. Although Luther is given credit for the start of the Reformation, many others were asking questions about papal power and the abuses that had crept into Christian practice.
Luthers central teachings Justication by faith (sola de): All people have to do to achieve salvation is to have faith in God. Nothing else will save them. Scripture alone (sola scriptura): The Bible is the one source of authority for Christians. Theology of the cross: The source of all knowledge of God is the death and resurrection of Jesus. Universal priesthood: All Christians are part of the universal priesthood of believers.
FIG. 11.8 Martin Luther burning papal bulls
276
activity
What were the key factors encouraging the rise of Protestant thinking in Luthers time? Explore the following signs of the times: the rise of Humanism (Erasmus) papal power and taxes dispensation, absolution and indulgences.
Luthers contribution to Christianity Luther did not intend to bring about a rift within Christianity. He was being true to his role as a theologian, teacher and Augustinian monk in studying the source of Christian teaching. Luthers actions eventually led to the Reformation of the Catholic Church. Luthers writings were signicant for Christianity. The Luther Bible, printed in 1534, was the rst German translation of the scriptures. He wrote several catechisms for adults and children. His best-known works include To the Christian Nobility of the German Nation, On the Babylonian Captivity of the Church and On the Freedom of a Christian. In 1526 Luther produced a document on liturgical reform. He also composed hymns for communal singing. Luther emphasised the importance of the Bible. The medieval church put much emphasis on the Pope and the hierarchy of the bishops and priests. Luther held that the Bible was the word of God and the church ran the risk of error in interpreting this for the community. He believed that the teachings on indulgences were one example of this error. Luthers theological teaching was focused on individuals and their relationship with God. God was the centre of the universe and all activity, and the performance of good works was not a ticket to heaven. To this end he rejected church authority and church tradition as sources of teaching on salvation. Justication by faith was the key aspect of his theology. Faith is the Yes of the heart a gift of God on what does this faith rest? On Christ, born of a woman, made under the law. (Luther, Werke, 49.9) Other signicant aspects of Luthers theology were the theology of the cross, the priesthood of all believers and the role of the sacraments, including the Eucharist.
FIG. 11.9 Wartburg Castle, where Luther translated the New Testament
activity
Luthers anti-Semitic views were inuential but common in the era in which he was living. He campaigned against the Jews in Germany and believed that they could no longer call themselves the people of God. Many argue that these ideas were used by the Nazi Party to iname Germans during the 1930s. Was Luther anti-Semitic?
277
The impact of Luther on Christianity Luthers greatest impact was to be one of the initiators of the Protestant Reformation. His actions in posting the 95 Theses led to the Protestant Reformation and later to the Catholic CounterReformation. These signicant events allowed Christianity to renew itself and bring about important reforms. Other Protestants, such as Ulrich Zwingli in Switzerland and John Calvin in France, emerged at the same time as Luther and the movement for change became rapid. The role of the printing press in disseminating his ideas was central to Luthers success in sharing his concerns about Christian leadership.
Luther believed in the importance of two sacraments, baptism and holy communion, as Jesus Christ instituted them. Many Protestant churches continue to maintain this approach to the sacraments today. Luthers concerns about liturgy included questioning the elaborate vestments worn by priests and the detailed ceremony associated with sacraments. He wanted to maintain the simplicity of liturgy and focus on personal relationship with Christ. He advocated that the Mass should be said in the language of the people and not in Latin. Luther encouraged the people to sing during worship services. Until Luthers time, music and singing were the responsibility of monks and priests. Luthers legacy in establishing a tradition of singing in community continues today in both Protestant and Catholic churches. Luthers challenge of the leadership of the Roman Catholic Church was an opportunity for renewal for the church leadership. Indulgences and other church abuses had led to a disconnection between the church authorities and the community. The CounterReformation (15601648) was an important opportunity for the Catholic Church to respond to the challenges that Luther had raised. It allowed the church to establish a response to Protestantism and Renaissance thinking, and to review its own practices and tradition.
activity
Use the following headings and subheadings to create a table of information on Luthers contribution to Christianity. Contribution to development: Reform, Reinterpretation, Redirection, Expansion
FIG. 11.10 Doors of Wittenberg Cathedral
An emphasis on the gospel of forgiveness and salvation was central to Luthers theology and had a long-term impact on Christian theology. Protestant expressions of Christianity see Luther as particularly important in emphasising the merciful God and salvation found through faith in Christ.
Contribution to expression: Principal beliefs, Sacred text and writing, Core ethical teaching, Devotion and ritual Signicance to Christianity: Contemporary inuence, To later generations, To the whole tradition
278
Elisabeth Schssler Fiorenza

Feminist theology emerged from the feminist movement of the 19th and 20th centuries that recognised the rights of women to vote, to equal pay and to access to education. It was inuenced by the other signicant theology of the timeliberation theology. Using understandings drawn from sociology, feminist theologians examined the community of equals (Galatians 3:28) that Jesus formed and argued it was a very different one from the Jewish and Graeco-Roman society around it. One contemporary feminist theologian and biblical scholar is Elisabeth Schssler Fiorenza (b. 1938). Her approach to scriptural analysis has been groundbreaking and her methodology considered academically rigorous. Schssler Fiorenzas greatest contribution to theology has been in the technique of applying a hermeneutics of suspicion to biblical textsreading scriptural texts carefully, looking for the underlying assumptions of the writer. She wished to nd out what constituted authentic Christianity as expressed in the early Christian communities. Schssler Fiorenza studied theology at the University of Wrzburg, the rst woman to be admitted to theological studies normally reserved for men studying for the priesthood. She completed two theological degrees and travelled to the United States to teach and continue her research in the eld of biblical studies. Her writings have been foundational to the feminist theology movement and to biblical scholarship. Schssler Fiorenzas hermeneutic of suspicion held that Christian scripture had been written from a male perspective and as such failed to acknowledge the roles and stories of the women present. Schssler Fiorenzas methodology then applied a hermeneutic of proclamation to suggest a new interpretation for todays church and a hermeneutic of remembrance to recover and celebrate the stories of women in the scriptures. While some feminist theologians felt that the church remained too patriarchal and chose to leave it, Schssler Fiorenza argued that patriarchy did not originate with Christianity. The discipleship of equals evident in the Jesus movement (described in Galatians) was a reality, but she also recognised a continuing tension between the emergent Christianity and the Graeco-Roman world in which it existed. One of Schssler Fiorenzas works, Jesus: Miriams Child, Sophias Prophet (1994), explored the link between Jesus as sage and Sophia, divine Wisdom, from the Old Testament. Schssler Fiorenza believed that this new understanding of Jesus made interpretation of Christian scripture more accessible to a wider range of believers, particularly those who were marginalised. Schssler Fiorenzas analysis of Christian doctrine in this book was a call to move to a more open and less dogmatic understanding of Christianity.
scripture had been written from a male perspective and as such failed to acknowledge the roles and stories of the women present.
Christian
279
Schssler Fiorenza remains critical of the existing academic community in its setting of the intellectual agenda, describing it as particularly male and Western in its focus. As a woman I could not have become a theologian or a philosopher in the past, because I couldnt go to university or study theology and philosophy. The same is true, for instance, for my colleagues Cornell West, Fernando Segovia, or Kwok Pui Lan, and many other scholars from the margins. We are supposed to have made it having gone through all the hoops, excelled in all the exams, and having become as full professors a part of the academy. Yet we still do not dene academic discourse but remain marginal to it. (Elisabeth Schssler Fiorenza quoted in Norton, MB, Journal of Philosophy and Theology, 2003). Schssler Fiorenza continues to teach and work in the eld of biblical studies. She is currently the Krister Stendahl Professor of Divinity at the Harvard Divinity School in Cambridge, Massachusetts.
Schssler Fiorenzas contributions to Christianity Schssler Fiorenzas contributions can be seen in several areas of Christian teaching and practice: Schssler Fiorenza has contributed to the area of Christian feminist theology. As her understanding developed about the era of the Jesus Movement, Schssler Fiorenza explored the roles of women and contributed new understandings about the signicance of these women and their contribution to early Christianity. Biblical scholarship is also indebted to the work of Schssler Fiorenza. Her hermeneutic framework for biblical interpretation uses a historical and theological understanding of the era to evaluate the reliability of the evidence in the texts. This has proven a useful methodology for analysing scripture. Schssler Fiorenza has also been a role model of leadership in the church, becoming the rst woman to be elected president of the Society of Biblical Literature and taking on a Professorship at Harvard School of Theology. She has also demonstrated leadership of womens organisations in her co-founding of the Journal of Feminist Studies in Religion. She is a member of the Womens Caucus: Religious Studies, the Womens Ordination Conference (Catholic) and the New York Feminist Scholars in Religion. She continues to speak out about the place of women in Christianity. Schssler Fiorenzas writings are considered scholarly works on biblical exegesis and feminist theology. Appearing in books and essays over several decades, Schssler Fiorenzas work has been translated into several languages and widely distributed. Schssler Fiorenzas concern about Western male dominance in the academic world and the need to listen to the stories of those scholars from other backgrounds have encouraged many to question current discourse in the academic eld. For Schssler Fiorenza, intellectual discussion displays the same bias exposed by her work in biblical exegesis.
activities
1. Biographical sketch: Create a dot point sketch of Schssler Fiorenzas life. Include important works that she has written and inuential positions she has held. Add to this list some of the other theologians who have been signicant inuences in her work and those whom she has inuenced. 2. Key writings: Examine extracts from Schssler Fiorenzas works to provide evidence of her approach to Christian theology: In Memory of Her: A Feminist Reconstruction of Christian Origins (1983), Bread Not Stone: The Challenge of Feminist Biblical Interpretation (1984), But She Said: Feminist Practices of Biblical Interpretation (1992), Jesus: Miriams Child, Sophias Prophet (1994). 3. Theological understanding: Explore examples of the approach of hermeneutics of suspicion as outlined by Schssler Fiorenza.
280
The impact of Schssler Fiorenza on Christianity Schssler Fiorenza is a signicant gure in theology and biblical studies. Her work demonstrates a number of impacts on Christianity. Ecumenical: Schssler Fiorenzas work has broad acceptance across a range of expressions of Christianity, not just the Catholic perspective from which she speaks. Inclusive: Looking for the voice of the women in the text has illuminated the need to hear what is not said in a textwhat has been left out of the story. This has signicance when considering the importance of the voices of those who are seldom heard, like those in disadvantaged societies, or those who lack a means by which their stories can be shared. Challenging: Schssler Fiorenza has constantly challenged the church hierarchy to listen to the new interpretation of scriptural texts and respond to their call. Her academic works have challenged the thinking of many theologians and are acknowledged by more liberal Christians as signicant for understanding the early Christian community. Some might argue that as a feminist theologian her impact is limited, but in recent years her call to value academic leaders from non-Western backgrounds has broadened her inuence. Introduced new methodologies: Schssler Fiorenza introduced the hermeneutics of suspicion, proclamation, remembrance and creative actualisation, as articulated in her books In Memory of Her (1983) and Bread Not Stone (1984), which provided a new approach to biblical exegesis.
constantly challenged the church hierarchy to listen to the new interpretation of scriptural texts and respond to their call. activity
Schssler Fiorenza has
Use the following headings and subheadings to create a table of information on Schssler Fiorenzas contribution to Christianity. Contribution to development: Reform, Reinterpretation, Redirection, Expansion Contribution to expression: Principal beliefs, Sacred text and writing, Core ethical teaching, Devotion and ritual Signicance to Christianity: Contemporary inuence, To later generations, To the whole tradition
281
Ethics
In its simplest explanation, ethics is a practical application of belief. It is a system by which conduct is determined to be appropriate or not. Morality is concerned with the individual decisions taken based on the ethical system. Christian ethics are based on right relationships: with God, with ones neighbour and with oneself. The importance of ethics to Christian adherents lies in the guidance that they provide in living each day according to their beliefs. All Christians would hold that teachings found in the Biblethe Ten Commandments (Exodus 20:217), the Beatitudes (Matthew 5:310/ Luke 6:2026) and Jesus Commandment of Love (Luke 10:2527)are key sources for determining ethical behaviour. There remains, however, a diversity of ethical standpoints on issues such as bioethics and sexual behaviour. These standpoints exist in different Christian churches where other sources of authority, such as tradition or episcopal leadership, are considered important to the expression of Christianity. In Protestant ethics, the primacy of biblical ethical teaching is evident. In Catholic and Orthodox Churches, natural law is also regarded as important. In Pentecostal churches, the pastor is a signicant source of guidance for ethical teaching. Traditional Christian ethics are grounded either in a natural law approach (which holds that certain actions are wrong because they go against our human nature) or in a Bible-based approach. Both result in moral absolutes such as the beliefs that homosexuality is wrong; abortion is wrong; euthanasia is wrong. These behaviours or actions are held to be, by their nature, evil, independent of the context. Some contemporary theologians suggest that situation ethicswhich are based on the centrality of love and the idea that actions are not right or wrong in themselves, but depend on the context or situation in which an action occursare a more appropriate Christian ethical approach. Situation ethics claims that Jesus came to do away with a legalistic approach to religion and replaced it with the law of love.
Bioethics
Bioethics is the area of science that deals with ethical choices faced in medical research and the treatment of patients where advanced medical technology is used. Ethical issues that Christians might have concerns with are cloning, IVF and screening embryos, abortion, euthanasia, stem cell technology and genetic engineering. The key Christian belief that is challenged in bioethical research is the value or sanctity of human life. The preservation of human life and euthanasia Christians have always believed that life is sacred and should be preserved. Life is considered a gift from God. But Christians also realise that death is inevitable. The reality is that we live in a society where medical care is capable of prolonging life through use of technology. The question becomes: what is the quality of life that can be achieved for the person, and is sustaining life at any cost appropriate? The Fifth Commandment clearly states that it is wrong to take another human life: You shall not murder (Exodus 20:13). The Bible does not give any specic teaching on euthanasia, but many Christians would use this commandment to argue that euthanasia is not permitted. The challenge for those who consider euthanasia often occurs when the patient is suffering from the effects of ongoing illness and their quality of life is not being maintained. Christians would regard suffering and pain as part of what it means to be human and through that pain they can arrive at some understanding of Jesus Christs sacrice. Saint Paul spoke of suffering [that] produces endurance (Romans 5:3) as part of life. But for families, the ongoing suffering of the patient is not something they wish to prolong. Catholic teaching on the preservation of human life Catholic teaching is based on the principles of natural law. In addition to this teaching, in matters of the preservation of human life the distinction
282
is made between ordinary and extraordinary means of prolonging life. Ordinary means are necessary and reasonable for the preservation of human life. Extraordinary means are those that are out of balance with the outcome or particularly burdensome for the family. The balance needs to be maintained between maintaining pain relief and not hastening death for the patient. Sometimes the administration of a pain reliever might also have the side effect of suppressing respiration, so it is important that Death is in no way intended or sought, even if the risk of it is reasonably taken; the intention is simply to relieve pain (Declaration on Euthanasia, Sacred Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith [1980]). In 2007, the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith noted: The administration of food and water even by articial means is, in principle, an ordinary and proportionate means of preserving life. It is therefore obligatory to the extent to which, and for as long as, it is shown to accomplish its proper nality, which is the hydration and nourishment of the patient. In this way suffering and death by starvation and dehydration are prevented. (Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, Declaration on Euthanasia, 1980)
Cicely Saunders, a member of the Anglican Church, founded the Hospice Movement in 1967. Hospices are places where terminally ill people can be given specialist care during the last phase of their lives. The aim of a hospice is to provide holistic care of the dying, managing their pain and providing medical care but also looking to support the person with emotional, spiritual and physical aid during this difcult time.
FIG. 11.11 Euthanasia demonstration July 1, 1996
In the Catechism of the Catholic Church there are two statements on euthanasia: Intentional euthanasia, whatever its forms or motives, is murder. It is gravely contrary to the dignity of the human person and to the respect due to the living God, his Creator. (Paragraph 2324) Whatever its motives and means, direct euthanasia consists in putting an end to the lives of handicapped, sick, or dying persons. It is morally unacceptable. (Paragraph 2277) (Catechism of the Catholic Church, 1997) Anglican teaching on the preservation of human life The Anglican Church takes a similar view to that of the Catholic Church. Its stance is that assisting a person to die is a moral evil and that this might make sick or dying people vulnerable. The Anglican Church in the United Kingdom successfully challenged a bill that would have allowed euthanasia, the Assisted Dying for the Terminally Ill Bill, leading to its defeat in 2006.
Society of Friends (Quaker) teaching on the preservation of human life Members of the Society of Friends are not united on their approach to euthanasia. There are some Quakers who believe that people should be allowed to die with dignity and would wish the option of legal euthanasia to be available. Other Quakers would say that if we care for each other, offer proper support and pain relief, euthanasia should not be needed. Some Quakers work in the hospice movement, which seeks to care for patients so that the quality of life is maintained as death approaches. (Quakers in the UK, quoted in Stephen Richards, [1999]).
activities
1. Research other Christian denominations to determine their stance on euthanasia. 2. Use the Internet to nd out which countries in the world allow assisted dying and what has been the response of the Christian churches to that change.
283
Environmental ethics
The Christian churches have not always considered environmental issues a major ethical concern. New awareness of global issues such as the increase in carbon dioxide emissions and the destruction of natural ecosystems resulting in detrimental effects on communities has alarmed many, including the leaders of Christian communities. This has led to collective statements on issues such as global warming and ecological action. Several Old Testament sources detail ways in which humans should care for the earth. The book of Leviticus provides a guide to responsible agricultural practices (Leviticus 25) and careful husbanding of animals (Leviticus 22) to ensure health and the continuity of the genetic line. Psalms 8 and 104 celebrate the wonder of creation and our responsibility to care for it. In the New Testament, Jesus uses stories about Gods care for the earth to demonstrate his care for us. Consider the lilies of the eld, how they grow: they neither toil nor spin, yet I tell you, even Solomon in all his glory was not clothed like one of these. But if God so clothes the grass of the eld, which is alive today and tomorrow is thrown into the oven, will he not much more clothe you you of little faith? (Matthew 6:2830) Christians believe that Gods care for us provides an example of how we should respond by maintaining creation, his gift to humanity. Historical Christian responses Throughout history, Christian responses to environmental issues are evident in the actions of individuals. Francis of Assisi, living in the 12th century, rejected the life of wealth he was born to and chose a simple path, caring for all Gods creation and celebrating this concern in prayer and action. Hildegard of Bingen, living in the same historical era, reected her concern for the environment and creation in writing, music and art. Her works, including Scivias and Liber divinorum operum (116370), demonstrated her awareness of our need to care for Gods creation.
activity
Brainstorm some issues associated with the environment. Use the sources of teaching below to predict the Christian response to the issue.
Sources of teaching: sacred text The Bible is a key source of ethical teaching on ecological issues. The creation stories of Genesis 1 and 2 give us an insight into the importance of caring for world. God looked at everything he had made, and found it very good (Genesis 1:31). God set man and woman in the Garden of Eden to care for it (Genesis 1:28). Christians would contend that from that moment humanity was given stewardship of the earth.
FIG. 11.12 Adam and Eve
FIG. 11.13 St Francis stained glass
284
Environmental issue: climate change Thomas Berry, a contemporary Catholic theologian and ecologist, challenges Christians today to recognise God in creation and value the relationship people have with the divine. He is critical of the modern reliance on science for the solution to the worlds problems and suggests we should take more heed of the needs of creation. Berry considers we need to develop a new creation story to describe our new awareness of the impact of humans on the earth. Sallie McFague, a feminist theologian, calls on humanity to create a new theology of nature. She argues we must recognise that the world is a physical expression of God. If I imagine God (deep down) to be a super-being, residing somewhere above and apart from the world, who created and judges the world but otherwise is absent from it, then I will conduct my affairs largely without day-to-day concern about God. If the God I believe in is supernatural, transcendent and only intermittently interested in the world, then this God is not a factor in my daily actions. Whether or not I treat myself to that expensive car is certainly not relevant to such a God. (Sallie McFague, Global Warming: A Theological Problem [2008]) The National Council of Churches in Australia (NCCA) released a statement, Sustaining Creation, in 2003 that called on government to act responsibly towards our environment. We believe that a better, more holistic, understanding of the Earth, which recognises that human beings are part of the created order and not separate from it, will make a major contribution to the transforming change that is essential for the well-being of the planet in the third millennium. (Rev. John Henderson, NCCA, 2003) The NCCA represents 17 Christian churches within Australia working together on issues that affect all the Christian churches. They have been outspoken on many environmental issues including care of rivers and endangered species, recognising the need to set targets for the use of renewable energy and encouraging the community to live an ecologically responsible life. The Ecumenical Patriarch Bartholomew of the Orthodox Church said in a recent encyclical:
Climate change Climate change is a long-term change in the climate brought about by human action such as increased carbon dioxide emissions and deforestation. Increased ocean levels from melting glaciers and the shrinking polar icecap are considered a threat to low-lying areas such as Pacic islands.
FIG. 11.14 Amazon deforestation
We know that the abuse, deviation, violation and arrogance of humanity contribute to the destruction of the travailing nature, which is subjected to the corruption of creation we also know that this destruction actually comprises self-destruction. Therefore, we invite all of you, irrespective of position and profession, to remain faithful to a natural use of all Gods creation, offering thanks to the God, who created the world and granted everything to us. (Ecumenical Patriarch Bartholomew, Encyclical on Protection of the Environment, 1.9.08)
285
Catholic Earthcare, an agency of the Catholic Bishops Commission for Justice and Service, released an ecological vision for Catholic Education in NSW, On Holy Ground, in 2006. It outlined facts such as that the ecological footprint of an average Australian is 7.1 hectares of renewable natural resources per person compared to that of the average African at 1.7 hectares. Our way of living is unsustainable for our planets resources.
activities
1. Describe the sources of ethical teaching for three Christian Churches (include consideration of sacred text, church authority and conscience). 2. Explain the teachings on environmental ethics on ONE issue from the perspective of three Christian churches.
FIG. 11.15 Kiribati
Concern around the fate of the Pacic Island communities of Tuvalu, the Torres Strait and Kiribati has galvanised Christian responses to climate change in Australia. The Pacic Calling Partnership, an initiative of the Edmund Rice Centre (Roman Catholic), has endeavoured to put the issues of these communities before the Australian community. Meetings were held in 2006 and 2008 to nd ways to work together for the future of these communities and to call on Australians to take action to halt climate change.
Sexual ethics
our sense of right and wrong reecting the balance evident in nature
informed by scripture and prayer
moral judgments dependent on the context in which they are made
Natural law
Conscience
Situation ethics
Tradition
Sources of ethical teaching on sexual ethics

papal (Roman Catholic)
Teaching authority
bishop (Anglican) pastor (Pentecostal)
Divine Tradition (Orthodox)
Magisterium (Roman Catholic)
The Bible
Jesus Commandment of Love (Luke 10:2527)
the Ten Commandments (Exodus 20:217)
the Beatitudes (Matthew 5:310/ Luke 6:2026)
The writing of St Paul: particularly 1 Corinthians
FIG. 11.16 Sources of ethical teaching on sexual ethics
286
Christian approaches to sexual ethics have their foundation in scripture, especially in the teachings of Jesus in the Gospels and in the writing of Paul. In the Gospels it is Jesus who stops those who would stone the accused adulterer (John 8:7). In the parable stories Jesus gave examples of living that were life-giving, summed up in John 10:10: I have come that you may have life and have it to the full. Paul was writing for the early Christian communities in the Hellenic world, where the excesses of Roman life were evident. He gave guidance to these communities, encouraging the valuing of relationship and the importance of modesty and moral actions. In a world where the Parousia (the return of the Messiah) was considered imminent, Pauls concerns were with preparing Christians for the next life. Do you not know that your body is a temple of the Holy Spirit within you, which you have from God, and that you are not your own? For you were bought with a price; therefore glorify God in your body. (1 Corinthians 6:1920) Sexual ethics issue: homosexuality Homosexuality has existed since ancient times. In Greek and then later Roman society it was tolerated if not always approved. It was not accepted in Jewish communities. As Christianity moved into the broader Hellenic communities of the Mediterranean it became an issue for Christians. Sexual ethics in Christianity are underpinned by several important Old Testament texts. The rst is Genesis 1:2627 that states male and female human beings are created together in Gods image and likeness. Genesis 1819 tells of the destruction of Sodom, the idea being that God was unhappy with the behaviour of its inhabitants. The prohibition against homosexual behaviour is expanded in Leviticus 18:22 and 20:13. The book of Leviticus contains rules for behaviour for the ancient Israelites and much of its concern was with dening the Jewish people and ensuring they did not follow the ways of the pagans in the lands around them. In the New Testament, Paul condemns homosexuality:
For this reason God gave them up to degrading passions. Their women exchanged natural intercourse for unnatural, and in the same way also the men, giving up natural intercourse with women, were consumed with passion for one another. Men committed shameless acts with men and received in their own persons the due penalty for their error. (Romans 1:2627) The apostle Peter too challenges the Christian community to live a different life from those around them: The Lord knows how to rescue the godly from trial, and to keep the unrighteous under punishment until the day of judgmentespecially those who indulge their esh in depraved lust, and who despise authority. (2 Peter 2:910) For Christians in the early church, living in the more permissive Hellenic culture, it was important for these leaders to address what they saw as aspects that could undermine the growth of the religion.
FIG. 11.17 Aristotle and Plato debate Ethics
287
Contemporary Christian teaching on homosexuality Many Christians today are divided in their approach to homosexual relationships. The US Episcopalian (Anglican) Church consecrated a gay bishop, Gene Robinson, in 2003. The Canadian Anglican diocese of New Westminster in British Columbia began blessing same sex unions in 2003. The Windsor Report was commissioned in 2004 by Rowan Williams, Archbishop of Canterbury, to formulate a middle ground response to the issue of homosexuality. Unity on the issue is still to be found. Sydneys Anglican Archbishop, Peter Jensen, supported the views of the more conservative church leaders from Africa and South America in opposing any change to church teaching. The Uniting Church in Australia faced the issue of gay and lesbian relationships Both at the UCA 10th Assembly churches in 2003. The Standing Committee called on the (Roman members of the church to Catholic and accept a diversity of belief about same sex relationships. Orthodox) see They agreed to allow homosexual individual presbyteries and synods to choose whether behaviour, on not to accept gays and rather than lesbians for ordination. The churchs then president, orientation, as Dean Drayton, said, The sinful. Assembly has decided that we are a diverse church, we have great and genuinely held differences, but instead of allowing these differences to divide us, we will hold together in something greaterour love of God and our love of the Uniting Church itself. The Roman Catholic and Orthodox churches remain faithful to the biblical teachings from Genesis, Leviticus and the letters of Paul. Both Churches see homosexual behaviour, rather than orientation, as sinful. In 2003 the Coptic Orthodox Church responded to events of that year by taking a strong stand against homosexual behaviour: While we condemn homosexuality, we invite those who are under this sin to repent out of concern for their eternal life (Coptic Orthodox Church Press Release, 29 August 2003).
FIG. 11.18 This church displays the rainbow ag welcoming gay members to its congregation.
The Roman Catholic Churchs approach is grounded in natural law (from Aristotles Rhetoric). The church teaches that the purpose of sexual activity is procreation and unity between the man and woman. Therefore, as the union between two men cannot produce a child, it is against natural law. The Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith released a document, Letter to the Bishops of the Catholic Church on the Pastoral Care of Homosexual Persons, in October 1986. This restated the churchs stance that homosexuality is intrinsically disordered and that homosexuals should lead a chaste life, seeking support from the church to nd the right path. In 2008, as the Australian Federal Parliament prepared the apology to the stolen generations, an unofcial group of Christian leaders from the Baptist, Pentecostal, Anglican and Church of Christ communities, calling themselves the 100 Revs, offered an apology to the gay and lesbian community in Australia. They marked this in their active support of the Gay and Lesbian Mardi Gras Parade.
activity
Use the evidence provided from the various Christian denominations, along with any research you can provide, to explain the importance of sacred text and tradition to Christians for ethical guidance in matters of sexual ethics.
288
Significant practices for the life of adherents

Christianity has signicant practices to both mark changing status within the community and celebrate communally key beliefs essential to the expression of faith. All Christian churches recognise the importance of ritual and religious practice both in the home and together as a community. Baptism, marriage and Saturday/ Sunday worship are three practices evident in most expressions of Christianity.
The benets of religious practice What are the benets of religious practice for adherents? Church attendance is one of the most important indicators of marital stability and happiness. The practice of religion has been shown to help people move out of poverty by providing people with direction, motivation and purpose in their lives. Religious practice helps to reduce levels of suicide, drug and alcohol abuse and even mental illnesses such as depression. Religious practice helps to reduce levels of crime.
Baptism
Baptism has been used since ancient times as a rite to mark purication, commitment and inclusion in the religion. Jesus was baptised by John the Baptist in the River Jordan (Mark 1:9). John the Baptist had used baptism as a purication ritual for his Jewish followers. For Jesus as the Messiah, it was also a signier that he would baptisenot with water but with the Holy Spirit. Jesus gave instructions for his own followers to baptise people in his name (Matthew 28:19). Baptism is the rite that marks the admission of an individual into most of the Christian churches. Infant baptism has been practised since early times of Christianity. In the early third century CE, Tertullian mentioned it as a practice used by early Christians and Hippolytus of Rome wrote detailed instructions on how to conduct it.
churches recognise the importance of ritual and religious practice both in the home and together as a community.
All Christian
289
TABLE 11.2 The rite of baptism RITUAL ELEMENT

Celebrant Other roles
ROMAN CATHOLIC
priest parents godparents community
ANGLICAN
priest or minister parents godparents community
GREEK ORTHODOX
priest cantors: sing response in Greek parents godparents community Romans 6:311 Matthew 28:1620 baptismal font, water, oil, candle, new clothes, movement around church church child is received into the churchEucharist and full initiation are part of the ceremony begins in entrance of the church exorcism signing of the cross naming lighting of the baptismal candle removal of clothes anointing with oil blessing of the water full immersion in the baptismal font sacrament of Chrismation dressing in new clothes religious dance circle font three times tonsurecutting of the hair Holy Eucharist
BAPTIST CHURCH
minister believer (candidate) community
Sacred text
Romans 6:311 Matthew 28:1620 baptismal font, water, oil, candle, white cloth
The Collect of the Day Lesson from scripture baptismal font, water, oil, candle
The Sunday service readings baptismal garment (white) baptismal pool
Signicant symbols
Sacred space Features of ritual
church or baptistry The Eucharist may include rite of baptism (for example, Easter Vigil Mass) priest greets community priest questions parents and conrms their wish for baptism priest, parents and godparents trace the sign of the cross on child Liturgy of the Word homily rite of exorcism and anointing with oil baptismal waters blessed profession of faith baptism with water on forehead child clothed in white cloth parents and godparents given candle Prayers of the Faithful the Lords Prayer nal blessing
church rite of baptism
baptismal pool adult rite of baptism/ believers baptism
Structure of ritual
gathering hymn, psalm or anthem priest greets community the Collect of the Day is prayed lesson from scripture sermon presentation and examination of candidate baptismal covenant is prayed prayers of thanksgiving and blessing over the water prayers of consecration over the oils baptism the Lords Prayer recited concluding prayer
believers baptism is part of the Sunday worship service includes testimony by the person being baptised declaring their faith in Jesus Christ full immersion in pool
Impact on individual
For most Christian denominations, baptism is normally celebrated in childhood. Usually the parents and godparents take the child to the church community and the child is welcomed into the church. Baptism marks the movement of the child/adult to a recognised place within the community of the church. The rite of exorcism is included in the Roman Catholic and Greek Orthodox churches. Adult baptism is part of Baptist and Pentecostal church practice. In infant baptism, parents and godparents make promises on behalf of the candidate. The community renews its baptismal promises on this occasion.
290
FIG. 11.19 Roman Catholic baptism (infant)
How baptism expresses Christian beliefs The Roman Catholic, Anglican and Greek Orthodox churches baptise children as they believe it is important the child is brought up in the faith of the community and offered the gift of salvation through the church. Other denominations, such as Baptist, Churches of Christ and many of the evangelical churches, choose to wait until the candidate is an adult as they feel this is more faithful to the New Testament practice of baptising adults. This is called believers baptism. Often this is done in a pool in the church, or at a beach or river. Believers baptism recognises a persons dedication of their life to Christ and his teachings. In many of these churches, a naming or dedication ceremony is held for a baby rather than a baptismal rite. Anglican and Baptist Churches use the service of the day and include the baptismal rite as part of the normal church service. The Roman Catholic and Greek Orthodox churches have separate services, or in the case of the Roman Catholic Church, the baptism can be part of the Easter Vigil Service. The Society of Friends (Quakers) holds that outward rites such as baptism are not necessary to be part of the community. Even a child raised as a Quaker must conrm their readiness to join the community as an adult worshipper. The Salvation Army also does not follow the practice of baptising followers. The Army feels that there are dangers in a heavy dependence on ceremonies and rituals. To become a Salvation Army soldier, adherents have to study the ways of the Army, acknowledge allegiance to the ways of the Army and pray for Gods help in keeping their promise.
Sacred sources: Baptism

FIG. 11.20 Protestant baptism (adult)
rite of initiation into the church (1 Corinthians 12:13) symbolism of water (Mark 1:9) immersion in water (John 3:5) anointing with oil (1 Samuel 10:13) candle (John 1:19) new clothes (Galatians 3:2627)
FIG. 11.21 Orthodox baptism (infant)
291
The significance of baptism Baptism is a rite of passage. In the Christian community it marks transition from outside the community via initiation into new life in the Christian church. Salvation is the key teaching of baptism (Acts 2:38). TABLE 11.3 The signicance of the baptismal rite ANALYSIS
Name
activity
Outline the signicance of the use of water for the Christian ceremony of baptism. Integrate these two photographs into your answer.
BAPTISMAL RITE
The word baptism comes from the Greek baptizo, to dip, plunge or immerse. The history of Christianity places baptism as a ritual from the early timesJesus called on his followers to undertake it in his name. Baptism is mentioned by historians Tertullian and Christian presbyter Hippolytus of Rome. The ceremony centres on acknowledgement and commitment by the candidate (or parents and godparents) to the core beliefs of Christianity: the divinity and humanity of Jesus, God and the Trinity, revelation, salvation. Readings from scripture and the words of the prayers reafrm these beliefs. Baptism initiates the candidate into the Christian community. The symbolism (water, candle, oil, new garment) reminds the candidate and community of the connection to the church. Baptism reafrms the communitys commitment to their own baptismal promises. The community is more aware than the candidate (a baby) of the commitment to their faith and their role in assisting the candidate in remaining part of the church.
Principal beliefs
The individuals connection to beliefs
FIG. 11.22 Infant baptism
Relation to the Christian community
The marriage ceremony

The marriage ceremony is a signicant rite for Christians. It recognises the instruction given in Genesis that humans should be fruitful and multiply, but most signicantly it mirrors the relationship of Jesus and his churcha relationship of love and sacrice. For the church it is an acknowledgement of a commitment between two people in the sight of God and the community. In the Catholic and Orthodox churches, marriage is one of the sacraments. For other churches, marriage is an important ceremony and rite of passage, but it is not seen in the same way as baptism and communion. Each expression of Christianity has unique elements in its practice of marriage.
FIG. 11.23 Baptism by immersion
292
TABLE 11.4 The features of ceremony EXPRESSION OF CHRISTIANITY

Roman Catholic
FEATURES OF CEREMONY
introductory rite Liturgy of the Word homily liturgy of marriage Liturgy of the Eucharist (optional) concluding rite introductory rite declaration of consent ministry of the Word marriage vows and exchange of rings prayers blessing of marriage communion service (optional) introductory rite Bible readings marriage vows and exchange of rings ministers address blessing betrothal service marriage service Bible readings common cup of wine dance of Isaiah removal of crowns conclusion
SIGNIFICANT ELEMENTS
Eucharist is included if it is a Nuptial Mass. sacred readings marriage vows
Anglican
communion service if desired sacred readings marriage vows exchange of rings
Uniting
sacred readings marriage vows exchange of rings
Orthodox
blessing of the rings crowning ceremony cup of wine dance of Isaiah
How the marriage ceremony expresses Christian beliefs The scriptural sources about marriage are found in both the Old and New Testaments. So God created humankind in his image, in the image of God he created them; male and female he created them. God blessed them, and God said to them, Be fruitful and multiply, and ll the earth and subdue it. (Genesis 1:2728)
Havent you read, he replied, that at the beginning the Creator made them male and female, and said, For this reason a man will leave his father and mother and be united to his wife, and the two will become one esh? So they are no longer two, but one. Therefore what God has joined together, let man not separate. (Matthew 19:46)
For this reason a man will leave his father and mother and be united to his wife, and they will become one esh. (Genesis 2:24)
for we are members of his body. For this reason a man will leave his father and mother and be united to his wife, and the two will become one esh. This is a profound mystery but I am talking about Christ and the church. However, each one of you also must love his wife as he loves himself, and the wife must respect her husband. (Ephesians 5:2933)
293
There are unique aspects to church teaching on marriage for each of the expressions of Christianity: Catholic Christianity: Catholics believe that marriage is a divine institution and constitutes one of the seven sacraments of the church. Catholics are encouraged to marry within the church. One of the principal teachings of Catholic marriage is that sex is primarily for procreation. The only way to dissolve a marriage is by annulment whereby it is considered that the grounds for the original marriage were invalid. Orthodox Christianity: Eastern Orthodox Christians believe marriage is a sacred mystery and a sacrament. The link between husband and wife is closely aligned to the relationship between Christ and the church. The Orthodox Church recognises the important role of the Holy Spirit in the marriage ceremony. The crowns and the cup of wine are markers of the change of status for the bride and groom from single to married. Protestant Christianity: Most Protestant churches hold that marriage is an important event, a solemn covenant between husband and wife, a commitment made before the faith community. A small number of Protestant churches allow same sex marriages. The significance of the marriage ceremony Greek Orthodox marriage ceremony For the community, the ceremony, conducted by a priest, is always held in a church to acknowledge the signicance of the event. On the altar there are the symbols: the holy Gospels, a cup of wine, the rings and wedding crowns, and two candles. The candles are a reminder of Christ as the light of the world, and the rings, crown and cup mark the change of status for the bride and groom. The Gospels represent the importance of sacred scripture to the union. For the individual, this commitment is made between the couple by the priest through the action of the Holy Spirit. The ritual actions of the placing of rings, the wearing of crowns and the dance are all important to mark the change of status of the bride and groom from single to married. Roman Catholic marriage ceremony For the community, the ceremony is always held in a church and is conducted by a priest. Symbolism is signicant, with a new candle, representing the light of Christ in the new marriage, lit from two candles representing the families of the bride and groom. The readings provide wisdom for the community about the sacredness of the sacrament of marriage. For the individual, the rings are exchanged and vows recited to acknowledge the new relationship between husband and wife. Marriage is a sacrament in the Roman Catholic Church and can only be celebrated by a priest, whose role is to unite the couple in the presence of God and the community.
FIG. 11.24 Rings exchanged betweeen man and woman in marriage symbolise union.
294
Anglican marriage ceremony For the community, the commitment between the bride and groom is acknowledged and witnessed by the community and presided over by the priest, who reads the nuptial blessing. The service is usually taken from the Book of Common Prayer. For the individual, the commitment is between the bride and groom and as such they are the central gures in the ceremony. The role of the priest is to witness and bless the union.
expressions of Christianity recognise the importance of Saturday/Sunday worship.
All current
activity
Describe and analyse how the marriage ceremony expressed the beliefs of Christianity.
Saturday/Sunday worship
Worship for Christians on Saturday/Sunday has its foundation in the Jewish practice of Sabbath observance. The Sabbath was for rest as laid down in the laws of the Jewish community (Leviticus 23:23) and told in foundational storiesthe seventh day of rest in the rst creation story (Genesis 2:2). The early Christians celebrated the day of Jesus resurrection (Acts 20:7) and saw it as a time for the community to come together and break bread as Jesus had called on them to do in his memory (Luke 22:19). Most current expressions of Christianity recognise the importance of Saturday/Sunday worship. The Roman Catholic, Anglican and Orthodox churches recognise Sunday as the day of observance. Seventh Day Adventists and Seventh Day Baptists currently worship on Saturday. Initially Christians worshipped on Saturday, but as the religion moved into the Hellenic world it was immersed in Roman society, where Sunday was the day of religious observance. There was also a desire among some Christians to distance themselves from Jewish practice of Sabbath observance. In 321 CE the Emperor Constantine declared Sunday to be the day of rest for the empire. This was made binding for Christians by the Council of Laodicea in 360 CE.
FIG. 11.25 The Last Supper
295
Catholic worship service: The primary Catholic worship service for Saturday/Sunday worship is the Mass. The format includes an Opening Prayer, Liturgy of the Word (including readings from the Old and New Testaments), a Homily, Liturgy of the Eucharist and a Closing Prayer. Anglican worship service: At a celebration of the Eucharist the format includes a Gathering Prayer, the Word of God (including readings from Old and New Testaments), a Homily and Petitions, Holy Communion and a Commissioning Prayer. (There are some differences between Low Church and High Church [evangelical and Anglo-Catholic] services.) Orthodox worship service: The Orthodox service is called the Divine Liturgy. It begins with the Liturgy of the Catechumens leading to the Epistle Lesson, the Gospel and then the Sermon. The Liturgy of the Faithful follows. In this, communion is shared. Finally a prayer of Thanksgiving and Benediction is given. Quaker worship service: The meeting begins with the practice of sitting together in silence. From time to time, a member of the group may be moved to speak, offering a message that is unplanned but prompted by the Holy Spirit. People sing, read or pray for the group out loud. The meeting room is simple, with chairs and a table holding a Bible and a copy of Quaker Faith and Practice. The elders shake hands as a sign of peace and then tea is shared. Salvation Army: The Army puts great emphasis on personal faith and a spiritual relationship with God. It does not feel that New Testament writings command that believers share the Last Supper meal as a communion service. Meetings dont have a set order of service but often include music and singing. Bible readings are an essential part of the service. An ofcer usually leads the meeting and gives the sermon.
FIG. 11.26 Formal Christian worship service
How Saturday/Sunday worship expresses Christian beliefs Belief is central to the practice of Saturday/Sunday worship. The service is focused on readings from scripture (with sermon/homily) and/or the celebration of holy communion. The scripture readings may include focus on readings from Old and New Testaments. In Catholic, Orthodox and Anglo-Catholic services, the priest reads the readings from the Gospels. For many Protestant communities, the Word has primacy and the sermon is a key tool for analysing it. Services in all denominations usually include prayers and hymns. Not all Saturday/Sunday worship services include holy communion.
FIG. 11.27 Home church Bible study
296
TABLE 11.5 Beliefs about holy communion EXPRESSION OF CHRISTIANITY

Anglican (AngloCatholic, High Anglican), Catholic and Orthodox Lutheran
BELIEF ABOUT HOLY COMMUNION

transubstantiation
EXPLANATION
The bread and wine become the actual body and blood of Christ.
consubstantiation
The bread and wine stay as bread and wine and also become the body and blood of Christ. The bread and wine are symbolic of the body and blood of Christ.
Anglican, Uniting Church and Evangelical
symbol
Baptist, Seventh Day Adventist, Church of Christ Salvation Army, Quakers
memorial
The memory of Jesus sacrice.
do not celebrate communion
There is no need to celebrate this event.
The significance of Saturday/Sunday worship For the individual adherent, the worship service is a means of connection with God in the time spent in personal reection and meditation on the scriptures. It is an opportunity to reconnect with the memory of the Last Supper and reect on how faith offers spiritual direction for the individual. It is a chance to reect on the ethical directions from the sermon given during the service. For the Christian community, the practice of communal worship is an important action. Fellowship is an important element of all Christian communities. The service provides an opportunity to instruct members in aspects of faith. This is done through the readings from Old and New Testaments and the sermon or homily. The celebration of the Lords Supper (Eucharist/communion) is an opportunity in some denominations to remember or in others to share a sacrament.
activity
Use the following synonyms for analysis and the scaffold to prepare an analysis of the signicance of the practice of Saturday/Sunday worship for the Christian community. ANALYSIS: appraisal, assessment, break down, criticism, critique, diagnosis, test, enquiry, examination, investigation, review, study. ANALYSE: appraise, arrange, assess, break down, catalogue, classify, derive, distinguish, evaluate, explore, scan, scrutinise. SCAFFOLD: Component: explained Relationship claried
297
Review and assess

Review
1. Everything about Paul is arguable, his life, death, authorship of his letters, theology, signicance in the history and convolutions of Christianity. He recognises and praises women as apostlesand as prophets, teachers and spiritual leaders Half the letters ascribed to Paul are pseudo-Pauline these soften or contradict Pauls most egalitarian and inclusory stands, as does the later Acts of the Apostles, in which Paul is a chief actor but presented as less threatening to the Roman authorities after the Jewish revolt of the late 60s. (Frank White, Turkish Daily News, 20 October 2007) Can St Paul still be a signicant person for Christianity if Whites assertions are true? Explain why or why not. 2. The Alliance of Religions and Conservation (ARC), a group that works with many of the worlds religions, released a Faith Statement in 2003 that challenged Christians to see a way forward on the environmental challenge: For some Christians, the way forward lies in a rediscovery of distinctive teachings, lifestyles, and insights contained within their tradition. For others, it requires a radical rethinking of what it means to be Christian. For yet others, there is still a struggle to reconcile centuries of humancentred Christian teaching with the truths that the environmentalists are telling us about the state of the world we are responsible for creating. For all of them, the core remains the belief in the Creator God who so loved the world that he sent his only begotten Son, that whoever believes in him should have eternal life (John 3:16). In the past, we can now see, this promise of life eternal has often been interpreted by the churches as meaning only human life. The challenge to all Christians is to discover anew the truth that Gods love and liberation is for all creation, not just humanity; to realise that we should have been stewards, priests, cocreators with God for the rest of creation but have actually often been the ones responsible for its destruction; and to seek new ways of living and being Christians that will restore that balance and give the hope of life to so much of the endangered planet. Have the Christian churches responded to the ARCs challenge? Explain your answer. 3. Outline the signicance of the use of water for the Christian ceremony of baptism.
298

Extended response (15 marks) 4. a. Link ONE signicant Christian practice to TWO Christian beliefs. b. Describe the signicance for the individual of ONE of the following Christian practices: baptism marriage ceremony Saturday/Sunday worship. c. Explain how Christian ethical teachings inuence the lives of adherents. Choose an aspect from ONE of the following areas: bioethics environmental ethics sexual ethics.
10. Explain the Christian ethical teachings of bioethics OR environmental ethics OR sexual ethics, by giving examples. Extended response (20 marks) 11. Assess the effect on Christianity of ONE signicant person or school of thought in Christianity, other than Jesus.
12. Explain the contribution of ONE signicant person or school of thought, other than Jesus, on both the development and expression of Christianity. 13. Describe Christian ethical teachings on bioethics OR environmental ethics OR sexual ethics. 14. Explain how the beliefs of Christianity are demonstrated in EITHER baptism, OR the marriage ceremony OR Saturday/Sunday worship.
5.
Discuss the impact of a signicant person or school of thought, other than Jesus, on Christianity. Explain Christian ethical teachings on bioethics environmental ethics OR sexual ethics.
6.
OR
7.
Describe ONE signicant practice within Christianity drawn from: baptism marriage ceremony Saturday/Sunday worship. Analyse the impact of a signicant person or school of thought, other than Jesus, on Christianity. Outline the Christian ethical teachings on bioethics OR environmental ethics OR sexual ethics.
8.
9.
299
Hinduism
The focus of this study is the contribution of significant people, ideas, practices and ethical teachings to an understanding of Hinduism as a living religious tradition. The study of Hinduism is to be of the WHOLE tradition where applicable.
Outcomes
A student: H1 explains aspects of religion and belief systems Shankara Ramanuja Madhva Mirabai (Mira Bai) Bhakti Movement Ram Mohan Roy Ramakrishna Mohandas Gandhi Purva Mimamsa school of thought Vedanta school of thought another person or school of thought signicant to Hinduism the effect of that person OR school of thought on Hinduism Ethics
ONE
of the following areas of ethical teaching in Hinduism: bioethics environmental ethics sexual ethics
Content
Students learn about: Signicant people and ideas the contribution to Hinduism of one signicant person or school of thought, other than the Vedas, drawn from:
Signicant practices in the lives of adherents signicant practice within Hinduism other than daily prayer drawn from:
ONE
marriage ceremony pilgrimage temple worship

HSC | Chapter 12 Hinduism
301
ADVAITA
Shankaras teaching of non-duality, that everything in its innermost essence, is Brahman. the concept of doing no harm, nonviolencenot only in deed but also in thought and word. twelve poets and saints from South India, followers of Vishnu. The forerunners of the Bhakti Movement. the birthplace of Rama. devotional songs. loving devotional worship of a personal god, an important expression of Hinduism. Absolute Being or Supreme Being, the transcendent divine reality. the viewing of the image of the deity in the inner sanctuary. religious followers. a set of values that supports and sustains normal life in the world. A persons religious duty. books containing specic ethics addressing specic religious duties. follower. Untouchables or Gods people. soul or individual self that experiences death and rebirth. sexual or sensual pleasure. the warrior class (varna) of Hindu society. a Hindu festival held every four years, culminating in the Maha (Great) Kumbh Mela held once every twelve years at Prayaga. a symbol or sign indicating the Absolute Being, originally thought to be a phallic symbol, a symbol of potency associated with the god Shiva. a title given to a person of outstanding character and spirituality, translated as great soul. A person who is great in spirit.
MANDAP MANDIR MANTRA
the wedding altar as prepared by the brides family. a Hindu temple. a short saying or verse from the Vedas uttered to invoke the power of a deity, a spiritual formula containing a name of God. liberation from samsara, the cycle of rebirths, and the discovery of the true self. a group of poets and saints from South India who were devotees of Shiva. worship involving offerings to a deity. an ascetic or holy man. renunciatea person in the nal stage of life who has renounced the world. persistence in the truth. devotees of Shiva. Also known as Shaivites. rites or offerings for departed relatives given at puja. artisan class (varna) of Hindu society. the mark made with red paste on the brides hair parting. a joyous Hindu festival held in January or February each year. outcastes, people who lived on the fringes of settlements. Gandhi called them Harijans, Gods people. Untouchability is now outlawed in India. The term in common usage today is dalit. followers or devotees of the god Vishnu. Also known as Vaishnavites. merchant class (varna) of Hindu society. the most sacred place of pilgrimage, situated on the River Ganga (Ganges). the four major classes of society. marriage. pilgrimage.
AHIMSA
ALVARS
MOKSHA
AYODHYA BHAJAN/KIRTAN BHAKTI
NAYANARS PUJA SADHU SANNYASIN/ SANNYASI SATYAGRAHA SHAIVAS SHRADDHA SHUDRA SOODAR TEPPAM UNTOUCHABLES
BRAHMAN DARSHANA DEVOTEES DHARMA
DHARMASHASTRA DISCIPLE HARIJANS JIVA KAMA KSHATRIYAS KUMBH MELA
VAISHNAVAS VAISHYA VARANASI VARNAS VIVAHA YATRA
LINGA
MAHATMA
302

Shankara
Many believe Shankara (788820 CE) is the most important of the Hindu teachers. Unfortunately, the accounts of his life that are available cannot be relied on as historical truth, for they were composed by followers several centuries after he died. But they do convey a lot of valuable information about his ideas and teachings. According to these legends, Shankara left home in his early youth in search of a guru (spiritual teacher). After travelling north through the country he found his guru and was duly instructed and initiated as a wandering ascetic or sannyasin. Thereafter he began to travel throughout the whole country, gathering disciples along the way, and emerging victorious from numerous debates with the followers of other schools of Hindu thought. Shankara is said to have established monastic institutions in the north, south, east and west of
FIG. 12.1 Shankara with his followers
India, many of which are still in existence today. He composed a number of works and it is upon these writings that his historical reputation rests. Most of his writings took the form of commentaries on sacred texts, principally the main Upanishads and the Bhagavad Gita. Many people still study his writings today. Shankaras teachingAdvaita The central message of Shankaras teaching comes from the Upanishads. It claims that Brahman is the sole reality and that all living beings are, in their innermost essence, identical to Brahman. An important question at this time concerned how the world came about from Brahman, the absolute spiritual reality. It is a fundamental premise in much of Indian thought that whatever changes cannot be eternal and whatever is not eternal cannot be fully real. The Upanishads teach that Brahman is eternal. But if Brahman is the source of the universe, then Brahman would have to undergo some change
303
in the act of the production of the universe. How, then, could Brahman be said to be changeless and eternal? One of the problems that Shankara faced was how to account for what the Upanishads said: that Brahman is eternal and that Brahman is the source of the universe. According to Shankara, only Brahman really exists. Brahman is changeless and therefore eternal and absolutely real. Brahman is pure Being and pure Consciousness. The universe appears in Brahman, and Brahman does not undergo any change. In accounting for this, Shankara gives the example of how a rope appears as a snake. A person can mistake a piece of rope lying on the ground for a snakethe appearance of the snake cannot be denied, but the rope has not actually changed into a snake. The snake is therefore an unreal appearance while the rope is real. In a similar way, Shankara says, Brahman has not undergone any change, and yet the universe has appeared in Brahman. According to Shankara, Brahman seems to be associated with a wondrous power called maya, and it is by means of this power that the universe appears. Shankara does not deny the empirical appearance of the universe, but he says that it is not absolutely real, for only Brahman is absolutely real. He says that by analysis we can see that the universe is other than what it seems to be. For example, a wooden table has no existence of its own apart from the wood that comprises it, and the wood has no existence apart from its constituents (the cells of wood). These cells are made up of atoms, which in turn are reducible to smaller parts and still smaller parts, and so on. Thus the universe, which seems so solid and substantial, is found when analysed to be much less than substantial. The central idea in Shankaras teaching is that the essence of the individual soul is identical to Brahman. This can be explained through an illustration that Shankara himself used. Suppose that there are a number of clay pots. The pots may be different in size and shape, but each exists in space, and space is simply one. The one space seems to be divided by the pots. Shankara says that physical bodies are analogous to the pots and that there exists a single reality in and through all bodies that is analogous to the space. That reality is Brahman. Shankaras teaching is called Advaita or non-duality, and is an attempt to offer a consistent explanation of the Upanishads, which reveal that everything in its innermost essence is Brahman. Shankara taught that it is the ignorance of our true nature that keeps us bound, and when we gain the insight into who we are, namely Brahman, then we will be liberated from future rebirth. The teachings of Shankara are encapsulated in a traditional verse: Brahman is real, the world is unreal. The individual soul is Brahman itself and is not other than Brahman.
The teachings encapsulated
of Shankara are in a traditional
verse: Brahman is real, the world is unreal.
activities
1. Describe the nature of Shankaras writings and when and where he wrote them. 2. What is the central message of Shankaras teaching? 3. How does Shankara see or interpret Brahman? 4. Why is Shankaras teaching called non-duality (Advaita)?
304
FIG. 12.2 Ramanuja
Ramanuja said that there are three real entities: God, all of the souls and the physical universe. This is unlike the teaching of Shankara, who said that only Brahman is truly real. Ramanuja developed a particular theological model of the relation of the souls and the world to God. He said that just as the human person is a soul within a body, so God can be considered to be the Soul indwelling in everything. All individual souls and the entire material world have God as their innermost Soul; accordingly, the souls and the world can be looked upon, in a metaphorical way, as comprising his body. Ramanujas religious philosophy is called Vishishtadvaita, meaning that God is One, though qualied by the real existence of all souls and matter. The teaching of Ramanuja provided an important philosophical and theological base to the religion of loving devotion to a personal God. The bhakti tradition continued to develop in the centuries after Ramanuja.
Ramanuja
After Shankara, a religious teacher called Ramanuja (10171137 CE) gathered many disciples around him. He opposed Shankaras teachings, putting forward a very different interpretation of the scriptures. His teaching did not follow the Upanishads as closely as the teaching of Shankara did. Ramanujas teachingVishishtadvaita Ramanujas teaching was part of the theistic devotional movement called bhakti, or loving devotion to a personal god. This has persisted in India for over 2000 years and remains one of the characteristic features of Hinduism today. Ramanuja said that Brahman is not an abstract Being, but a personal God. For Ramanuja, there was only one supreme God, Lord Vishnu. The purpose of life is to cultivate loving devotion to Vishnu and to surrender to him. Vishnu bestows his grace on a soul who has surrendered to him, and at the time of death that soul will go to the heaven of Vishnu and remain there forever. Other souls continue to be reborn as celestial beings, human beings or animals until, having achieved human birth, they devote themselves to Vishnu and gain liberation through his grace.
activities
1. How did Ramanujas teachings differ from Shankaras? 2. How did Ramanuja and Shankara view God differently? 3. Who did Ramanuja see as God and why? 4. What are the three real entities that Ramanuja wrote of, and how did these views differ from Shankaras?
FIG. 12.3 A woman lights up burning sticks in a bhakti temple in Indonesia.
305
The Bhakti Movement Loving devotion to a personal God is one of the characteristic features of popular Hinduism. There are many gods in Hinduism, and they are understood in different ways. A notable example of the bhakti tradition is the Hare Krishna Movement (ISKCON), whose adherents are followers of Krishna.
The Bhakti Movement

Today there many sectarian followers of the various bhakti traditions that developed in Hinduism from the rst centuries of the Common Era. These sectarian devotees generally fall into two groups. The rst group consists of Shaivas, who worship Shiva as the sole Supreme Being. The second group is made up of the exclusive devotees of Vishnu (or his incarnations as Rama or Krishna) and of Lakshmi, the wife of Vishnu. The devotees of these two deities are called Vaishnavas and consider Vishnu to be the sole Supreme Being. From the sixth century CE the Bhakti Movement gained momentum. In bhakti thinking God is usually thought of in a very personal way as possessing a form and having wonderful attributes. This teaching can be traced to the Bhagavad Gita. Though the movement may have had its origins in the north of India, it was in the south that it developed most fruitfully. Between the sixth and ninth centuries CE, the devotees of Vishnu were called Alvars and the devotees of Shiva were called Nayanars, and they wandered from temple to temple in the south of India composing and singing religious poetry of intense devotional fervour. The collections of these hymns, composed in the Tamil language, form an important part of the sacred devotional literature of southern India. Gradually the Bhakti Movement spread throughout the entire country, bringing its message of passionate devotion. This was accompanied by the idea of social equalityfor the bhakti devotee, caste had no meaning. The followers of the bhakti traditions say that liberation means going to heaven, which results only from the grace of the god, who becomes pleased with the devotion of the worshipper. Thus, while some Hindus consider that liberation means the knowledge of identity of the innermost Self with the Absolute Spirit, many others believe that liberation is the result of devotion to a personal deity. Shaivas The Shaivas also worship the wife of Shiva in her various forms as Parvati, Kali and Durga, as well as Ganesha and Subramanya, the two sons of Shiva and Parvati. Some Shaivas will be especially devoted to Shiva, others to Parvati, Kali or Durga, and still others will be especially devoted to Ganesha or Subramanya. The choice belongs to the devotee, who will speak of his or her ishta-devata (favourite deity). Thus a particular deity can be the special object of devotion and worship.
FIG. 12.4 Festival of Shiva
activity
Using the Sydney ISKCON website, answer the following questions. Outline the history of the ISKCON movement. Include the name of the founder and the scriptural foundations. What is Krishna Consciousness and what are its teachings? Describe their worship. Explain their emphasis on food. Why is the farming community an important aspect of this movement? Name some of their methods of outreach to the wider community.
306
Vaishnavas The Vaishnavas tend to play down the importance of Shiva and the gods connected to Shiva. Among Vaishnavas, some will be especially devoted to Vishnu, others to his incarnations as Rama and Krishna. The goddess Lakshmi does not receive as much exclusive devotion as the goddesses Kali or Durga.
father-in-law attempted to poison her using a liquid offering to the image of Krishna. By custom, the devotee should receive whatever has been offered to the god as a consecrated gift. She drank the poison but it had no effect on her; instead, she glowed with health and radiance. In her devotional songs Mira Bai frequently refers to her drinking poison.
activities
1. The followers of the various bhakti traditions fall into two groups: Shaivas and Vaishnavas. Research each and explain how their beliefs differ. 2. How did the Bhakti tradition spread through India? 3. How do followers of bhakti view liberation compared with other Hindus?
Mira Bai
It is hard to distinguish the life of Mira Bai (150373 CE) from the legends that have grown up around her. Mira Bai came from Rajasthan, a region of deserts and fortress-like kingdoms to the west of Delhi. Even today much of Rajasthan remains similar, both architecturally and culturally, to how it was in the time of Mira Bai. Her story Mira Bai is believed to have been a princess who, ever since she was a little girl, was devoted solely to Lord Krishna. She did not want to marry, but against her wishes her family arranged that she be married to the son of a neighbouring princely family. As was the custom, the bride went to live with her husbands family. Her life thereafter was one of struggle and conict with the family, who wanted her to conform to the traditional role of a wife. This conict comes through in a number of her poems and highlights the limited role of a woman in traditional Indian society. She was not expected to be anything other than a wife and mother. Mira Bai soon disappointed her mother-in-law and her husbands family because she did not conform to the pattern of behaviour expected of a young bride. She spent her time in the company of visiting holy men and was indifferent to all other interests. Her sisters-in-law tried to dissuade her from such pursuits, but in vain. Finally her
FIG. 12.5 Kusum Sarovar Lake and temple in Vrindavan, India
In time Mira Bai escaped the connes of her husbands family. She travelled to Vrindavan, near Delhi, a place sacred to devotees of Krishna. It was here that Krishna was believed to have spent his childhood and youth. She was especially devoted to Krishna, and often spoke of the legend of Krishna as the Lifter of the Mountain, referring to his miracle of raising a hill to provide shelter for his friends from continuous rain and storms. In Vrindavan Mira met with other devotees of Krishna and was soon at the centre of the circle of Krishna worshippers. Later she went to the Krishna temple at Dwarka, a city on the Arabian Sea in the westernmost part of India associated with the later life of Krishna. Her husbands family repeatedly tried to persuade her to return, and eventually she relented. Before she could go back, however, she merged into the image of Krishna while at worship in the temple and was not seen again. Mira Bais poems to Krishna are poems of love and longing, and convey the pain of a lovers separation. They form a part of the culture of bhakti. Indeed, Mira Bai is one of the best known of the bhakti poets. Her poetry is neither elaborate nor articial; it is folk poetry, written in a simple and fresh style. Mira Bais poems are especially popular
307
in Rajasthan and other parts of northern India. Some of her poems have been set to music with lively rhythms so that they can be sung in homes or temples by groups of worshippers. This type of communal singing is called bhajan or kirtan, and it forms an important part of popular Hindu devotion. The principal theme in Mira Bais poetry is her single-minded love of Krishna and her relationship with him. This is not a placid or abstract idea of love; the poems are full of emotion, such as the sadness of separation. They record Mira Bais longing for Krishna, and in one of them she sees herself as someone who has been mystically wedded to him, his secret bride. The following is one of Mira Bais poems. Her poems reect the difculties of her personal life, her loving relationship with Lord Krishna, and her sadness at the feeling of separation from him. Life without Hari [Krishna] is no life, friend, And though my mother-in-law ghts, My sister-in-law teases, The rana [king] is angered, A guard is stationed on a stool outside, and a lock is mounted on the door, How can I abandon the love I have loved in life after life? Miras Lord is the clever Mountain Lifter: Why would I want anyone else? Sister, I had a dream that I wed the Lord of those who live in need: Five-hundred-sixty thousand people came and the Lord of Braj [Krishna] was the groom. In dream they set up a wedding arch; in dream he grasped my hand; in dream he led me around the wedding re and I became unshakeably his bride. Miras been granted her mountain lifting Lord: from living past lives, a prize. (Mira Bai, quoted in Beck et al, 2005, pp 3934)
FIG. 12.6 Pilgrims at the holy pilgrimage of Alandi, near the city of Pune in India, gather in groups to sing. This communal singing is called bhajan or kirtan.
activities
1. Outline the life of Mira Bai until she merged into the image of Krishna. 2. Why was her life so different from that of other women? 3. Discuss as a class what is special about Mira Bais poetry that it forms part of the culture of bhakti.
poems of love and longing, and convey the pain of a lovers separation.
Mira Bais poems to Krishna are
308
Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi

Mahatma Gandhi, as he is most commonly known (18691948), is one of the outstanding gures of modern times. He did not, however, display any signs of his future greatness as a young man. He was a mediocre student. He was married at the age of thirteen, which in the 19th century was the local custom, to a girl of his own age. He wrote in An Autobiography: The Story of My Experiments with Truth that in his youth he enjoyed an active sex life with his young wife. However, later in life he took a vow of celibacy. In his autobiography he expressed a feeling of guilt for engaging in sex when he should have been attending to his dying father. The memory of this event seems to have left a lasting impression on him; he became an opponent of child marriage, and his youthful interest in sex was transformed into a near obsession with celibacy. Gandhi was sent to England to study law. In 1893 he accepted an offer of a temporary job in South Africa, returning to India in 1914. It was during these formative years in South Africa, when he became involved in the struggle for the rights of Indians against discrimination by the South African government, that Gandhi became increasingly interested in religion and developed the ideas for which he later became famous. He had a lawyers mind: careful, systematic and shrewd. What he read he considered carefully; and it was the ideas that he discovered in books such as The Kingdom of God Is Within You by the Russian novelist Leo Tolstoy and Unto the Last by John Ruskin, an alternative social thinker of the time, that changed the course of his life. Among the scriptures, the Bhagavad Gita was of immense importance to him; he also read the Bible and found the New Testament very moving, especially the Sermon on the Mount. Gandhi believed that God is present in all religions but is the sole property of none. He thought that each religion developed as an attempt by human beings to understand God, but that it is not possible for the nite fully to understand the innite. He therefore saw no need of conversion, for no religion could claim to possess the whole truth. In his prayer meetings he would say prayers from the sacred books of all of the great world religions. For Gandhi, God was a nameless and formless Being who could not be positively described by any attribute other than Truth. Gandhi said that God is Truth; sometimes he even said that Truth is God.
What does Mahatma mean? The term Mahatma is a title that is sometimes given to a person of outstanding moral character and spirituality. Though the word is generally translated great soul, it means a person who is great in spirit, someone who is not small, that is, selsh or petty-minded or mean. Gandhi was a man whose concern was essentially ethical, as we can see from the way he dened the nature of God as Truth. One of the main features of his teaching was ahimsa (nonviolence/non-injury), which he looked upon as the supreme virtue. In developing his views on non-violence, Gandhi was especially inuenced by the Indian religion of Jainism and the Sermon on the Mount. The combination of Gandhis two concerns, truth and non-violence, led to the development of his famous method of resistance against British rule in India. He called his method satyagraha (persistence in the truth). For Gandhi this involved more than passive resistance. It meant that a person remained uninchingly steadfast in the pursuit of a right and just cause, never bearing hatred towards
FIG. 12.7 Mahatma Gandhi
309
those who stand in opposition, and always being willing to endure even severe physical punishment without seeking to retaliate. In the end, Gandhi said, opponents will see the error of their ways, and truth will win. Such was the idea that Gandhi espoused. He tried to practise it in his own life and to communicate it to his followers in their political struggle against British rule. Gandhi not only tried to end British rule in India; he also sought to reform some of the practices that had developed within Hinduism. He opposed the concept of untouchability, according to which many Hindus were considered to be outside the four main varnas (classes) and were ignored and ill treated by the higher classes. Gandhi called the Untouchables Harijans, or Gods people, and argued that untouchability had no place in Hinduism. He made enemies among some conservative Hindu groups in his efforts to end this type of discrimination.
Gandhis many writings consist largely of his replies to the numerous letters that he received. He discussed many different topics in his letters. In a single mornings correspondence he could write about God to one person, offer naturopathic advice to another, advocate celibacy to a third, and discuss the best way to build a hygienic latrine with someone else. All of these were important matters to Gandhi. Indeed, he was a man for whom every detail of life was important. His practical emphasis is demonstrated by his advocacy of the spinning wheel as a national symbol. For Gandhi the spinning wheel represented a simple, nonindustrial, self-sufcient, village way of life whereby people supplied their own needs and were able to earn some extra money. What seemed to be an odd symbol was chosen because it had a practical dimension, and this should tell us something about the nature of the man. In 1948 Gandhi was shot at one of his prayer meetings by a Hindu extremist who thought that he was too concerned with the welfare of Muslims. As he died, he uttered the name of Rama, the Hindu god who is worshipped as the embodiment of a life of virtuous conduct. Gandhi, too, is venerated in India because he lived such a life of virtuous conduct.
activities
1. 2. Outline Gandhis early life before he was married at thirteen years of age. How important do you think Gandhis years in Africa were to developing his views on religion and life? Explain why. What relation did Gandhi see between different religions and God, and how did this inuence his view of God? Discuss why truth was very important to Gandhi. Where is it suggested that Gandhi got his ideas about non-violence? How did Gandhi apply this non-violent truth against the British governing India? Why was satyagraha more than passive resistance? How did Gandhi try to reform the Indian people and religion? Why is the spinning wheel an important symbol and what does it represent?
3.
4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.
10. How did Gandhi die and why?

FIG. 12.8 Mahatma Gandhi
310
Hindu ethics
Hindu ethical teachings, whether bioethical, environmental or sexual, all start from the same point, the sacredness of life. Further information on the underlying ethical principles of Hinduism can be found in Chapter 2. soul is different from that of the Judaeo-Christian religions. Hindus believe that the individual soul (jiva) does not perish on the death of the body, but will be reborn again and again until it nds spiritual liberation. The soul has been reborn countless times in the past and will continue to be reborn in the future. Krishna referred to this point in chapter two of the Bhagavad Gita as one reason for Arjuna not to leave the battleeld. Therefore, while abortion is prohibited as an unnatural act, the attitude of Hindus towards it is not the same as that of Christians because their attitude towards life is different from that held in Christianity. Hindus believe that the soul does not have one life in this world but a series of lives, and so if the body for some reason is destroyed, the soul in that body will be reborn in another body.
Bioethics
The Laws of Manu, written some 2000 years ago, emphasise the importance of married couples having children. Children are important to Hindus, and it is the hope of most couples that they will have a son. With this attitude it is not surprising that Hinduism, while it offers no objection to contraception, holds that abortion is not permissible. In theory there is general acceptance of the various reproductive technologies although the higher castes will not accept donor sperm. It is this need to keep the lineage pure that makes adoption unacceptable to many. In practice, however, these technologies are rarely used. Abortion The following passage demonstrates the reverence that Hinduism holds for life. All life is precious because God is the source of everything. His being is the source of all being, the seed of all things that in this life have their life He is God, hidden in all beings, their innermost soul who is in all. He watches the works of creation, lives in all things, watches all things. (Svetasvatara Upanishad)
In Him all things exist, from Him all things originate. He has become all. He exists on every side. He is truly the all. (Mahabharata Shanti Parva 4756) Neither do the Dharmashastra sanction abortion, and they specify certain atonements that a person should perform in order to expiate the sin of an abortion. Despite the fact that the Dharmashastra state that the unborn foetus has life, abortion in India is legal. It ought to be noted that while abortion is not sanctioned in Hinduism, and in fact is considered reprehensible, the Hindu understanding of the
FIG. 12.9 Krishna as the charioteer with Arjuna, Hindu mythology
311
Without a central authority Hindus must come to their own decisions regarding such issues as abortion. To have a male child is to full the parents obligations. In contrast, the birth of a female child is the beginning of a nancial burden. The religious and ethical texts have very little inuence on daily life.
activity
If the Hindu dharma, which is the basis of Hindu societys ethics, makes no distinction between social and moral motivations, what does this mean for the issue of abortion? Discuss as a class.
The earth is our mother and we are her children. (Source unknown) For Hinduism, the well-being of humankind is dependent on proper and careful use of natural resources. The care and protection of the environment is a religious duty. The universe, in its entirety, is seen as a manifestation of God, as seen in the hymn to Purusha: Purusha is the whole universe, that which was and which shall be. Such is his greatness One quarter of all beings make up a quarter of him The other three quarters are immortal in heaven Thence in all directions he spreads into living beings and inanimate matter. (Rig Veda X.90) According to some of the ancient Hindu scriptures, especially the Upanishads, the Supreme Being did not create the world out of some preexisting material, nor was the world created out of nothing. Instead, the world was created, or rather emitted, from the Supreme Being. Thus there are statements in the Upanishads such as space arose from Brahman and That Being saw: I shall become many, I shall be born. The Upanishad conception of the world, which not all Hindus accept, is that the Supreme Being produced the material that makes up the world from within himself, for there is no mention in these scriptures that matter came from any other source. The world is not something that stands apart from God; on the contrary, the matter that makes up the world has
been emitted from the Being of God in the act of creation. The formless God has assumed a form, as it were, and that form is the universe. The universe is, then, the body of the Supreme Being, who is essentially formless. The consequence of such a conception of matter is that the understanding of nature is very different from that of some other religions. If the universe is the material form of the formless Supreme Being, then the world is not something separate from God. Rather, the whole world is divine and sacred. Therefore everythingspace, atmosphere, re, water, earth and all things that grow from the earthshould be looked upon with awe and treated with veneration. The ancient Hindu conception of nature presents a radical alternative view to the perspective of most of the other great religions. Much of Indias population lives by farming. In cultivating the soil it is inevitable that some creatures will be killed. Recognition of this fact is found in the Laws of Manu, which provides rituals and prayers for seeking forgiveness for harm caused to these creatures. A householder has ve slaughter houses: the hearth, the millstone, the broom, the mortar and the water jar: by using these he sins. The householder is expected to share his food with all living beings. A householder should regard deer, camels, donkeys, mice, snakes, birds and bees as his sons: for what difference is there between his sons and them? (Bhagavata Purana 7,14,9) Trees and plants hold a special place in Hindu rituals: Even if there is only one tree full of owers and fruits in a village, that place becomes worthy of worship and respect. (Mahabharata) It is not surprising that vegetarianism is a common practice among Hindus. It is seen by many to be a sign of religious purity and often of caste status. Some Hindus will eat mutton and chicken. But others will not eat red foods such as beetroot or watermelon because red is the colour of blood, nor will they drink red wine. Other people abstain from eating meat on certain days of the week, or some fast in order to honour the gods, believing this act will bring merit as well as improve their self-control and physical well-being.
312
Why is the cow considered sacred? It is a common sight in India to see a cow moving leisurely along a road, pausing occasionally to attempt to nibble a vegetable or a piece of fruit from a roadside stall. The shopkeeper will threaten and shout and the cow will move off, unhurt, often with its prize. Why do Hindus have a special respect for the cow? The Hindus of Vedic times marvelled at how the cow could produce warm, white milk from a diet of mere grass. The nutritious milk could then be turned into other valuable products such as curd, butter and ghee. For these Hindus, the cow was so valuable that it was used as the principal form of currency. By the time of the Mahabharata (400 BCE) there was a prohibition against killing cows. This prohibition persists among Hindus today. The cow has economic value, but its sacredness resides in its being seen as the symbol of the earth itself. The earth continually produces fruits, vegetables and grains and it gives all of the resources necessary for life. The cow is like the earth because it takes very little for itself and goes on giving the delicious foods upon which we depend.
FIG. 12.10 Temple dedicated to Shiva and Parvati in Durbar Square, Kathmandu, Nepal
activities
1. Explain how God and environment are intertwined in the Hindu religion and the impact this has on environmental perspectives. 2. How the physical earth is created is very different in Hinduism than in other religions. Explain how. 3. Why would many Hindus not eat red meat? 4. Research activity: Cutting down trees for rewood is a major environmental problem. What is the Chipko Movement and what is it trying to achieve? Outline the Hindu ethical thinking that underlies this movement.
Sexual ethics
In earlier times Hindu men could marry more than one wife, though monogamy was always highly regarded and is now the law. Most of the Hindu deities are married (for example, Shiva and Parvati, Vishnu and Lakshmi, Brahma and Saraswati) and this reinforces the fact that marriage is considered to be the norm in Hindu society.
Hindus believe that kama (sexual pleasure) should be regarded as a legitimate part of life, but that sexual behaviour ought to be restricted to the relations between husband and wife. Therefore sex outside of marriage is not permitted. Even within marriage, some constraints have traditionally been placed on the sexual relations of the couple. For example, it is said that they ought to avoid sex during the time of the womans menstruation. Adultery is forbidden. Heterosexual monogamy is thus the norm for Hinduism. Homosexuality and lesbianism are not treated by Hindus as legitimate alternative forms of sexual behaviour. They are infrequently referred to in the ancient Hindu Dharmashastra, and it would seem that they are looked upon as temporary states correctable by marriage. Not to marry and have children is a violation of a persons dharma. In the past Hindus have had large families because in past times infant mortality was high. Nowadays, many Hindus are restricting the number of children to two or three. Traditionally a son has been more highly valued than a daughter because the son remains in the family, whereas a married daughter will soon live with her husbands family. Also, a son is required to perform the funeral ceremonies of his parents and thereby ensure their welfare after death. On a brides
313
marriage there is an expectation that her father will provide his daughter with a dowry, usually made up of both money and gifts. The amount of the dowry can be substantial and is agreed upon before the marriage can take place. It is sometimes referred to as the bride price. Along with this, it is the brides family that is responsible for most of the wedding expenses. It is not uncommon for this to place a tremendous nancial burden on the brides family. It is not surprising that the preoccupation with male children continues into the present, and Hindus especially rejoice over the birth of a son. The ethics of marriage In Hinduism marriage is regarded as a sacrament. A Hindu wedding is often an elaborate and expensive occasion during which all the relatives and family friends of both the man and the woman come together. The focal point of the ceremony occurs when the groom takes the brides hand and they take seven steps around the sacred re. Each step represents a marriage vow, the seventh representing a vow for their mutual and lasting friendship. After the wedding, the woman formally leaves her parents home to begin life with her husbands family. Nowadays, some married couples living in cities will set up home on their own, though living in an extended family situation is still the usual custom.
FIG. 12.11 Bride and groom around the sacred re
Most Hindu marriages are arranged by the parents, and often the bride and groom will hardly know each otherthough nowadays, among modern Hindus, semi-arranged marriages give couples more latitude to decide for themselves whether or not they wish to marry. Most marriages are arranged between members of a specic subcaste. Modern Hindus are often not especially concerned to observe these restrictions. One unfortunate feature that has crept into many modern marriages is the demand that the brides family supply an expensive dowry to the groom or his family. This can amount to an avaricious exploitation of the brides family by the groom and his familyon occasion the latter will expect that a car, money, household appliances or even a house be given at the time of the wedding. Since marriage is considered to be a sacrament, traditional Hinduism did not allow for divorce. However, divorce was always allowed by custom. Among the four classes of society, the Brahmins, the highest class, had the strictest rules governing marriage and divorce. Nowadays, it is legally permissible in India for Hindus to divorce in specic circumstances such as insanity, impotence or cruelty. The state divorce law, however, is heavily weighted in favour of the male and does not give property rights to the woman. The woman is permitted only very limited maintenance in the event of a divorce.
activities
1. What rules about sex are followed by Hindus? 2. Why did Hindu people traditionally have large families and how has that changed in recent times? 3. Give one example of where an old tradition has survived at the cost of families with female children. 4. What is a sacrament? Hindus regard marriage as a sacrament. What inuence does this have on the meaning and celebration of a marriage? 5. Research the nature of a dowry, and how it has changed from the past to the present. 6. Debate: Divorce should not be allowed in Hindu society.
314
Significant practices
The marriage ceremony
Hindu marriage, vivaha, marks the beginning of the second stage of life, that of the householder. As such it fulls the householders dharma. It is the most important of Hindu samskaras. It also helps full the four Hindu purusharthas (aims of life): dharma (duty), artha (wealth), kama (sensual pleasure) and moksha (release from samsara, the cycle of rebirths). In Vedic times (approximately 1000500 BCE), people married in their late teens or twenties. Later, parents began to arrange for their daughters to be married at a young age, though the couple would not live as man and wife until after the girl had reached puberty. The Kshatriyas, especially, observed the custom of romantic love, as well as marriage by conquest, whereby the girl was won by a display of strength or carried off after victory in battle. One of the reasons why child marriage became prevalent, especially among Brahmins, was the belief that a girl should not marry anyone beneath her own class. It was generally decreed that a boy should marry a girl of the same class as himself, though he could marry a girl of a lower class should he wish. A girl could marry someone of the same class as herself, or of a higher class, but not someone of a lower class. Thus a Brahmin boy should marry a Brahmin girl, but he could also marry a Kshatriya, a Vaishya or a Shudra, though this practice was discouraged. A Brahmin girl, however, could not marry anyone except a Brahmin. This led to Brahmin parents making early marriage arrangements on behalf of their daughters. Nowadays, these distinctions are not as rigidly adhered to as they once were, though it is still most likely that marriages will occur between boys and girls of the same class. The tendency among modern people is for couples to marry later, in their twenties. In arranged marriages, the parents are responsible for choosing marriage partners for their children. If the two sets of parents involved do not know each other directly, each will make enquiries about the other through relatives or acquaintances. Then the parents will take the astrological birth charts of the boy and girl to the astrologer in order that the compatibility of the couple can be determined. (Most parents will have FIG. 12.12 Bride and groom in a traditional Hindu wedding ceremony noted the exact time of birth of their child and will
315
FIG. 12.13 Traditional astrological chart made soon after a childs birth
have had an astrological chart made soon after birth.) If the charts match reasonably well and the couples parents are in agreement, the marriage will go ahead. In modern semi-arranged marriages, couples are introduced to each other by parents or relatives but are able to decide for themselves whether or not they wish to proceed to marriage. Cases where the boy and girl meet and decide to marry, without any arrangement by the parents, have always existed in Hindu society, especially among the Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras. This type of romantic marriage is increasingly being adopted by modern people living in the big cities.
The marriage ceremony is an important social occasion. The atmosphere is one of auspiciousness because the ceremony will take place on an astrologically favourable day. It is a festive occasion with people wearing their best clothes and there is an abundance of food. The ceremony usually takes place at the brides home where her family will welcome the groom and his family. The brides family will have prepared an altar specially, usually in an outdoor area. A large piece of canvas will be spread on the ground and an altar and canopy erected. It is called a mandap. The four pillars represent the parents of the bride and groom and the important role they have played in bringing up their children. It is richly decorated, with the colours of red and silver prominent, symbolising prosperity. Traditionally the groom will arrive at the brides home mounted on a white horse.
activities
1. How was marriage and social class intertwined in Hindu communities before recent times? 2. How has this changed today? The marriage ceremony The rituals of the marriage ceremony vary from region to region and caste to caste. The following is an outline of the characteristics of a Hindu wedding most likely to be undertaken. Prior to the actual ceremony the couple will have exchanged wedding rings to mark their engagement. This ring ceremony is called the misri. Some time after this ceremony and before the wedding, the bride and her family and friends will meet for the mehndi party, where henna and turmeric are used to paint intricate designs on hands and feet. The use of henna is thought to strengthen the bonds of love.
FIG. 12.14 The groom arriving at the brides home mounted on a white horse
316
FIG. 12.15 The groom is offered food.
Accompanying him is a procession of his relatives and friends and a musical band. When the groom arrives he is offered a drink of milk and yoghurt, with honey and ghee. The brides father washes the grooms feet and gives him his wedding clothes. The bride makes her way to the mandap before her father receives the groom there. Her father then gives his daughter to the gods, represented by the re, who in turn give her to the groom. He promises to look after her and to protect her for the rest of her life.
FIG. 12.16 The mandap
317
The re ceremony (homam) A Brahmin priest knowledgeable in the mantras of the Vedas will conduct the homam ceremony. The sacred re is lit, the re and light symbolising God. With the bride and groom standing in front of the sacred re, the priest utters Vedic mantras while pouring offerings of ghee into the re, asking the gods to bless the marriage. The couple are then seated near the re. The priest invites the groom to pour offerings into the re to the accompaniment of further prayers. With the brides hand on his shoulder, the groom says: I am the Sun, you are the Earth. May my seed, planted in you, produce children. May they outlive us. May we love and admire one another and protect each other with a kind heart. May we see, hear and live a hundred autumns. At this point the end of the brides sari may be knotted to the grooms scarf. The brides father will give his daughters right hand into the hand of the man soon to be her husband. The brides father asks the bridegroom to be moderate in his behaviour. Then there is an exchange of gifts, with the grooms mother giving the bride a necklace called a mangala sutra. The husband then says, I hold your hand in the spirit of dharma, we are both husband and wife. They then throw grains of roasted rice into the re.
FIG. 12.17 Pouring offerings into the re
A grinding stone has been placed on the west side of the sacred re while to the north-east of the re is a water jar. The bride steps on this stone, which symbolises a rock. She is demonstrating her willingness and strength to overcome difculties in the pursuit of her duties.
FIG. 12.18 The brides father presents a gift to the groom.
318
The bride and groom have now reached the central part of the ceremony, the Saptapadi (seven steps). The bride and groom walk around the re, and at each of their seven steps a prayer is said: The rst for food The second for power The third for prosperity The fourth for wisdom The fth for children The sixth for health The seventh for friendship The two people are now considered to be married. Barley is poured into the couples hands by her brothers. These grains are offered to the re with the promise that they will work together to help others. The husband marks the parting in his wifes hair with a red paste called sindoor. This mark shows that the woman is married. If the ceremony is performed at night the groom is supposed to point out to his bride the tiny Pole Star, and the bride promises to be as rm in her vows and as constant as the star, saying, The Pole Star is Dhruva [constant]. May I be Dhruva in my husbands family. The priest then sprinkles their heads with water from the water jar. The priests and the elders throw petals and grains of rice over the couple wishing them peace and happiness in their married life. The wedding is followed by a celebration that emphasises the provision of hospitality, in the form of rich and abundant food for all of the guests.
FIG. 12.19 The Saptapadi (seven steps)
activities
1. Why are henna and turmeric used to paint intricate designs on hands and feet? 2. What is a mandap and what does it represent? 3. Using a visual presentation from your research on the Internet, outline the sequence of events that make up a Hindu wedding festival. 4. Why is re an important part of the wedding ceremony? 5. What are the seven prayers said for each of the seven steps around the ame of the ceremony? How important would you consider these for a successful marriage? Discuss your views with other students. 6. What is sindoor and what does it stand for?
319
Pilgrimage for Hindus

Yatra (pilgrimage) and mandir (temple) worship are important aspects of the Hindu religion. For Hindus the physical world is an expression of the divine. Among natural phenomena some mountains and rivers are especially venerated. The river Ganga (Ganges) is considered to be the most sacred of all rivers. According to legend, the Ganga used to ow only in the heavenly regions, but the sage Bhagiratha, wishing to bring its sacred waters to earth, performed severe austerities and eventually his prayer was granted. In order to cushion the earth from the force of the water as it falls from the heavens, Shiva lets the Ganga rst ow through the coils of his matted hair before it reaches the earth high in the Himalayan mountains. Hindus believe that a dip in holy waters puries the soul, especially if it is taken at one of the three main pilgrimage towns along the banks of the Ganga: Haridwar (Hardwar) at the foothills of the Himalayas; Prayaga (Allahabad), where the Ganga joins the Yamuna and is believed also to meet the invisible Saraswati River; and Varanasi (Benares). Today, it is said, there are more sacred sites in India than there are religious communities. Millions of Hindus are engaged in pilgrimage at any time of the year. A pilgrimage is a holiday from the routine of life, a holiday with a religious purpose. By undertaking the challenges of a particular pilgrimage, the devotee hopes for some spiritual benet. The journey will involve selfsacrice and physical hardship in order to help the person focus on his or her spiritual journey. The more difcult the journey, the greater the penance, the closer to moksha a person comes. Pilgrimage is a way of personally giving thanks and it is an expression of faith. Other reasons for going on pilgrimage might be to seek a cure for an illness from the deity of that location. It might be to full a promise when seeking a blessing. Water, particularly running water, is seen as a means of washing away sins so that a person may begin a new life. There are seven sacred rivers in India, each associated with pilgrimage. Places of pilgrimage There are many holy places of pilgrimage in India. There is a mandir to Vishnu at Badrinath and another to Shiva at Kedarnath; both places are high in the Himalayan mountains and can be reached only by undertaking arduous journeys. There are mandirs, mountains and rivers sacred to the gods and goddesses throughout the country from the Himalayas to the very tip of the south of India. Perhaps the most sacred place of all is the city of Varanasi situated on the River Ganga. This city is especially sacred to Shiva, for it is believed that Shiva liberates from rebirth those who die in this city. Some Hindus come to Varanasi when they are old and preparing for death, but many come to bathe in the river because a dip in the Ganga at Varanasi is believed to free the devotee from sin. One special festival is called the Kumbh Mela, a festival that take place four times over a 12-year cycle in four different cities. The largest, the Maha
FIG. 12.20 Crowds of pilgrims during the festival of Khumh Mela sit on ghats on the Ganga at Haridwar, India.
320
Amarnath in the state of Jammu and Kashmir is the site of a Himalayan cave dedicated to the god Shiva.
Amarnath Kashmir
Haridwar, Gangotri, Badrinath and Rishikesh are on the upper reaches of the Ganga. Haridwar is one of the sites of the famous Kumbh Mela pilgrimage. Badrinath is 3000 metres in the Himalayas and is the site of a temple to Vishnu.
PAKISTAN
Gangotri
Vrindaban is a Vaishnavite site where it is believed that Krishna played on the banks of the River Yamuna.
Mount Kailash Badrinath
CHINA
Mount Kailash (Mount Meru) in Tibet is the source of four of Indias most sacred rivers.
Rishikesh Haridwar DELHI Vrindaban Jaipur
NEPAL
Ayodhya
BHUTAN
The city of Ayodhya is believed to be the birthplace of Rama.
Allahabad (Prayaga) is on the conuences of the Ganga and Yamuna rivers.
Allahabad
Varanasi
BANGLADESH S BANGLADESH
Dwarka
INDIA
Kolkata
M MYANMAR
Dwarka is on the coast. It is regarded as Krishnas city. Celebrations of both his birth and death take place here. The Temple of the Mother Goddess, Kali, in Kolkata. Varanasi (Benares) is the most famous pilgrimage site amous site. It is a Shaivite site on the River Ganga. For Hindus, the Ganga is a goddess. Varanasi is associated with rites for the dead. Many people go to the banks of the river to die. It is believed that if a dying person sips the water of the Ganga, his or her soul will be liberated. Corpses are cremated on its banks and their ashes swept into the river.
Mumbai
Hyderbad
Bangalore
Chennai
Rameshwaram Comorin
SRI LANKA
At all these sites there are shrines and dwelling places for sadhus and ascetics.
Comorin and Rameshwaram
FIG. 12.21 Pilgramage sites
321
FIG. 12.22 Many Hindus try to visit Varanasi, a famous pilgrimage site in India, to bathe in the holy Ganga
(Great) Kumbh Mela, is held once every 12 years at Prayaga, a short distance from Allahabad. At this time, in the one place, the equivalent of the entire population of Australia bathes in the Ganga on the single most auspicious day of the festival! In order to undertake a pilgrimage devotees carefully plan their journey. It will be long and arduous, without material comforts and only basic accommodation. On arrival pilgrims perform puja with offerings for their departed relatives, known as the shraddha rites. They will walk around, or circumambulate, the temple, sometimes prostrating themselves as they go, before seeking darshana, the viewing of the deitys image in the inner shrine. Varanasi Varanasi, or Benares as it used to be known, is one of the oldest cities in the world, known to Hindus as a sacred city and a location of pilgrimage. Here the Ganga turns northward towards its source in the Himalayan mountains before resuming its course to the sea. A place where a river turns back towards its source is considered sacred because it symbolises the return of the spiritual seeker to the Source, to God. In India all rivers are sacred, but the Ganga is particularly revered. Many Hindus will try to make the trip to Varanasi at least once in their lives in order to bathe at the special bathing places, ghats, that extend along one side of the river bank. Devotees believe that a pious dip in the Ganga will absolve them of their past sins. In one of the earliest references to pilgrimage, Aitareya Brahmana 7.15, the pilgrim is likened to a growing ower that rises above the dirt: All his sins fall away, slain by the labour of his
journeying. People often return home with a small jar of water from the Ganga to keep in the house, a few drops of which will be sprinkled on the tongue of a dying family member. Varanasi is sacred to all Hindus and has long been regarded as a centre of Hindu learning. But it is especially sacred to the devotees of Shiva, who believe Shiva himself liberates from rebirth those who die in Varanasi. Other Shaivite pilgrimage sites There are a number of other important pilgrimage sites for the followers of Shiva. At Kedarnath, high in the Himalayan mountains, there is a Shiva mandir. People used to have to walk there, but now it is possible to travel most of the way by road. Haridwar, where the Ganga leaves the mountains and enters the plains, is considered the entrance to the Himalayan regions and is a place sacred to the devotees of both Shiva and Vishnu. Another famous centre of pilgrimage is located at Amarnath, in the northern state of Kashmir. Here a sacred cave, situated 4000 metres up in the steep foothills of the Himalayas, is visited by up to 30 000 devout Hindus during one month of the year. The journey, negotiated via a rough track, is hard and dangerous, but pilgrims come to this place because in the interior of the cave, sacred to Lord Shiva, is a symbol of his special potency: the linga. This particular version of the linga is an icicle, standing about two metres tall. It forms every year, though it waxes and wanes with the climate. Upon its size depends the blessing of Shiva on the world: when it is large there will be a fruitful year, but when it is small it signies Shivas anger at the spread of evil.
322
During the festival of Teppam, in January or February each year, images of Shiva, in his incarnation as the Lord Sundareswarar, and of his wife Parvati as the Lady Minakshi, are taken in procession from the temple and oated on huge decorative rafts to an island situated in a vast articial lake. This is an exciting and joyous occasionshops and stalls sell food and drink, and the temple is open day and night. Loud processions take place after dark, when candles, gongs, drums, utes, singing, and dancing add to the excitement. At Prayaga (Allahabad), where the Rivers Ganga and Yamuna merge, the great high gods split the seed of immortality in the form of a single drop of the seminal uid of Shiva. Every 12 years, on the festival of Kumbh Mela, millions of devout Hindus assemble here as pilgrims to bathe in the twiceblessed waters. From here to the point at which the Ganga meets the Brahmaputra, another sacred river, the banks are lined with temples whose steps lead down to the waters. There are many images of the linga of Shiva next to the yoni (womb) of Kalimale and female together. Millions of men and women gather all the way to the delta, ritually bathing, making private devotions and chanting sacred invocations. Southern India has many large temples sacred to Shiva, many of which cover hectares of land and are often constructed of intricately carved granite. There is a famous Shiva mandir at Rameshwaram,
where Rama prayed to Shiva before he travelled the short distance over the sea to Lanka in order to defeat Ravana, the king of the demons. The southern town of Madurai has a famous Shiva mandir. Here Parvati, the wife of Shiva, is known as the goddess Minakshi and is the principal deity of the temple. Chidambaram hosts another ancient, famous and vibrant Shiva mandir in the south of India, where ritual worship is performed by hereditary priests in a way that has remained unchanged for the past thousand years. Vaishnavite pilgrimage sites Sites of pilgrimage for the followers of Vishnu and his incarnations outnumber those available to Shaivas. Important among these are Badrinath in the Himalayan mountains, situated not far from the Shiva mandir of Kedarnath. Badrinath is open to pilgrims for only a few months of the year; the rest of the time it is covered in snow. The temple priest at Badrinath traditionally comes from the south of India. Mathura, in the north, is famous as the birthplace of Krishna, and nearby Vrindavan is the location of the legends concerning his boyhood and youth. Ayodhya is famous as the birthplace of Rama, the hero of the Ramayana. The large mandir to Krishna at Puri on the east coast of India attracts many thousands of pilgrims, as does the Krishna mandir at Dwarka on the west coast. The huge
FIG. 12.23 Parvati, the wife of Shiva, is also known as Minakshi and is the principal deity at this temple in Madurai.
323
Vishnu mandir at Shri Rangam in the south of India is one of great importance. Tirupati, in the south near Chennai, has perhaps become the most famous place of pilgrimage. Many thousands of people come daily to worship and pray to Venkateshwara, a form of Lord Vishnu, and the temple is, after the Vatican, the wealthiest religious institution in the world. The place of pilgrimage in Hinduism In summary, pilgrimage forms an important part of the popular Hindu tradition. In India millions of people at any one time are on the move to various holy sites throughout the country. However, Hindus are not compelled to go on pilgrimage, just as they are not compelled to visit temples. Some people undertake a pilgrimage in order to visit a holy place and take the opportunity of having the sight (darshana) of the deity that resides in the temple. Others go on a pilgrimage in order to pray to a deity at a certain place in the hope that the deity will assist them in the resolution of some personal difculty. For others still, pilgrimage might involve the fullment of a religious vow. Pilgrimage is a legitimate opportunity to travel and experience new places. It is like a holiday, though with a devout goal.
FIG. 12.24 Temple detail
activities
1. It is said that there are more sacred sites in India than there are religious communities. Explain this statement, outlining why sacred sites are important to Hindu people. 2. Why is pilgrimage important to Hindus? 3. Is pilgrimage a compulsory part of being Hindu? If not, why do people still go on a pilgrimage?
Temple worship
Hindus worship individually rather than congregating for common worship. Some gather to sing devotional songs called bhajan or kirtan. But while Hindus are not required to worship in a temple, some may choose to visit a temple frequently while others only rarely. Saturday is a special day to visit the temple for those who worship Vishnu. Monday is a special day for devotees of Shiva. Friday is a special day for devotees of the wife of Shiva. Hindus worship God
but they believe God is present within consecrated images. They do not worship idols. Worship conducted in Hindu temples is similar to home worship, though more elaborate. The deity is believed to be present in the consecrated temple image, having put himself or herself under the care of the devotees as an act of grace towards them. That is why in Hindu temples the image is worshipped, receives offerings of food, and is bathed and rested at regular hours throughout the day. Hindus come to a temple in order to offer their devotions and experience darshanathe sight of the Lord present in the image within the inner sanctuary of the temple. In most temples the Brahmin priests conduct the worship on behalf of the worshipper. The Hindu temple is modelled on the court of a king and is a place of activity, with worshippers constantly coming and going, priests chanting and the sound of musical instruments ringing out at regular hours. Hindu temples have a lively atmosphere. Quiet meditation is done elsewhere. The Hindu temple, often a huge structure of carved stone, contains courtyards and corridors
324
that lead to a small, dark, cave-like shrine where the deity dwells. Entering the temple, the devotee passes through a gateway that is often carved with scenes from Hindu mythology, showing the deeds of gods and sages. The devotee passes from this external world into the courtyard and then through corridors to the centre of the temple. The carvings become less frequent, the way becomes more narrow, the darkness increases. At the centre is the main shrine, dimly lit by ames ickering in brass oil lamps. The priest, waving lighted camphor, reveals to the devotee the form of the deity. In the Hindu temple it is the immanence of God that is indicated by the small inner shrine. The journey to that room is itself a great symbol, laid out in space architecturally, of an interior journey that leads us to the deity within ourselves.
FIG. 12.25 The recently built Murugan Temple in Sydney is remarkable in its detailed sculptures.
An example of temple worship dedicated to Shiva In a Shiva mandir, the inner sanctuary contains the linga, symbol of Shiva. Outside the sanctuary will be a sculptured image of the sacred bull Nandi, which will be facing the linga. Nandi represents singleminded devotion to the god Shiva. A bronze bell hangs outside the shrine. The devotee rings the bell to request the gods attention. Sometimes holy water will be dripping on the linga, anointing it. An oil lamp at the front of the shrine is lit during worship. Hindu temples in Australia There are now Hindu temples in all mainland states of Australia. In New South Wales the major Hindu temples are all in Sydney: the Sri Venkateswara Temple in Helensburgh; the Murugan Temple in Mays Hill; and the Shri Shiva Mandir in Minto. These three temples have websites where students can explore and learn more about Hindu worship in Australia.
activities
1. When do Hindus go to a temple to worship? 2. Is home worship acceptable? Why or why not? 3. What sort of offerings would people bring to a temple? 4. Create an oral presentation outlining how Hindu worship at a temple is different from that of other religious traditions. 5. Visit the website of the Hindu temple nearest to your school, or select a mandir in New South Wales and complete the following activity. Name and locate the mandir. To which deity is it dedicated? When was this mandir built? What is the composition of the worshipping community? Outline the types of information found on the website. Name and explain one or two points of interest that you found on the website.
325
Review and assess

Review
1. Discuss the contribution of ONE signicant person or school of thought, other than the Vedas, to the expression of Hinduism. Explain Hindu ethical teachings on one of the following: bioethics, environmental ethics or sexual ethics. Analyse the signicance of one of the following Hindu practices on the individual: pilgrimage, temple worship or marriage ceremony. Describe the contribution of ONE signicant person or school of thought in the religious tradition of Hinduism. Analyse the impact of the person or school of thought on the religious tradition of Hinduism. Demonstrate how one of the following Hindu practices expresses the beliefs of Hinduism: marriage ceremony, pilgrimage or temple puja. Using research, describe what is happening and why in these Hindu photographs below:
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
326

Extended response (15 marks) 8. a. Link one signicant Hindu practice to two Hindu beliefs. b. Explain how Hindu ethical teachings inuence the lives of adherents. Choose an aspect from one of the following areas: bioethics environmental ethics sexual ethics. c. Describe the contribution to Hinduism made by one signicant person or school of thought, other than the Vedas.
10. a. Explain the signicance of public devotional practices to the Hindu adherent using examples that you have studied. b. Drawing on ONE school of thought or signicant individual you have studied, explain the signicance of their contribution to Hindu adherents. c. What do you think was the motivation behind the person of signicance or school of thought that you studied, for their inuence on Hindu adherents? Extended response (20 marks) 11. Assess the signicance of ONE Hindu practice. Choose from: marriage ceremony; pilgrimage; temple worship.
9. a. Discuss a variety of examples that demonstrate a Hindus view on one of the following: bioethics environmental ethics sexual ethics. b. Discuss the contribution to Hinduism of ONE signicant person or school of thought that you have studied. c. Describe the signicant components in ONE of the following in order for it to be considered a religious act of devotion: pilgrimage temple puja Wesak
12. Analyse the impact of ONE signicant person or school of thought on both the development and expression of Hinduism. 13. Explain Hindu ethical teachings on bioethics OR environmental ethics OR sexual ethics. 14. Analyse the signicance of Hindu beliefs and explain how they impact on both the individual and the community in EITHER the marriage ceremony OR pilgrimage.
327
Islam
The focus of this study is the contribution of significant people, ideas, practices and ethical teachings to an understanding of Islam as a living religious tradition. The study of Islam is to be of the WHOLE tradition where applicable.
Outcomes
A student: H1 explains aspects of religion and belief systems
mam Abu Hanifa Imam Al-Sha

Abu ali Hussein Ibn Sina
Rabia al-Adawiyya Al-Ghazali

Sayyid Maududi
Sayyid Qutb another person or school of thought signicant to Islam

the effect of that person OR school of thought on Islam Ethics
ONE
of the following areas of ethical teaching in Islam: bioethics environmental ethics sexual ethics
Significant practices in the life of adherents

ONE
signicant practice within Islam drawn from:
Content
Students learn about: Significant people and ideas the contribution to Islam of ONE signicant person OR school of thought, other than Muhammad and the Four Rightly Guided Caliphs, drawn from:
Friday prayer at the mosque funeral ceremony Hajj

Khadijah Bint Khuwaylid Aisha Bint AbuBakar Fatima Al Zahra mam Malik
HSC | Chapter 13 Islam
329
DAWA DHIKR
preaching, calling to the acceptance and practice of Islam. the spiritual exercise of mindfulness, (group) recitation or singing of devotional phrases and prayers from the Quran. the theory of knowledge. jurisprudence. used for individual sayings of the Prophet, and as a collective term to refer to the entire corpus of such sayings. As a collective term it is a name for the second foundation text of Islam, the rst being the Quran. the annual pilgrimage to Mecca and the attendant ceremonies held between the seventh and tenth day of dhulhijja, the twelfth month of the Muslim year. acts of devotion, religious observances. ritual consecrated state of one making the pilgrimage; clothing indicating an individual is in this consecrated state. consensus of the ulama (and community) on an issue of Islamic law. the religion revealed to and preached by Muhammad; act of acceptance of this religion. dedicated effort, struggle (moral or physical). Friday. Day of congregational prayer, from which it takes its name. cube-shaped structure in the Sacred Mosque in Mecca, the house of God. a judge in an Islamic court or tribunal. human affairs and relationships. one who professes faith in Islam.
QIYAS QURAN RAKA SALAT
the use of analogy to determine an issue according to Islamic law. the book revealed to Muhammad, the prime foundation text of Islam. a cycle of postures and recitations comprising a unit in the ritual prayer. ritual prayer (used of the ve obligatory daily prayers, collectively or individually). divine highway of life; revealed canonical of Islam in the widest sense of the words. the party of Ali. The wing of Islam that believes that guidance of the community resided in Ali and the Imams descended from him. The twelfth Imam was taken into occultation in 873/4, and will return to introduce the millennium. one who lives an unostentatious life in an attempt to experience the presence of God in the heart. the wing of Islam that believes that the authority and guidance of the community is decided by the community itself. a chapter of the Quran. type of rosary consisting of 99 beads for counting the recitation of the 99 most beautiful names of God. Islamic faith leaders especially learned in the Law and its application. the lesser pilgrimage to Mecca. a saintly person, close to God thanks to outstanding virtue; friend, protector; sometimes friend of God.
EPISTEMOLOGY FIQH HADITH
SHARIA
SHIA
HAJJ
IBADAT IHRAM
SUFI
SUNNI
IJMA ISLAM
SURA TASBIH
JIHAD JUMUA KABA KADI MUAMALA MUSLIM
ULAMA UMRA WALI
330

Islam is above all else a religion. Its various foundational aspectsits profession of faith; the elaboration and proof of that faith in the Quran; the law set out in the Quran; and the living demonstration and development of that law by the Prophet Muhammadare the basis for a way of life. It is a way of life that involves human beings thinking about God, thinking about themselves, thinking about themselves thinking about God, and thinking about their relations with each other. It also has to do with the shape and organisation of a community, the way that community denes itself and its perception of those outside it. It generates the study of the law, as part of Gods revelation of his will; of the nature of being; of time and eternityin short, the deepest issues of philosophy and theology. It nds its expression in literature, poetry and prose, music (vocal and instrumental), architecture and design, and supremely in calligraphy. And all of these activities, with their variety of emphases, are embedded in a variety of lifestylesrural, urban, farming, sedentary and mercantilealong with all the variety of personality types and individual relationships, from the smallest social unit, the family, up to the largest. As a religion, Islam is strongly individualistic, notwithstanding a great sense of community. Even when salat (ritual prayer) is performed in a group, every individual is solely responsible for every detail of his or her participation. Similarly, every individual is ultimately responsible for his or her acts. On the Day of Judgment, no one will be able to intercede for anyone else, no one will be punished for anothers evil deeds or rewarded for anothers good deeds. The example of others, however, may serve as a model for good behaviour to be emulated, or as a warning about the punishment of evil deeds. It is individuals who serve as models, and certain individuals are identied with values, ideas, tendencies and options that have established themselves as currents within the varied textures of the world of Islam.
activities
1. Revise the principal beliefs of Islam in Chapter 5. 2. Islam is seen to be practised as a group but is actually about the individual. Discuss why this is not a contradiction.
FIG. 13.1 Even though prayer is performed as a group it is very individual
331
Khadijah bint Khuwaylid

The earliest signicant individual is Muhammads rst wife, Khadijah bint [daughter of] Khuwaylid (d. 619 CE). Very little is known of her early life. The sources make it clear, however, that when Muhammad rst met her she was a widow and an effective businesswoman, playing a role in her own right in the caravan trade. Muhammad acted as a reliable and trustworthy agent for her in her business dealings, and eventually they married (595 CE is the traditionally accepted date). The marriage was happy and fruitful. She bore Muhammad four daughters, and possibly two sons, both of whom died in infancy. Khadijah believed that Muhammad had truly been called as the Messenger of God. She said that no one of his qualities and virtues could be deceived by a devil. She was the rst Muslim. She stood by him during the years when the tribes of Mecca boycotted and persecuted him until she died in 619 after 24 years of marriage. She endured successive pregnancies, and one of her daughters, Fatima, was to play a key role in subsequent Muslim life and devotion.
Her name
(Aisha) is
a a popular
choice for girls, and she is a leading figure for womens movements and organisations in the Muslim world.
Aisha bint Abu Bakr

Aisha (613678 CE) was the daughter of Abu Bakr, one of Muhammads earliest followers and closest personal friendsand the man who was to be the rst leader of the Muslim community after Muhammads death in 632 CE. The betrothal in 620, when Aisha was seven, and the marriage in 622 were marks of the depth of friendship between the two men. Aisha was the closest of Muhammads wives to him. She is also the one about whom most is known. She displayed a strong, individual personality. There are 2210 sayings of the Prophet (hadith) related through her. By way of comparison, only one other of Muhammads wives, Umm Salma, is recorded as transmitting hadith, and she only related 378. An event in Aishas life is mentioned in the Quran (sura 24:1119). It is related that on the way back from an expedition on which she accompanied the Prophet (she was carried in a howdah mounted on the back of a camel), the party halted for a while. She dismounted from the howdah to relieve herself and dropped a necklace. On returning to the howdah, she realised she had dropped it and returned to look for it. While she was searching, the caravan moved on, the bearers thinking she was inside the howdah. Left alone, she waited for someone to come back for her when she was missed. While she was waiting, an individual from the rearguard following the caravan discovered her and recognised her. Modestly setting her on his own camel, he brought her back to Madina, where she had not yet been missed. The circumstances appeared compromising, and there were rumours that she had been guilty of adultery. Muhammad was perplexed. The matter escalated into a dispute that could have divided the Muslim community. Muhammad asked advice from his companions. His cousin Ali suggested that he put an end to the matter by divorcing her. For this, it is said, Aisha never forgave Ali. Others including a female servant insisted that Aishas
332
virtue was absolute. Eventually Muhammad received a revelation declaring her innocence. When her parents urged her to be grateful to them and to Muhammad, she replied: No thanks to you. You did not believe me. Thanks is due to God alone. There are other possible references to Aisha in the Quran, in particular to Muhammads relations with Mary the Coptwho bore a son, Ibrahim, to Muhammadand her jealousy of the newcomer. (Ibrahim died aged 18 months.) When Ali became Caliph in 656 CE, Aisha moved into the spotlight again. When there was a revolt against him, she took the side of the rebels and rode to the battleeld in a howdah mounted on a camel. The ghting was erceit is said that the howdah was like a hedgehog, so many were the arrows sticking out of it. After Alis army won, Ali approached her, and she said to him, You have been victorious, now be magnanimous. He treated her with every courtesy and sent her under escort to Madina, where she lived the rest of her life in obscurity, but accessible to Muslims concerned with stories about the Prophet and the meaning of hadith. Aishas personality and popular memories of her are important in Muslim life. Her name is a popular choice for girls, and she is a leading gure for womens movements and organisations in the Muslim world. For example, the leading reformist organisation in Indonesia (30 000 000 members) is known as Muhammadiya. The womens division is known as Aishiya.
Fatima does not have the role in history thanks to her personality that Aisha did. Neither she nor any of Muhammads other daughters are recorded as transmitting any hadith. But part of the theology of the Shia is the suffering of the Imams, and Fatima too, in the six months or so she lived after the death of her father, shared in that suffering. The Shia believe she suffered because her husband Ali was cheated of his right to leadership of the Muslim community after the death of Muhammad. She suffered because Abu Bakr deprived her of what she had the right to inherit from her father. She suffered because she was allowed to foresee the martyrdom of her two sons, Hasan and Husayn. Hasan died in 669 CE, perhaps by poisoning, and Husayn died a martyrs death, with his body treated ignominiously, at the battle of Karbala (in presentday Iraq) in 680 CE. Fatima had perhaps ve children: Hasan and Husayn, two daughters, Zaynab and Umm Kulthum, and a third son who died in infancy. Spiritually, among the Shia , Fatima enjoys a wonderfully privileged position. There is a hadith (not rejected by the Sunnis) that describes her as Queen of the women in Paradise, next to Maryam, daughter of Imran. She is given the title batul, virgin, not because she did not conceive by intercourse with Ali but because she was never deled by menstruation. She is known as al-Zahra (the Radiant). For the Shia she is the embodiment of all that is divine in womanhoodthe noblest ideal of human conception (Sayeed Ameer Ali).
activity
Khadijah and Aisha were two very important women in Muhammads life. Who were they and what impact did they have on Muhammad and the early development of Islam?
Fatima al-Zahra (Fatima the Radiant)

Fatima (c.605633 CE) was probably Muhammads youngest child, and she was the only one to survive him. She married his paternal cousin Ali and was the only one of his children to bear him grandchildren who survived infancy. Of these children, two entered the pages of history, Hasan and Husayn. It is these sons and their descendants who became the focus of loyalty of the Shia wing of Islam.
FIG. 13.2 Al Fatima mosque in Kuwait is named after the daughter of Muhammad.
333
Muhammad, together with Fatima, Ali, Hasan and Husayn, are revered by the Shia as a holy family, united in its election and suffering as the household of the Prophet. This household formed a cloak of shelter and guidance for the Muslim community, having the privilege of sharing in the light of God and understanding in full every level of meaning of the Quran. From this household descended a line of Imams, until the line was brought to a close, the last Imam being taken into occultation to return at the end of time, cleanse the earth of wickedness and bring about the millennium. But alongside this privileged role was the component of grief and suffering. None of these Imams died a natural death. None, except Ali, exercised political power, and he was murdered entering a mosque at Kufa. Fatima suffered bitterly after her fathers death. She was pressured into accepting Abu Bakr as Caliph instead of her husband. She was robbed of Unlike her inheritance. After receiving the vision of the Sunni, the fate of her two sons the Shia Hasan and Husayn, who were to be second and do not have third Imams respectively, a general she died of grief six months after her father. taboo on For the Sunni, Fatima representation is honoured as one of Muhammads daughters, of the human and the name Fatima form ... is a popular choice by parents for a daughter. For the Shia , however, she is highly honoured. She is the one female in the Five of the Cloak. Unlike the Sunni, the Shia do not have a general taboo on representation of the human form, especially prophetic gures and their families, and there are numerous examples of pictures of these ve. In some the face of Fatima is veiled, as a model of the household from which the Shia line of authority descends. The title al-Zahra (the Radiant) is only given to one other woman, Mary, mother of Jesus, also referred to among the Shia as Maryam al-Zahra, and there is disagreement as to which ranks higher. Among the honours given her is that Fatima alZahra is from time to time the name of a mosque (among the Shia ). There is one in Sydney.
FIG. 13.3 The ancient Al Azhav Muslim University and Mosque in Cairo is the highest seat of Sunni Islamic learning.
activities
1. Why was Fatima given the title batul, virgin, when she bore children? 2. Why does Fatima enjoy the title Queen of the women in Paradise? 3. What is the name of the mosque in Sydney named after her? See if it has a website and research the reasons behind adopting this name.
Schools of thought and law

The ethical principles and spiritual values of the Quranthe relations between God and human beings, and human beings with each otherare realised through the religious law, the sharia. The root meaning of this word is road, and this religious law is the highway of life. It covers every aspect of human existence and includes ritual, moral, family, criminal and mercantile issues and transactions. All human acts are to be classied as obligatory, recommended, neutral, undesirable or forbidden. The sources for the detailed application of this overarching law are the Quran, the hadith (sayings of the Prophet), qiyas (reasoning by analogy) and the ijma (consensus of the community). Ijma, along with the Quran, the sunna (the practice of the Prophet and the companions established by hadith) and qiyas (analogy) is a source of Sunni law. (It is not recognised as a source by the
334
Shia). The word ijma means consensus, and is a basis for decisions on issues on which the Quran and hadith offer no opinion, whether on law or theology. Its authority is based on a saying of Muhammad, My community will never agree on error. There are a number of views on what constitutes consensus in the Muslim community. For some it is very limited, and was only possible in the time of the Prophet himself. For others, it can be achieved by a unanimity of scholars, or of the Muslim community as a whole. For yet others, a majority is sufcient. In fact, it can be said that there is no consensus among Muslims on what constitutes consensus, and that this exists only on the fundamentals of Islam. As scholars have applied it, it has been used as a means of stabilising the practice of the community, for once an ijma has been established on an issue it ranks as a precedent. On the other hand, it is also used as an instrument of development and change. For example, it is used to give a theoretical basis for the acceptance of parliamentary and other democratic institutions of government in the modern world. Their legislative authority and legitimacy is conferred by consensus. Qiyas (analogy) is an instrument to discover, by the use of reason, rulings appropriate to the numerous situations a society or individual might face not specically provided for in the Quran and sunna. It is a form of reasoning that grew out of a fairly liberal use of personal opinion. It involves making a ruling based on a precedent or a similar case. Thus, the Quran prohibits the drinking of wine. The reason for this is its effect on the mind as a soporic. Narcotics are not mentioned in the Quran. But, by analogy, they too may be prohibited. There is a range of views as to the permissibility of the use of qiyas. Its validity was restricted by alShai, who insisted that its starting point must be a principle established in the Quran, the sunna or by consensus (ijma); others attempted to exclude its use altogether, while yet others regarded it as a means of exercising individual judgment. As the Muslim community grew, it expanded into territories with well-established legal systems of their own. Islamic law had to respond to new situations including many that were not directly covered by the foundation texts of the Quran and hadith. The community did this by conscious adaptation where this was possible without contravening positive law as set out in the Quran. The eld was rich and complex, and it fell to the task of individuals who,
looking to the common good of the community, searched for techniques and modes of thinking that could be used to realise Islamic law. Among these individuals were four after whom schools of law were named. These four schools still play an active role in the structure, organisation and internal management of the Muslim community up to the present time. The four jurists names were Abu Hanifa, Malik ibn Anas, Muhammad al-Shai and Ahmad ibn Hanbal. The spread of Islam into areas distant from Madina brought exposure to different lifestyles, family structures and ethnicities. Conquest involved setting up new Islamic governmental systems, or transforming already existing centres of administration in ways that reected the Islamic character of the new government. Distances were considerable, and so schools of Islamic law developed on the basis of local traditions in major centres of culture and trade. Until the early years of the ninth century, there was a fair degree of exibility and scope for regionaland indeed individualvariety in legal decisions. But during the eighth and ninth centuries the codes of law were developed by four great jurists. These jurists in effect took supreme religious authority out of the hands of the Caliph and gave the sharia an autonomous statusone to which, in theory at least, the head of state was subject in his exercise of power. The jurists came from different backgrounds and had different personalities, and in their treatment of sharia they allowed different scope for precedent, individual judgment and analogy in matters not directly dealt with in the Quran and hadith. Malik ibn Anas Malik ibn Anas (c. 712795 CE), often referred to by Muslims with the honoric title Imam (leader, leading gure), was brought up in Madina and spent most of his life there. He lived among the second and third generation of Muslims in an environment where the presence and memory of the Prophet were still palpable. He was revered in his lifetime for his skill in qh (jurisprudence) and his knowledge of the hadith, both of which he devoted his life to. In his teaching he restricted himself to hadith he deemed directly relevant to the public good (thus, for example, he approved the keeping of a dog, though ritually unclean, to guard the home). And he avoided teaching hadith that had an anthropomorphic sense and might have misled people.
335
FIG. 13.4 The hadith are a record of the oral tradition relating the words and deeds of Muhammad. Hadith collections are important for determining the Muslim way of life, the sunnah.
Malik ibn Anas is best known for a book called the Muwatta (The well-trodden path), regarded as the earliest formulation of Islamic law. The path referred to in the title is that trodden by the leaders of the community before him, and the book is a record of the principles and precepts that had become established in the life of the Muslim community in Madina. Abu Hanifa Abu Hanifa (700767 CE), also the recipient of the honoric title Imam, was born in Kufa in present-day Iraq. He devoted his life to the study of qh and gained a large following. A number of collections of hadith on which he based his rulings have survived. He is said to have earned a living as a cloth merchant. The governor of Kufa urged him to accept the position of kadi (judge) in the province. He consistently refused, and because of his refusal to enter into the service of the state he was ogged, and died in prison. Abu Hanifa, living in the cosmopolitan environment of Kufa, was more pragmatic in his rulings than Malik, whose mindset was formed by the more traditional environment of Madina. Abu Hanifa also made a greater use of independent individual opinion than did Malik. His approach and his rulings indicated a move towards a systematic structure of Islamic law in which concern for traditional practice made way for a use of sound opinion. This difference led to the development of schools of law distinguished by the way in which legal principles are used. There is more scope in the Hana school of law for developing a doctrine of equity in its rulings than in the other three schools, and the use in decision making of what in a given situation might be regarded as better. By way of example, the Hana school is the only one in which a woman may give herself in marriage, and not depend on a wali to sign the contract on her behalf.
Muhammad al-Shafii Muhammad al-Shai (767820 CE) was born in Mecca. He devoted himself to qh and studied in Mecca, Madina, Iraq and Syria. His professional life was divided largely between Baghdad and Cairo. In his view, the approaches of Malik and Abu Hanifa in certain respects lacked a decisive authenticity. It was possible to argueand establishthat the living tradition observed by Malik in Madina did not necessarily represent the practice of the Prophet. There could only be a single source of legal authority, the example of Muhammad, and the example of Muhammad could be established only through the critical study of the hadith. Because the authority of the Prophet was divine, it held a position superior to the living tradition observed by Malik. The approach of Abu Hanifa, on the other hand, for all his study of the hadith, allowed too much scope for what in alShai s view was individual and arbitrary. The great achievement of al-Shai was to elaborate a unitary structure of Islamic law based on the four sources of law (the Quran, hadith, analogy and consensus), and in the process to develop a system that could take account of variations and apparent contradictions in the two foundational texts. Ahmad ibn Hanbal Ahmad ibn Hanbal (780855 CE), often referred to simply as Ibn Hanbal, was born in Baghdad. He devoted himself principally to the study of hadith, travelling as a student to Iraq, Syria, the Hijaz and the Yemen. He was, for a time, a student of al-Shai. Ibn Hanbal wrote no legal treatise, but many of his rulings and jurisprudential opinions were recorded by his son and other students. These add up to a corpus sufcient to sustain a school of law. Historically it is the smallest, but in the contemporary world, because of its status in Saudi Arabia and the role of this kingdom in dawa work internationally, its inuence is considerable. Ibn Hanbal rejected the use of reason in any form as a source of Islamic law and insisted that every legal rule could nd its requisite authority only in the Quran and the words or example of the Prophet. His literal devotion to the words of the Prophet in relation to every activity is illustrated in the anecdote that he never ate watermelon because he could nd no hadith to establish the legal status of this act.
336
He was an individual of adamantine will and courage, notwithstanding his narrowness and literal understanding of the foundation texts. When the Caliph al-Mamun in 833 CE declared as a matter of faith that the Quran was created, Ibn Hanbal refused to assent to the dogma and spent a number of years chained in prison until the doctrine was withdrawn. His resistance, and the withdrawal of the attempt by the Caliph to impose a religious belief, signied a victory for the ulama (scholars) as a class over the authority of the secular ruler.
activities
1. As Islam grew and encountered new circumstances, Muslims were required to look to the common good of the community and develop techniques and modes of thinking that could be used to realise Islamic law. How did they do this while maintaining social harmony? 2. Schools of law were established and named after the four people in this section. Investigate the role of these schools of law today. Do they play the same role now as they did during their formation years from 700 to 855 CE? 3. Select one signicant person and research their contribution to Islam.
The Su movement
The obverse of the regulation of external behaviour in codied Islamic law was the development in Islam of the interior lifea sense of the presence of God, and a longing for closeness to him and assurance of his love and concern for his servants. For many Muslims, observance of the law is a matter of habit, a normal way of life. Even performance of the daily prayers, observance of the Fast and other religious duties, notwithstanding the spiritual richness they contain and the religious mindset they require, can also become routine. But for some Muslims there is a passion to go beyond what is routine. They want to experience the presence of God, to sense his closeness to them in every phrase of the Quran they utter, and they long for this experience to dominate their lives. This facet of Islam is epitomised in the lives and example of certain noted individuals in Muslim history. Their striving was part of what is called the Su movement, or the spiritual dimension of Islam. It emphasised the importance of experiencing the presence of God in the heart. Some Sus carried the pursuit of this inwardness in religion so far that they neglected outward observance. Others became so intoxicated with their sense of the inward presence of God that they uttered words that sounded blasphemous, such as al-Hallajs exclamation, I am the Ultimate Truth. Many of these Sus did not belong to the conservative and legalistically inclined religious establishment associated with various rulers, who regarded the Sus as undermining the basis of their authority. The Su movement has a long history. It is often understood to be associated with forms of religious devotion that go beyond the requirements of legal obligation and is described as mysticism. But this English word may be misleading since it does not have the connotations of involvement in temporal affairs that is often part of the Su dimension of Islam.
the presence of God, to sense his closeness to them in every phase of the Quran they utter, and they long for his experience to dominate their lives.
They want
to experience
337
The word Susm is probably derived from the Arabic word suf, meaning wool. A Su, then, is one who wears plain wool, as opposed to silk or other expensive materials. In other words, a Su is one who lives a modest and unostentatious life. Sus are determined to do more than the law requires and seek to prevent religious practice from becoming a matter of external routine. There are many ways of being a Su and many traditions of Susm, but all have the following aims in common: to live wholly for God, to do more than the law requires for the sake of God alone, and to regard distraction from him by the good things of this world as tantamount to polytheism. Su spiritual exercises include the performance of special prayers, the self-discipline of additional days of fasting and additional hours spent in prayer, and the recitation of the Quran. A core Su religious exercise is the group practice of dhikr: the singing or recitation of devotional phrases, verses or parts of verses from the Quran, and petitions for forgiveness and blessing. In dhikr, God is referred to by the most beautiful names that the Quran gives to him, and he is appealed to with an intensity designed to ll the entire consciousness of the individual, so that it seems as though God himself is heard saying his own words. Some devotions require the utterance of Quranic phrases a set number of times. These may be counted on the knuckles or by way of tasbiha string bearing 99 beads, one for each of the 99 most beautiful names of God, divided into groups of 33. Rabia al-Adawiyya There is much anecdotal biographical information about the rst Sus, who were famed for their spirituality. The earliest of them were noted for the asceticism of their lives. They lived with a sense of the presence of God watching over them, a distaste for luxurious living, and not least a fear of hell. One of the most famous of them is Hasan of Basra (d. 728 CE). Alongside these ascetics can be placed those with a burning love of God, among whom the best known was a woman named Rabia alAdawiyya (d. 801 CE). There is a story that on one occasion she was seen running through the streets of Basra with a pail of water in one hand and a blazing torch in the other. When asked what she was about, she declared that the torch was to be used to burn down heaven, and the pail of water to extinguish the re of hell, so that humankind would worship God, not out of fear of hell or desire of heaven, but for his own sake. Rabia al-Adawiyya was one of the greatest early gures of the Su dimension of Islam. It was she who made central to this development a rigorous asceticism that required the abandonment of worldly pleasures, even legitimate onesnot out of fear of hell, but rather out of passionate love for God. More than any other individual, she demonstrates that, in the mystical tradition and its cultivation of holiness, there is no distinction of gender. Rabia was born in Basra (Iraq) around 713 CE and lived there most of her life. The name Rabia, meaning fourth, was given to her because she was her fathers fourth daughter. Both her parents died while she was still young and the family was broken up. Rabia was sold as a slave, yet so devoted was she to religion that she would fast during the
FIG. 13.5 Muslim with prayer beads (tasbih)
338
day and spend the night in prayer. There are few spectacular events in the story of her long lifeshe died in 801 CE, well over the age of 80but there is no doubting the impact of her personality, and the signicance and values that it communicated, even if the anecdotes told of her tend to belong to the realm of legend. One night her master awoke and saw her standing in prayer with a radiant light above her head, the brightness of which lled the house. He overheard her prayer that she be made able to serve none but God. The next day he freed her. She spent the rest of her life in prayer, fasting and teaching. One of the stories told of her has to do with her making the Hajj. While she was crossing the desert in a caravan, the donkey carrying her baggage died. Some of her companions offered to carry her baggage for her, but she declined their help, saying that she put her trust in God alone. Thus they went ahead while she remained alone and prayed: My Lord, do kings treat a weak and solitary woman like this? You call me to your house, but on the way you let my donkey die, and leave me alone in the desert. The donkey stirred and rose up almost immediately upon the completion of her prayer. Rabia put her baggage on the donkey, and continued on her journey. Another pilgrimage story relates that when she was on her way to Mecca she saw the Kaba coming towards her. She said: It is the Lord of the Kaba I seek, what need have I of the Kaba? I yearn to meet Him who said: Whoever approaches Me by a span [of two ngers], I will come to him by a cubit. My Lord, if I worship You from fear of hell, burn me in hell, and if I worship You from hope of Paradise, exclude me thence, but if I worship You for Your own sake, then withhold not from me Your eternal beauty. (Prayer of Rabia al-Adawiyya) Anecdotes about the life and faith of Rabia could be multiplied. There are, however, two points that need to be emphasised. First, her choice of celibacy was not a norm, or even a widely shared ideal, among the Sus. Indeed, in mainstream Islam, marriage is regarded as an obligation. This being so, a number of individuals were concerned at Rabias single status. Indeed, since she was such a wellknown personality, the governor of Basra himself was concerned that she be married. Her response was: God can give me more or even double what
FIG. 13.6 An artists impression of the route of the Hajj
he gives with a husband. It does not please me to be distracted from God for a single moment. The other key point is the number of male travellers on the Su path who came to Rabias house to ask for spiritual advice, and who are numbered among her friends. Her spiritual presence far transcended any consideration of gender difference. When it became clear that she was dying, a number of important individuals in the community gathered round her. She said to them, For the sake of God and his prophets, get up and get out of my room. They got up, left the room and closed the door. Then within the room they heard a voice, Gods voice, speaking to her the Quranic verse: O soul at peace, return to your Lord, well pleased, and well pleasing to him. From the time of Rabia on there are numerous and diverse expressions of Su spirituality. Some are marked by an ecstatic sense of God. In part this was achieved by the constant recitation of particular Quranic verses. The goal was to make them so much a part of a persons consciousness that it was as if he or she heard God himself saying them. From this some found it only a short step to a sense of identity with God. Some individuals would even, while in trance, utter words as if to suggest that they were God, or that God was present in them speaking in them. One example is the statement of al-Hallaj (d. 922 CE) mentioned already: I am the Ultimate Truth (that is, God himself). Another is the exclamation of Ba Yazid al-Bistami (d. 875 CE), There is nothing inside this gown [I wear] other than God! Such expressions were often described as Su drunkennesswords uttered by individuals intoxicated with God.
339
Alongside this, however, was a tradition of religious life that emphasised a sober, disciplined piety that did not seek the achievement of overwhelming feelings of ecstasy, but rather the eradication, by means of internal self-scrutiny, of such personal faults as selshness and pride. Al-Ghazali Among Sus there is one who has a signicance for mainstream Islam in virtually every area of the Muslim world. It is al-Ghazali (10581111 CE). He is one of the giants of Islamic thought and spirituality whose work is as central to the theological history of Islam as perhaps that of Augustine and Thomas Aquinas combined is to Western Christianity. His work sums up the spiritual values in the Muslim tradition of the care for souls and spiritual counselling. Al-Ghazali was born in Tus, in present-day Iraq. By his brilliance he won royal patronage and a university position in Baghdad at the age of 33. He was a great thinker, an outstanding spiritual director and a pastoral theologian. His discovery of the mystical path was born out of a crisis of faith. He grappled with a sense that the traditional intellectual proofs for the existence of God were inadequate. Like many others, he was puzzled at the variety of religions in the world, adherence to which seemed to be determined by accident of birth. He observed that the children of Christians grew up as Christians, those of Jews as Jews, those of Muslims as Muslims. For a time he lived in a state of total scepticism when any hope of acquiring certainty of religious truth seemed a chimera. The fullment of ritual conditions may give an impression that all that needs to be done has been done; salvation should be assured. But for al-Ghazali there was a sense that everything had become routine. He felt a need, even a passion, to go beyond what was prescribed, to search to rediscover a continuing freshness and inspiration. He tried to reassure himself by reecting on the schools and traditions of learning around him, and on the epistemology of certain knowledge. He considered sense perception, but it failed him. Sight, the most powerful of the senses, told him that the sun was the size of a coin, but mathematics could prove that it was many times the size of the earth. The shadow on a sun dial appeared to be motionless but was never still. He then felt that he could rely on the so-called necessary truths that could be
(Al-Ghazalis) work is as central to the theological that of Augustine and
history of Islam as perhaps
Thomas Aquinas combined is to Western Christianity.
established by reasonfor example, that the number 10 is greater than 3 and that the same thing cannot be both created and uncreated. But sense perception then said to him, How do you know that there is not a higher faculty than reason, which stands in relation to reason as waking consciousness stands in relation to dreamswhich stands in judgment upon reason and nds it wanting, just as reason stands in judgment on sense perception and nds it wanting? As he struggled to come to terms with his scepticism, he suffered psychosomatic symptoms that he describes in his autobiography. He diagnosed in himself the vice of pride, especially in the delight he found in being a key gure of the religious and juridical establishment. He feared this delight could threaten his salvation. His description of his struggle to give up his chair as a jurist in Baghdad, and to retire and meditate alone, is one of the classics of spiritual literature. I continued to think of leaving my professorship in Baghdad. I would be on the point of coming to a decision. One day I rmly resolved to depart from Baghdad and abandon all my responsibilities there. But I would step forward with one leg and back with the other. If in the morning I had a clear vision of the quest for the world to come, then in the evening an army of desires would launch an attack on it. And so the passions of this world held me in my place by their chains, while the voice of faith called me: Depart! Depart! There is little of life left to you. Before you lies a long journey, yet all the work and study that you are involved in is hypocrisy and illusion. If you do not prepare for the world to come now, when will you prepare for it? If you do not make your decision now, when will you make it? Only then did I nd the call was one I could not resist, and I made up my mind to leave Baghdad. (Al-Ghazali, The Deliverance from Error)
340
FIG. 13.7 This mosque near Kertapati, Indonesia, is named after Al Ghazali. This is also a common name for Islamic educational institutions.
Al Ghazali was driven along the mystic path by love, the urge to realise with heart and soul the Quranic words (sura 5:54), He loves them, and they love Him. Many of the chapters of the great work that this love impelled him to write begin with invocations such as: Praise be to God, who set ablaze the hearts of His saints with the re of His love, and captivated their souls with yearning to meet Him and to see Him. In the fourth volume of his encyclopaedic work Ihya ulum al-din (The Revivication of the Religious Sciences), he discusses in detail the various stages of spiritual development and ascent. On this ascent, acts and states such as repentance, patience, asceticism, thankfulness and yearning are like rungs of a spiritual ladder leading to the mystical union. One chapter treats Hope and Fear, which al-Ghazali describes as two wings by which the soul may ascend from one station to the next, or two mounts on which the soul may follow the steep and difcult path to the world to come. Both these spiritual states are necessary. One draws the soul to the Merciful and the delights of Paradise, the other serves as a weapon to protect it against the temptations and distractions of this world. Thus they work together. But between the two there must be a balance, and the balance differs from individual to individual. For one, an excess of fear may lead to despair. Al-Ghazali quotes the advice that Ali gave to a man whom fear had brought to despair because of his sins: For you, despairing of the mercy of God is a greater fault than your sins. An excess of hope, on the other hand, can lead to idleness and presumption. Both fear and hope, then, may be a therapy for different conditions. Al-Ghazali analyses
341
various conditions and their treatment. His goal is to lead the soul to a stage beyond both fear and hope to the presence of God. As he says, One whose heart is ruled by truth, and whose presence beholds the majesty of truth perpetually, no longer looks to the future, no longer has need of fear and hope. For when there is no longer any separation between Creator and creature, and when truth has revealed what is hidden, no residue of hope or fear remains. Al-Ghazali sees human beings as diverse and of different potential, capable of advancing different distances along the mystical path. For everyone the goal is the same, but the distance each individual can travel is different. Together with these insights as a spiritual director, al-Ghazali had great commonsense. He said that if a person was choking and a glass of wine was the only uid available to relieve the problem, it was lawful ... one not to drink it. He disliked moved by the extravagance and excesses, not least in flowers of spring, spiritual exercises. (The or the sound of Quran itself warns against spending too the strings of the great a proportion of lute, suffers from the night in prayer.) He saw a place in daily a malady for life for the siesta. He which there is was fond of quoting an aphorism addressed to no cure. religious devotees who fasted too much: Keep your wits. God never had a saint who was mentally decient. Clearly, he had noticed that holiness in some cases produced eccentricities. He was a great humanist. One section of his work Ihya ulum al-din is on the propriety of using music and poetry in the quest for ecstasy. He argues the case for it, against those who say that legally it falls into the category of what is undesirable (makruh). He remarks that one not moved by the owers of spring, or the sound of the strings of the lute, suffers from a malady for which there is no cure. He observes how the singing of a mother can sooth a child crying in its cradle, drawing its attention away from what troubles it. He notices how the singing of the cameleer can reinvigorate the camels of a caravanthough the camel by nature is a dumb
animal. When the beasts hear the song, they stretch out their necks, their ears prick up and they quicken their pace until the litters and baggage on their backs bob up and down. Music and celebration are part of all the occasions of human lifea birth, a betrothal, a marriage, the return of a traveller. And music and poetry can inspire one lled with the love of God to ecstasy. Al-Ghazalis style is perhaps orid to modern taste, but there is no doubt as to the spiritual passion that drives him. Consider only the introduction to Ihya ulum al-din: Praise be to God, who sets ablaze the hearts of His saints with the re of His love, and enraptures their spirits and aspirations with yearning to meet Him and behold Him; Who brings their eyes and inner perceptions to halt in reection on the beauty (Jamal) of His presence until through the fragrance of the breath of union with Him they became intoxicated, and by reecting on the majesty of alJalal their hearts are moved and profoundly stirred. Then in both existences they see none other than He, and in both domains, speak of none other than He. No sooner is any form before their eyes than their perceptions are already with the Designer [of that form]; if the sound of music touches their ear, their innermost hearts are already with the Beloved. If a sound reaches their ear, whether troubling or disquieting, whether lling with delight or saddening, bringing happiness or arousing longing, or setting the emotions in tumult, such disturbance bears them only to Him. They have no delight, except through Him, no disquiet except for Him, no sorrow except within Him, and no longing except for what is in His presence, no stirring of the emotions except towards Him, and no place to frequent other than the aura that surrounds Him. From Him is all they hear samauhum, and it is to Him (istimauhum) they listen, for He has closed their eyes and their ears to everything other than He. It is these God has chosen for His friendship. He has singled them out from the pure in heart and His elect. Blessings and abundant greetings be on Muhammad, the one sent with His message, and on his Kin and his Companions, leaders and guides to al-Haqq (the Truth). (Al-Ghazali, Introduction, Vol. 2, Book 8, Ihya ulum al-din)
342
activities
1. What was (and is) the Su movement? 2. Describe Su spiritual exercises. 3. Describe dhikr and why it is undertaken. 4. Why is Al-Ghazali known as one of the giants of Islamic thought and spirituality? Explain the work he did and the insights he developed. 5. Why did he love music and poetry so much? How did he use music and poetry to explain this love of God?
Muhammad Abduh
Towards the end of the 19th century, most of the Islamic world was under European control. The Turkish Ottoman Empire was gradually being dismembered, and Muslim legal thought and intellectual life in general was stagnant. The individual who most epitomises the response to the challenge posed by Islamic political and scientic backwardness was an Egyptian, Muhammad Abduh. Abduh (18491905 CE), more than any other individual of his day, was the inspiration for a reformist movement that had as its principal goal the reformulation of Islamic law. This involved a liberation from the norms of the four schools of law and a direct access to the Quran and Tradition, not seen through the eyes of later interpreters. In effect, it involved a recasting of the legal system that would display Islam as a rational religion, compatible with modern scientic discoveries and able to respond to the various needs of the modern world.
FIG. 13.8 Turkish troops defeated by the British army under Sir Edmund Allenby retreat through Jerusalem by the Jaffa Gate (circa 1917).
343
Abduh believed that religion and reason could be integrated in the Islamic faith in a way that would stimulate and welcome social, legal and educational reforms without undermining the religious essentials of prayer, fasting and pilgrimage. Many of the prescriptions relating to religious observances were not able to be easily modied, but the laws governing many aspects of Islamic social and professional life were, according to Abduh, clearly in need of reform. One outcome of this was that the four law schools established in the ninth century no longer enjoyed exclusive authority, and that the prestige of the traditional ulama was diminished. Abduh, moreover, sought to restore the primal understanding of the Quran, to recapture its integrity after centuries of religious interpretation, and to reform the traditional education system of Egypt. Abduh cultivated a deep patriotism, and was concerned that Egypt act in order to regain its selfrespect as a nation with a great history. His ideas had wide inuenceextending far outside Egypt and he is still a revered icon of intellectual and spiritual renewal as far aeld as Indonesia.
simply as a body of faith and practice, but as a universal ideology.
Qutb saw Islam not
activities
1. Muhammad Abduh liberated Muslims from the norms of the four schools of law. What is meant by this and how did he do it? 2. When did this reformation take place, and what were the historical circumstance of the day that helped him come up with the need for reform?
Sayyid Qutb
In the aftermath of the Second World War, the coming of European decolonisation and the tensions of the Cold War, new challenges called forth Muslim responses. These tended to be shaped by attitudes towards the establishment of the State of Israel in 1948. The ideological competition between capitalism and communism provided the catalyst for attempts to transform Islam into a universal ideology in its own rightan offering of a third way for humankind. The great gure in this movement was another the Egyptian Sayyid Qutb (19001966). Qutb saw Islam not simply as a body of faith and practice, but as a universal ideology. For him, the sharia was an expression of cosmic law, and he enunciated a
vision and interpretation of the Islamic revelation that went beyond all space and time. Qutb refused loyalty to the government of Abdel Nasser (President of Egypt from 1956 to 1970) because of the latters ideological commitment to pan-Arabism and socialism. Nasser had him hanged. But Qutbs writings have been widely translated, and the radical vision that he preached with such intensity and eloquence lives on as an inspiration to the militant tendency in many parts of the Muslim world. This attribution of violence and extremism to him is not totally justied. In an educational visit to America between 1948 and 1952, he was disturbed by the freedom in sexual relations, but even more horried at the legalised racism he sawand doubtless, being a dark swarthy man, experienced. Much of his writing was done in prison while at the mercy of Nassers torturers. Sayyid Qutb is the only one of the gures mentioned in this chapter who was an outsider to the Islamic religious class. He was educated not in the religious school systems but at a secular university, and he specialised in literature. His commentary on the Quran is rich with literary insights and a profound spirituality. It is from such outsiders, educated without the traditional restraints and complex procedures built into traditional Sunni education, that many of the leaders of radical Islam emerge.
activities
1. The Egyptian Sayyid Qutb lived in an important period of world history and change. What was this period and what was happening in the world? 2. Discuss how his view of Islam differs from that of those before him. 3. Where did he write most of his work and how did he get there? 4. Was he truly as militarily minded as some groups would like to believe today?
344
Islamic ethics
In Islam, human obligations are divided into two broad categories: those that have to do with duties to God (Ibadat) and those that concern human relationships (Muamala). The Quran sets out in broad outline the law that is to govern human life. It represents the pre-ordained structure of Gods commands. It is the sharia, the highway along which life is to be lived. It makes no distinction between family, criminal, or ritual law. All are part of a single texture. The understanding and ascertaining of that law is the discipline of qh (jurisprudence). The ethical principles of Islam are based on obedience to Gods law. Basically this entails the formation of conscience in a way that stresses human recognition of the sovereignty of God, human responsibility to obey Gods law, respect for others, and the recognition that property, even of the most wealthy, is held in trust. The zeal to live according to these principles and to realise them fully is the essence of jihad, which includes within its range of meanings the idea of struggle against evil tendencies. This includes a continuing struggle against the personal faults and aws to which everyone is subject: greed, selshness and resentment. The word is well known for its application to the concept of holy war, but it is important to note that this is only one of its senses. The term jihad is applied to every aspect of putting into practice Islamic ethical principles. Muslims apply the basic principles of qh (see Chapter 5, pages 12021) to broader issues, forming the basis for the development of legal opinions on a range of characteristically modern problems, among them bioethical issues, environmental ethics and sexual ethics.
Bioethical issues
Bioethical issues include contraception. There is a range of Muslim views on this. The principles used for discussing its lawfulness or otherwise are drawn from the Quran, sayings attributed to the Prophet, and the opinions of the founders of the four major Islamic law schools. Withdrawal before ejaculation as a form of contraception was known to the early Muslims. There seem to have been three principal views regarding contraception: 1. that it might be practised subject to no conditions 2. that its permissibility was subject to the wifes consent 3. that it was in every case unlawful. The great 12th-century scholar al-Ghazali held that contraception was permissible provided that it was performed in order to preserve a womans health or save her life, to avoid nancial hardship or to avoid domestic problems caused by a large family. He added the qualication, however, that it was not permissible if the intention was to avoid the birth of female children. These considerations, and the fact that there is no record of Muhammad having condemned withdrawal, are widely takenin Pakistan and Indonesia, for instanceas sufcient grounds to regard family planning programs as permissible. There are, however, some who take the view that contraception for fear of poverty represents a lack of trust in Gods promise that every child born will be provided for by divine providence. Likewise, there are different Islamic views on abortion. Some ban it completely. Others regard it as lawful up to the time of ensoulment, usually calculated as occurring after 120 days of pregnancy. There are some who put a limit of 40 days on the permissibility of abortion; others prescribe 80 days. It may be noted that in Indonesia, which has a vigorous family planning program, abortion at any stage of pregnancy is illegal.
activities
In Islam, human obligations are duties to God (Ibadat) and those that concern human relationships (Muamala). Describe each and how they are explained by the Quran.
345
Infanticide, which was practised among the Arabs at the time of the Prophet, and is explicitly referred to in the Quran, is condemned without qualication. There is no objection to the assisted insemination of a wife with the sperm of her husband, but the use of sperm from a man other than the husband (that is, from a donor) is regarded as tantamount to adultery. As for surrogate motherhood, it is condemned for a number of reasons: it is against the law of God because it tampers with the normal process of procreation; it biologically divides motherhood and confuses the institution of paternity; and by reducing motherhood from a value to a price, it becomes an evil form of exploitation. There is little if any disagreement on euthanasia. In Islamic theology, life and death are exclusively in Gods hands, and represent an area in which human beings have no right to intervene.
activities
Use biomedical examples to explain how Muslim ethics may be interpreted using the Quran, sayings attributed to the Prophet and the opinions of the founders of the four major law schools.
Muslim thinkers have found in Islamic principles the basis for an environmental ethic. Discussion of the environment as an issue in its own right is a relatively recent development in the theology of the Judaeo-Christian-Muslim tradition. Contemporary Muslim writers understand the word Scale in sura 55:78 of the Quran as referring to a necessary balance between human needs on earth and the welfare of other creatures in their own environments. The passage reads as follows: He has raised up the heavens and set the Scale of Justice [so rmly] that you cannot play it false. All living things are part of a whole, linked together on a planet on which, as far as is known, the balance of factors that sustains life is unique. The human life-cycle depends on care for the environmentfor the rivers, forests and oceans since it cannot survive apart from the life-cycles of all other living things. Another Quranic verse (sura 6:165), It is He who has made you vicegerents,
FIG. 13.9 Large crowds massed through London streets protesting the Danish cartoon series caused offence to the Muslim community in February 2006
heirs to the earth, is understood as entrusting humankind with this responsibility. Care for the environment is linked in Islam with a care for animals: no living thing should be slain without due cause, and ill-treatment of animals is forbidden.
activities
1. Explain how the Quran is used to support environmental protection. 2. Debate: Concern for the environment is only a recent development. Ensure your debate preparation considers why discussion of it has not become widespread and public until recently.
346
Sexual ethics
In Islam sexual morality is clearly dened: sexual relations outside marriage are forbidden. By extension this includes homosexual relations, although in addition the Quran is quite specic in condemning homosexuality in its presentation of the story of the people of Sodom, who were destroyed by re from heaven. Only a small part of the Quran is devoted to specic points of law. Nevertheless, there are certain sinful acts for which particular punishments are perscribed. For fornication, for example, the penalty is 100 strokes of the lash (sura 24:2). The hadith, however, complement this ruling by distinguishing between whether the miscreants are single or marriedthe punishment is 100 lashes if those guilty are single, but if married the penalty is stoning. Such lawsalong with the penalty for giving false witness (80 strokes of the lash [sura 24:4]) and theft (amputation of the hand [sura 3:38])are now widely regarded as admonitory and are not generally applied, except in states such as Saudi Arabia and Iran. Within the family, observance of ethical principles at an everyday level is expressed by faithfulness in marriagefree mixing between the sexes is regarded by many as potentially dangerous and by the dedication of parents in bringing up their children to live their religion and to perform faithfully and honestly the tasks of everyday life.
activities
1. Explain the ethical teachings of Islam in regard to sexual behaviour (refer also to relevant aspects of Islamic bioethics). 2. How does this differ from the society and community group you live in? Do you think these ethics would change how you behaved sexually if you had to follow them, and how hard would they be to follow? Would they be a benet to your society? 3. How do Muslim sexual ethics differ from those of other religions? Give examples.
Other ethical issues

Business ethics The basic Muslim ethical principles also have implications for business ethics. Traditionally, the giving or taking of interest on nancial transactions is banned. This had led to the creation of a banking system not based in interest, and this is the major point of difference between Western and Muslim business transactions. Islamic banking, in which money deposited in the bank shares in the prot or loss incurred by the bank in its trading activities, is an alternative that many Western economists believe deserves to be taken seriously. There are, however, Muslims living in the West who do not regard the role that interest plays in modern banking as having
FIG. 13.10 Traditionally, the Muslim banking system charges no interest.
347
anything in common with usury, to which the Quranic word riba applies. Ownership of property is not absolute. Up to 50 per cent of an estate has to be distributed according to Quranic laws of inheritance and is not available to a person to distribute as they see t. Property is held in trust, and possession of it is regarded as a blessing. One of the recurring themes of the Quran is compassion for the widow and the orphan. It imposes a tax on unspent wealth called zakat, a word that can be translated poor tax, for it provided the basis for a system of social welfare. When Abu Bakr, the rst Caliph, faced the insurrection of the Arab tribes on the news of Muhammads death, he found that their greatest cause for revolt was the obligation imposed on them to take money from the rich to give to the poor. Violence, war and peace In geopolitical issues, the principles established at the very beginning of Islamic governance have evolved and still apply. Extended feuding was forbidden: a limit was set on disputes. The Quran urges acceptance of a lesser compensation for a slaying than the law of retaliation, strictly applied, would allow: Warfare, for Muslims, is an instrument of selfdefence. Even in this circumstance, war can be You who believe, retaliation is decreed for you in the case of a slaying: a freeman for a free, a slave for a slave, a woman for a woman. But if the offender is to a degree pardoned by his offended brother, then let him follow accepted practice and reduce the penalty out of kindness. This is a mercy and mitigation from your Lord. (Quran, sura 2:178) justied only if three conditions are met: that the wrong to be righted is of a serious nature; that there is a genuine prospect of a successful result to the armed struggle; and that the harm done as a result of the ghting is not disproportionate to the good achieved. Unfortunately, as in most human communities, such guidelines tend to be honoured more in the breach than in the observance. Muslims are obliged to participate in the jihad, or holy war, in cases of external threats. The
community must be protected from injustice, the occurrence of which requires resort to arms. Nevertheless, the ultimate end of war is peace and personal security, for peace is the will of Allah.
activity
1. Explain how business ethics for Muslims is different from common business practices in Australian society. 2. What is the Muslim view of warfare? 3. What is a jihad, and how, if ever, is it justied?
FIG. 13.11 The sign sends a clear message during the February 2006 demonstration in London.
348
Significant practices in the life of Muslims

Death and burial
Care for and burial of the body is the nal rite of passage. For Muslims, death is the gateway to Gods judgment. Resurrection of the body is one of the most central of Muslim beliefs. Excessive mourning is discouraged. The body must be washed and wrapped in a shroud. Then it is taken to a mosque for funeral prayers to be said. Burial should take place as soon as possible after death. If death occurs in the morning, the burial should take place before the sunset prayer. If it occurs in the evening or at night, then burial should take place before the midday prayer the following day. The body may be taken to the cemetery in a cofn. At the graveside the body is removed from the cofn, and placed by four or six men in the grave on its right side, the head supported by a stone so that its face is directed towards Mecca. The Imam prays that the deceaseds good deeds will be rewarded and sins forgiven. The congregation murmurs aminso may it be. The cloth covering the face is loosenedsymbolically, so that when interrogated in the tomb as to its religion and its prophet by the two angels Munkar and Nakir, it can raise its head to answer these questions. Male friends and family members throw a spade of soil into the grave, then it is quickly lled in. In Australia, a front loader is used, concluding the ritual with a swift, fearful nality. For Muslims, death is recognised as part of life. When a person is dying, friends and relatives come in throngs to visit and pray, and to take part in the recitation of sura 36 of the Quran, called Ya Sin. It is a chapter that celebrates the prophetic mission of Muhammad, and it ends with a ringing declaration of the resurrection of the dead: Man forgets how God created him and says: Who will restore to life bones that are now dust? Reply: He who rst created them will restore them to life, He knows everything of each created thing Is not He who created the heavens and the earth Able to create [again] the like of them? Indeed He is! He is the Creator, the All-knowing. His might is such that whenever He wishes a thing, He need only say to it Be, and it is. Praise then be to Him in whose hand is dominion Over all things. To Him are you to be returned. (Quran, sura 36:7879,8183) A death bed is a scene of mutual forgiveness and reconciliation for wrongs done. It is a key element of Muslim teaching that some sins are not forgiven by God unless the person sinned against rst gives his or her forgiveness. And if a person has something on his or her conscience, a peaceful death is not possible until this forgiveness has been given. Meetings of the bereaved for prayer and recitations of the Quran are often held on the third, seventh and fortieth day after a death.
activities
1. Death is very important for Muslims. Create an oral presentation which examines what they believe happens at death. 2. Outline the process undertaken with a body after death and present this as a diagram. 3. Create an oral presentation on what Muslims believe you need for a peaceful death.
FIG. 13.12 Muslim gravestone in an old Turkish graveyard
349
Friday congregational prayer

The word for the sixth day of the week in most Muslim countries is jumua, which means assembly or congregation. It is given this name because it is the weekly day of congregational prayer in Islam. This prayer, for those who attend it, takes the place of the noon ritual prayer. The congregational prayer consists of two raka (prayer cycles), a sermon and a sequence of optional prayers and recitations. Attendance is compulsory for men, who are expected to participate in it at least once a fortnight. Women may attend if facilities in the mosque are available to them. Those not attending have the obligation to perform the noonprayer (zuhr) at home. Friday is not a day of rest, although it has a special status, and the Eve of Friday (for the new day begins at sunset of the preceding day) is a time of the week for special devotionsa time when, in popular belief, prayers are especially likely to be answered. The congregational prayer has an important social function. It is when men of all classes and occupations assemble. The sermon at a mosque in a metropolitan city can serve as an occasion for a political message to be widely presented with particular authority.
activities
1. Outline who comes to Friday noon prayer and what happens. 2. Contact your local mosque, through your teacher, and see if it is possible for you to observe noon prayer. 3. What happens on the Eve of Friday?
FIG. 13.13 Instructions for conduct during the Hajj or Muslim pilgrimage to Mecca are set down in the Holy Quran.
350
Pilgrimage
Another form of the ritual dimension of Islam is the Hajj, the pilgrimage to Mecca, and the undertaking of the prescribed rituals. This takes place during the 12th month of the lunar year. It is required at least once during a lifetime and should be supplemented by the lesser pilgrimage to Mecca, the Umra, either at the time of the Hajj season or at any other time of the year. Both require Muslims to don white garments after a ritual bath, to abstain from sexual relations and to refrain from cutting the hair or clipping the nails. This consecrated state is known as ihram. The state of ihram indicates that pilgrims have separated themselves from worldly concerns and are now dedicated exclusively to the worship of God and the observance of his commandments. The pilgrimage, then, is the supreme prayer for forgiveness of sins committed and the ultimate preparation for eternity. The Hajj is a demanding exercise. In addition to the expense of the journey to Mecca, the pilgrim must contend with the sheer physical demands of the pilgrimage rituals. These are exacerbated by the immensity of the crowds (literally millions) and the extremes of temperaturewhich in Mecca itself may be over 40C in summer and is rarely below 30C, even during winter. The focus of the pilgrimage is the Kaba, the cube-shaped structure in the centre of the Sacred Mosque in Mecca. The Kaba is revered as the house of God. The pilgrims come, announcing their presence to God, the Lord of the Kaba, with the cry, At your service, Lord God. They make a sevenfold circumambulation of the Kaba before setting out to perform the prescribed rituals at the sacred sites outside of Mecca. Once these and other ceremonies in Mecca itself are completed, they return to the Kaba and bid farewell to the house of God, once again by circumambulation. Muslims making the Meccan pilgrimage regularly include Madina in their itinerary, and visit the mosque and tomb of the Prophet. Sus especially regularly visit the tombs of the founder of the brotherhood to which they belong, and of those with a special reputation for holiness. The Shia regularly make pilgrimages to the tombs of the Imams, especially on the anniversary of their deaths. The Wahhabi tradition of Saudi Arabia, however, regards such devotions as tantamount to idolatry. The Shia , as well as making the Meccan Hajj, also pay ritual visits to the graves of the Imams in present-day Iraq and Iran on their death days.
activities
1. One of the best-known events in the Muslim calendar is the pilgrimage to Mecca. Why does it take place? Who goes? When do they go? How long do they stay? What do they do when they get there? 2. Undertake research into the pilgrimage to Mecca. Build up a photo essay using pictures from the Internet or free photo libraries to explain what is happening.
FIG. 13.14 Pilgrims come to pay their respects to the Prophets Mosque at Medina. Note the green capola, a distinctive feature of this mosque.
351
Review and assess

Review
1. Explain the contribution to the development and expression of Islam of ONE signicant individual or one school of thought (other than Muhammad and the Four Rightly Guided Caliphs). Analyse and evaluate the effect of a person or school of thought found within the Islamic tradition. How is this reected in Islamic organisations that are currently active within modern society?
2.
3. a. On the basis of your understanding of Islamic ethics as understood through Islamic jurisprudence, comment on Muslim views in regard to environmental ethics, sexual ethics or bioethics. b. What references to the Quran and hadith are used to support these views? c. Name three Islamic organisations that assist Muslims in complying with the ethical stance in one of these three areas. 4. Choose one of the followingFriday congregational prayer at the mosque, burial or Hajjand complete the activities below. a State the scriptural authority that prescribes it. b. List the elements of each ritual or ceremony. c. Explain why each ritual/ceremony is important to the life of a Muslim. d. Show how these rituals/ceremonies express the beliefs of Islam and how they contribute to the stability and cohesion of the Muslim community. 5. Construct a glossary of Islamic terms, clearly dening each, used when referring to environmental ethics, sexual ethics and bioethics. Write a series of journal entries as a young Muslim about your experiences when involved in one of the followingFriday congregational prayer at the mosque, burial or Hajj (the pilgrimage to Mecca). Comment on what you see and do and why the activities involved have signicant meaning for you as a Muslim. Construct a biography of ONE signicant individual or school of thought (other then Muhammad and the Four Rightly Guided Caliphs) that contributed to the development and expression of Islam.
6.
7.
352

Extended response (15 marks) 8. a. Outline two contributions to Islam made by one signicant person or school of thought, other than Muhammad and the Four Rightly Guided Caliphs. b. Describe the effect on Islam of one signicant person or school of thought, other than Muhammad and the Four Rightly Guided Caliphs. c. Demonstrate how one of the following practices expresses the beliefs of Islam: Friday prayer at the mosque funeral ceremony Hajj.
12. Explain Islamic ethical teachings on: bioethics environmental ethics sexual ethics. 13. Analyse the signicance of the following practices of the individual Muslim: death and mourning marriage synagogue services. 14. Outline the following practices and demonstrate how they express the beliefs of Islam: Friday prayer at the mosque funeral ceremony Hajj. Extended response (20 marks) 15. Discuss Islamic ethical teachings in ONE area. Choose from: bioethics; environmental ethics; sexual ethics.
9. Describe Islamic ethical teaching on: bioethics environmental ethics sexual ethics. 10. Describe the signicance of the following practices to the Muslim community: Friday prayer at the mosque funeral ceremony Hajj. 11. Describe the contribution of TWO signicant persons or school of thought, other than Muhammad or the Four Rightly Guided Caliphs, to the development of Islam.
16. Analyse the impact of ONE signicant person or school of thought, other than Muhammad or the Four Rightly Guided Caliphs, on both the development and expression of Islam. 17. Analyse Islamic ethical teachings on bioethics OR environmental ethics OR sexual ethics. 18. Explain the signicance of ONE of the following practices on both the individual and the Muslim community: Friday prayer at the mosque funeral ceremony Hajj.
353
14
Judaism
The focus of this study is the contribution of significant people, ideas, practices and ethical teachings to an understanding of Judaism as a living religious tradition. The study of Judaism is to be of the WHOLE tradition where applicable.
Outcomes
A student: H1 explains aspects of religion and belief systems Beruriah Rabbi Solomon Isaac (Rashi) Moses Maimonides Kabbalah The Hassidim Moses Mendelssohn Abraham Geiger Rabbi Isaac Abraham Hacohen Kook (Rav Kook) Jewish feminism another person or school of thought signicant to Judaism the effect of that person OR school of thought on Judaism Ethics
ONE
of the following areas of ethical teaching in Judaism: bioethics environmental ethics sexual ethics
Content
Students learn about: Signicant people and ideas the contribution to Judaism of one signicant person or school of thought, other than Abraham or Moses, drawn from: Isaiah Hillel (and Shamai)
Signicant practices in the life of adherents signicant practice within Judaism drawn from:
ONE
death and mourning marriage synagogue services

HSC | Chapter 14 Judaism
355
Glossary
ANINUT the mourning status given to the close relatives of the deceased between that persons death and the burial. the ark (cabinet) used to house the Torah scrolls in the synagogue. mourning. do not be destructive or wasteful: the principle of not destroying anything needlessly (the foundation of the Jewish attitude to the environment). rite of passage whereby a Jewish boy reaches maturity and adopts responsibility for his own religious observances. elevated platform from which prayers are led in the synagogue. circumcision ceremony. school of thought originating from the teachings of Baal Shem Tov intending to awaken adherents to the inner dimension of the Torah. a Jewish organisation that attends to the purication of bodies in preparation for burial and assists in funeral preparations. traditional Jewish wedding canopy. collection of commentaries containing ancient rabbinic discussion of the Mishnah. The word halachah is usually translated as Jewish law, although a more literal (and appropriate) translation might be the path that one walks. the mystical study of Judaism. a central prayer, blessing and sanctifying the name of God. a marriage contract between husband and wife that is signed before the wedding. a communal agricultural settlement. the rst stage of the Torah-mandated marriage process. Kiddushin is accomplished beneath the chuppah (canopy) when the groom gives the bride the ring. evening prayer service. a box mounted on the doorpost containing the words of the Shema and the words of a companion passage (Deuteronomy 11:1321). SHIVA SHOMERIM SHUL SHULCHAN ARUCH TALLIT TALMUD RODEF MISHNAH MITZVOT NER TAMID NISSUIN PIKUACH NEFESH MIDRASH MINCHA MINYAN rabbinic commentary on the scriptures, often in the form of a story. afternoon prayer service. a group of ten adults over the age of 13 necessary for certain prayers to be said in Judaism. text of the oral teaching of Judaism. the 613 laws contained in the Torah. eternal light found above the ark in the synagogue. marriage, the wedding ceremony. Jewish law requiring its adherents to violate almost all prohibitions in order to preserve human life. pursue (Hebrew). Din rodef (law of the pursuer) holds that a person can defend themselves against someone pursuing them to kill them. morning prayer service. the period of 30 days following the shiva. Less intense period of mourning. prayer that states the oneness of God: Hear, O Israel: the Lord is our God, the Lord is One (Deuteronomy 6:4). the seven-day period of intense mourning following the funeral. people who sit with a body until the funeral takes place. Yiddish for synagogue. a practical guide to Jewish observance written by Joseph Caro (14881575). a fringed prayer shawl used during certain Jewish rituals. The Oral Torah (Torah She Be Al Peh) consisting of the Mishnah and the Gemara. the principle of healing the world. the rst ve books of the Hebrew Bible. suffering of living creatures: the principle of not causing unnecessary pain to animals. a time of remembering the dead commemorated every year on the anniversary of the death.
ARON KODESH AVEILUT BAAL TASHCHIT
BAR MITZVAH
BIMAH BRIT MILAH CHASSIDISM
SHACHARIT SHELOSHIM SHEMA
CHEVRA KADISHA
CHUPPAH GEMARA
HALACHA
KABBALAH KADDISH KETUBAH
KIBBUTZ KIDDUSHIN
TIKKUN OLAM TORAH TSAAR BAALEI CHAYIM YAHRZEIT
MAARIV MEZUZAH
356

Martin Buber (18781965)
Born in Vienna in 1878, philosopher, Zionist thinker and theologian Martin Buber had a profound impact on both Jewish and Christian thinkers. Following the divorce of his parents, Buber was raised by his grandfather, Solomon Buber, who was a noted Talmud and Midrash scholar. Buber was brought up in Lemberg (now Lviv, Ukraine) and later studied in Vienna, Berlin, Leipzig and Zrich. He was religiously estranged from Judaism after his bar mitzvah, and as a student became a member of the Zionist movement. Zionism sought a Jewish homeland and sanctuary for the worlds Jews in their ancient homeland in Palestine. In 1901 Buber became the editor of the Zionist journal Die Welt. He soon found himself in disagreement with the Zionist establishment and became actively involved in a group that believed that the Zionist renaissance should begin with a renewal of Jewish culture and spiritual life. The relevance of Chassidism At the age of 26, Buber began studying the world of Chassidism. On a quest to realise a spiritual dimension in his life, he was drawn to the mystical and spiritual emphasis of this school of thought. Through this study, he began to formulate his own philosophy. The Chassidic movement had revitalised European Jewry in the 18th century. Buber was deeply affected by its religious message and considered it his duty to convey that message to the world. The Chassidic philosophy is one in which holiness is seen in every aspect of the world. It is a joyous celebration of life. Buber found in Chassidism an experience of direct communion with the Divine. He was impressed with the joy with which they worshipped. For Buber, the wonder of Chassidism was the fact that in every relationship with people in the surrounding world, God could be found and celebrated. This was the essence of Judaism and of religion itself. Career as a teacher In 1923 Buber was appointed the rst lecturer of Jewish religious thought at the University of Frankfurt, where he remained for ten years. He worked closely with the distinguished Jewish thinker Franz Rosenzweig, translating the Torah into German. For Buber, education meant freedom and a liberation of personality. He believed that the correct way to teach was to be a personal example. According to his philosophy, a teacher should constantly examine their actions and conscience and should not teach others if their own personal example is awed. Buber believed that the task of the educator was to prepare the student to become a moral member of society. By ensuring this, an entire community could be educated and thus society could be transformed. Within the educational system, Buber argued, the teacher is the dominant force. The student thus does not have the power to make certain decisions and must accept the choices of the teacher. In order to equalise this situation, the educator must attempt to understand the world of the student. This in turn leads to a relationship of respect and mutuality. The teacher becomes the role model for the student and then, because the student feels more at ease with the teacher, he or she becomes more open to being educated. The student is able to question without feeling at risk and gains condence in the educative process. The perfect educator, in Bubers opinion, was the Chassidic master, who allowed his students to share his life and in this way learn what he had to teach. Buber took up the position of director of the Central Ofce for Jewish Adult Education in Germany in 1933. There he carried out a spiritual war against Nazism until forced to leave in 1938. He went to Palestine where he became professor of social philosophy at the Hebrew University, teaching there until he retired in 1951. Buber was passionate about the new nation of Israel and became a widely respected lecturer on politics and education. He was known for his integrity and the ethical values he espoused. He died on 13 June 1965 in Jerusalem.
357
activities
1. For Buber there was a spark of God and holiness to every aspect of life, and all relationships had the potential to be the valuable and mutual IThou relationships. a. What does the word holiness mean? b. What objects in your own life do you consider to be holy? c. What are some things in your personal life and experience that you nd holy? d. Do you ever experience a sense of holiness? If so, when? e. How do you create a sense of holiness? 2. Explain the term Zionism. 3. How was Martin Buber inuenced by Chassidism? 4. Buber collaborated with his friend, the distinguished Jewish thinker Franz Rosenzweig, to create what literary masterpiece? 5. When Buber said that education meant freedom and a liberation of personality, what do you think he meant? Discuss in groups. 6. Buber had strong views on education. Explain these views. Philosophy of dialogue Buber developed the philosophy that it is neither humanity in itself nor the world in itself that determines morality, but rather the relation between humanity and the world. He divided the different types of relationships that occur into two kinds: the IThou and the IIt. The IThou relationship is characterised by mutuality, openness, directness and respect. The IIt does not possess these qualities. In the IThou relationship, all parties to the relationship are considered to be equal and are able to participate in the relationship on a mutual level. The IIt relationship is not a true dialogue and each participant is involved only to gain something from the other. According to Buber, God is the Eternal Thou. God becomes evident to human beings through their interactions with otherspeople, animals, nature and works of art. God is present in all human relationships. When a human being has a relationship with God, it is what is called revelation. Each person can develop his or her own particular relationship with God, in the same
way that all people in a family can have their own distinct relationships with other family members depending on personalities and needs. Revelation is thus not something that happened in the past (to Moses at Mount Sinai) but something that can happen in the present. For Buber, the laws of the Torah were developed in response to revelation (in this case, revelation to Moses at Mount Sinai) and are therefore not necessarily binding on the following generations since they would be open to their own revelation. The dialogue between God and his people is a continual one. God becomes present in every aspect of life, communal, social, economic and so on. According to Buber, a religious life is characterised by the way one meets the challenges of every day and not by the afrmation of religious beliefs. It is the way that we interact with other people, animals and objects that determines our morality, not the rituals that we may perform. I do not accept any absolute formulas for living. No preconceived code can see ahead to everything that can happen in a mans life. As we live, we grow and our beliefs change. They must change. So I think we should live with this constant discovery. We should be open to this adventure in heightened awareness of living. We should stake our whole existence on our willingness to explore and experience. (Martin Buber)
FIG 14.1 Martin Buber
358
Bubers contribution to Judaism Buber is considered one of the most important Jewish philosophers, writers and intellectuals of recent times. He provided leadership in times of Jewish crisis and proved to be a great inuence on both the Jewish and non-Jewish worlds. Buber held that the Jewish people had the task of becoming a holy people and being a light unto the nations: I, the LORD, have called you in righteousness, and will hold your hand and keep you. And I will establish you as a covenant of the people, for a light unto the nations (Isaiah 42:6). This task must be carried out with humility as it was a mission from God. One of Bubers greatest inuences on the Jewish tradition was through his discovery and re-creation of Chassidism. He reawakened the Jewish world to the experience of Chassidic followers and helped bridge the gap between them and the more secular Jewish world. Buber understood that faith was more visible in the Chassidic world because of its community structure, but he believed that it was also evident in the more secular Jewish world in a less condensed form. At rst Bubers translations of Chassidic tales were informal and only loosely followed the essence of the original. He believed that in this way he would be able to communicate the very essence of Chassidic spirituality. Later, however, he rejected this method and began to more closely follow the original texts. According to Buber, religion is an ongoing dialogue between humans and God. He developed the idea that the love of humanity leads to the love of God and vice versa. In order for people to truly achieve their divine purpose, they must walk in Gods ways. He wrote: The word of a person who wishes to speak with a human being without speaking with God is not fullled; but the word of one who wishes to speak with God without man goes astray. What the Bible teaches with such simplicity and strength, and what cannot be learned from any other book, is that there is truth and falsehood, and that human existence inexorably stands at the side of truth, and that there is justice and injustice, and the salvation of mankind lies in opting for justice and rejecting injustice. (Martin Buber)
In the context of this biblical humanism, Buber succeeded in motivating a generation of Jews to return to Judaism and belief in the state of Israel. He developed the idea of adult education in order to further the awareness of others and persuaded the Hebrew University of Jerusalem to open an adult education section where a number of outstanding scholars offered extra-mural seminars. The Institute for Adult Education at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem was named in his honour following his death. Buber was regarded as a pioneer bridge builder between Judaism and Christianity through his work educating towards tolerance, respect and ones relationship to others. In 1963, he was awarded the Erasmus Award (one of Europes highest prizes), presented to people who have contributed to the spiritual unity of Europe.
activities
1. What is the IThou relationship that Buber talks about. 2. Buber said that the laws of the Torah are the responses to revelation at a point in time and are therefore not necessarily binding upon the next generation. Explain if he believed the Torah to be important to the Jewish people today. 3. According to Buber, religion is an ongoing dialogue between humanity and God. What does he mean, and why is this so important to his contribution to Judaism? 4. What is biblical humanism? How and where did Buber implement it? 5. Research the reasons Buber received the Erasmus Award in 1963.
359
Abraham Joshua Heschel (19071972)

Abraham Heschel was born in Warsaw, Poland, into a family of distinguished rabbis and scholars. His early years were devoted to the study of rabbinic literature, and in later life he attributed his devotion and love for Judaism to living in a family where people were sure that everything hinted at something transcendent. God was a continual presence and all of life was holy. Heschel later enrolled to study at a secular school in Vilna (modern-day Lithuania) and graduated in 1927. He went on to study Semitics and Philosophy and was awarded a doctorate for a dissertation on prophetic consciousness. Heschel was deported from Germany in 1938 by the Nazi regime and went to live in America. There he joined the faculty of the Hebrew Union College in Cincinnati and lectured on Philosophy and Rabbinics. From 1945 he taught at the Jewish Theological Seminary of America as a Professor of Ethics and Mysticism. Heschel wrote books and studies on medieval Jewish philosophy, Kabbalah and Chassidism and became one of the most inuential modern philosophers of religion in the United States. Through his works, Heschel wanted to disseminate his love for the Chassidic life and his profound moral and ethical concern for the entire world. Social and religious concerns Heschel became a close friend of Dr Martin Luther King Jr and was active in the American Civil Rights movement and vocal in his opposition to the war in Vietnam. He stated: To meet a human being is a major challenge of the heart and mind. I must recall what I normally forget. A person is not just a specimen of the species called homo sapiens. He is all of humanity in one, and whenever one man is hurt we are all injured. The human is a disclosure of the Divine, and all men are one in Gods care for man. Many things on earth are precious, some are holy, humanity is the holy of holies. (Abraham Heschel) Everything that Heschel did reected his morality. He wanted people to partner God in the work of Tikkun Olam, repairing the world. He took an active role in social justice issuesafter he walked with Dr King in Selma, Alabama, he reected, My feet were praying.
One of his former students, Rabbi Marc Tanenbaum (Director of Public Affairs for the American Jewish Committee), suggested that Heschel take part in the negotiations between Jewish groups and the Catholic Church during the period of the Second Vatican Council (1962 65). He was asked to submit suggestions to the Council to improve Catholic Jewish relations. Heschel (along with his colleagues at the American Jewish FIG. 14.2 Abraham Joshua Heschel Committee) made three suggestions: rst, that the Church reject and condemn those who assert that the Jews as a people are responsible for the crucixion; second, that the Council acknowledge the integrity and permanent preciousness of the Jews and Judaism; and third, that the Church set up programs to ght prejudice and derogatory stereotypes. The nal statement issued by the Council on 28 October 1965 was a compromise document, but Heschel believed it to be a landmark in JewishCatholic relations that opened a new era of better understanding and mutual respect. The rst and most important prerequisite of interfaith is faith. (Abraham Heschel)
activities
1. Outline the early life of Heschel. 2. Explain the work of Heschel with the Second Vatican Council and its importance to Jewish Catholic relations.
360
Career as a teacher and writer Much of Heschels career was devoted to study and writing. He established a reputation as a scholar and thinker and attempted to synthesise the Chassidic world of his youth in Poland with that of modern life in America. I came with great hunger to the University of Berlin to study philosophy. I looked for a system of thought, for the depth of the spirit, for the meaning of existence Erudite and profound scholars gave courses in logic, epistemology, esthetics, ethics and metaphysics Yet in spite of the intellectual power and honesty which I was privileged to witness, I became increasingly aware of the gulf that separated my views from those held at the university To them, religion was a feeling. God was an idea, a postulate of reason. They granted Him the status of being a logical possibility. But to assume that He had existence would have been a crime against epistemology. (Abraham Heschel, quoted in J. Neusner (ed.), Understanding Jewish Theology, 1943, pp. 945) As a result of this clash in ideologies, Heschel attempted to identify the relevance of the classical documents of Judaism for the modern world. He wanted to offer contemporary society an authentic theology and for people to be inspired and able to use the ancient teachings in order to nd solutions to modern problems and issues.
A person must fully engage with God. Through prayer and study we can become closer to God, and if we lead our lives in the name of God, we will develop a moral existence. For Herschel, the Holocaust represented the moral failure of humanity. We can learn from this and be more aware that we are all responsible for each other. However, unless we all become more aware of God and live our lives according to his ways, human violence will end in destruction. We must learn from the past in order to prepare for the challenges of the future. Jewish people should apply Jewish values to every encounter that they have universal, social, ethical and spiritual. Interaction with God Heschel believed that faith is engagement with Gods demands. God continually seeks intimacy with humanity. Heschel called this the Divine pathosGod is capable of emotion and is more emotionally sensitive than human beings. In Heschels words, He is moved and affected by what happens in the world, and reacts accordingly. The relationship that God has with humanity is a dynamic one and Gods actions are inuenced by humanity. God is not merely an object. God cares for and is interested in all creations (Man is the partner of the Holy One, blessed be He). If we truly live according to the commandments, we can become partners in creation and full the commandment of Tikkun Olam. To meet a human being is an opportunity to sense the image of God, the presence of God. According to a rabbinic interpretation, the Lord said to Moses: Wherever you see the trace of man there I stand before you. Heschel did not try to reduce God to the level of human beings. Humanity is said to be made in the image of God and must therefore approach all relationships with compassion and sympathy. Not only must humans keep the laws (mitzvot) of the Torah, they must also respond individually and spontaneously to the demands of God in each new, concrete situation. Judaism requires a leap of action, the willingness to learn from our own actions and try to enrich our lives beyond what we already know. By doing this we become partners in redemption and inspire a moral society.
activity
Research the work of Heschel, identifying the way that his time in America inuenced his theology to handle problems confronting humanity at that time.
Philosophy Heschel developed an original philosophy of Judaism. Religion, he believed, should be able to answer humanitys ultimate questions. Although we cannot prove the existence of God, he claimed there were three ways by which we can become more aware of God: 1. by going through the wonder of nature with its intricacies to an awareness of the grandeur and mystery of reality 2. through the disclosure given to humanity in the Torahs revelation 3. through our deeds, by which we link our own life to the life of the world.
361
activities
1. Explain the three ways that Heschel said we can become closer to God. 2. Heschel was strongly inuenced by the Holocaust. What did he see the Holocaust teaching humanity? 3. What does Heschel mean by Divine pathos? 4. Explain the implications of Divine pathos on Gods relationship with people. 5. What did Heschel mean when he wrote that Judaism requires a leap of action? Heschels contribution to the development of Judaism Heschel is remembered today for his political activism during the 1960s and 1970s. He believed all racism was a public humiliation and the denial of human dignity: Every man must be treated with the honour due to a likeness representing the King of kings. His earlier writings were primarily concerned with the relation between God and humans and how it is experienced daily. This theory was developed in his work God in Search of Man, written in 1955. Heschels greatest contribution extended to his inuence on the relationship between the Jewish people and the Vatican. His participation in the Second Vatican Council and inuence on the writing of the document Nostra Aetate (1965), which gave absolution for the previously believed Jewish guilt over the crucixion of Jesus, ensured the development of a greater understanding between the Catholic Church and the Jewish people. In her book Cries in the Night: Women Who Challenged the Holocaust, Catholic theologian Dr Eva Fleischner described Heschels contribution as follows: We have here the extraordinary phenomenon of a religious Jewish thinker, utterly, profoundly Jewish, from a long Chassidic line, who not only reached out to and touched the lives of Christian theologians and two popes, but who inuenced the outcome of the Roman Churchs relationship to the Jews through Vatican IIs declaration Nostra Aetate. Heschel continually reafrmed the Divine origin of creation and revelation. God created the world, and humanity remains Gods concern. For Heschel, Judaism was not only a religion of behaviour, of mitzvot alone, but also a theology as well. Heschel wrote more than a dozen books on philosophy, prayer and symbolism, and he directly inspired generations of students until his death at the age of 65. His ability to synthesise his Eastern European, Chassidic roots and modern Western philosophy, and his interest in JewishChristian relations, are examples for anyone wanting to pursue a theology that is open to a broad diversity of interests. He remained a leader for whom faith and morality were inseparable. Still today he is thought of as a hero of modern Jewish theologians, an activist for civil rights and peace, and a spokesman for all those devoted to Tikkun Olam.
(Heschel) believed all racism was a and the denial of human dignity.
public humiliation
activities
1. Discuss the following: Heschel was most notably a political activist. 2. How was Heschel instrumental in establishing connections with the Vatican? 3. Explain Heschels contribution to the development of Judaism.
362
Nechama Leibowitz (19051997)

Nechama Leibowitz was born in Riga, Latvia, in 1905. She was raised in a family that valued both Jewish and secular culture. The family moved to Berlin in 1919, and Leibowitz went on to graduate from the University of Berlin in 1930 with a doctorate focusing on translation techniques used in German-Jewish Bible translations of the 15th and 16th centuries. After marrying an uncle, she immigrated to Israel (then Palestine) in 1931. Leibowitz quickly became busy in her new homeland, teaching around the country at academic and religious institutions and informal gatherings. Early in her life (in her twenties) she became involved in teacher development and education and published several pedagogical works. She taught Biblical Commentaries at the teacher seminary at Tel Aviv University. She was appointed a professor there in 1968, but Leibowitz, known simply as Nechama by her students, preferred the title teacher. She lived simply and was unaffected by her renown, declining all press interviews. She refused to let people attend her classes simply because of her reputation, often declaring, I am not a museum. Not much has been written about her life due to her humility and modesty. An active approach to studying Torah In order to encourage her students to be active learners, Leibowitz approached all Torah study by asking thought-provoking questions. She demanded that her students adopt an active role towards text study. Unusual at the time for being a women involved in religious study, Leibowitz became a phenomenon in the world of education and Torah study, and extended a profound inuence on Torah teaching worldwide. Leibowitz taught a dynamic understanding; students were inspired to question and this in turn led them to further discovery. Leibowitz drew meanings from the text that were more relevant to the modern world. She managed to explain the meanings of the ancient sources in a language and style appropriate to each learner. Involvement in adult education In 1938, Leibowitz became involved in adult education and developed an understanding that there needed to be more opportunities for adults to study. In 1942, she was asked to teach a group
of women who had taken a sabbatical from their work on a kibbutz. After the course, at the womens request Leibowitz began to mail them worksheets (known as gilyonot), which they completed and returned for her assessment. The following year she had 50 requests for the worksheets and subscriptions continued to grow. Eventually they numbered in the thousands. She went on creating and correcting worksheets for another 29 years, without payment. In 1955, Leibowitz began to publish Iyunim (Studies), a series of insights into the weekly Torah portion accompanied by the commentaries of various scholars. These were translated into many languages and were read by Jewish communities all over the world. The study of the weekly Torah portion has become an institution throughout Judaism. Leibowitz also commented on the Torah on the Voice of Israel radio station. In 1956, Nechama Leibowitz received the Israel Prizethe most highly regarded award recognising signicant contributions to Israeli life. She died in 1997, with the stipulation that her gravestone read simply Nechama Leibowitz: Teacher. Leibowitzs contribution to the development of Judaism Leibowitz compared the ideas of various Bible commentators in a unique manner, even introducing students to non-Orthodox thinkers such as Martin Buber and non-Jewish thinkers such as Thomas Mann. This open attitude to people outside the Orthodox community offended some scholars. She used modern literary analysis to study biblical texts, looking at vocabulary and literary forms to determine the meaning of the ancient writings. Leibowitz became known for methodologies such as comparing texts and using texts to gain insights into the world of the writers and the characters they portrayed. In this she was a pioneer and many of her methods were adopted by later scholars. Her methods legitimised the idea that texts could have multiple interpretations and hidden moral dimensions. The most important thing is that the students should study Torah from all angles; search it out, and choose or reject interpretations. All providing they engage in Torah out of love. (Nechama Leibowitz)
363
Through Leibowitzs work, attention was refocused on Bible commentaries (as opposed to the study of the Talmud). She considered the setting in which the text had been written to be largely irrelevant and believed that the important task for teachers was to make the text relevant to those they were teaching. The essence of the text was the ethical lessons that could be drawn from it irrespective of the circumstances of its composition. Leibowitz was a deeply spiritual and observant Jewish woman who emphasised the responsibilities inherent in the religion rather than mystical faith. Nechama Leibowitz motivated Jews around the world to take a renewed interest in the study of Jewish texts and their commentaries. She was the teachers teacher, and her insights on methodology have been utilised by educators throughout the world. She also became a role model for Jewish women and inspired a generation of Orthodox Jewish feminists.
activities
1. Outline Leibowitzs family background and where she moved to complete her education. 2. Leibowitz preferred to be known as the teacher. Why was this appropriate? 3. Leibowitz nally had no way of staying out of the public eye. Explain the work she did in publishing and the media that helped earn her the Israel Prize. 4. What was different about her comments on the Bible? 5. Did Leibowitz balance the written word with scientic, historical or geographic perspectives? Why or why not? 6. Nechama Leibowitz promoted and taught the methodology of active learning. She believed that students should engage with any material that was being taught so as to fully understand the text. Using the book of Genesis Chapter 37 (the story of Joseph and his brothers), read the text and take note of the following: a. What was the economic context in which the story took place? b. What was the attitude of the writer towards the characters mentioned? c. Examine all quotations from all sidesfrom that of the speaker (what they were trying to say) to that of the listeners (what they listened to and what they heard). d. As a class, discuss the attitude of each character to the others. Class discussion: Examine the cause of the rift between Joseph and his brothers.
Chabad-Lubavitch
The word Chabad is an acronym of the Hebrew words chochmah (wisdom), binah (understanding) and daat (knowledge). Chabad is both a philosophy and a movement. It seeks to guide people to rene their lives and grow in wisdom, understanding and knowledge. Chochmah can be described as the birth of an idea, binah as its contemplation and daat as its actualisation. Chabad began approximately 250 years ago in the Russian town of Lyubavichi (Russian for city of brotherly love). The philosophy spread rapidly into surrounding countries and today has over 200 000 adherents, with many more people attending Chabad services all over the world.
364
The Chabad movement was founded by Rabbi Shneur Zalman of Liadi (a town in Imperial Russia) and has been guided by the teachings of seven successive leaders (rebbes). The philosophy developed by these leaders relates to Jewish mysticism (Kabbalah) and is concerned with every part of Jewish life, both spiritual and physical. Every aspect of the world exists through the intervention of God. A person can gain control over their evil inclinations through an intellectual approach and meditation. In contrast to other branches of Chassidism, Chabad emphasises mind over emotions. Origins of Chabad-Lubavitch The origins of todays Chabad-Lubavitch organisation lie in the early 1940s after the sixth Rebbe, Rabbi Yosef Yitzchak Schneerson, was granted asylum in the United States following years of harassment by the Soviet regime. Under his leadership, the movement became a powerful force in Jewish life. Chabad institutions have been established in over 900 cities worldwide (in 2007 these institutions numbered more than 3000). In these, people dedicate their lives to Jewish awareness, Jewish outreach and charity. (Judaism is not a missionary religion and Chabad is involved only in reaching out to other Jews). Emissaries (ambassadors) are sent out to various locations around the world with the mission of persuading non-observant Jewish people to pursue a more observant life. These emissaries typically open a Chabad House, where all the activities of the community are centred and where they exercise hospitality to the wider community. The Chabad leadership calls Jews everywhere to adopt more Orthodox practices in the belief that this will bring about the coming of the Jewish Messiah. Even if you are not fully committed to Torah life, do something. Begin with a mitzvah any mitzvahits value will not be diminished by the fact that there are others that you are not prepared to do (the seventh Rebbe, Rabbi Menachem Mendel Schneerson). All Jews are encouraged to perform the followinglighting the Sabbath candles, putting on the phylacteries (tellin), putting a mezuzah on the doorpost of their home, studying the Torah, giving charity, purchasing Jewish books, observing dietary laws (kashrut), being kind, being committed to Jewish education and keeping the laws of family purity.
Chabads contribution to the development of Judaism The Chabad movement pioneered outreach to the Jewish community and spread the awareness of Judaism to assimilated Jewish people throughout the world. They pioneered the use of technology to educate and reach distant communities and in so doing brought about an educational revolution in the Jewish world. The aim of Chabad is to attract participants and to give them a connection to Jewish life. Today it is the largest Jewish organisation in the world with the widest inuence. It offers vital services to Jews across the religious spectrum who have nowhere else to turn.
FIG 14.3 The Chabad House on Wheels is a travelling synagogue that provides outreach, education and social services to the Jewish community of Miami Beach, Florida.
activities
1. What is Chabad? 2. How does it inuence peoples lives? 3. Undertake your own research to nd out how the movement has grown.
365
Jewish ethics
Judaisms mitzvot are standards of behaviour that lead people to live lives of kindness, decency, justice and compassion. They elevate human relationships and inspire people to strive for the highest good. The Jewish ethical code is based on the Torah and is a type of ethical monotheism. The standard of behaviour comes from God who created humankind. According to Orthodox Judaism, God gave Moses the whole Torah (written and oral) at Mount Sinai. The Torah contains 613 mitzvot that are binding upon Jews. Modern Orthodox Jews strictly observe halacha (Jewish law) but still integrate into modern societyto them the commandments are not affected by time or place and are eternal and universal. Progressive Judaism views revelation as a continuous process. The people of Israel, through their prophets and sages, achieved unique insight in the realm of religious truth, and the Torah, both written and oral, enshrines the Jewish peoples evergrowing consciousness of God and of the moral law. Because we are products of historical processes, certain of its laws have lost their binding force with the passing of the conditions that brought them about. But as a depository of permanent spiritual ideals, the Torah remains the dynamic source of the life of the Jewish people. Each age has the obligation to adapt the teachings of the Torah to its basic needs in consonance with the genius of Judaism. Judaism offers both ethics to live by and the ritual by which to pass those ethics on, and the Torah gives no indication which is the most important. Ethical and ritual commandments ensure that the mitzvot are both observed and perpetuated. Jewish ritual becomes a way to connect with God and the instrument through which Jewish ethics are learned and observed. The halacha does not legislate for every situation (although it does provide extensive and detailed laws covering many areas). Certain choices are left to a persons moral sense of what is right and wrong. The relationship between Jewish law and morality is thus dynamic and exible, and is intended to raise the consciousness of the people.
activities
1. What are Judaisms mitzvot? 2. Research the Jewish mitzvot and identify some of the commandments. 3. Dene ethical monotheism. How does it relate to the Jewish ethical code? 4. What is the importance of the Torah to Jewish ethics?
Bioethics
Jewish bioethics emerge from the traditional practice of applying principles of Jewish law to ethical dilemmas. Deliberations are based on the Torah and the Talmud. Interpretation of these texts attempts to identify the duties of physicians, patients and families who are faced with difcult health decisions. Although discussions on medical ethics can be found in the writings from ancient times, modern technologies have created new challenges for the interpreters of Jewish tradition. Decisions on bioethics are generally based on three principles: 1. human life has innite value 2. ageing, illness and death are a natural part of life 3. improvement of the patients quality of life is a constant commitment. The overriding commandment is that of pikuach nefeshthe obligation to save a life in jeopardy even to the extent of violating other commandments.
The overriding commandment is that of pikuach nefeshthe obligation to save a life in jeopardy even to the extent of
violating other commandments.
366
Abortion In most cases, the foetus is treated as a human being in Jewish ethics. Generally, one may not deliberately harm a foetus. More insight into the Jewish view of abortion is gained from the sacred text. And if men strive together and hurt a woman with child, so that her fruit depart and yet no harm follow, he shall surely be ned, according as the womans husband shall lay upon him; and he shall pay as the judges determine. (Exodus 21:22) The fact that the Torah here requires a monetary payment for causing a miscarriage is interpreted by some rabbis to indicate that abortion is not a capital crime. Others say it merely indicates that one is not executed for performing an abortion, even though it is a type of murder. As a general rule, abortion in Judaism is permitted only if there is a direct threat to the life of the mother by her carrying the foetus to term or in the act of childbirth. In such a circumstance, the baby is considered a rodef, a pursuer, chasing after the mother with the intent to kill her. The appropriate action in this case is self-defence. The reason this is the deciding factor is that the foetus represents a potential life whereas the mother is an existing life. The foetus is subordinate to the mother because it is threatening the life of the mother. Despite this classication, however, once the babys head or most of its body has been delivered, the babys life is considered equal to the mothers. Then one life cannot be chosen over
another because it is considered as though they are pursuing each other. Judaism recognises psychiatric as well as physical factors in evaluating the potential threat that the foetus poses to the mother. The danger presented by the foetus must be both probable and substantial in order to justify abortion. Because Jewish law does not attempt to assign values to different lives, a foetal abnormality is not viewed as a justication for an abortion. It is not for human beings to determine if the life of a person with a congenital abnormality has less value than anothers. If value were assigned to these cases, the natural development may lead to assigning value to the life of people who are ill or aged. Euthanasia Judaism afrms the sanctity of life without qualication. However, sometimes this commitment comes into conict with other principles of halacha, raising questions that need to be resolved. There are a number of important principles to consider in regard to euthanasia. 1. One is only permitted to take another life if ones own life is at risk. The potential murderer is considered a rodef. Killing someone whose existence does not pose a threat to the life of another is considered to be murder. 2. God has given each person a body and a soul for a particular amount of time. After this period, both the body and the soul are returned to God. As we are holding the body in trust, we have no right to tamper with it in any way.
FIG. 14.4 Jewish protesters rally in New York, discontent with the Republican Partys stance regarding abortion.
367
3. Any life is of innite value. The quality of the life does not alter the value of a particular life. The halacha is quite clear that we may take no active role in hastening the death of a patient. Passive euthanasia is more complicated. One is permitted to pray for the death of a patient who is suffering (although one must simultaneously do all that is in ones power to save the patient). The principles that guide all decisions regarding passive euthanasia are as follows: 1. All patients must be given food and drink and what is necessary to sustain life. 2. A patient whose death is not anticipated to be imminent must be treated like any other patient, and all resuscitative measures must be carried out even if this only prolongs his or her life for a short time. 3. In the case where a patient with a terminal illness develops a complication that involves major treatment, if the complication is due to the terminal illness, resuscitation is not necessary. If the complication is unexpected and is from a cause unrelated to the underlying illness, full treatment must be given.
FIG. 14.5 The halacha helps Jewish people in decision making.
Genetic screening In Judaism, life is paramount and all must be done to ensure the saving of a life. Genetic testing, gene therapy and other applications of genetic engineering are permissible in Judaism when they are used for cure, prevention of disease or treatment. This is not considered to be a violation of Gods natural law and is viewed as a legitimate implementation of the biblical mandate to heal the sick. Genetic manipulation is not permitted for the alteration of physical characteristics such as eye colour and height. It is, however, acceptable to manipulate organs and organisms when this will lead to the production of insulin and other agents intended to benet humankind and treat disease. In the Jewish sacred writings, evidence is found of knowledge and understanding of genetics. Genesis 1:27 states, And God created man in his image, in the image of God he created him; male and femalefrom which we can understand that human beings are fashioned as creators just as God is a creator. In Genesis 30:32, Jacob makes reference to genetics when separating sheep of different colours. In the Talmud we nd the understanding that certain illnesses are transmitted through the parents to the child. In the 12th century, Maimonides prescribed a regimen for good health and guaranteed that all those who followed it would remain healthy except for those who were born with hereditary or genetic illnesses. There is general agreement from most rabbis that genetic research is permissible for the sake of nding cures for human illnesses. From Genesis 1:28 (God blessed them and God said to them, Be fertile and increase, ll the earth and master it; and rule the sh of the sea, the birds of the sky, and all the living things that creep on earth. ) they understand that all living things on the earth can be used for the benet of humankind. However, this brings with it a responsibility. While human beings have dominion over the earth, they must also protect it. Humanity is given permission to use the worlds resources but is barred from wasting and harming them. Whatever is good for humankind can thus be considered good and praiseworthy. King Davids words in Psalm 115:16, The heavens belong to the LORD but the earth he gave over to man, further support the position that genetic engineering, gene therapy and the knowledge gained from them do not undermine Gods creation.
368
The use of any knowledge that can benet humankind is biblically mandated. The use of premarital genetic screening to eliminate genetic illnesses is also encouraged in Judaism.
Judaism believes that although humanity is a part of nature, numerous restrictions are placed on humans in order to ensure the preservation of the world, and they cannot simply dominate nature for their own benet. There is a strong environmental ethic expressed in the Jewish sacred writings. The Jewish attitude towards nature is a complex one in that humanity has moral claims on nature and nature has moral claims on humanity. The natural world must be respected, and there must be a balance between the values and needs of humans and the claims of naturebetween nature as a source of life and nature as a threat to man and social values. Genesis 2:15 suggests a concept of human stewardship of creation: The LORD God took the man and placed him in the garden of Eden, to till it and tend it. A rabbinic midrash (a story created for pedagogical reasons) suggests that after God created Adam, he led him past all the trees that he had created and told him, See how beautiful and excellent are all my works. Beware lest you spoil them and ruin my world. For if you spoil it there is nobody to repair it for you. There are several themes in the Torah that have been understood to have implications for environmental ethics. When in your war against a city you have to besiege it a long time in order to capture it, you must not destroy its trees, wielding the axe against them. You may eat of them, but you must not cut them down. Are trees of the eld human to withdraw before you into the besieged city? Only trees that you know do not yield food may be destroyed; you may cut them down for constructing siege works against the city that is waging war on you, until it has been reduced. (Deuteronomy 20:1920) One interpretation of this passage is that it speaks about sustainable development: because our lives are dependent on the fruit-bearing trees, we should not cut them down. However, Rashi, a medieval Jewish commentator, had a different interpretation. He suggested that as part of Gods creation the trees were to be respected, and that they did not only exist to full the needs of humansthey had an intrinsic value independent of humanity. To say that nature only exists to full the needs of human beings is to refuse to acknowledge all of Gods creation.
activities
1. What are the three principles that Jewish people would use to determine their view on a bioethical situation? 2. What is pikuach nefesh? 3. Describe the Jewish ethics regarding abortion and the scripture they use to support their view. 4. Do Jewish people support euthanasia? Why or why not? 5. Genetic testing, gene therapy and other applications of genetic engineering are permissible in Judaism on one condition. What is it? 6. Outline Jewish ethics in regard to genetic manipulation and research and quote scripture passages that support their view.
If you have a sapling in your hand, and someone should say to you that the Messiah has come, stay and complete the planting, and then go to greet the Messiah.
(Rabbi Yochanan ben Zakkai)
369
FIG. 14.6 God has commanded Jewish people not to destroy anything that creates young.
If, along the road, you chance upon a birds nest, in any tree or on the ground, with edglings or eggs and the mother sitting over the edglings or on the eggs, do not take the mother together with her young. Let the mother go, and take only the young, in order that you may fare well and have a long life. (Deuteronomy 22:67) Jews understand that God has commanded us not to destroy anything that generates young. It is good for humankind when creation is perpetuated so that one can use it in the future (again, the concept of sustainable development). The Sabbath is another important theme for the environment. Talmudic interpretations of the Genesis creation story say that Man was created on the eve of the Sabbath so that in case his heart grew proud, one may say to him: Even the gnat was in creation before you were there. The Jewish observance of the Sabbath as the day of rest applies to nature as well as people. From Exodus 20:10 (the seventh day is a Sabbath of the Lord your God; you shall not do any workyou, your son or daughter, your male or female slave, or your cattle) we understand that productive manipulation of the environment is not an absolute right. This is a reafrmation of Gods ownership of the land. It should not be believed that all the beings exist for the sake of existence of humanity. On the contrary, all the other beings too have been intended for their own sakes, and not for the sake of something else. (Maimonides) There is much to be found in rabbinic literature concerning the treatment of animals. An important concept is tsaar baalei chayim (the suffering of
living creatures). A farmer is forbidden to plough with an ox and a donkey yoked together as this places undue strain on the donkey. An ox is not permitted to be muzzled during the threshing period to stop it eating the grain. The Jewish dietary laws seek to minimise the pain of the animal being killed, and the basis for the separation between eating milk and meat together is a biblical passage that speaks of compassion for animals: You shall not boil a kid in its mothers milk (Exodus 23:19). There are, however, incidences in the Torah that show that human life does take precedence over that of animals. Abraham substitutes the sacrice of his son Isaac with that of a ram in order that his son may live (Genesis 22:913). The principle of baal tashchit (do not destroy wantonly) is applied to both products of nature and products of humans. Whoever breaks vessels, or tears garments, or destroys a building, or clogs a fountain, or does away with foods in a destructive manner, violates the prohibition of baal tashchit (Talmud). The Shulchan Aruch, a major code of Jewish law, states: It is forbidden to destroy or injure anything capable of being useful to men. By using nature productively, humans join with God in creation. In the Ethics of the Fathers, a book of the Mishnah, we are reminded of this: You are not required to complete the task, yet you are not free to withdraw from it (Chapter 2:21).
activities
1. Explain the complex Jewish attitude towards nature. What is behind this complexity? 2. What does the Torah say to support the Jewish view of nature and the environment? 3. How does the principle of baal tashchit apply to protecting natures animals?
370
Sexual ethics
General attitude to sex Judaism does not consider sex to be shameful. Sex is a sanctied act when performed under the correct circumstances and according to the guidelines for a proper sexual relationship. Genesis 2:18 states: It is not good for man to be alone; I will make a tting helper for him, from which Jews understand that marriage and companionship are essential and that the act of marriage completes a person. Sex is a means of strengthening the marital bond. The sacred book The Song of Songs, written by King Solomon, is called the Holy of Holies in the Talmud. This book details the love between a man and a woman as a metaphor for the love between God and his people. Sexual intercourse is a metaphorical expression of the unity between God and the Jewish people. Sex is not just an act of momentary pleasure; it is an act of immense signicance that requires commitment and responsibility from those involved. The act of sex should be an experience of joy, and sex without regard for the partners feelings is considered evil. Premarital sex In Judaism, marriage is considered to be the highest form of existence. Jewish law prohibits sex outside the context of marriage. The marriage ceremony is called Kiddushin, a name derived from the Hebrew word kadosh, holy. The sexual act is thus considered to be holy when performed within the context of marriage. The primary purpose of the sexual act is to reinforce the bonds of love and companionship within marriage. A secondary purpose is procreation. In the Torah, the Hebrew word to know (yadah) is used to signify sex: Now the man knew his wife Eve, and she conceived (Genesis 4:1). From this it is understood that the sexual act is not merely a physical act, but one that involves an emotional and physical element. Marriage is described in the Bible as basar echad, being of one eshtotally united. Marriage unites a couple, and when they share the sexual act they are sharing a part of themselves for eternity.
From every human being there rises a light that reaches straight to heaven. And when two souls who are destined to be together nd each other, their streams of light ow together, and a single, brighter light goes forth from their united being. (Baal Shem Tov) Judaism teaches that within a marriage, sex binds the husband and wife together because it teaches them to focus beyond themselves. Outside of marriage, oneness and completeness can never be achieved through the sexual act. Contraception The rst commandment in the Torah is Be fertile and increase (Genesis 1:28). It is said that for Judaism, a home without children is a home without blessing. In Jewish law, birth control is acceptable as long as the couple are committed to eventually fullling this commandment and having children. There are many interpretations as to how many children this refers to, but the commonly understood principle is to have at least two children. The idea is that the man and woman have then replaced themselves. The method of contraception is the issue of concern in Judaism. The commandment to be fertile and multiply is a commandment primarily directed to the male. Therefore the methods of contraception that destroy the seed or the passage of the seed (for example, condoms) are not permitted. The law prohibiting the improper emission of seed (Genesis 38:810) also prohibits coitus interruptus. The contraceptive pill, however, is acceptable as the sperm can still reach its destination. The oral contraceptive is the method preferred by most rabbis because it does not interfere with natural intercourse. Permanent sterilisation as a means of birth control is also not permitted and is considered to be a mutilation. Sterilisation of the male is absolutely prohibited, although the tying of a womans fallopian tubes is sometimes permitted as it is reversible. Condoms are further rejected because they interfere with becoming one esh (Genesis 2:24: And he shall cleave unto his wife and they shall become one esh).
371
Homosexuality The Torah forbids male homosexuality although nothing is said of such female acts. In the book of Leviticus there are two verses that are frequently cited in relation to the Jewish attitude to male homosexuality: Do not lie with a male as one lies with a woman; it is an abhorrence (18:22) and If a man lies with a male as one lies with a woman, the two of them have done an abhorrent thing, they shall be put to death (20:13). Some believe that the reason for the use of such strong language in the Torah is because the homosexual lifestyle is one in which procreation cannot occur, and thus it is not considered to be natural. In the Talmud a hint of an explanation is given when it says that a man leaving his wife and family to pursue a relationship with another man undermines the Jewish ideal of family life that is articulated in the Torah. Jewish law does not teach that it is forbidden to be a homosexual; it is concerned with the homosexual act. Judaism is concerned with explicit acts of homosexuality and not simply homosexual tendencies. Although only homosexual acts between two men are expressly mentioned in the Torah, homosexual acts between two women are also subject to a rabbinic prohibition, though it is considered less severe. The Orthodox Jewish community believes that non-practising homosexuals have an important contribution to make to Jewish life and that a Jew is judged by his actions and not his orientation. Only actions are prohibited, not proclivities. Controlling behaviour, though difcult, is what the Torah calls for. The Progressive Jewish community, for the most part, views the traditional prohibitions against homosexuality as mores from a bygone agemores now replaced with clearer understandings of the reality of gender orientation as something that is beyond simple individual preference.
activities
1. What is the Jewish view of sexual intercourse? 2. Why is the Song of Songs important for establishing a correct sexual relationship for Jewish people? 3. Write a detailed position statement for Jewish people in regard to sexual behaviours other than marital sex. How are sexual practices linked to Jewish beliefs?
372
Significant practices in the life of Jews

Death and mourning
Death A good name is better than fragrant oil, and the day of death better than the day of birth. (Ecclesiastes 7:1) The Midrash describes this world as the lobby of the world to come, and in the Talmud the world to come is further described as the Sabbath and this world as the eve of the Sabbath. In Judaism, death is not considered to be a tragedy and is seen as a natural process. Death, like living, is all part of Gods plan. Judaism is a religion that is life-focused and emphasises how to live life on this earth. Many of the traditions and customs concerning death and mourning concern kavod hamet (honouring the dead person) and nichum aveilim (comforting the mourner). Treatment of the dying According to Jewish tradition, people can atone for their sins as long as they are alive. Repentance in Hebrew is teshuvah (to return). The dying person is encouraged to say the nal viddui (confession): I acknowledge before you, God and God of my fathers, that my recovery or my death are in your hands. May it be your will to heal me with a full healing. Yet, if I should die, let my death be an atonement for all my sins and transgressions and evil deeds that I have committed before you. Allow me to share in the Garden of Eden, and make me worthy of a place in the world to come that is reserved for the righteous. If the person who is approaching death is able, he or she is encouraged to say the words of the Shema (the prayer that encapsulates the beliefs of Judaism): Shema Yisrael, Adonai Eloheinu, Adonai echad (Hear, O Israel: the Lord is our God, the Lord is One). If the dying person is unconscious, those present should recite those verses for him or her. It is considered to be a showing of respect and courtesy to remain in the room as the person is dying. This is of utmost importance to give comfort and reassurance to the ill person. Treatment of the body It is important to preserve the dignity of the individual, and it is customary to allow the burial to occur as soon after death as possible. During this inbetween period, the soul remains lingering in this world with no body. The bodys returning to the earth is directly commensurate with the souls
FIG. 14.7 Jewish cemeteries are usually separate from other religions, unless in smaller cities, where a separate Jewish section may exist.
373
ability to return to the Source from which it was drawn. It is considered to be a humiliation of the dead to prolong the period before burial. Most Jews are buried within 24 hours of death. Once death has occurred, the family will call one of the synagogue functionaries, who will call on the Jewish burial association, the Chevra Kadisha (the Sacred Burial Society). The job of the men and women of this society is to care for the dead in accordance with halacha. Once the person has died, the body is not left alone until burial. The task of staying with the body (shemira) is a ritual that has grown out of the principle of kavod hamet, and the shomerim pass the time until the funeral reciting psalms. Out of respect they neither eat nor drink in the presence of the dead person. The ritual of purication (teharah) is performed by the Chevra Kadisha. The body is prepared for burial according to ancient traditions with the ritual use of water, which is believed to be a source of nourishment. After this purication process, the deceased is dressed in a simple white linen or cotton shroud (tachrichim), signifying purity and holiness. Men are buried wrapped in their prayer shawls (tallit) with the fringes cut off (as these signify the 613 mitzvot and they can no longer be performed). The simplicity of this process is important as it does not allow distinguishing between rich or poorall are equal in the eyes of God. Following the above procedure, the body is placed in a plain, wooden cofn to await the burial. Once the body is placed in the casket it remains closed. The customs of viewing the body or embalming it are forbidden in Jewish law. Autopsies are discouraged as they are considered to be a desecration of the body. When autopsies must be performed, they should be minimally intrusive. Funeral The period between the death and the burial service is known as aninut. During this time, mourners should prepare for the funeral and the bereaved family is left alone in order to come to terms with their loss. Immediately before the funeral, kriah (making a tear in the clothing of the mourner) takes place. This is a symbol of loss and mourning as described in the Torah: And Jacob rent his clothes, put sackcloth on his loins, and observed mourning for his son for many days (Genesis 37:34). This practice is carried out by the seven immediate relatives of the deceased (spouse, mother, father, sister, brother,
son, daughter). On hearing of the death of a person, it is customary to recite the phrase Baruch dayan haemetBlessed be the true judge. The funeral service is very simple. Psalms are chanted, a eulogy is recited and the memorial prayer El Maleh Rachamim (God, full of mercy) is recited. The cofn is then carried to the gravesite with the mourners following. This fulls the important mitzvah of halvayat hametescorting the deceased to their place of burial. As a nal act, all those who are present assist in the lling of the grave. At this point a series of verses acknowledging Gods ways are recited. The mourning prayer (Kaddish) is then recited by the male mourners (Orthodox) and by both male and female mourners (Progressive). This prayer does not deal directly with death but speaks of the majesty and power of God. After the burial service, it is customary for the nonfamily members at the funeral to form two lines and the mourners pass between them to leave the cemetery. All the others recite the traditional words May God comfort you among the mourners of Zion and Jerusalem. Before leaving the cemetery, each person washes their hands as a symbolic cleansing. It is also customary to give a few coins to charity before one leaves. Orthodox Judaism does not permit the practice of cremation. The sacred texts and the sages have determined that the body should return to dust in the most natural way possible. The Progressive community, although discouraging of the practice of cremation, would permit such a service if it is the expressed wish of the deceased. Mourning practices The mourning process in the Jewish tradition is broken into denite periods of time. These periods allow the mourners to express their grief, be comforted by the community and slowly return to normal life. Immediately following the funeral, the family goes home to begin the period known as shiva (seven days). It is customary for the family to partake in a meal of condolence (seudat havraah) prepared by community members. This meal is traditionally made up of foods that are round in shape, symbolising the cycle of life, and marks the beginning of the rst period of mourning. Condolence calls are now made by community members. It is considered to be a sacred obligation to comfort the mourners. In Judaism, exercising compassion by paying a condolence call is a
374
mitzvah, considered by some of Judaisms greatest scholars to be biblically ordained. The Torah records that God visited Isaac: And it came to pass after the death of Abraham, that God blessed Isaac, his son (Genesis 25:11). From this it is understood that God himself was comforting the bereaved Isaac. During the shiva period, prayer services are conducted at the mourners house, and this allows the mourners to say the mourners prayer. Mourners do not allow themselves any physical comfort, sit on low stools, do not wear leather shoes (a sign of luxury) or cosmetics (a sign of vanity), and do not work. The Kaddish can only be intoned in the presence of a minyan. A yahrzeit candle (memorial candle) is lit. It is customary for the mourning period to be suspended over the Sabbath and the family will go to the synagogue to say the necessary prayers at this time. The second period of mourning is known as sheloshim (thirty days) and this is a period of less intense mourning. The mourner returns to his daily routine but does not attend parties or musical events. This period is followed by a period known as aveilut. This is a period that is observed only for ones parentsthe mourning period for other relatives (including spouses) concludes after the sheloshim. The mourners Kaddish is recited every day in the presence of a minyan. After the aveilut period is complete, the family of the deceased is not permitted to continue formal mourning. Every year, on the anniversary of the death, a yahrzeit candle is lit by family members to observe the anniversary of the deceased. On the yahrzeit, Kaddish is recited in synagogue. In addition, there are opportunities on certain festivals to attend memorial services. The significance of death and mourning for the Jewish community and individuals Judaisms main emphasis is on life, not death. The Torah implies an eternity of the soul. When talking to Abraham, God says, As for you, you shall go to your fathers in peace; you shall be buried at a ripe old age (Genesis 15:15); when he does die, Abrahams death is described in these words: And Abraham breathed his last, dying at a good ripe age, old and contented; and he was gathered to his kin (Genesis 25:8). The Torah thus implies that death means the end of physical existence but not a total cessation of being. There is an eternity of the soul, which will be reunited with the souls of ancestors who have previously died.
Because there is not much written in the sacred writings about the afterlife and judgment, Judaism challenges each individual to focus on the journey of life and to live a life of value. The fact that the funeral is held as quickly as possible emphasises the belief that the soul returns to God. Since the body is merely the vessel and not life itself, the process of burial and mourning does not venerate the body. When a death occurs, the Jewish rituals give the mourner a process to follow that provides an embracing structure during a time of turmoil. The Kaddish blessing that is recited by the mourner is a reafrmation of faith in God even in the midst of tragedy and grief. It is at such a time that one is most likely to deny the existence of God, and yet Jewish people express this reafrmation of faith in the hope that God will ll the vacuum that has been created through the death. Kaddish is said in the presence of a minyan to ensure that the mourners do not grieve in isolation. The ritual associated with mourning helps the mourner slowly accept the reality of death and to heal. Living in a community, one has an opportunity to give and receive help. When touched by death, a person is reminded of the gift of life. Awareness of death allows people to enrich their lives by binding more closely together in a continuum of past and future. The community offers solidarity with the mourners as seen in the many customs associated with the minyan and the shiva ritual. Through the contact with the community, many mourners feel a deepened appreciation for their Judaism and an increased sense of wholeness in their lives. It is through the contact with the community that the memory of the deceased is honoured.
activities
1. Death is not considered a tragedy in Judaism. Why not? 2. Describe the practices followed in the treatment of people who are dying. 3. What happens to the body after death? 4. Describe a Jewish funeral. 5. Outline the stages of mourning that take place. 6. What is the signicance of death and mourning for individuals and for the Jewish community?
375
FIG. 14.8 A rabbi blesses the bride and groom at a traditional Jewish wedding in Ojai, California, USA.
Marriage
Within the Jewish tradition, a person who does not marry is considered an incomplete person. Genesis 2:18 says, The LORD God said It is not good for man to be alone; I will make a tting helper for him. The Talmud states, When a man is without a wife, he lives without joy, without blessing and without good (Babylonian Talmud, Yevamot 62b). The Hebrew word for marriage is kiddushin, sanctication. One partner is consecrated to the other. Marriage is seen as a spiritual bond between two people and as a fullment of Gods commandment to populate the world. It is the ideal human state established by God at the time of creation. A successful marriage is the most perfect symbol of a meaningful relationship and is the closest approximation of the idealised relationship between God and the Jewish people. In the Torah woman is seen to be taken from mans side. Woman and man are thus seen as equal and part of the same entity. There is an underlying natural connection between man and woman. So the Lord God cast a deep sleep upon the man; and, while he slept, He took one of his ribs and closed up the esh at that spot. And the Lord God fashioned the rib that He had taken from the man into a woman; and He brought her to the man. Then the man said, This one at last is bone of my bones and esh of my esh. This one shall be called Woman, for from man was she taken. (Genesis 2:2124)
During the Brit Milah and often at Bar Mitzvahs and Bat Mitzvahs, a blessing will be recited for a life of Torah (study and Jewish tradition), chuppah and good deeds. The implication is that the denition of an ideal life in Judaism is one that includes all three of these elements. In the Jewish marriage, the value of shalom bayit (peace in the home) is upheld. In the Talmud it is written that No man should live with a serpent (Babylonian Talmud, Ketubot 72a), and the relationship between husband and wife should be characterised by peace and happiness. Certain laws can be suspended in order to preserve harmony between husband and wife. For example, the Talmud says that a vow that cannot be rescinded can be taken back in order to preserve harmony within the home (Rema, Yoreh Deah 228:21). When Sarah was told that she and her husband, Abraham, would be blessed by God with a son, Sarah expressed surprise that Abraham would be able to have a child at his advanced age. In relaying Sarahs sentiments to Abraham, God omitted this portion of her response. From this episode it can be understood that there are times when one can even alter the substance of a persons words in order to ensure shalom bayit (see Babylonian Talmud, Yevamot 65b; Vayikra Rabba 9:9). The Talmud and Judaisms sages of wisdom have many words of advice to achieve such happiness. For example: A man must love his wife at least as much as himself but honour her more than himself (Babylonian Talmud, Yevamot 62b, Sanhedrin 76b). The laws and customs of the marriage ceremony take as their goal the glorication of marriage
376
and the maintenance of a successful relationship. According to rabbinic law, a Jewish marriage consists of two separate acts: 1. Kiddushin. This is a legal act of acquiring the bride by the groom. It is done by handing over an object of value (the ring) to the bride in the presence of two witnesses and the reciting of the following words: Behold you are consecrated to me according to the law of Moses and of Israel. 2. Nissuin. The ceremony in which the bride is led under a canopy (chuppah), symbolic of the rst house the couple will share together, and benedictions are recited. On the Shabbat preceding the wedding, the groom (Orthodox) and the bride and groom (Conservative and Progressive) are called to read from the Torah and receive a blessing on their upcoming wedding and marriage. In some communities, it is customary to shower the couple with sweets, symbolically wishing them a sweet and good life together. On the day of the wedding, the bride and groom fast until after the ceremony is over. This is an opportunity for the kallah (bride) and chatan (groom) to atone for their sins and enter into the marriage in a state of ritual purity, sinlessness and absolution. This also reminds them that they are on the threshold of a new life. Traditionally, the bride and groom spend the week preceding the wedding apart. The rst time that they see in other is at the ceremony to welcome guests (kabbalat panim), which is held immediately prior to the wedding itself. Immediately before the ceremony, the ketubah is signed by two qualied witnesses who attest to the promises made by the groom to the bride. This is a legal transaction where authority is required from the groom to formalise a contract. The groom is asked to validate the contract by holding onto a handkerchief that is extended to him (kinyan). The ketubah spells out the responsibilities of the bride and groom to each other: the groom is to provide food, clothing and shelter to the bride and she in turn accepts to love, honour and care for him. The ketubah also sets aside a certain amount of money as the wifes separate property. It allows the wife to have nancial security should the husband divorce her. The ketubah acts as an insurance policy protecting the rights of the wife. Without
the ketubah being complete, the marriage is not permitted to proceed. It is customary for the groom to place the veil over the brides face. This is called the bedeken (cover) ceremony. The origin of this is the biblical story of the deceiving of Jacob, who expected to marry Rachel but was given Leah as a bride instead (Genesis 29:16). The veil symbolises the idea of modesty. The wedding ceremony takes place under the chuppah (canopy), a symbol of the home that the new couple will build together. It is open on all sides, just as Abraham and Sarah had their tent open all sides to welcome people in hospitality. The chatan (groom) and the kallah (bride) are escorted to the wedding canopy by their parents. The kallah proceeds to circle the groom seven times. By doing this she is symbolically weaving a protective web around the groom. There is also a belief that there are seven levels to a mans soul, and as the bride circles the groom, she is entering into the very core of his soul. The betrothal blessing (birkat erusin) is then recited by the rabbi. This blessing praises God who permits proper marriage and sancties the Jewish people by means of marriage. This is recited over a cup of wine. Both bride and groom drink from the cup. Wine is a symbol of joy in the Jewish tradition. The marriage becomes ofcial once the groom has given the bride an object (the ring). The ring should be simple and not adorned with stones. It should not have a great monetary value as it should be clear to onlookers that the bride is not marrying the groom for his nancial assets. The plainness of the ring also serves to ensure that all people can get married, not only the rich. The groom takes the wedding ring in his hand and says, Behold, you are consecrated unto me with this ring, according to
FIG. 14.9 A Jewish marriage is ofcial when the groom has given a ring to the bride.
377
the law of Moses and Israel. The ring is then placed on the brides right forenger. The marriage ceremony is now complete. The ketubah is then read out to the community, symbolic of the fact that the community, which has gathered to witness the marriage, has a stake in the union and the new couple has become part of the community. The Seven Blessings (Sheva Brachot) are now recited. These blessings are for the wine, the bridal couple and the community, as well as blessing God himself. They are recited by the rabbi or others chosen by the families. The groom then breaks a glass that has been placed on the oor. At all moments of joy, Jewish people are told to remember that there are people who are not as fortunate as they are. The breaking of the glass also serves as a reminder of the destruction of the rst and second Temples in Jerusalem. The breaking of the glass signies the end of the marriage ceremony, and the congregation shouts Mazal tov! (good luck) to the couple. The new husband and wife now break their fast in private in a ceremony known as yichud. This marks their rst meal together as husband and wife. Members of the community will invite the couple to their homes for a week of festive meals where the Sheva Brachot will again be intoned. The significance of marriage for the Jewish community and individuals The marriage ceremony can only take place if there is the presence of a minyan (the ten people required for certain Jewish rituals to be observed). The rabbi Maimonides said that there were three kinds of marriage: 1. A couple who need to be togetherwhen the need disappears, so does the love. 2. A marriage born out of the necessity to have someone to share moments of sorrow and joy withthis serves to help each other deal with the troubles and difculties of life. 3. A couple who remain married because they have shared goals and purposes and are prepared to go through sacrices in order to achieve those goals. If the couple are truly suited and happy, they form a community of commitment together. Marriage is an integral part of the Jewish community, and many of the rituals and traditions of Judaism occur in a home and family environment. The words used by the groom as he places the ring on the nger of the bride, You are hereby sanctied unto me, link the couple to the community, tradition, history and all of the Jewish people. It is believed that God is present in each marriage (the third member of each partnership). When husband and wife are worthy, the Divine Presence abides with them (Babylonian Talmud, Sotah 17a). The couple should build a small tabernacle in their home where the spirit of Judaism, love of God and tranquillity reign.
activities
1. How important is marriage to Jewish people and why is this so? 2. According to rabbinic law, a Jewish marriage consists of what two separate acts? 3. Research the steps or components of a Jewish marriage ceremony. 4. Why is marriage also socially signicant to the community as distinct from the people involved? 5. Research and explain the various symbols and parts of the Jewish marriage ceremony listed below: bedeken ketubah kinyan chuppah ring wine yichud Sheva Brachot.
378
Synagogue services
To pray is to take notice of the wonder, to regain a sense of mystery that animates all being, the Divine margin in all attainments. Prayer is our humble answer to the inconceivable surprise of living. (Abraham Joshua Heschel) Jewish worship (davening), in the context of a prayer service, is a chance to connect to God, and to be fully engaged in communicating with God. The synagogue (often called the shul) is considered to be a house of prayer (beit tellah), a meeting house (beit knesset) and a house of learning (beit midrash). It is acceptable to pray by yourself. However, it is also very important for Jewish people to pray within a community. To this end, certain prayers can only be intoned in the presence of a minyan. Jews do not have to attend a synagogue to pray. They can satisfy the obligations of daily prayer anywhere. Synagogue services can be led by a rabbi, a cantor or a member of the congregation. Orthodox services are traditionally held in Hebrew and Progressive services contain more English in the service. Prayer services are held three times a day: morning, afternoon and evening. The morning service (Shacharit) follows the tradition of Abraham (Abraham arose early in the morning, Genesis 22:3); rhe afternoon service (Mincha) follows that of Isaac (Isaac went out meditating in the eld toward evening, Genesis 24:63); and the evening service follows the tradition of Jacob (He came upon a certain place and stopped there for the night, Genesis 28:11). The prayer services are also substitutes for the sacrices made in the Temple in Jerusalem prior to its destruction in 69/70 CE. The most important day of the week is the Sabbath (Shabbat) and there are additional services for festivals and the like. There are two basic synagogue traditionsAshkenazi (referring to practices of Jews from central, eastern and western Europe and their descendants) and Sephardi (referring to practices followed by Spanish Jews and communities around the Mediterranean coast and their descendants). The services may have different tunes and pronunciations of certain words although the prayers are generally the same. Prayers with instructions and commentary are found in the siddur, the traditional Jewish prayer book. Orthodox Judaism requires men to pray three times daily and four times on the Sabbath and most Jewish holidays. Orthodox women are required to pray daily with no specic time requirement. Progressive communities regard prayer times as a matter of personal spiritual decision. Proper concentration and kavanah (devotional intent) are considered essential for prayer. All my bones shall say, LORD, who is like You? (Psalm 35:10). All synagogues would contain the following basic items: Aron Kodesh (holy ark): a cabinet or wall recess in which the Torah scrolls are kept. This is generally set to face in the direction of Jerusalem.
FIG. 14.10 The Star of David is a symbol seen in nearly all, if not all, synagogues.
FIG. 14.11 The Aron Kodesh, where the Torah scrolls are kept
379
FIG. 14.12 Inside a synagogue
Ner Tamid (eternal light): a lamp placed directly above the holy ark. It burns continually and is symbolic of the biblical directive to cause a lamp to burn continually in the tabernacle outside of the parakhet [curtain] which is before the ark of the testimony (Exodus 27:2021). Bimah: a platform from which the Torah is read and the prayers are led. The morning service, Shacharit (dawn), is the longest of the three daily prayer services and contains within it the basic afrmations of Judaism: the Shema (Hear, O Israel), the Amidah (silent meditation) and the ideas of repentance, selfimprovement and loyalty to God and Israel. The morning service consists of the following: Birkhot Ha Shachar (the preliminary morning blessings), PSukei DZimra (biblical verses of praise recognising Gods creative force and love for his people) and the formal morning service. The rst two sections are to prepare the worshipper, both physically and spiritually, for the formal service that is to follow. During the service the adherents sing, chant together and answer the chazzan (prayer leader) responsively.
The central prayer of this service is the Shema, an afrmation of Judaism and a declaration of faith in one God. A Jew is required to recite the Shema both morning and night, separate from the duty of prayer. The afternoon service, Mincha, is the shortest service and takes place just before sunset. It consists of Psalm 145, the Silent Meditation (Amidah) and the Aleinu prayer that concludes all services. The evening service, Maariv (from Hebrew erev, evening) takes place at night, after sunset. Because the Jewish day begins and ends at sunset, this is really the rst service of the Jewish day. It is much shorter than Shacharit, but nevertheless includes again the basic Shema and Amidah prayers. (For practical reasons, the Mincha and Maariv services are often recited one following the other, Mincha just before sunset and Maariv just after.) The centrepiece of the service is the reading of the Torah. The Torah is divided into 54 separate portions, each one being assigned to a week of the year. The whole Torah is thus read from beginning to end every 12 months, with the completion of the reading and the immediate beginning of a new cycle taking place on the festival of Simchat Torah. The Torah is thus always in the process of being read. The Torah is read four times each week, with the rst part of the portion being read on Saturday afternoon (the Sabbath), then repeated on Mondays
FIG. 14.13 An ancient Torah scroll
380
and Thursdays in the Shacharit service, and the entire portion is then read at the Shabbat morning service. During the reading of the Torah, members of the congregation are given the honour of being called to recite a blessing. This is called an aliyaliterally to go up as you are going up to a higher spiritual plain, signied by stepping onto the bimah. It is customary for Jewish men to cover their heads with a kippah (skullcap) when entering a synagogue as a sign of respect. The significance of the synagogue service for the Jewish community and individuals Prayer is a pathway to God for the Jewish people. It is a way to encounter God and has the power to transform an individual. The synagogue service is also a chance for adherents to connect with their history and community. By following the traditional services that have been followed by countless generations, the Jewish people place themselves on the continuum of Jewish life. The collective voice of communal prayer denotes a larger sense of desire, a sense of commitment and a greater chance of reality. Praying in community and in the presence of a minyan also brings with it a responsibilityit conrms the mandate in the Talmud, All Israel is responsible, one for the other. There is more gratication in sharing a collective obligation than in standing alone.
FIG. 14.14 Outside of the synagogue Jewish people use the Torah in book format.
activities
1. What is the purpose of a Jewish prayer service and where is it held? 2. Who leads the service? What training do they have? 3. Create a visual and oral presentation which explains what happens in the service. 4. How often are services held? 5. Using the text and photos in this book and researching the Internet, describe the layout of a synagogue. Draw a plan to help your description. 6. Why is the synagogue service important for Jewish individuals and also for their community? 7. Discuss how this service differs from, or is similar to, the prayer services of other religious traditions. 8. There are three names for a synagogue in Hebrew: Beit Knesset (House of Gathering), Beit Tellah (House of Prayer) and Beit Midrash (House of Learning). Research the history of each of these names and how a synagogue is used for each specic purpose.
381
Review and assess

Review
1. How would Martin Buber have related to the following story? The Rabbi of Kotzk asked his disciples: Where is the dwelling of God? They laughed at him: What a thing to ask! Is not the whole world full of Gods glory? Then he answered his own question; God dwells wherever a person lets God in. (Martin Buber, The Way of Man) 2. Research the work of Heschel and the Second Vatican Council. How has this inuenced interfaith dialogue today? Contact the Chabad House in the city where you live. Research the different range of activities available through this organisation and the various stages in life that they would appeal to. According to the mitzvah of pikuach nefesh, life is paramount and all must be done to save a life. How does the Jewish response to the issues of abortion, euthanasia and genetic counselling reect the mitzvah of pikuach nefesh? How does the following text, written by Nachmanides (Rabbi Moshen ben Nachman) (11941270 CE), reect the Jewish attitude to sexuality? Know that this union is a holy and pure thing, when it is properly conducted in the proper time, and with the proper intention. A person should not think that in this proper union there is something ugly or degrading God, may He be praised, has created everything according to His wisdom, and has not created things to be ugly or shameful He created man and woman, and created each and every organ and their functions, and there is nothing degrading in this. (Nachmanides, Igeret HaKadosh [Holy Letter]) 6. Compare the Jewish viddui confession below with that of another religious tradition that you have studied. I acknowledge before You, O Lord my God and God of my fathers, that my life and death are in Your hands. May it be Your will to heal me. But if death is my lot, then I accept it from Your hand with love. May my death be an atonement for whatever sins and errors and wrong doings I have committed before You. In Your mercy grant me the goodness that is waiting for the righteous and bring me to eternal life. Father of orphans, Protector of widows, protect my loved ones with whom my soul is bound. Into Your hands I return my spirit. You will redeem me, O ever faithful God. Hear O Israel, the Lord is God, the Lord is One. (Prayerbook)
382 Oxford Studies of Religion
3.
4.
5.
7.
The LORD God formed man from the dust of the earth. He blew into his nostrils the breath of life, and man became a living being (Genesis 2:7). What implication does this verse have and how does it explain the Jewish approach to death? Research synagogue services to nd out: a. What are the different synagogue services and at what times do they occur? b. Who leads a Jewish service of prayer? c. What are the central prayers in Judaism and are there specic requirements for these to be said?
14. Explain Jewish ethical teachings on one of: bioethics environmental ethics sexual ethics 15 Analyse the signicance of one of the following practices of the individual Jewish adherent. death and mourning marriage synagogue services 16. Describe the contribution of ONE signicant person or school of thought, other than Abraham or Moses, to the development of Judaism 17. Describe one signicant practice within Judaism drawn from: death and mourning marriage synagogue services 18. Demonstrate how the practice you have chosen in part 1b above expresses the beliefs of Judaism.
8.

Extended response (15 marks) 9. a. Link one signicant Jewish practice to two Jewish beliefs. b. Explain the signicance of one of the following practices for the Jewish community: death and mourning marriage synagogue service
Extended response (20 marks) c. Explain the impact on Judaism of one signicant person or school of thought, other than Abraham or Moses.
19. Discuss Jewish ethical teachings in ONE area. Choose from: bioethics; environmental ethics; sexual ethics.
10. Outline TWO contributions to Judaism made by ONE signicant person or school of thought, other than Abraham or Moses. 11. Describe the effect on Judaism of ONE person or school of thought, other than Abraham or Moses. 12. Explain how Jewish ethical teachings inuence the lives of adherents. Choose an aspect from ONE of the following areas: bioethics environmental ethics sexual ethics 13. Discuss the contribution of ONE signicant person or school of thought, other than Abraham or Moses, on the expression of Judaism.
20. Analyse the impact of ONE signicant person or school of thought, other than Abraham or Moses, on both the development and expression of Judaism. 21. Explain Jewish ethical teachings on bioethics OR environmental ethics OR sexual ethics. 22. Explain how the beliefs of Judaism are expressed in: death and mourning marriage synagogue services
383
Religion and peace

The focus of this study is the distinctive response of religious traditions to the issue of peace. The whole study is to be completed within the same two religious traditions.
Outcomes
A student: H1 explains aspects of religion and belief systems
Content
Students learn about: The understanding of peace in TWO religious traditions peace expressed through sacred texts for two religious traditions drawn from: BuddhismSutta Pitaka, Dhammapada Christianitythe New Testament HinduismBhagavad Gita IslamQuran and Hadith Judaismthe Prophetic Vision of peace on Earth the principal teachings about peace in two religious traditions the contribution of two religious traditions to peace in the context of: the individualmeans of achieving inner peace the worldmeans of achieving world peace
H2 describes and analyses the inuence of religion and belief systems on individuals and society H5 evaluates the inuence of religious traditions in the life of adherents H6 organises, analyses and synthesises relevant information about religion from a variety of sources, considering usefulness, validity and bias H7 conducts effective research about religion and evaluates the ndings from the research
HSC | Chapter 15 Religion and peace
385
Glossary
AHIMSA AQIDA BASILEA the essence of non-violence, forbids the harm of any living creature. the Islamic creed, or six articles of faith. Greek for kingdom, used in reference to Gods value system of justice and peace. sayings of Jesus which provide the basis for ethical relationships and building of the basilea. in Judaism, the relationship between God and his people that came through Abraham and Moses, carrying with it special rights and responsibilities. a collection of 423 verses taken from the Sutta Pitaka that are regarded as the most succinct expression of the Buddhas teachings and provide signicant insight into the Buddhist understanding of peace. a set of values that supports and sustains normal life in the world. A persons religious duty. from the Greek, meaning to be in harmony with one another. the ve fundamental duties that are the essence of Islamic practice: a declaration of faith in God; ve daily prayers; fasting; almsgiving; and pilgrimage to Mecca. the most commonly held set of ethical rules in Buddhism. Buddhist teachings that examine the nature of suffering. report of an utterance or act of, or a decision made by, Muhammad. (Hadith as a generic term is a name for the foundation text of Islam that complements the Quran.) the word halachah is usually translated as Jewish law, although a more literal (and appropriate) translation might be the path that one walks. God become human in the Divine person of Jesus Christ. the greater jihad which is the struggle to control evil within oneself. the consequence of all good or bad actions done willingly during a persons lifetime. NICENE CREED NIRVANA NOBLE EIGHTFOLD PATH PILGRIMAGE PUJA QURAN REVELATION SALVATION MIDRASH MOKSHA MUTAR NEW TESTAMENT rabbinic commentary on the Jewish scriptures, often in the form of a story. liberation from samsara, the cycle of rebirths. those actions which are permissible. Christian canon containing the Gospels, Acts of the Apostle, letters to varying Christian communities and the Book of Revelation. the statement of faith that is most widely used in Christian liturgy. the teaching of the ultimate destiny for all sentient life forms in Buddhism. in Buddhism, a means for attaining the end of suffering. a journey to a sacred place. Buddhist private or public ritual; worship involving offerings to a deity. the book revealed to Muhammad, the prime foundation text of Islam. the message of God to all humanity, fully expressed in the person of Christ. the redemption of humanity achieved through Jesus Christs death and resurrection. Jewish word for peace. the mystical path of Islam which promotes a direct and personal encounter with God. the collections of sayings of the Lord Buddha and stories about his life. the collective name for certain rabbinical writings composed from the rst century BCE to around 500 CE. an acronym from the three sections of the Hebrew Bible: Torah, also known as the Pentateuch; Neviim, meaning the prophets; and Ketubim, meaning scriptures, writings or wisdom books. the declaration that God is One. the Buddha, dhamma and sangha. the rebuilding or repair of the world. the triune God who is Father (Creator), Son (Redeemer) and Spirit (Sanctier). Hindu spiritual and physical practices aimed at integrating the body, mind and spirit.
BEATITUDES
COVENANT
DHAMMAPADA
DHARMA
EIRENE FIVE PILLARS OF ISLAM
SHALOM SUFISM
FIVE PRECEPTS FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS HADITH
SUTTA PITAKA TALMUD
TANAKH
HALACHA
TAWHID THREE JEWELS TIKKUN OLAM TRINITY YOGA
INCARNATION JIHAD BIL NAFS KARMA
386
Approaching the study of religion and peace

In preparation for your study of Religion and Peace, and to successfully prepare for the HSC examination, you should approach this study in an integrated manner. Figure 15.1 provides a summary of how the sections of this topic inform and support each other. that is more correct than another. For some individuals, peace may be the attainment of freedom from the tensions of everyday life. For others it may simply be the inner strength to cope with a particular time of suffering or loss. For most people, peace is not a static achievement but rather a part of the integrated ebb and ow of everyday life. How do particular religious traditions assist adherents in this journey? What evidence do they provide?
What is peace for the individual?

The concept of peace for the individual is open to many interpretations. There is no one interpretation
Sacred texts Authoritative and esteemed writings that dene the origins and characteristics of a religious tradition. They provide the foundation for all religious interpretations of peace.
Inner peace How sacred texts, principal teachings and particular structures assist the quest for inner peace for the individual. Specic examples of the means provided by religious traditions to enhance personal peace.
Signicant concepts Peace goes beyond an absence of war. Justice is integral to establishing peace. Harmony involves acknowledgment and acceptance of differences. Within each religious tradition there are often differing interpretations of the applications of belief to particular issues of peace.
Principal teachings Authoritative reections on sacred texts that provide: guidelines for ethical living support for adherents in their personal and communal lives norms for the contribution of religious traditions to local and global peace.
World peace How the teachings of religious traditions, founded in sacred texts, provide guidance for adherents to contribute to world peace. Specic examples of how the application of the principal teachings of religious traditions are contributing to peace in the global arena. This may also apply to signicant local initiatives as not all traditions have equal impact on particular international issues.
FIG. 15.1 Visual overview of the integrated nature of Religion and Peace
387
Understanding peace means understanding peace within the traditions and it includes support from areas shown below: texts principal beliefs specic examples of individuals within the tradition, the practices and rituals of the tradition and specic programs provided by organisations within the tradition.
Issues of communal peace are often related to structural inequalities that result in injustice and disenfranchisement. History continues to show that these are often the foundation for violence. International organisations such as the World Conference of Religions for Peace (WCRP) have current initiatives listed on their websites. The WCRPs mission statement provides a useful summary of the contribution that religious traditions have to make to world peace: Respecting religious differences while celebrating our common humanity, Religions for Peace is active on every continent and in some of the most troubled areas of the world, creating multi-religious partnerships to confront our most dire issues: stopping war, ending poverty, and protecting the earth. (World Conference of Religions for Peace) It is also important to acknowledge the association between individual peace and world peace. In many instances, those who identify the need for inner peace based on their personal faith will also be strident advocates for peace at the communal and international level. Examples include religious leaders such as Archbishop Desmond Tutu, who opposed apartheid and works for reconciliation in South Africa, and the exiled head of Tibetan Buddhism, the Dalai Lama.
activities
1. In small groups identify as many examples as you can of what peace might mean to the individual. 2. Distribute these examples between members of the group to nd examples from the religious traditions you are studying as to how they support the individual in achieving peace.
Religious traditions and world peace

While the major traditions all promote the concept of world peace, each does so according to its particular sphere of inuence. As a result no one religion will have total global inuence in this area, and advocacy or actions will often be limited to a particular initiative or region. Within traditions there will also be various interpretations of right action in regard to particular situations. For example, during the Vietnam War the Christian movement Pax Christi was a vocal opponent of sending foreign troops to ght in what they viewed as an unjust military engagement. In contrast, many Christians of all denominations disagreed with the stance this group took and supported the war.
activity
Examine Figure 15.2 and the quotes from the main religious traditions below. What are the underlying principles that you consider these traditions share? Extrapolate how these principles relate to the study of Religion and Peace. Buddhism: A state that is not pleasing to or delightful to me, how could I inict that upon another? (Samyutta Nikaya v. 353). Christianity: Love your neighbour as yourself (Mark 12:31). Hinduism: This is the sum of duty: do not do to others what would cause pain if done to you (Mahabharata 5: 1517). Islam: Not one of you truly believes until you wish for others what you wish for yourself (Prophet Muhammad, 13th of the Forty Hadith of Nawawi). Judaism: And what does the Lord require of you? To act justly and to love mercy and to walk humbly with your God (Micah 6:8).
FIG. 15.2 Bumper sticker
388
Buddhism
Sacred text: Sutta Pitaka
The Sutta Pitaka is one of the three collections that together make up the central Buddhist text, the Tripitaka (Three Baskets). The Sutta Pitaka is known as the Basket of Discourses. This is a collection of over 10 000 discourses that the Buddha and his close companions delivered to both the Sangha and the laity. They provide guidance for ethical living, the foundations of mindfulness and the foundations of contemplation. Central to an understanding of peace in Buddhism is the concept of Dharma. This refers to the teachings of the Buddha that inform adherents in respect to the precepts of the eternal law and guide them on the path to enlightenment. The Dhammapada is a collection of 423 verses taken from the Sutta Pitaka that are regarded as the most succinct expression of the Buddhas teachings. The Dhammapada provides signicant insight into the Buddhist understanding of peace as seen in the following extracts. Links to principal beliefs are provided in the commentary. TABLE 15.1 Buddhist understanding of peace VERSES FROM THE DHAMMAPADA Hatred is never appeased by hatred. Hatred is only appeased by non-enmity. This is an eternal law. (verse 5) It is you who must make the effort. The Great of the past only show the way. Those who think and follow the path become free from the bondage of Mara. (verse 20) Just as a deep lake is clear and still, even so, on hearing the teachings and realising them, the wise become exceedingly peaceful. (verse 82) Who offends the inoffensive, the innocent and blameless one, upon that fool does evil fall as ne dust ung against the wind. (verse 125) LINK TO PRINCIPAL BELIEFS An expression of the Buddhist doctrine of ahimsa, which holds that all forms of life are sacred. Consequently, peace and non-violence are foundational principles of all facets of Buddhist practice. Mara was the demon who tried to seduce the Buddha. He represents the temptations that lead people away from the spiritual path. The Buddha taught that only those who stay faithful to the way of Dharma will be free of negative forces and as such achieve peace and ultimately nirvana. The analogy of this verse is that just as deep water is calm and free of agitation, so it is only through following the precepts expressed by the Buddha that a person can obtain deep understanding and tranquillity. The Buddha taught that those who through ignorance or cruelty inict harm on another person will be punished in returnas dust returns to the thrower. This text illustrates the Buddhist belief in karma whereby all actions are rewarded or punished and impact on the state of a persons reincarnation.
insight into the Buddhist understanding of peace
The Dhammapada
provides significant
389
A full version of the Dhammapada can be accessed online. The Oxford Studies of Religion website will link you to an easily understood translation that will assist you in nding further references to inform your study of peace within the Buddhist context.
not to sexually exploit others not to lie not to take alcohol or other intoxicating drugs. Ahimsa. The pivotal doctrine that explains the sacredness of all forms of life and forbids any act of violence against a living organism. This belief directs all aspects of human relationships and is therefore central to the Buddhist understanding of peace. It directs all Buddhist responses to issues of personal and communal peace. The concept of ignorance and the Buddhist understanding of peace Buddhism has determined that ignorance is a foundational cause of greed, hatred and violence. One of the principal effects of ignorance is selfabsorption and a lack of connection between people that subsequently leads to harm in thought, word or deed. The Dhammapada explains that the path to peace is only achieved when people move away from this inappropriate focus on themselves: Cut off your affection as though it were an autumn lily, with the hand. Cultivate the very path of peace (verse 285).
activity
Using at least three examples, demonstrate how the Buddhist understanding of peace is informed and expressed through its sacred texts. (Hint: Prior to completing this task, clarify your understanding of informed and expressed.)
Principal teachings about peace

The above examples from the Dhammapada highlight the connections to principal beliefs that are integral to an understanding of peace within Buddhism. These teachings include: The Four Noble Truths. These examine the nature of suffering. Suffering and its ramications for individuals and communities is a critical issue when coming to an understanding of many aspects of peace. The Fourth Noble Truth provides the means for attaining the end of suffering. This is known to Buddhists as the Noble Eightfold Path. Karma. Contrary to some popular interpretations, the Buddhist understanding of karma does not refer to any type of preordained fate. Karma refers to good or bad actions that people take during their lifetime. Good actions, which involve either the absence of bad actions or actual positive acts such as generosity, righteousness and meditation, bring about happiness in the long run. Bad actions, such as lying, stealing or killing, bring about unhappiness. The Five Precepts. Living the Precepts is essential for peace in all relationships, including peace with oneself, as explained in the sacred text: Follow the law of virtue; do not follow that of sin. The virtuous rests in bliss in this world and in the next (Dhammapada 169). The Five Precepts are: not to harm living beings not to steal
activities
1. Give examples of religious traditions that strive for inner peace as well as peace at the international level. 2. What is the Sutta Pitaka? 3. How does the Dhammapada help the Buddhist understanding of peace? 4. Explain how or why the Four Noble Truths are critical to the understanding of peace. 5. How do you think living the Five Precepts helps develop peaceful relationships? 6. Why is the ahimsa critical for Buddhists to understand peace? 7. Review the extracts from the Dhammapada provided in this chapter. What insights do they provide concerning the manner in which Buddhism assists adherents to attain peace? 8. Explain how the Noble Eightfold Path provides the means for Buddhist adherents to be at peace within themselves and with others.
390
Buddhism and peace for the individual

Meditation Meditation has great signicance across the tradition of Buddhism. It was during meditation that the Buddha himself attained enlightenment, and his example provides inspiration for adherents to pursue and persevere with a form of religious encounter that requires patience, practice and dedication to achieve its goals. Meditation is also esteemed as a core practice of the faith as it provides the medium for the believer to enter into a state of mindfulness, concentration and tranquillity. All of these characteristics are deemed necessary in Buddhism to achieve insight and subsequently peace. Principal forms of Buddhist meditation include: Samatha, meaning peace or tranquillity. The purpose of this form of meditation is to train the mind by entering into deep concentration. Samatha meditation requires a complete detachment from the world, and to achieve this Buddhism provides a guide to 40 meditation subjects known as kammatthanas. These include methods such as the ten kasina exercises, which involve focusing on an external object (for example, a patch of earth or a distant landform). The ultimate goal of this concentration is to achieve a state of suspending all sensory activity to achieve deep tranquillity. Vipassana, meaning insight. While concentration is a necessity for entering into Vipassana meditation, it has a further purpose in that it leads practitioners into a state of mindfulness as they attempt to understand the meaning of the object that is the focus of the meditation. A simplied understanding of Vipassana is that it is the vehicle to see things as they really are and to enter into a state of peace that brings an end to suffering. In some instances, students of this form of meditation undertake intense training in order to enter fully into the benets it is believed to impart. These include a sense of personal well-being and physical and emotional health, and subsequently the attainment of a peaceful state. Metta Bhavana (metta meaning loving kindness, bhavana meaning cultivation). This form of meditation, which is often identied with Mahayana Buddhism, represents the development of the Buddhist ideal of compassion and is therefore deeply connected to the development of peace within the individual. In particular, this form of meditation urges the individual to overcome any sense of anger, hurt or resentment that may block the possibility of achieving peace. Metta Bhavana commences with gently moving towards an acknowledgment of personal feelings and works through a series of stages leading to healing and peace.
By Dharma should one lead ones life and not embrace corrupted means. For one who lives the Dharma life dwells in peace here and thereafter. (Dhammapada 13)
391
The diversity of Buddhist expression results in there being many forms of meditation. While they may differ in aspects of technique and specic application, all have as their goal the attainment of a peaceful nature in order to reach the ultimate goal of nirvana. In contrast to the sitting meditations described above, walking meditation, as the name implies, is a physically active form of meditation. In its purest form it is very controlled and requires discipline and deep concentration.
as communal karma is becoming more evident in recent times.
activity
With reference to the Four Noble Truths and the principle of karma, provide a range of examples of how a Buddhist might respond to an issue of communal suffering or injustice.
Protests led by Burmas Buddhist monks
activities
1. Research the kammatthanas and how they are used as a vehicle for Samatha meditation within Buddhism. Choose two or three specic examples of these meditation subjects and examine how they could assist the individual in respect to inner peace. 2. Investigate the origins of Vipassana in India and its resurgence as a result of the practice of the Buddha. Find examples of centres that assist Buddhists and others interested in the practicethere are many in Australia. Increase your understanding of Vipassana by reading testimonials and other information relating to its method and benets. 3. Use the Internet to research a more detailed description of Metta Bhavana. Explain its relationship to the sacred texts and principal beliefs of Buddhism in relation to peace.
FIG. 15.3 Monks protesting against the Burmese government in Rangoon
Buddhism and world peace

Buddhism is in many respects an individualistic tradition as a result of the centrality of the belief in karma. Buddhists believe this law of cause and effect determines peoples future reincarnations based on the manner in which they have lived their current life. Karma also decides when people will be released from this cycle of rebirth and attain nirvana. As such, classical Buddhism was not overtly concerned with the concept of communal justice or the righting of structural injustices to create peace, although there are notable examples such as Asokas leadership based on the Five Precepts. In the contemporary era, the insights that Buddhism offers in relation to compassion and peace makes its teachings particularly applicable to the tensions that exist in many parts of the world. The development of what has been labelled by some
In September 2007, hundreds of Buddhist monks took to the streets of Rangoon to protest against the totalitarian regime of the Burmese government. In undertaking this peaceful protest, the monks deed the military juntas rule against any form of protest. In the weeks that followed, many of the monks were injured and killed by the military. Their actions gave hope to the local people, who revere the monks, and drew the worlds attention to the atrocities that occur in this nation that refuses to implement basic human rights for its inhabitants.
activities
1. Research the context of the Buddhist monks protest in Burma. 2. In what ways do such actions relate to Buddhist teachings on peace? 3. Explain the signicance of engaging the international community in the process of advocacy for human rights for the people of Burma. 4. Consider how you could integrate this information into a response on Buddhism and world peace.
392
The Buddhist Peace Fellowship The website of the Buddhist Peace Fellowship describes its purpose as follows: The mission of the Buddhist Peace Fellowship (BPF), founded in 1978, is to serve as a catalyst for socially engaged Buddhism. Our purpose is to help beings liberate themselves from the suffering that manifests in individuals, relationships, institutions, and social systems. BPFs programs, publications, and practice groups link Buddhist teachings of wisdom and compassion with progressive social change. (Buddhist Peace Fellowship) The BPF is an example of an organisation that brings together the principal beliefs and practices of Buddhism in order to support individuals in the search for peace and to contribute to local and global action in respect to restoring peace to areas of unresolved conict. While the organisation has its headquarters in America, it also has chapters around the world, including Australia. An example of BPFs involvement in critical world issues includes its response to the increased violence in the Middle East in early 2009. This response was based on reections on the Dhammapada. All tremble at violence, all fear death. Comparing oneself with others, one should neither kill nor cause others to kill. All tremble at violence, life is dear to all. Comparing others with oneself, one should neither kill nor cause others to kill. (Dhammapada 129130)
The BPF website incorporated this sacred text into a response that illustrates contemporary Buddhisms challenge to adherents to take personal responsibility for communal karma. It stated in part: The essential work of peace will begin in Israel, Gaza, and the West Bank. But each of us, and our governments, must help rather than toy with them for our own geo-political purposes. We cannot close our eyes or turn away. In addition to providing philosophical statements in relation to particular instances of peace and justice, the BPF also offers suggestions for practical actions that individuals may undertake to promote peace.
activities
1. Explore the website of the Buddhist Peace Fellowship. Gather examples of current initiatives being undertaken by BPF. 2. Align these activities with the principal beliefs of Buddhism. 3. Develop a plan of how you could integrate this material into a Religion and peace response.
Fellowship brings together the principal beliefs and practices of Buddhism in order to support individuals in the search for peace ...
The Buddhist Peace
Peace comes from within. Do not seek it without.
393
Christianity
Sacred texts: The New Testament
The Great Commandment You have heard that it was said, You shall love your neighbour and hate your enemy. But I say to you, Love your enemies and pray for those who persecute you, so that you may be children of your Father in heaven; for he makes his sun rise on the evil and on the good, and sends rain on the righteous and on the unrighteous. For if you love those who love you, what reward do you have? Do not even the tax collectors do the same? And if you greet only your brothers and sisters, what more are you doing than others? Do not even the Gentiles do the same? Be perfect, therefore, as your heavenly Father is perfect. (Matthew 5:4348) The Greek word for peace used in the New Testament is eirene, which means to be in harmony with another. This word is found in every book of the New Testament with the exception of the First Letter of John. Christians believe that through teachings such as the Beatitudes (Matthew 5:310; Luke 6:2026) and the Commandment to Love (Matthew 22:3740), Jesus sought to redene the implications for daily life of Hebrew texts such as the Ten Commandments (Exodus 20:217). In so doing he challenged many of the norms of his social context. For example, Matthew 5:9 states: Blessed are the peacemakers, for they will be called children of God. To fully appreciate the depth of this teaching it is necessary to understand the Jewish word for peace, shalom. Shalom refers to the concept of a peace that engulfs all parts of an individuals life. It is a form of harmony that occurs within a person and translates to a commitment to share this harmony with others. It is the ultimate expression of peace.
activities
1. Discuss the practical implications of this teaching for Christians in the contemporary world. Use specic examples to illustrate instances where Christians have upheld this teaching to promote peace. 2. Based on the meaning of the term eirene and the frequency with which it occurs in the New Testament, what conclusions can be drawn about the essential meaning of peace in Christianity? 3. The version of the Beatitudes found in Lukes Gospel is the most confronting as it contains a series of woes, including: But woe to you who are rich, for you have already received your comfort. Woe to you who are well fed now, for you will go hungry. Woe to you who laugh now, for you will mourn and weep. (Luke 6:2425) a. Research the context of Lukes version of the Beatitudes. b. How would this context have inuenced the addition of the woes? c. Explain the implications of this teaching for contemporary Christians in relation to issues of personal and world peace. Use specic examples to support your explanation.
FIG. 15.4 Pastor James and Imam Ashafa are co-founders of the interfaith Mediation Centre established in Kaduna, Nigeria. They used the common teachings of peace found in the Bible and Quran to counter misunderstanding and violence in the region.
394

Further New Testament texts highlight some of the principal teachings of Christianity in relation to peace. These include the values of justice, mercy, compassion and respect for the dignity of the human person. TABLE 15.2 Christian understanding of peace FOUNDATIONAL PRINCIPLES Peace was established by God as the instigator of creation EXAMPLE FROM THE NEW TESTAMENT For God is not a God of disorder but of peace. (1 Corinthians 14:33) LINK TO PRINCIPAL BELIEFS Christians acknowledge that they are called to be stewards of creation (Genesis 1) and that this demands respect and care for all aspects of life. Christians are required to be people who seek reconciliation over retaliation. The death of Jesus was the ultimate symbol of this belief. Christians believe that salvation was achieved as a result of the death and resurrection of Jesus. As a result they have gained access to eternal life with God where they will live in perfect peace. The ultimate teaching in respect to peace for Christians. It reects the Christian belief in the equality of all people created in Gods image and evidenced in the life and teachings of Jesus.
The teachings of Jesus Aim for perfection, listen to my emphasise respect, unity and appeal, be of one mind, live in peace. reconciliation And the God of love and peace will be with you. (2 Corinthians 13:11) The peace of God is beyond the peace of this world I have told you these things, so that in me you may have peace. In this world you will have trouble. But take heart! I have overcome the world. (John 16:33) You have heard it said, You shall love your neighbour and hate your enemy. But I say to you, Love your enemies and pray for those who persecute you for [God] makes his sun rise on the evil and on the good, and sends rain on the righteous and on the unrighteous. (Matthew 5:4345)
Jesus provided a new and radical interpretation of the Mosaic Law
activities
Discuss the deeper meanings and implications of the following beliefs of Christianity. Research specic examples of Christian actions to illustrate your understanding: 1. Jesus Christ as the Prince of Peace provides the model for all Christians of a life based on the ideals of peace, justice and compassion: Lead a life worthy of the calling to which you have been called, with all humility and gentleness, with patience, bearing with one another in love. (Ephesians 4:12) 2. The fall of humankind described in the Genesis narrative of Adam and Eve signies the misuse of free will and the entry of sin into the world. Suffering is often the result of an individual or communitys choice of a negative or evil course of action. Christians are challenged to rise above evil and full their obligation to live in peace: Do not repay anyone evil for evil, but take thought for what is noble in the sight of all. (Romans 12:17) 3. The Gospel of John recounts that prior to being taken to his trial and execution Jesus said to his followers: Peace is what I leave with you; it is my own peace I give to you. I do not give it as the world does. Do not be worried and upset; do not be afraid. (John 14:27)
395
Christianity and peace for the individual

But whenever you pray, go into your room and shut the door and pray to your Father who is in secret; and your Father who sees in secret will reward you. (Matthew 6:6) Prayer in either a communal or personal setting provides the means for Christian adherents to reect on the nature of peace in their lives. There is no universal form of prayer for Christians; however, the teaching of Jesus in the reference from Matthews Gospel above indicates the necessity of right intention in prayer.
The use of aids to prayer has an important place in some Christian traditions. Examples of this include reection on icons to focus attention on the sacred, a practice that is particularly evident in the Orthodox churches. Rosary beads in Catholicism are a further example of an aid to prayer. This is sometimes referred to as a mantra in reference to the repetition of prayers as the beads move through the hands to accompany the saying of the prayers of the Rosary.
activity
Research further details of the forms of prayer described here. Develop statements relating to each that could be incorporated into a response describing how prayer assists Christians to achieve peace in their lives or to sustain them through times of adversity. Other means of achieving personal peace Many Christians nd commitment to a particular church community assists their quest for personal peace. A community can offer both spiritual and practical support, especially during times of difculty such as illness and bereavement. Meditation is an ancient practice within the Christian tradition. It has undergone a revival in recent years with many people attesting to its benets in assisting them to cope with the pressures of contemporary lifestyles. Taiz is an international, ecumenical movement that promotes personal and communal peace through prayer and meditation. There are Taiz communities throughout the world, including all states of Australia. Visit its website to gain more information on this unique form of prayer and to analyse how it assists in providing peace for the individual.
FIG. 15.5 Prayer helps Christians seek peace even in the most difcult situations.
It is through this genuine engagement in prayer that Christians seek peace in their lives. This may be through petition in times of need or thanksgiving for Gods perceived blessings in the events of life. The use of scripture in both personal and group settings is a pivotal form of prayer for Christians. Lectio Divina is a structured form of Bible study based on an ancient method of patient reading and re-reading of a passage of scripture to discern its message for the believers life situation. Spontaneous prayer such as that encountered in charismatic communities is an expressive form of prayer based on beliefs relating to the action of the Holy Spirit in the lives of Christians.
activities
1. Research a range of church communities in your local area to gather examples of the spiritual and social activities they provide. Evaluate how these would assist adherents in attaining personal peace. 2. Visit the website of the Australian Christian Meditation Community to gain more information on this practice and view information concerning the organisations current activities. Develop a summary of how this practice may be of assistance to individuals in attaining personal peace.
396
Christianity and world peace

The author G. K. Chesterton (18741936), who was a convert to Christianity, said: The Christian ideal has not been tried and found wanting; it has been found difcult and left untried. While it is possible to cite instances where Christians have been the instigators of conict, Chesterton was commenting on the need to search for the essential requirement of Christianity in relation to eirene as expressed in the New Testament and the principal beliefs of the tradition. Many Christians and their afliated organisations are working towards justice and peace today. This changes over time, as does the exact nature of the peace issues they pursue. For example, the World Day of Peace is celebrated on 1 January each year. The Pope as the leader of the Catholic Church issues a statement on a theme that is relevant to global issues at this time. In 2009 this statement was entitled Fighting Poverty to Build Peace, its emphasis being on the interconnection between issues of justice and peace. Other organisations include: National Council of Churches in Australia (NCCA). The NCCAs Act for Peace Campaign is an ecumenical initiative that aims to reduce poverty, protect refugees, prevent conicts and empower communities. Visit the NCCA website and go to the Act for Peace Campaign menu to gain current information on projects.
FIG. 15.7 The Act for Peace Campaign helps reduce poverty, and prevent and resolve conicts.
Pax Christi (Peace of Christ) is an organisation that started at the end of the Second World War to promote the harmonious rebuilding of Europe. Today it works internationally on a wide variety of human rights issues including disarmament, a just world order, and religion and violent conict. Explore its international website. The Orthodox Peace Fellowship is an association of Orthodox Christians belonging to different nations and jurisdictions who attempt to live the peace of Christ in day-to-day life. This includes in situations of division and conict such as that which occurred between Georgia and Russia in 2008. The movement is based on the following text from Matthews Gospel: Therefore, if you are offering your gift at the altar and there remember that your brother has something against you, leave your gift there in front of the altar. First go and be reconciled to your brother; then come and offer your gift.(Matthew 5:2324). More information can be found at the Fellowships website. The Society of Friends (Quakers) came into existence in 17th-century England during a time of revolution and civil war. Within this context the founders of this expression of Christianity sought to promote peace through a life of nonviolence and prayer that patiently and quietly
FIG. 15.6 The Act for Peace Campaign helps protect refugees.
397
waited on Gods response. The rst Quaker Peace Testimony, issued in a declaration to King Charles II in 1660, read: All bloody principles and practices, we do utterly deny, with all outward wars and strife and ghtings with outward weapons, for any end or under any pretence whatsoever. And this is our testimony to the whole world the spirit of Christ, by which we are guided, is not changeable, so as once to command us from a thing as evil and again to move unto it; and we do certainly know, and so testify to the world, that the spirit of Christ, which leads us into all Truth, will never move us to ght and war against any man with outward weapons, neither for the kingdom of Christ, nor for the kingdoms of this world. (Quaker Peace Testimony, 1660) In the current era Quakers endeavour to live this same ideal as a means to personal peace and to promote it to the global community through the application of their Six Principles of Nonviolence. 1. Nonviolence is a way of life for courageous people. 2. Nonviolence seeks to win friendship and understanding. 3. Nonviolence seeks to defeat injustice, not people. 4. Nonviolence holds that suffering can educate and transform. 5. Nonviolence chooses love instead of hate. 6. Nonviolence believes that the universe is on the side of justice.
You just need to look at what the gospel asks and what war does. The gospel asks that we feed the hungry, give drink to the thirsty, clothe the naked, welcome the homeless, visit the prisoner and perform acts of mercy. War does all the opposite. It makes my neighbour hungry, thirsty, homeless, a prisoner and sick. The gospel asks us to take up our cross. War asks us to lay the cross on others. (Dorothy Day, peace campaigner and founder of the Catholic Worker Movement)
activities
1. The Society of Friends works to promote justice and peace at both national and international levels. Visit the Australian site of the Quakers. Investigate their application of Christian beliefs to issues of peace and justice. Gather information that could be incorporated into a response on Religion and peace in relation to current initiatives both within Australia and by international branches of the Society 2. Group research: In small groups, nd two additional examples of Christian individuals and organisations that are advocates for peace. Ensure you understand the root causes of the problems being addressed by these groups or individuals and how they are using the teachings of Christianity in their work for peace.
398
Islam
Assalamu alaikum (peace be with you) The greeting of Salaam (peace) is universal in Islam and highlights the importance of peace in the everyday lives of adherents. The hadith of Bukhari narrated from Abd-Allaah ibn Umar states: A man asked the Messenger of Allah [the Prophet Muhammad], What is the best thing in Islam? He said, Feeding others and giving the greeting of salaam to those whom you know and those whom you do not know.
activity
Research the different forms and the signicance of the greeting of peace for Muslims. What insights can be gained concerning the understanding and role of peace in Islam?
Sacred texts: Quran and hadith

The Quran as the literal word of Allah is the principal source of belief for Muslims. The hadith are secondary sources that provide authenticated recorded examples of the Prophet Muhammads words and actions to further inform all aspects of Muslim belief and practice. The following examples from sacred texts provide some insight into the centrality of peace to every aspect of Muslim life. TABLE 15.3 Islamic understanding of peace SACRED TEXTS COMMENTARY AND CONNECTION TO PRINCIPAL BELIEFS
This text combines two points that are essential to an understanding O mankind! We created you from a single pair of a male and a female, of peace within Islam: and made you into nations and tribes, Allah is the one and only Creator who made all humankind. so that you may know each other. As a result of a common origin in Adam and Eve, all people share an inherent unity. This unity is to be expressed in Verily the most honoured of you in the sight of Allah is one who is the harmonious and respectful relationships. most righteous of you. (Quran 49:13) Which of two parties has more right to security and peace? Tell me if you know. It is those who believe and do not pollute their faith with zulm [cruelty, oppression] that are truly in security and are rightly guided. (Quran 6:8182) If anyone harms others, God will harm him, and if anyone shows hostility to others, God will show hostility to him. (Sunan of Abu-Dawood, Hadith 1625) None of you truly believes until he wishes for his brother what he wishes for himself. (Imam Al-Nawawis Forty Hadiths, No. 13) This is a text in two parts that emphasises the centrality of personal unity with Gods will for Muslims. In the rst section, Allah asks who will nd true peace. He provides the answer in explaining that only belief in Allah and a life of faithful submission will provide inner peace and happiness. It is for this reason that living according to the Five Pillars is so essential for the Muslim adherent. This hadith emphasises the priority of peace within Islam. God will punish those who undertake any form of unlawful hostility or force against others. This refers to both personal relationships and communal interactions. The ethic of reciprocity is central to this text. A Muslim cannot be faithful to Allah without taking into consideration the needs of others. Only when each cares for the other can be peace be attained. The Pillar of Zakat highlights the centrality of this teaching as it is a requirement to provide just assistance to those in need.
399

On 20 January 2009 the Afnity Intercultural Foundation issued a press release in response to hostilities occurring at the time between Israel and the Palestinian movement Hamas. The essence of this document is contained in the following extract: The Quran proclaims, If anyone slew a person unjustly it would be as if he slew a whole people (5:32). Every act of Muslims should be rightful and lawful. Muslims should not enter into wrong in the name of truth and justice. (Afnity Intercultural Foundation, 2009) This statement is also a summation of the principal teachings of Islam in regard to peace. Gods commands in respect to justice and right relationship must be observed in all situations. In accordance with the Quran, Muslims must consistently strive to live in submission to the will of God by living a rightful and lawful life: O you who believe! Come, all of you, into submission and follow not in the footsteps of the devil (Quran 2:208). Integral to achieving this submission is Jihadun-Nafs, which is the struggle of the individual to live a pure and holy life. An essential aspect of this personal jihad is upholding the principles of justice and the rejection of violence in word, thought and actions. It is recorded in the hadith that the Prophet Muhammad stressed this belief when asked the following question: What kind of jihad is better? Muhammad replied, A word of truth in front of an oppressive ruler (Sunan Al-Nasai, No. 4209). Islams Five Pillars provide the structure for adherents to achieve submission through the greater, or personal, jihad. The following table provides one example for each of the Pillars of how it contributes to the understanding of peace within Islam.
FIG. 15.8 Fatuma Abdulkadir (far right) is a young Muslim woman and lawyer who is using football to promote non-violent conict resolution among the Borana and Gabra communities in Northern Kenya.
TABLE 15.4 The Five Pillars and their contribution to the understanding of peace FIVE PILLARS Shahada (profession of faith) Salat (daily prayer) Zakat (the poor tax) Sawm (fasting during Ramadan) Hajj (pilgrimage to Mecca) HOW THIS EXPRESSES BELIEF IN REGARD TO PEACE The expression of faith is a constant reminder to Muslims of the requirement to honour Gods commands in all aspects of life, particularly with respect to relationships with others and care for all of creation. Daily prayer provides a structure or rhythm that directs all aspects of life to God. This ritual encourages both a sense of personal peace and a commitment to peace with others. The obligation to give 2.5% of earnings to support those in need is a reminder to Muslims of their responsibility to create communities of justice where the weak are supported. This emphasis on justice is an essential component of peace. The fast during Ramadan challenges believers to review how faithfully they are living the requirements of their faith. In addition they are required to read the entire Quran to increase their understanding of what Islam requires of them in relation to living in right relationship and consequently in regard to peace. The pilgrimage to Mecca is the ultimate symbol of the ummah. It emphasises the equality of all people and challenges participants to practise the inherent qualities of peace in their lives.
400
Islam and peace for the individual

According to the hadith, the Prophet Muhammad said: The best Islam is to greet everyone you come across, whether or not you are acquainted with the person (Fathul-Bari 1/103). The greeting of peace that is offered on a regular basis, Assalamu alaikum, is a constant reminder to Muslims of their call to personal peace. This identies that the purpose of life for Muslim adherents is to live in full submission to the will of God. The manner in which this is achieved is by faithfully fullling the requirements of the Five Pillars. It is through basing all aspects of life on this mutual relationship between submission and the Five Pillars that Muslims achieve peace. The pursuit of personal peace is necessary in order to ensure that the order of Gods creation is maintained. The Quran states: And do not corrupt the land after it has been set in order (sura 7:85). Just as God has established harmony in all aspects of creation, Muslims must ensure that this harmony is maintained in all aspects of their personal and social dealings. This inherent understanding of peace within Islam is expressed in patient acceptance of events in life, inshallah (God willing). The Quran assures believers that this patient and peaceful approach to life will be rewarded: the patient man is the helper of God (sura 61:14).
Beyond this they offer a sense of belonging and community that assists adherents in their daily lives and during times of personal crisis.
activity
Research several mosques to gather examples of the support they provide for members of their communities. A listing of all mosques in Sydney is available on the Muslim Village website under the heading Directory. Summarise this information in a format that can be readily integrated into an extended response on this section of the syllabus.
The basis of Susm is consideration of the hearts and feelings of others. If you havent the will to gladden someones heart, then at least beware lest you hurt someones heart, for on our path, no sin exists but this. (Dr Javad Nurbakhsh) Sufism While it is a minority expression within Islam, Susm provides a way of life and a means to peace for some members of the faith. Susm is unique within Islam because it is the path of mysticism that draws the believer into an intimate relationship with God. The Australian Centre for Susm and Irfanic Studies explains Susm in part as follows: Susm is the path of knowing God and journeying to God, where the purpose of life is realised and lived. It is about the struggle with the false self or ego (nafs) to reach the essential self, which is a reection of the Divine Reality. Irfan (gnosis) is about realising the Divine Unity and the Divine Reality. (Australian Centre for Susm and Irfanic Studies)
activities
1. Allocate each Pillar of Faith to a small group. Work in these groups to develop an explanation of how the particular pillar contributes to the understanding and application of peace in Islam. 2. With reference to both the Aqida and the Five Pillars, explain the principal teachings about peace in Islam. 3. Explain how the Five Pillars provide Muslim adherents with the means of achieving inner peace. Support of the community The local mosque provides many Muslims with additional support in their quest to full the requirements of the faith and consequently to achieve personal peace. Mosques provide many services such as religious studies, programs for young people, counselling and welfare services.
activity
Explore more about Susm as a means of both individual and communal peace. Start by visiting the websites of the Australian Centre for Susm and Irfanic Studies, the International Association of Susm, and the Nimatullahi Su Order.
401
Islam and world peace

A Common Word between Us and You In the Name of God, the Compassionate, the Merciful Muslims and Christians together make up well over half of the worlds population. Without peace and justice between these two religious communities, there can be no meaningful peace in the world. The future of the world depends on peace between Muslims and Christians. The basis for this peace and understanding already exists. It is part of the very foundational principles of both faiths: love of the One God, and love of the neighbour The Unity of God, the necessity of love for Him, and the necessity of love of the neighbour is thus the common ground between Islam and Christianity. (Royal Aalal-Bayt Institute for Islamic Thought 2007) The above extract is from an open letter written on 13 October 2007 by 138 leading Muslim scholars to the leaders of the international Christian community. The letter was issued by Jordans Royal Aalal-Bayt Institute for Islamic Thought and was a call to harmony based on the principle of peace that each faith proclaims. This letter and the responses that have occurred as a result are an excellent example of Islams contribution to world peace in the current era. Islamic Relief Worldwide is an international relief and development charity founded in the United Kingdom in 1984. It describes its work in this way: As well as responding to disasters and emergencies, Islamic Relief promotes sustainable economic and social development by working with local communitiesregardless of race, religion or gender.
FIG. 15.9 God in English and Allah in Arabic. These are the works of New York artist Hafeez Shaikh, who uses his art to promote peace.
activities
1. Study the text of A Common Word. Summarise some of the responses and initiatives that have occurred following this letter. Discuss how you could incorporate this material into a response on Islam and world peace. 2. Visit the website of Islamic Relief to gain current examples of the work they undertake as an expression of Muslim faith. This site also provides a Muslim perspective on the justice issues that are critical to promoting peace, such as care for refugees and empowering the poor through education and development.
402
Judaism
Sacred texts: The Prophetic Vision of peace on earth
An understanding of Shalom Central to any discussion of peace within Judaism is an understanding of the concept of shalom. The Great Synagogue of Sydney describes it in the following terms: The Jewish greeting, shalom, means peace, not just the absence of war but a state of contentment and security. Peace is so important that the Bible commands, Seek peace and pursue it; the Jewish sages say, Seek it in your own place and pursue it in other places. Concessions and compromises are acceptable in the interests of peace. If peace begins with oneself and ones own family, it can radiate into ones community and throughout the world. (Great Synagogue of Sydney) The greatest blessing that God can bestow is that of shalom, as expressed in the priestly benediction:
The LORD bless you and keep you; The LORD make his face to shine upon you, and be gracious to you; The LORD lift up his countenance upon you, and give you peace [shalom]. (Numbers 6:2426) To appreciate the teachings of the prophets it is critical to understand that they were messengers of the Lord who called their communities to repentance and right living in accordance with the commandments of the Torah. In no sense were they fortune tellers; rather, they possessed a particular insight or vision that enabled them to proclaim the divine message. During periods when the people had failed to full their religious obligations, or in times of exile and suffering, the prophets were the voices that proclaimed what was required in relation to the Covenant. They reminded their communities of what was promised to them if they maintained the commandments, and also of the punishments that would result if the commandments were ignored.
FIG. 15.10 Studying sacred texts is a key part of understanding the concept of peace in Judaism.
403
TABLE 15.5 Aspects of the Prophetic Vision SACRED TEXT The wolf shall dwell with the lamb, And the leopard shall lie down with the kid; And the calf and the young lion and the fatling together ... They shall not hurt nor destroy In all my holy mountain; For the earth shall be full of the knowledge of the Lord, As the waters cover the sea. (Isaiah 11:6, 9) I will gather you from all the countries, and bring you into your own land. I will sprinkle clean water upon you, and you shall be clean from all your uncleannesses A new heart I will give you, and a new spirit I will put within you Then you shall live in the land that I gave to your ancestors; and you shall be my people, and I will be your God. (Ezekiel 36:2428) Let justice roll down like waters, and righteousness like an everowing stream. (Amos 5:24) CONTEXT AND RELATIONSHIP TO AN UNDERSTANDING OF PEACE Prior to this text Isaiah has criticised the unjust treatment of the poor. He has then established that a descendant of King David will install a reign of integrity, illustrated here by the pairings (wolf and lamb etc.). Under this all people will live in harmony. The reference to the holy mountain is understood by many commentators to mean the place from which God views the universal kingdom. For the world to be in right relationship, people are required to live according to the knowledge of the Lord, the requirement for peace and justice. Ezekiel had warned the people of Judah that if they did not return to the faithful practice of their faith, they would be judged severely by God. When Babylon overthrew Jerusalem, his message changed to one of hope as exemplied in this passage. Ezekiels message was that the people would only be saved if they repented and accepted Gods new heart of justice and compassion. Only then would they be restored and live in peace. Amos was a shepherd who prophesied during the eighth century BCE, a time of great prosperity in Israel. His message afrmed that the neglect of the poor and the divisions that had occurred in society would result in punishment. God required commitment to universal justice and peace from each person. Micahs message was delivered at a time when religious practice was supercial and the poor were neglected. He warned that continued injustice to the most needy would be displeasing to God. Beyond this, however, he spoke of Gods mercy and proclaimed a vision of universal peace that would occur when the people adhered faithfully to the commandments of the Torah.
He shall judge between many peoples, and shall arbitrate between strong nations far away; they shall beat their swords into ploughshares, and their spears into pruning-hooks; nation shall not lift up sword against nation, neither shall they learn war any more. (Micah 4:3)
activities
1. In small groups choose one of the texts quoted in the table. 2. Research the prophet referred to and the historical context in which the prophecy was delivered. 3. Develop a short presentation for the class to enhance their understanding of the message for both the original audience and the contemporary era.

Shalom While the common translation of this word is peace, the concept of shalom within Judaism is far more complex. It also has meanings such as wholeness, recompense and perfection. It alludes to a sense of perfection and well-being that goes beyond the mere absence of conict.
404
The Hebrew greeting Ma shlomcha? means How is your peace?a reference to the importance of individuals and communities being at peace in their everyday lives.
The Rabbinic teachings of the Talmud offer further insights into the sanctity of life that are central to the Jewish understanding of peace: For this reason the rst human being was created alone to teach that whoever destroys a single life is as though he had destroyed an entire universe, and whoever saves a single life is as if he had saved an entire universe. Furthermore the rst man was created alone for the sake of peace among men, so that no one could say to another, My ancestor was greater than yours. (Mishnah, Sanhedrin 4:5)
activity
Explore further interpretations of shalom and consider how you could integrate this material into a response on Jewish beliefs in respect to peace.
TABLE 15.6 Peace in Judaism BELIEFS (AS DEFINED THE UNDERSTANDING OF PEACE IN RELATION TO PRINCIPAL BELIEFS OF IN THE PRELIMINARY JUDAISM COURSE) Belief in a single God who is the Creator and ruler of the universe The Covenant established by God with Abraham conrmed that there was one God alone whom the people of Israel were to serve. This belief was ratied when God reafrmed the Covenant with Moses saying, I am the Lord your God, who brought you out of the land of Egypt, out of the house of slavery; you shall have no other gods before me. (Exodus 20:23) The Jewish understanding of peace lies in the belief that human beings are created in the image of God: God created man in his own image, in the image of God he created him; male and female he created them. (Genesis 1:27) Jewish adherents are consequently committed to enhancing Gods creation and ensuring its repair. This is expressed in the call to justice and compassion found in the concept of tikkun olam. While halachaic interpretations are numerous within Judaism, the 613 mitzvot of the Torah inform all beliefs in relation to fullling the moral law required by God in accordance with the Covenant. In relation to the issue of peace, the NSW Board of Jewish Education states: Hillels Golden Rule of Jewish ethics, what is hateful to you, do not do to others, complements the law, you shall love your neighbour as yourself (Leviticus 19:18). This law is almost unanimously seen as the basic pillar upon which the entire Torah is built ... Following from this, we learn of the prohibition against taking revenge: You shall not take vengeance nor bear any grudge against the children of your people (Leviticus 19:18). The Torah forbids us to bear a grudge or to desire revenge even though it is part of human nature to seek revenge, as both these attitudes are conducive to vindictiveness and malice. The Covenant with Moses denes the relationship that was to exist between God and the people of Israel: I will take you as my people, and I will be your God. You shall know that I am the Lord your God, who has freed you from the burdens of the Egyptians. (Exodus 6:7) In return for deliverance from slavery and entry into the Promised Land, the people were to live in accordance with Gods commandments. The Covenant, therefore, is one of reciprocity, where each party is required to be faithful to their promise in order for its parameters to be maintained.
The concept of a moral law prescribed by God
The idea of the Covenant
405
activity
Investigate the understandings of halacha that are evident within contemporary Judaism in relation to the various issues surrounding peace. Consider how the information you gather could be incorporated into a response on principal beliefs concerning peace in Judaism.
Judaism and peace for the individual

You shall love your neighbour as yourself. (Leviticus 19:18) Home and family The command to pursue right relationship with neighbour is central to understanding peace for the individual within Judaism. The family and home are particular avenues for expressing faith and pursuing personal peace. This is evidenced in the importance placed on observance of Shabbat by many Jewish adherents (although this can vary according to the personal expression of Judaism). The rituals of Shabbat call for a halt to everyday activities for prayer, rest and time given to personal reection and family interaction. Observing halacha Orthodox Jews are encouraged to pursue peace by faithfully observing halacha, the reasoning being that by keeping the commandments a just and righteous life will be assured, resulting in the attainment of personal peace. The means to observe halacha include keeping a kosher home, praying at regular intervals of the day and ensuring proper observance of rituals such as Shabbat.
Prayer Prayer within Judaism begins with praising God. The purpose of this is to remind believers of the many blessings that God has bestowed on their lives. For example, the prayer upon waking found in the Siddur states: I give thanks before You, Living and Eternal King, that You have returned within me my soul with compassion; how abundant is Your faithfulness! This recognition of Gods presence, and its resultant call to live with compassion, is both a reminder of personal obligations and a means to peace for the individual. Prayer provides a structure and a connection to the local and universal Jewish communities that may enhance a sense of peace for the individual. Further areas for exploration The means of supporting individuals in their quest for peace are as diverse within Judaism as in any other tradition. You could investigate particular ways of life such as that of the Chassidim or paths to understanding and knowing God, for example, the study of authentic Kabbalah (be careful to avoid popular psychology that often misuses this Jewish expression). Whatever examples are used, it is imperative that you show a comprehensive link between them and peace for the individual.
activities
1. Review the study of Shabbat in Chapter 5. Discuss how Shabbat might assist Jewish adherents in respect to peace for the individual. 2. Research some aspects of halacha such as requirements for maintaining a kosher home. Using the examples you nd, extrapolate how these may assist the individual in understanding and experiencing peace. 3. Explore various forms of personal and communal prayer available to Jewish adherents. Explain how they may contribute to personal peace.
FIG. 15.11 The Western Wall in Jerusalem is the holiest of Jewish sacred sites. This Wailing Wall was once part of the wall enclosing the Second Temple.
406
Judaism and world peace

Rabban Shimon ben Gamaliel said: On three things the world is sustained: on truth, on judgment, and on peace, as it is it says (Zechariah 8:16): Speak the truth to one another, render in your gates judgments that are true and make for peace. (Mishnah, Pirkei Avot 1:18) The concept of discerning the truth of any issue in relation to the commandments of the Torah is central to any discussion of Judaism and peace. As a result of the vast differences in interpretation that occur across the tradition, there will often be no common response to a particular situation. While there may be contrasting opinions, there is unity in respect to peace being a requirement of God and consequently a mandated action for adherents. The Psalmist says that believers must Depart from evil, and do good; seek peace, and pursue it (Psalm 34:14), and the prayers of the Siddur state, May the One who makes peace in the heavens help to bring peace on earth. There are many instances of individuals and movements within Judaism that actively apply these beliefs and work for peace in the contemporary world. Neve Shalom/Wahat al-Salam (Hebrew and Arabic for Oasis of Peace [Isaiah 32:18]). This is a village jointly established by Jewish and Palestinian Arab citizens of Israel that is engaged in educational work for peace, equality and understanding between the two peoples. Visit its website for current projects and explorations of religious interpretations of peace-related issues. The Australian group Jewish Voices for Peace and Justice was established in 2007. In January 2009 this group, along with the Palestinian and Jewish Dialogue Group, the Australian Arabic Palestinian Support Association and a number of concerned individuals, released a statement entitled Australian Jews and Palestinians United for Peace. This is a local example of a grassroots movement using dialogue and education as a means of exploring and promoting peace within complex circumstances.
Open my eyes that I may behold wondrous things out of thy Torah. (Psalm 119:18)
activities
1. Judaism puts strict limits on wars, which are categorised as either milchemet chova or milchemet mitzvah. Investigate what is meant by each of these terms and explain how the value of truth and the quest for peace is integral to each. 2. An Internet search of Jewish Voices for Peace and Justice will provide various links to statements and activities being promoted by this group. Choose current initiatives and explain how these could be incorporated into a response on the contribution of Judaism and world peace. 3. Find two further examples of individuals and/or organisations that are working to promote an understanding of world peace from the Jewish perspective.
407
Hinduism
Sacred text: The Bhagavad Gita
The Bhagavad Gita is one of Hinduisms holiest texts and forms part of the Mahabharata. It contains Krishnas sermon on the rules of right living. It also contains teachings in respect to karma yoga, samkhya yoga and bhakti yoga. TABLE 15.7 Hindu understanding of peace
TEXT FROM BHAGAVAD GITA

Real peace and happiness are achieved, not by sense gratication, but by sense control. All sorrows are destroyed upon attainment of tranquillity. The intellect of such a tranquil person soon becomes completely steady and united with the Supreme. (Bhagavad Gita 2:65) One who has faith in God, is sincere in yogic practice and has control over the mind and senses gains this transcendental knowledge. Having gained this knowledge, one quickly attains supreme peace or liberation. (Bhagavad Gita 4:39)
RELATIONSHIP TO THE UNDERSTANDING OF PEACE

Reliance on external gratication through the senses will not bring peace to the adherent. It is only through detachment from the material and a consistent focusing on tranquil acceptance in the midst of all circumstances of life that the individual can attain peace in the present and ultimately reach nirvana. Yoga is linked to the essential belief of mokshathe release from eternal bondage. To achieve this release the adherent must be in harmony with the Brahman within them. This harmony can only be obtained through a disciplined process of contemplation that helps to remove ignorance. It is only then that peace can be achieved.
FIG. 15.12 A Hindu holy man (sadhu) prays inside a temple.
activity
The International Gita Society provides a comprehensive exploration of the Bhagavad Gita including links to aspects of Hinduism. Use this website to nd further extracts from the Gita that are applicable to the study of Hinduism and peace.
408

Ahimsa, the essence of non-violence, forbids the harming of any living creature. Hindu beliefs relating to karma and samsara inuence the understanding of peace across the tradition. While variances occur, there is a universal appreciation that acts of unprovoked violence undertaken in a current life will impact on the state of reincarnation that is attained in future lives. In one sense, harming another person is harming oneself, as ultimately you could be in the same position as the person you attack in words, thought or actions. An attitude of peace is a reection of the state of spiritual consciousness that an adherent has attained. As such it is believed that one should continually be striving for peace in order to attain nirvana. The majority of Hindus believe in Brahman, the three-in-one God incorporating Brahma (the Creator), Vishnu (the Preserver) and Shiva (the Destroyer). They believe that Brahman resides in all living creatures and the goal of enlightenment is to achieve knowledge of the Brahman within the self. Only then is reaching nirvana possible. Moksha, the release from the wheel of life, demands the pursuit of knowledge and peace.
activity
Research examples from across the Hindu tradition that illustrate beliefs in relation to the role of peace in attaining nirvana.
Hinduism and peace for the individual

Meditation The Bhagavad Gita highlights the centrality of meditation in assisting the adherent to achieve peace. When you abandon every desire that rises up within you, and when you become content with things as they are, then you experience inner peace. When your mind is untroubled by misfortune, when you desire no pleasures, when your emotions are tranquil, and when you are free from fear and anger, then you experience inner calm. When you are free from all attachments, when you are indifferent to success and failure, then you experience inner serenity. When you can withdraw your senses from pleasures of the senses, just as a tortoise withdraws its limbs, then you experience inner wisdom. When no pleasure and no desire can touch the soul, then you experience the highest state of consciousness. Yet even those who are close to this state can suddenly be carried away by a sudden surge of desire. Thus you must learn to meditate, controlling your senses, and focusing yourself entirely on me. (Bhagavad Gita 2:5561)
FIG. 15.13 Meditation helps the person achieve peace.
409
FIG. 15.14 The annual wari pilgrimage involves over one million people each year in western parts of India.
There are varying forms of yoga meditation, each one bringing with it unique spiritual benets. The principal forms are: karma yoga: yoga of seless action jana yoga: knowledge and wisdom gained through seclusion bhakti yoga: the path of devotional service Ashtanga/Raja Yoga: a system of physical exercise and meditation. Pilgrimage When possible, many Hindus undertake religious pilgrimages to sacred sites. They do this as an act faith, often fullling many requirements in relation to ritual purity and fasting throughout the journey. They believe the pilgrimage will increase their inner peace and assist them in moving closer to moksha. Sacred sites such as mountains, the joining of rivers and sites associated with holy people of the past and present often have particular associations. Signicant places of pilgrimage include: Varanasi, on the banks of the River Ganga Mathura, where Krishna was born Vrindavan, where Krishna lived Puri, which in addition to historical connections is the venue for the annual Ratha Yatra festival.
410
Hinduism and world peace

Hinduism shares commonalities with Buddhism in that the individual quest to seek release from moksha and attain nirvana is its central goal. Intrinsically linked to this, however, is the primacy of ahimsa, which determines that adherents must cause no harm to others. As a result, Hinduism designates that harmony and peace are to be the goal of all communal engagements. In investigating the impact of Hinduism on world peace, it should be noted that the most signicant impact is often localised within India, which is home to the majority of Hindu adherents. This does not mean that Hindu representatives do not engage at an international level, for example, membership of the World Conference of Religions for Peace. The following links provide current information on a couple of organisations working in Hinduism and world peace. Hinduism Today is a free online journal that provides stories relating Hindu engagement in a range of social issues. The Hindu Council of Australia actively promotes Hindu practice and provides a unied voice for the Hindu community to respond to emerging social issues.
activities
1. Gather further information on each of the forms of meditation that are predominant in Hinduism. For each form of yoga explain how it may assist the individual in attaining peace. 2. Either as a group or individual task, research a place of signicant Hindu pilgrimage and present it to the class in a creative visual format. This could include using software such as iMovie to create a video presentation or producing hard copy images to develop a gallery-style display of the festival you are presenting. As a class, discuss how participation in the festivals you have presented may enhance peace for the individual. 3. With reference to the following statement, discuss the contribution of Hinduism to world peace: According to Hindu philosophy, the goal of human life is the realisation of the state of peace. Dharma, loosely translated as religion, is the source by which peace can be fully realised. This peace is not the stillness of death; it is a dynamic harmony among all the diverse facets of life. Humanity, as part of the natural world, can contribute through dharma to this natural harmony. (Shrivatsa Goswami)
Be the change you wish to see in the world (Gandhi)
411
Review and Assess

Review
Complete the following tasks for each of the TWO religious traditions you are studying. 1. Sacred texts a. Using at least three references from the sacred texts prescribed in the syllabus, outline how each reference relates to the principal beliefs of the religious tradition from which it comes. (Ensure that you can write each reference from memory in order to readily incorporate them into your extended response.) b. Explain how each reference may inform the individuals quest for inner peace and the traditions contribution to world peace. 2. Principal beliefs a. Outline how the principal beliefs studied in the preliminary component of Studies of Religion are reected in each traditions understanding of peace. b. Provide examples of how variants within each religious tradition interpret principal beliefs in relation to peace. c. Explain how principal beliefs guide the individuals quest for inner peace and the traditions contribution to world peace. 3. Peace for the individual a. Explain the differing interpretations of what inner peace for the individual may mean within the religious traditions you are studying. b. Using specic examples, outline how each religious tradition may assist individual adherents in attaining inner peace. c. Provide one example of a signicant individual who illustrates how the teachings and practices of the religious tradition support the quest for inner peace.
412
4.
World peace a. Explain how geographic, political and any other relevant factors shape the sphere of inuence of each religious tradition in relation to world peace. b. Describe two specic initiatives in relation to world peace. Where necessary, explain their global nature even though they may be conned to a specic location (for example, peace movements in the Middle East). c. Analyse the extent to which each of these initiatives has achieved the ideals contained in the sacred texts and principal beliefs of the tradition.

Extended response (20 marks) 5. Explain how the understanding of peace is expressed through sacred texts in TWO religious traditions.
6.
Illustrate how TWO religious traditions apply their understanding of peace, as found in their sacred texts and explained through their principal beliefs, to situations of world peace. Evaluate the inuence of TWO religious traditions in the lives of adherents in respect to their understanding and attainment of inner peace. Analyse the inuence of TWO religious traditions on society in respect to issues of world peace. With reference to sacred texts, demonstrate how TWO religious traditions assist the individual adherent to attain inner peace.
7.
8.
9.
10. Discuss how TWO religious traditions draw upon their principal beliefs in responding to issues of world peace.
413
Religion and non-religion

The focus of this study is the human search for meaning through religion and non-religion.
Outcomes
A student: H1 explains aspects of religion and belief systems New religious expression the rise of new religious expression and spiritualities the inuences on the growth of new religious expressions and spiritualities Non-religious worldviews the human search for personal fullment through non-religious practices: agnosticism atheism humanism The difference between religious and nonreligious worldviews the response of one religious and one nonreligious belief system to: the concept of the transcendent Students learn about: The religious dimension in human history the expression of the religious dimension in human history the signicance of the religious dimension in human history the global distribution of the ve major religious traditions the human person social responsibility
H2 describes and analyses the inuence of religion and belief systems on individuals and society H6 organises, analyses and synthesises relevant information about religion from a variety of sources, considering usefulness, validity and bias H7 conducts effective research about religion and evaluates the ndings from the research
H8 uses appropriate terminology and concepts related to religion and belief systems H9 coherently and effectively communicates complex information, ideas and issues using appropriate written, oral and graphic forms.
Content
HSC | Chapter 16 Religion and non-religion 415
AGNOSTICISM ANIMISM
the belief that the existence of God is not provable. a system of belief which teaches that there are active spiritual forces at work in nature. the belief that there is no divine power either within the universe or outside of it. the science or theory of the universe. a particular persons or group of peoples fate. from or like God or a god. concerning the relationship of organisms to one another and to their surrounding environment. seeking worldwide Christian unity. the authorising or giving of power to someone else. a worldview that shows more interest in physical and monetary possessions than spiritual values. exercises that serve as a support for prayer and contemplation. belief in a single God: Judaism, Islam and Christianity are monotheistic faiths.
MYSTICAL POLYTHEISM RATIONAL HUMANISM
spiritually symbolic. a belief that there are many gods and goddesses. the position that the proper focus of human concerns is the human, with an emphasis on human reason to determine what a person should think and do. the prescribed order of a religious ceremony or action. the belief that the proper study of humans is the human, using scientic research and methods. the way a society works together to remain harmonious. the way a society changes and develops over time. of or concerning the spirit as opposed to matterdivine, inspired. supervision of a function, a group of people or the environment. belief in the supernatural. beyond human experience.
ATHEISM COSMOLOGY DESTINY DIVINE ECOLOGICAL
RITUAL SCIENTIFIC HUMANISM SOCIAL COHESION SOCIAL TRANSFORMATION SPIRITUAL STEWARDSHIP SUPERSTITION TRANSCENDENT
ECUMENISM EMPOWERMENT MATERIALISM
MEDITATION MONOTHEISM
416
The religious dimension in human history

Religions have taken many forms throughout human history. Many people believe that there is a spiritual dimension that is not a part of the material universe. Many hold that the universe came into being and is maintained through divine agents (gods) or a God. For many religions the universe gives clear evidence of the existence of these divine beings or being.
Expressions of the religious dimension in human history

Animism is a system of belief that teaches that there are active spiritual forces at work in nature. Many natural forces are seen to be created by spirits who dwell in the world. These spirits cause the wind, control the ow of streams and rivers, and live in woods and trees. Adherents of animism believe that these spirits need to be revered and kept happy in order to avoid natural disasters. Shrines are built and votive offerings and prayers are made to these spirits. An example of animism is the Japanese religion of Shinto. This ancient religion believes in kami (deities) that created the universe. The principal goddess is Amaterasu Omikami (the sun goddess) who created the islands of Japan. There are many gods and goddesses who are related to certain creatures and who are guardians of certain places. Because all humans are created by the kami, Shinto holds all human life as sacred. This belief in a common divine origin places emphasis on family and social relationships. To enter a Shinto shrine an adherent passes through a torii (gateway). Before attending the shrine the believer ensures that his hands are clean and that his intentions are pure. At the shrine prayers and votive offerings are made. Polytheism is a belief that there are many gods and goddesses. Each god or goddess has individual powers which control certain aspects of the universe or the destiny of humans. Often there is a hierarchy among these gods and goddesses that has the strongest god (and his consort) as ruler over all the other gods.
FIG. 16.1 Heian-Jingu Shrine, Kyoto, Japan
HSC | Chapter 16 Religion and non-religion
417
Each god or group of gods has its own shrines and temples. Prayers and votive offerings are made, and in some cases animal sacrices may also be offered. It is believed that the gods control human happiness and prosperity and need either to be reminded of their duty or made responsive to the needs of believers. A modern-day example of polytheism is Hinduism. Monotheism is the belief that there is only one God. This God is the creator of the universe and of all humans. This God relates to human beings in a special way, either by seeking submission from them or entering into an agreement (covenant) that describes the obligations of human beings toward this God and the resulting protection by the God. God may also be seen as directly intervening in the natural world through miracles, as well as through destruction brought about by the failure of human beings to act morally. Monotheists believe that God has revealed who he is and what the purpose of human life is. Examples of monotheism are Christianity, Judaism and Islam.
activities
1. Carefully outline the differences and similarities between animism, polytheism and monotheism. 2. What is the one main ingredient of all the religions in this book? 3. Discuss the need for spirituality or God or divine beings in human beings.
The signicance of the religious dimension in human history

Providing meaning and purpose for the individual A persons belief in a religious tradition affects all dimensions of the adherents life. Religion answers the four fundamental questions about life: Who am I? Why is there a universe? Why is there suffering? What happens after a person dies? The answers will affect all aspects of a persons lifethe emotional, the intellectual, the relational and the social.
Religion also gives identity to a person. The way individuals answer those fundamental questions places them within a religious traditionfor example, if their answer involves belief in Allah, then they are Muslim; if it involves belief in the Lord Buddha, then they are Buddhist. This identity also gives people a community that will support, guide and comfort them. Religious traditions also provide a persons ethical expectations and duties. They teach the individual about the roles of each gender and point out correct sexual behaviour. They may also indicate what careers can be accepted by the individualin Buddhism, for example, any career that involves killing of sentient life is not appropriate. Religions also instruct individuals about their relationship to the environment and their place in a global society. Religion also denes for individuals their place within society. For example, in Hinduism a person knows which caste he or she belongs to and what the expectations of that position are. Religions create for humans places of beauty through paintings, sculpture and other enriching cultural pursuits such as music. Religions offer some individuals access to higher understanding and mystical experience. Most importantly, religions give people a purpose in life. This may be seen as a reward for acting well or a punishment for living immorally (for example, heaven and hell in Islam). The purpose may be to be reborn into a better life after living well in this one, as in Hinduism and Buddhism. Religions also celebrate important stages in peoples lives (birth, puberty and death) by offering them and their families an understanding that these stages are important for a persons spiritual journey. Examples of these rituals are baptism in Christianity, ordination into the Sangha in Buddhism, the bar mitzvah in Judaism. Other rituals offer believers the means of fullling their faith, for example the Hajj in Islam.
FIG. 16.2 A Christian baptism
418
Providing social cohesion Social cohesion is how a society remains harmonious. It is the way in which a society maintains peace and provides structures to support its members. Social cohesion not only gives identity to a society but also denes who does not belong to that community.
FIG. 16.3 The Blue Mosque, Istanbul
Religions are closely connected to cultures and societies. The religious dimension forms many of a cultures key aspectsits laws (for example, the Westminster system of law based on a Christian ethical understanding), its signicant buildings (for example, Angkor Wat and the Blue Mosque), its dietary observances (kosher and halal rules), its music, its dress codes and so on. In forming these signs of social identity, religions also clearly dene who does not belong to a particular culture or society. Religions have been a source of social disharmony, as seen in struggles between Christians in Northern Ireland, tension and violence in the Middle East and civil strife in Sri Lanka. Religions offer laws of behaviour and teachings which assist the individual in society. They bring about social cohesion by presenting to individuals the way they should act, dress, relate and, in particular, think about signicant issues (for example, the creation of the world, the destiny of humankind and the reasons behind suffering and death). Religions may provide a system of government (for example, the Ayatollahs of Iran) and systems to help members of society who are less fortunate. These social welfare activities (for example, Oxfam)
support the unemployed, the homeless, the poor, the lonely and the dying. Religions determine how people relate within a society. They teach what are acceptable relationships (for example, family, friendship) and what are not (for example, homosexual relations in Christianity). Religions contribute most signicantly to how men and women understand the roles that are suitable for their genders. In many religions the role of women is less powerful than that of men. Religions connect the members of society to a common past. They provide traditions and customs for a society and therefore strengthen the identity of that society. They give a society rituals and ceremonies to celebrate key moments in its life, such as coronations and public funerals. They also give a society a system of education, a tradition of classic literature and arts, and institutions that provide greater development of the spiritual life (for example, the priesthood in Christianity, the Sangha in Buddhism and the rabbinical schools of Judaism). The religious dimension offers people support through counselling and spiritual direction. It may also determine the yearly calendar and important days of celebration, such as Christmas, the Sabbath, Lent, Wesak, Divali and Ramadan. Providing social transformation Social transformation means how a society changes and develops. The religious dimension has often acted as a means of change, but also sometimes as a system that has prevented change.
FIG. 16.4 An Indian couple colouring idols made for the Hindu Divali festival
419
Change is brought about through education and instruction. Religions have often offered education and have either supported the changes in thinking (for example, Maimonides, Nargajuna in Buddhism) or condemned advances in learning (for example, the work of Galileo). Religions have been great patrons of the arts and have often supported artists and new styles (for example, during the Renaissance in Europe and the Gupta period in Indian art). Religions have supported national expansion through wars and colonisation (for example, the European conquest of South American cultures and the spread of the Ottoman Empire). But they have also been the protectors of the innocent and the defenders of the environment. Their institutes for social welfare have often opposed prevailing political and economic ideas that failed to support those in need. Religions have also admitted past errors and injustices. They have striven to bring about common understandings and acceptance of differences (for example, ecumenism in Christianity and interfaith dialogue). Religions have developed ideas to change societys attitudes towards minority groups (for example, African-American liberation) and attempted to right past oppressions (for example, feminist theology and Queer Dharma). Religions also attempt to bring about correct understanding when new ethical issues arise (for
example, cloning, IVF and HIV/AIDS). Religious ideas and concepts have been used to aid people in responding to natural and human-made disasters.
activities
1. What are the four questions in life that religion answers for human beings? 2. How do the answers to these questions affect how people live their lives? Or do they? 3. Religions also provide a guide to the behaviour of people as individuals. Why do you think people need this? How does religion help in this regard? 4. Religion and the functioning of community have always been linked together. How has this developed and why? 5. Create in dot form a list of the contributions of religion to social cohesion. Give examples. 6. Religions have been principally opposed to advancements in human thinking and cultural achievement. Discuss with examples. 7. Use the map on this page to explain the distribution of different religious traditions around the world. In your response include the following factors: immigration, historical conquests, the changing global economy, conicts, missionary activity, and natural and human-made disasters.
ARCTIC OCEAN
Arctic Circle
EUROPE NORTH AMERICA
ASIA
PA C I F I C O C E A N Tropic of Cancer
ATLANTIC OCEAN
AFRICA
Equator ATLANTIC OCEAN Tropic of Capricorn INDIAN OCEAN
SOUTH AMERICA
AUSTRALIA
0 2000 4000 6000 km
KEY
Christianity Mostly Roman Catholic Mostly Protestant Mostly Eastern Orthodox Islam Sunni Shia Other major religion Hinduism Judaism Buddhism Chinese religions Shinto and Buddhism Traditional and tribal Tribal and Christian Tribal, Christian and Muslim
FIG. 16.5 The global distribution of the major religious traditions
420
New religious expressions

The rise of new religious expressions
The search for personal fulfilment In contemporary society, individuals attempt to nd personal fullment. For many, traditional religions do not provide a way of contentment or peace. Modern society, they feel, is too quickly changing and many of the past truths and certainties have been called into question. Traditional religions may no longer provide the answers for many people and appear to be outdated and irrelevant. People seek personal fullment in all aspects of their lives. Many wish to seek improvement of their bodies and minds through practising forms of spirituality that are not a part of their own religious traditions (for example, Westerners practising yoga or tai chi). People may be dissatised with how a religion deals with contemporary sexuality (for example, the rise of churches for gays and lesbians) or how it deals with the human relationship to the environment. The traditional ways of seeking support and guidance from pastors and monks may now be understood to lack the expertise of modern psychology and psychiatry. People seek new ways of healing (for example, acupuncture) and nd practices in new religious expressions that heal emotional distress and bring about peace (for example, Buddhist meditation). People may also judge traditional religions explanations about life and the universe as outdated and irrelevant when compared with the advances of science and technology. The search for ethical guidance People in modern society face new ethical issues such as cloning and global warming, and traditional religious responses may not appear to be relevant. The application of past thinking does not provide for some people sufcient clarity for how people should act in response to these new ethical dilemmas. Pre-scientic responses can appear inadequate in dealing with modern scientic and ethical issues. People may also feel that traditional religions do not allow individuals sufcient independence and initiative. They may feel that simply being obedient to authorities does not permit self-determination and legitimate freedom.
individuals attempt to find personal fulfilment. For many, traditional religions do not provide
FIG. 16.6 Yoga class
In contemporary society,
a way of contentment or peace.
In the modern consumerist and global society, there is often an attitude of shopping around for the right answer, taking ideas and behaviours from various religions and systems of thinking. There is also the means of comparing one idea or ethical response with other different approaches. The rejection of past feelings of guilt, childhood inhibitions and the fear of punishment which some forms of traditional religions may have taught can also be reasons why people choose new forms of spirituality and religions. Clarification of peoples relationship with society People may no longer feel that traditional religions give them a supportive community, or may think that traditional religions cause oppression (for example, oppression of women or minority racial groups). They may also feel that new religions and spiritualities offer closer relationships and more meaningful celebrations of the stages in life through rituals and ceremonies. Many aspects of modern society may cause a person to seek answers and meaning outside it. The political system or the pursuit of wealth and possessions in a consumerist culture may force people to nd comfort in less traditional religions and spiritualities. Advances in science and technology (for example, industrial growth, electronic communications and the creation of virtual realities) may produce fear and anxiety and be understood as threatening the planet with destruction. At another level, a persons acceptance of a new religion may be due to the desire to gain closer and more meaningful personal relationships and more appropriate ways of expressing their individualism. Certain contemporary schools of thinking may also reduce a persons allegiance to traditional faiths (for example, postmodernism and Gaia theory). The fact that there are many religions with opposing understandings of life and its purpose may indicate to a person that no single religion has the answers. Comparisons may suggest that traditional religions deal less with reality than with superstition. The fact that some believers, through a misinterpretation of the religious traditions have brought about disharmony and oppression in both the past and the present is also a reason for seeking better relationships within new religions.
FIG. 16.7 Tools used in some wiccan ritualsa new religious expression
Other means by which an individual seeks clearer relationships in new religions are more appropriate rituals, empowerment within a religious community based on equality and distribution of talents, simplicity of life and teachings, and an emphasis on the emotions rather than on the intellect. Many of the new religions may appear to have a stronger sense of the unity of nature or offer a person ways to participate in the mystical forces of nature.
activities
1. Why are people searching for something other than what life gives them? 2. Have psychologists replaced religious leaders? How, and why or why not? 3. Modern scientic and medical discoveries, as well as environmental understanding, have left people feeling that religion doesnt have answers for them about how to think or act. a Do you think this statement is true? Why or why not? b Are some religions more able to handle these developments than others? Does that mean they are more relevant and therefore should be followed? Does this mean the end of religion? 4. People are also said to be looking for closer relationships with others as a society. How does this statement compare with what religions say they offer? Discuss why these two concepts may be contradictory to each other. 5. Debate: Divide into two groups and present arguments for and against the proposition: Traditional religions cannot meet the demands of the modern world. Present to class.
422
Inuences on the growth of new religious expressions and spiritualities

The rise of materialism The growth of materialism (the idea that what is important in life is the accumulation of possessions and nance) is a signicant inuence on the rise of new religions. Materialism seems to offer little acknowledgement of the spiritual dimension in a human person, and many of the traditional religions seem also to be caught up in accumulating wealth and possessions. A person may be in search of the traditional values of dignity, respect and freedom, and may nd in new religions ways to live more fully. There is also the modern fear that humans are wasting and depleting irreplaceable resources in the environment in order to build Poverty, wealth and power. Many people unemployment and believe that these resources should be the common property of all exploitation can people rather than belonging to the be reasons to seek very few. Poverty, unemployment and exploitation can be reasons newer religions. to seek newer religions in order to solve these ecological and economic problems.
The influence of scientific progress For many people, science and technology are moving too fast for careful consideration of their consequences to humankind. It seems that they are inaccessible to the ordinary person and that understanding of them requires specialised learning and education. They are also seen as possibly dangerous to life on earth (for example, global warming and nuclear power). As objective bodies of knowledge and application, the sciences do not address the spiritual side of the human person and may even call it into question. Certain developments in science, such as cloning and in vitro fertilisation, may seem to be diverting humans from their natural purpose and destiny. The misuse of science technology has caused disruption to traditional lifestyles (for example, television and communication technologies disrupting the family), or has reduced society to mindless conformity and trivial entertainments (for example, mass media). In order to take a stance against the progress of science and technology, some people may turn to new religions and spiritualities that offer a return to a more simple lifeone in tune with nature and not dependent on the machines and tools of the sciences. They may also join new religions to support opposition to the advancement of the sciences.
FIG. 16.8 Some people seek answers to global problems such as poverty in newer religions.
The growth of ecological awareness In recent years the scientic investigation of the state of the environment has caused many people to support movements for reducing harmful substances from entering the atmosphere and oceans. They are seeking ways of ensuring that human beings can sustain a healthy environment. Some people nd these issues addressed by new religions. People may conclude that these new religions offer an active stewardship of the planet and are more closely connected with nature. Some new religions present a more simple way of living, often shared among all members of the community. The use of environmentally friendly produce and the recycling of wastes responsibly by these communities are further reasons for choosing them. Some traditional religions may be seen to have done little to bring about the change needed to protect the environment. Disenchantment with traditional religious practices and guidance There are other reasons why people no longer belong to traditional religions. They may nd that hierarchical structures of power do not allow them sufcient say in the nature and direction of these religions. They may also object to the male dominance and apparent female oppression in traditional religions. For others, some traditional religions are communities of an ageing population. For some of the young, in particular, they seem to offer no suitable expressions or practices that celebrate being young and modern. The traditional rituals are seen as not providing individuals with signicant involvement in the religions important customs and practices. These rituals may be perceived as archaic and no longer addressing the needs of modern life in a meaningful way. They may be thought to be boring and impersonal. With the advance of the sciences and technologies, and in the light of new ethical problems facing the world, traditional religions may appear to be institutions of the past, giving past solutions to modern problems. Many of their ethical systems were developed in pre-scientic times and may be seen as unable to address either the advances of science or the global problems facing humanity. The traditional religions present ancient understandings about the nature and cause of the universe, which can be interpreted as opposing the new thinking in astrophysics and cosmology. Traditional religions have been a means for seeking guidance and direction. In the modern world, newer sciences have arisen that appear better to address the anxieties and fears of individuals (for example, psychology and psychiatry). Traditional religions approach to health and medicine may also be seen as pre-scientic and superstitious. The responses of traditional religions to modern health problems and concerns may appear to be out of date and ignorant of the needs of the individual.
activity
New Age religions are means of avoiding the problems faced by the modern age. Discuss using examples.
424
Non-religious worldviews
Atheism Atheism is the belief that there is no divine power either within the universe or outside it. It holds that there are no reasons to believe in any reward or punishment after death. It argues that many aspects of religion are superstitious. Though acknowledging that some contributions by religions have beneted humankind, atheists argue that these same benets can be achieved without a person adopting a religion. Good ethical behaviour, including compassion towards others, is signicant for people without a religious faith. Some forms of atheism nd religions dangerous (for example, Marxism and communism) for they divert people away from the real concerns of society. Such atheists argue that what is most important is the here and now rather than what is beyond a persons life.
FIG. 16.9 Moscow monument to Karl Marx, whose writings are the basis of communism
Agnosticism Agnosticism is the belief that there is insufcient proof for either Gods existence or non-existence. It therefore argues that a person should live life without worrying about a spiritual or divine dimension. Like atheists, agnostics would argue that humans are capable of goodness and can contribute to the benet of human society. One form of agnosticism proposed by 17thcentury French philosopher Blaise Pascal teaches that even if we do not know whether there is a God or not, it is better to live a life believing in a God and carrying out his wishes. For if there is a God, then on death humans who have lived a religious life will be rewarded. If there is no God, then on death the person will still have lived a good life for himself and others.
FIG. 16.10 Blaise Pascal
Agnosticism is the belief that there existence or non-existence.
is insufficient proof for either Gods
The position of rational humanism The position of rational humanism is that the proper focus of all human concerns and endeavours is the human. This belief emphasises the use of human reason to determine what a person should think and do. The mind can discover what it is to be a human. Rational humanism uses logic and study to make these discoveries, is open to discussion and intellectual criticism, and attempts to avoid prejudices and presumptions. Rational humanism accepts the study of the sciences (such as physics and chemistry) and the humanities (such as literature, ne arts and music) as legitimate and believes that these elds of endeavour bring about a deeper understanding of the nature and purpose of the human. It also recognises the exploration of the emotional and psychological aspects of the human through research and experiment as signicant in helping a person live. Rational humanism accepts that some forms and teachings of the traditional religions are based on reasoning and sound argument. To be a rational humanist does not necessarily mean that the person does not possess a religious belief system. The position of scientific humanism Like rational humanism, scientic humanism believes that the proper study of humans is the human. It places emphasis on the sciences and their discoveries to explain what it is to be human and what humans should do. This study must use legitimate methods of research and experiment. All results should be made public for them to be tested and discussed. The study must be logical, open to examination, broad-based and without presumptions.
humanism believes that the proper study of humans is the human [using scientific research and methods].
Scientific
FIG. 16.11 Scientist undertaking research
426
Scientic humanism argues that any idea that is unable to be tested by the sciences cannot be accepted as truth. It therefore argues that religious traditions are based essentially on ideas that cannot be proven by science (for example, Gods creation of the universe and human survival after death). This does not mean that all scientists are sceptical about religions. Many who carry out scientic investigation are people who have faith and belong to a religious tradition. Agnosticism and the aspirations and behaviour of individuals Having pointed out that there is no proof that God exists, agnosticism argues that all human aspirations, like living a meaningful and purposeful life, can be achieved through the use of human reason. It argues that all behaviour that brings about benet for the individual and society can be discovered through human reason. In fact, without a belief in Gods existence, more attention can be given to self-determination, that is, to being wholly responsible for the life a human lives and working out what is best for the individual. Moreover, there is more focus on how to solve the needs and problems of the world by using modern systems of thought and discovery, rather than on obedience to divine revelation, which may be seen as irrelevant to the contemporary world. Agnosticism sees that it is important for humans to act ethically for they belong to a species that survives best when the group lives harmoniously and morally. Ethics also provide a basis for people to determine how they relate to one another, what their duties and responsibilities are to each other and to the world, and how nations can coexist without violence and war. Atheism and the aspirations and behaviours of individuals Similar to agnosticism, atheism argues for selfdetermination, human freedom and ethical behaviour as benecial to the human individual and to society. Without religion, atheists turn to other means for deciding what is good for humans and how people should relate to other people. The sciences (for example, the study of history, anthropology, sociology) can offer appropriate strategies for achieving human aspirations and for acting ethically.
Like agnostics, atheists argue that education is essential for humans to realise their aspirations and to learn appropriate behaviour. Access to basic human rights is a further means by which a person achieves his or her hopes and is able to live a life of dignity and common respect. Atheists see that the use of just laws and legitimate governments also provides ways to achieve human aspirations and an ethical life. Humanism and the aspirations and behaviours of individuals For both rational humanism and scientic humanism, the ways by which atheists and agnostics determine the individuals aspirations and behaviour are also legitimate. This is not to argue that humanists are necessarily atheists or agnostics. For a humanist it is human reason that enables an individual to nd out what is to be done and how a good life can be achieved. Through investigation, research and study, people can determine for themselves what it means to be human and what the appropriate ways are to live a human life. Humanists also offer advice, guidance and direction to individuals about what is right and what is to be avoided. Since human reason has developed the sciences, humanists use these as ways of bringing about happiness for the person and for society.
activities
1. Dene the following in your own words: agnosticism, atheism, humanism. 2. Explain the difference between rational and scientic humanism. 3. Explain how all three non-religious practices in question 1 inuence the aspirations and behaviour of individuals.
The difference between religious and non-religious worldviews

A worldview is how a person makes sense of his or her life and creates a consistent and meaningful understanding of the world. It is the way a person integrates new information and experiences into this understanding. Every society and culture also has its worldviews. In fact, to belong to a particular culture is to share with other humans in that culture an understanding of how the world works.
The response of Christianity and modern science as belief systems

Their response to the concept of the transcendent One religious belief system (Christianity) believes that to understand the origins of the universe and its continued existence, a person needs to believe in the existence of a transcendent being (God)that is, a being independent of the universe and responsible for it. This creation is seen as an act of God who creates the universe out of nothing. The universe shows Gods purpose and plan for all humans. Human beings can discover things about God by studying the universe, but they can never discover everything about God unless God reveals those things to them. Therefore, it is important to worship God and obey his commandments in order for humans to be happy in this life and after death. The purpose for human life can be found in sacred texts, celebrated in rituals and explained by clerics. For one non-religious belief system (modern science), since there is no scientic evidence that God exists, there is no transcendent being. The universe is everything and there is nothing outside the universe. For some scientists, the universe came into being through a singularity, the Big Bang, and acts in accordance with the laws of physics. The universe does not require God in order to explain its existence and its purpose.
activity
It has been argued that a system of thought, like science and mathematics, cannot ultimately explain itself. It needs something outside of it in order for it to demonstrate the truth (for example, sciences application in technology and medicine). If this is so, can the universe as a system understood by human thought really explain itself? Discuss in groups.
FIG. 16.12 For modern science, the universe acts in accordance with the laws of physics and does not require God to explain its existence and purpose.
428
Their response to the human person Christianity teaches that the human person is made up of body, mind and spirit. Since the human is made in the image of God, all humans must be shown dignity and given respect and authentic freedom. Every human deserves the basic rights of shelter, food, clothing, gainful employment and leisure. All humans are loved by God and have been saved by his Son. They receive eternal life by acknowledging that Jesus Christ died for their sins and accepting Gods forgiveness by faith as a gift of grace. They then have a responsibility to live an ethical life and behave according to the revealed truths given by God. Science understands the human as a complex, living animal comprised of interacting organs. The human is a biological animal constructed out of the material of the universe and acts according to the laws of the universe. Human beings are members of a species which has evolved a rational mind which can discover how to live as a good person. Science would see one of the principal aims of scientic research and experiments is to develop ways to help humans understand who they are and to advance human society. Their response to social responsibility Christianity sees all humans as created in the image of God, and therefore a human is bound to treat others according to that belief. There is a responsibility for people to build a just society in which everyone is provided with the means of living with dignity and respect. Since all humans have free will, they must be allowed freedom and self-determination in line with the will of God. The family is regarded as the basic unit of society. Christianity teaches that this set of relationships is essential for the preservation of society. A person needs relationships in order to live fully, and marriage is one of the most important of these relationships. It is also the legitimate means of bringing new children into the world and supporting them. Since God loves all humans, those people who are poor and in need must be looked after. Social welfare and personal acts of charity are obligations that all Christians have towards others. The environment too is created and sustained by God and Christians must act as stewards of Gods creation. Humans must protect the environment and use its resources justly.
Science sees that humans are able to discover, through study and reason, how best to live in society. The sciences demonstrate that humans need each other and that relationships are important for the development and growth of the individual. The political and economic sciences investigate how people relate, and these sciences show the laws on which society functions. In order for the individual to live life well, science shows that societies have created systems of welfare and care that provide support for the members of the society. There is a need for humans to work together harmoniously for the benet of all. Anthropology, history and sociology show that there is great variety in how societies are structured. The nuclear family (father, mother and children) is not the only way societies understand the essential relationships among humans. There has also been increasing research and study of the impact of humans on the environment. The sciences point out the damage that pollution and global warming brings and inform people about what it is necessary for humans to do to prevent further damage. Science shows that all life is interconnected and that humans have a signicant responsibility to ensure that all life is cared for.
activity
Complete the table below. KEY IDEAS RELIGIOUS RESPONSE NON-RELIGIOUS RESPONSE
TRANSCENDENT
HUMAN PERSON
SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY
Review and assess

Review
1. List the features of each of the following: animism, polytheism and monotheism. Create a mind map to show the role of religions in bringing about change in a society. Discuss this statement: There is no signicant difference in the aspirations of an atheist and a humanist. Outline the principal practices of traditional religions which have contributed to the rise of new religious expressions. Discuss this statement: People join new religious expressions to avoid the ethical responsibility expected from the more traditional religions. Demonstrate the differences between rational humanism and scientic humanism. Give reasons why scientic progress causes people to choose new religious expressions.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Multiple choice 8. Which statement best expresses animism? a. b. c. d. 9. There is no god. There are many gods. All natural objects have a spirit. There is a single divine personal being.
Which statement best denes agnosticism? a. b. c. d. There is no divine or transcendent reality. There is some divine or transcendent reality. It is highly likely there is no divine or transcendent reality. It is uncertain whether there is a divine or transcendent reality.
430
10. For individuals with a non-religious worldview, which of the following best describes the concept of social responsibility? a. b. reading sacred texts and living a good life attending ceremonies and actively caring for the environment living a moral life and caring for your family working for the common good by following established ethical guidelines
14. An example of polytheism is found in: a. b. c. d. Judaism Buddhism Hinduism Christianity.
c. d.
15. New religions and spiritualities offer people: a. dependency on tools of science and technology the same answers to questions as traditional religions return to a simpler lifestyle an atheistic approach to life.
11. Which factor would distinguish a religious funeral from a non-religious funeral? a. b. c. d. the use of candles in the ceremony the celebration of the life of the deceased the reference to a transcendent dimension the inclusion of popular music in the ceremony
b.
c. d.
16. Scientic humanism argues that: a. any idea that cannot be tested scientically cannot be accepted as truth a scientist cannot believe in God there is insufficient evidence for the existence of God there is no divine presence either in the universe or outside it.
12. Which of the following best outlines the position of a Rational Humanist? a. Human enquiry and practice should be guided by belief in a deity. Human enquiry and practice should not be guided by belief in a deity. Human enquiry and practice should be guided by rigorous experimental testing. Human enquiry and practice should not be guided by superstitions and unthinking tradition.
b. c.
b.
d.
c.
17. Agnosticism and atheism both argue for: a. b. a divine presence outside the universe self-determination, human freedom and ethical behaviour as benecial to the human person and to society human reason and devine revelation, which enables an individual to nd out what is to be done and how a good life can be achieved the idea that the proper focus of all human concerns and endeavours is the human.
d.
13. New religious expressions accept one of the following: a. b. c. d. the promotion of materialism the rejection of Eastern religions the search for personal fullment disenchantment with scientic progress.
c.
d.
Short response (5 marks) 18. With reference to your own knowledge, explain two reasons why an individual may explore new religious expressions and spiritualities.
431
Timeline | Buddhism
486 BCE Birth of Siddhartha Guatama. 451 Enlightenment of Siddhartha. 406 Death of Siddhartha. Late fth century The First Council settles on the teachings of the Buddha and composes a monastic code of discipline.
First century CE King Kanisha convokes the Fourth Council, which commits to writing the commentaries on the Scriptures.
150 Nagarhuna founds the Madhyamika school.
372 Buddhism spreads to Korea.
Fifth century Buddhism spreads to Myanmar.
Twelfth century Buddhism spreads to Cambodia.
122282 Nichiren Daishonen, reformer of Japanese Buddhism, proclaims the superiority of the Lotus Sutra.
Fourteenth century Buddhism spreads to Laos.
1361 Theravada Buddhism spreads to Thailand.
1952 Sister Dhammadinna arrives in Sydney.
1953 The Buddhist Society of New South Wales formed in Sydneythe oldest Buddhist organisation currently in operation in Australia.
1970s Indo-Chinese refugees increase the Buddhist population in Australia.
1991 The fourteenth Dalai lama visits Australia.
432
306 The Second Council meets and the sangha splits into the Theravadins and the Mahasanghikas.
27332 Reign of Asoka. Buddhism spreads to Sri Lanka. Asoka convokes the Third Council.
Second century Tripitaka committed to writing in Sri Lanka.
First century Buddha images modelled on the god Apollo, rst appear in India. Buddhism spreads to China.
520 Bodhidharma arrives in China.
538 Buddhism spreads to Japan.
Eighth century Vajrayana tradition established in Tibet. Muslim invasions of India.
Eleventh century Atisa reforms Tibetan Buddhism.
161782 The fth Dalai lama. In 1653 he meets with the Chinese emperor in Peking as an equal head of state.
1882 16 November, Sri Lankan Buddhists arrive in Mackay, Queensland.
1897 Furore over an article on Buddhism in the Victorian newspaper the Healesville Guardian.
1938 The Buddhist Study Group formed in Melbournethe rst Australian Buddhist organisation.
1994 Opening of the Nan Tien Temple in Wollongong.
1996 The fourteenth Dalai lama visits Australia again, performs the kalachakra initiation before 3000 people in Sydney.
2007, 2008 & 2009 The fourteenth Dalai lama visits Australia.
Timeline | Buddhism
433
Timeline | Christianity
64 BCE Birth of Jesus. 30 CE Death of Jesus. 4648 First missionary journey of Paul. 49 Council of Jerusalem. 62 Martyrdom of James in Jerusalem.
325 Council of Nicaea.
391 Theodosius prohibits all religions other than Christianity.
400 Canon of Scripture determined.
451 Decree of Chalcedon.
800 Charlemagne crowned Holy Roman Emperor.
13881417 The Western Schism.
1517 Luther posts his Ninety-ve Theses in Wittenberg.
1520 Luther excommunicated by Pope Leo X.
1534 Henry VIII proclaimed Supreme Head of the Church of England.
154563 Council of Trent.
1945 Nag Hammadi Library of early Christian texts discovered.
1947 Dead Sea Scrolls discovered.
1948 World Council of Churches begun.
1949 Billy Grahams Los Angeles Crusade.
196265 Second Vatican Council.
434
64 Martyrdom of Peter in Rome.
65 Gospel of Mark.
75 Gospels of Matthew and Luke.
100 Gospel of John.
313 Edict of Milan ends persecution of Christians.
989 Vladimir of Kiev baptised, inaugurating Russian Orthodoxy.
1054 Schism between the Latin Western Church and the Greek Eastern Church.
1099 First crusade regains Jerusalem.
1204 Crusaders attack Constantinople.
1229 Jerusalem lost to Islam.
1622 Catholic missionary activity begins.
1743 John Wesley writes rules for Methodists.
186970 First Vatican Council.
1910 World Missionary Conference in Edinburgh.
1914 Assemblies of God begun.
1999 Joint Declaration on the Doctrine of Justication (Lutherans and Catholics).
Timeline | Christianity
435
Timeline | Hinduism
30001700 BCE Indus valley civilisation. 1600 Migration of tribes of Aryan people into India from the northwest. 900 The great war depicted in the epic poem Mahabharata. 400 Panini composes a descriptive grammar of the spoken Sanskrit language. 100 CE Systematic development of various schools of classical Hindu thought. 300500 The Gupta Empire, covering all of northern India, ushers in the classical period of Hindu civilisation, which lasts until about 650.
1000 The height of Hindu cultural inuence in South-East Asia.
10001100 The philosopher Abhinavagupta composes many works in Kashmir.
10171137 The religious teacher Ramanuja establishes a philosophy based upon devotion to Vishnu.
1192 Defeat of the Hindu ruler Prithivi Raja by Muhammad Ghuri. Commencement of Muslim rule in northern India.
12381317 The religious teacher Madva in southern India.
1311 The Muslim general Malik Kafur raids southern India.
15981650 Tukaram, devotional poet of western India.
1757 British control of Bengal beginning of British domination of India.
182483 Swami Dayananda founds Arya Samaj, reviving the Vedic tradition.
1835 English system of education officially introduced in India.
183686 Ramakrishna famous mystic of Bengal.
18631902 Swami Vivekananda, disciple of Ramakrishna, spreads Hinduism in Europe and America. Founds Ramakrishna Mission.
1977 The rst Hindu Temple to be built in Australia Sri Mandir Temple. A house in Auburn was converted to a temple.
1981 12 256 Hindus living in NSW of a total 41 730 in Australia.
1985 Saiva Manram Society formed to build a temple for Lord Murukan.
1996 62 270 Hindus living in Australia.
436
300888 Pallava rulers in Kanci. Beginning of classical period in southern India.
750 Kumarila Bhatta revives the ancient Vedic rituals and critiques Buddhist philosophy.
788820 Shankara, the teacher of Advaita (nonduality).
800 Nammalvar writes some of the great devotional poetry addressed to Vishnu.
850 Minikka Vacakar composes some of the great devotional poetry addressed to Shiva.
9071310 The Chola Empire in southern India. The height of classical culture in the south.
13361565 The empire of Vijayanagara in southern India.
14001518 Kabir composes devotional poetry that appeals both to Hindus and Muslims.
14791531 Vallabha, religious teacher who helps popularise devotion to Krishna in northern India.
14851533 Chaitanya spreads the movement of ecstatic devotion to Krishna in Bengal and eastern India.
150373 Mira Bai, renowned devotional poet.
15321623 Tulsidas popularises devotion to Rama in northern India through his retelling of the Ramayana in Hindi.
18691948 Mahatma Gandhi.
18721950 Sri Aurobindo, mystic and writer.
18791950 Ramana Maharshi, famous saint in the tradition of Advaita.
18961977 Swami Prabhupanda from Bengal brings ecstatic devotion to Krishna to the West. Founds the Hare Krishna movement.
19161993 Swami Chinmayananda brings the teachings of Shankara to modern India and to the West.
1969 Hare Krishna movement spreads to Australia.
1999 The Sydney Murugan temple at Mays Hill opened. It is dedicated to Lord Muruga and is operated by the Saiva Manram Incorporation. It includes the Tamil Educational and Cultural Hall.
Timeline | Hinduism
437
Timeline | Islam
570 CE Birth of Muhammad. 622 Migration of Muhammad from Mecca to Madina. Muslim era deemed to begin. 624 Battle of Badr. Muhammad defeats a Meccan army sent against him. 630 Muhammad returns victorious to Mecca. 632 Death of Muhammad. 632 61 Period of the Rightly Guided Caliphs.
712 Arab armies reach the Indus Delta via Iraq.
750 Beginning of translations of Greek learning into Arabic.
756 Building of Baghdad.
874 Death of Hasan al-Askari, eleventh imam. Regarded as taken into hiding until the coming of the twelvth imam.
977 First major Muslim incursions into the Indian subcontinent through the Khyber pass.
1058 - 1111 Al- Ghazali, renewer of Islam, famed as achieving integration of mysticism and faithfulness to legal obligation.
1517 The Ottomans conquer Egypt.
1579 1858 Period of the Moghul dynasty.
1683 Final Ottoman siege of Vienna.
1798 Napoleon invades Egypt.
1805 Muhammad Ali becomes governor of Egypt, nominally as deputy of the Ottoman sultan.
1806 Beginning of translation of seminal works of European thought into Arabic under the patronage of Muhammad Ali.
1928 Founding of the radical Islamic organisation, the Muslim Brotherhood.
1952 Egyptian revolution abolishes the monarchy. King Farouk exiled.
1968 First group of Turkish migrants lands in Sydney. Lakemba mosque built.
1978 Iranian Revolution. Ayatullah Khomeini establishes the Islamic Republic of Iran.
1989 Death of Khomeini.
438
638 Arab conquest of Jerusalem.
641 Arab conquest of Egypt.
661 - 750 Period of the Umayyad caliphate.
680 Death of Husayn.
691 Construction of the Dome of the Rock on the Temple Mount in Jerusalem by the caliph Abd al-Malik
711 Arab armies enter Spain.
1206 Establishment of the rst Delhi sultanates.
1281 1922 Period of the Ottoman dynasty.
1297 Tombstone of sultan Malik al-Saleh in Pasai, northern Sumatra. Earliest evidence of a Muslim state in South-East Asia.
1453 The Ottomans capture Constantinople.
1492 Final expulsion of Muslims from Spain.
1503 Imami Shia Islam established as state religion of Persia.
1821 29 Greece gains independence from Ottoman rule.
1867 First Afghan camel drivers come to Australia.
1876 Bosnia and Herzgovina revolt against Ottoman rule.
1890 Adelaide Mosque built.
1891 First Mosque in New South Wales at Broken Hill.
1926 Abdl alAziz establishes himself as king of Saudi Arabia.
Timeline | Islam
439
Timeline | Judaism
1700 BCE Abraham, Isaac and Jacob. 1200 Exodus from Egypt. 1000 Davidic Kingdom. 725 Isaiahs prophecies. 722 Assyrians take Samaria.
70 CE Second Temple Destroyed.
200 Mishnah completed.
400 Jerusalem Talmud completed.
500 Babylonian Talmud completed.
1040 Birth of Rashi.
1555 First ghetto in Europe (Venice).
1655 Jews admitted into England.
1808 Jews gain citizenship in France.
1817 Chevra Kadisha established in Sydney.
1850s Signicant Jewish migration to Australia.
1948 State of Israel created.
1967 Israel victorious over Egyptian, Jordanian, Syrian and Iraqi forces in the Six Day War.
1979 EgyptIsrael Peace Treaty.
1994 IsraelPLO Peace Accord.
1994 IsraelJordan Declaration.
440
59739 Babylonian captivity.
515 Second Temple Completed.
165 Maccabees revolt.
63 Romans under Pompeys command take Jerusalem.
35 School of Hillel.
1096 Jews massacred in Europe.
1138 Birth of Maimonides.
1290 Jews expelled from England and France.
134750 Black Death; Jews massacred.
1492 Jews expelled from Spain.
1870 Ghettos abolished in Italy.
1879 Zionist movement established.
1917 Balfour Declaration.
194245 The Shoah.
1945 Many Jews migrate to Australia at the end of the Second World War.
1995 Yitchak Rabin (Israel Prime Minister) assassinated.
2005 Disengagement from Gaza.
2007 Israel/Hizbollah War.
Timeline | Judaism
441
Timeline | Christianity in Australia

1788 CE First Christian Service, 3 February. 1793 First church built in Sydney. 1803 First Catholic Mass. 1810 First Congregationalist service. 1813 Sunday School begins in Parramatta. 1815 Samuel Leigh arrives to minister to Methodists.
1838 Lutherans arrive in South Australia.
1844 First Roman Catholic provincial council.
1857 Good Samaritan Sisters founded.
1865 New South Wales Presbyterians unite.
1866 Sisters of St Joseph founded in South Australia.
1872 Anglican General Synod established.
1902 Federal Union of Methodists (Wesleyans, Bible Christians and Primitive Methodists).
1912 Establishment of the Australian Inland Mission.
1919 Australian Bush Church Aid Society established.
1924 Constitution of the Greek Orthodox Church approved.
1937 Assemblies of God organised.
1946 Australian Council for the World Council of Churches established.
1970 Pope Paul VI visits.
1977 Uniting Church formed. Publication of The Australian Hymn Book.
1986 Youth Alive ministry to Australian teens developed in June.
1986 Pope John Paul II visits.
1991 World Council of Churches meets in Canberra.
1992 Women ordained to Anglican priesthood.
442
1820 Connolly and Therry arrive to minister to Roman Catholics.
1823 John Dunmore Lang arrives.
1825 Archdeacon Scott arrives.
1831 First Baptist service in Sydney.
1835 John Polding arrives as Catholic Bishop of Sydney.
1836 Caroline Chisholm begins her work. William Broughton consecrated as Anglican Bishop of Australia. Governor Bourkes Church Act extends state aid.
1880 Salvation Army arrives in South Australia.
1881 St Vincent de Paul Society founded.
1891 Grubb Mission an important inuence on Sydney Christians.
1896 Student Christian Movement established.
1898 First Greek Orthodox church in Sydney.
1901 Federal Union of Presbyterians. First Greek Orthodox church in Melbourne.
1957 Formation of the Democratic Labour party.
1959 First Billy Graham Crusade.
1962 Catholic schools Goulburn closed in protest to the Government.
1966 Lutherans unite.
1968 World Vision Australia founded.
1969 Second Billy Graham Crusade.
1994 National Council of Churches formed.
2008 Pope Benedict XVI visits.
Timeline | Christianity in Australia
443
Glossary
ABSOLUTE BEING the transcendent divine reality (Ultimate Reality), also known as Brahman or the Supreme Being. ABSOLUTISTS those who believe that certain ethical teachings are always to be applied. ADHERENT person who follows or upholds a religion or doctrine. ADVAITA Shankaras teaching that everything, in its innermost essence, is Brahman. ADVOCACY actions by churches or Christian groups on behalf of minorities disregarded by those in authority. AGNOSTIC person who holds the view that you can neither prove nor disprove the existence of God and that the essential nature of things is unknowable. AGNOSTICISM provable. the belief that the existence of God is not ASHRAMAS traditional stages of Hindu life, not followed closely by the modern Hindu. ASSIMILATION Government Policy adopted in 1951 that required all Aboriginal and part-Aboriginal people to live as members of a single Australian community. ATHEISM the belief that there is no divine power either within the universe or outside of it. ATMAN AVATAR AVEILUT AYODHYA the innermost self, that which is divine. an incarnation of a god, e.g. Vishnu. mourning. the birthplace of Rama.
BAAL TASHCHIT do not be destructive or wasteful: the principle of not destroying anything needlessly (the foundation of the Jewish attitude to the environment). BANU HASHIM the poorer branch of the Quraysh tribe.
AHIMSA the teaching that no sentient life form is to be harmed. AL-AMIN the trustworthy (term used to refer to Muhammad even before his prophetic call). AL-FATIHA the opening chapter of the Quran.
BARDO the Tibetan word Bardo means literally intermediate state also translated as transitional state or in-between state or liminal state. BASILEA Greek for kingdom, used in reference to Gods value system of justice and peace. BAT MITZVAH coming of age ceremony for Jewish girls.
ALVARS twelve poets and saints from South India, followers of Vishnu. The forerunners of the Bhakti Movement. ANATMA self. the human condition of possessing no permanent
BEATITUDES sayings of Jesus which provide the basis for ethical relationships and building of the basilea. BHAGAVAD GITA the Song of the Lord, a part of the Mahabharata. Based on the teachings of the Upanishads, it is the best known of Hindu scriptures. It is a dialogue between Arjuna representing the human and Krishna representing the divine. BHAJAN/KIRTAN devotional songs. BHAKTI loving devotional worship of a personal god, an important expression of Hinduism. BIBLICAL EXEGESIS analysis and interpretation of scriptural texts. BIMAH elevated platform from which prayers are led in the synagogue. BIOETHICS research. ethics concerned with health care and scientic
ANATTA the teaching that there is no soul. ANICCA the teaching that everything changes and is impermanent. ANIMISM a system of belief which teaches that there are active spiritual forces at work in nature. ANINUT the mourning status given to the close relatives of the deceased between that persons death and the burial. ANSAR helpersthose in Madina who threw in their lot with Muhammad and his fellow migrants when they arrived from Mecca. ANTHROPOMORPHIC human like. ANTI-SEMITISM opposition to and persecution of the Jewish people and their religious beliefs and practice. AQIDA the Islamic creed, or six articles of faith. ARAHATS holy men in Theravada Buddhism. Vedic texts written for the forest hermits.
BISHOP a priest appointed to a position of leadership to oversee a diocese (from Greek episkopos (supervisor). BODHISATTVA a being who has achieved ultimate perfection and aids all sentient beings in achieving nirvana. BRAHMA the Creator.
ARANYAKAS
ARON KODESH the ark (cabinet) used to house the Torah scrolls in the synagogue. ARYANS nomadic pastoralists from central Europe who entered into the north-west of India about 1600 BCE. ASCETICISM the practice of disciplining the body to achieve spiritual perfection. ASCETICS people who practise rigorous self-discipline and selfdenial in the quest to draw closer to their god. ASHRAMA DHARMA duty appropriate to a persons stage of life.
BRAHMAN Absolute Being or Supreme Being, the transcendent divine reality. BRAHMANAS a text from the Vedas, outlining how the Brahmin priests must perform rituals. BRAHMINS people of the highest class of Indian society, the priestly class. BRIT MILAH circumcision ceremony.
444
BUDDHA
the Enlightened One, born as Siddhartha Gautama.
BUDDHA NATURE the teaching that all things have the same reality or basis of existence. BULLROARER a at piece of wood or stone that is swung around on a thong. Used in Australian Aboriginal communities to call people to ceremonies or to imitate the voice of an Ancestral Being. BUSH BROTHERHOOD men in the Church of England who travelled in pairs through the Australian outback, conducting church services, weddings, baptisms and funerals in places where people may not have seen a clergyman for months or even years. CATECHISM summary of Christian doctrine. CATHOLIC EPISTLES letters written to the new Christian communities that were general in nature. CENSUS the ofcial numbering of a population.
DARSHANA sanctuary.
the viewing of the image of the deity in the inner
DAWA preaching, calling to the acceptance and practice of Islam. DECALOGUE the Ten Commandments given to Moses on Mount Sinai outlining a code of behaviour for the Israelites during the Exodus. DEIST person who believes, on the basis of reason rather than revelation, in the existence of a God who created the earth but is not involved in it. DENOMINATION group of religious congregations with their own organisation and distinctive faith. DESTINY DEVOTEES a particular persons or group of peoples fate. religious followers.
CEREMONIALISM the use of dance, song and symbolism to ritualise the connections between totemism and ceremony. CHARISM a gift of the Holy Spirit; an understanding of Christianity taken on by a particular community (for example, Franciscan charism focuses on the teachings of St Francis). CHARISMATIC those Christians possessing Gods spiritual gift of the ability to speak in tongues (glossolalia). CHASSIDISM school of thought originating from the teachings of Baal Shem Tov intending to awaken adherents to the inner dimension of the Torah. CHEVRA KADISHA a Jewish organisation that attends to the purication of bodies in preparation for burial and assists in funeral preparations. CHINAMPA oating platform of reed mats on which farming land was created. CHRIST the Messiah, the anointed one; from the Greek Christos. CHUPPAH traditional Jewish wedding canopy. CLERGY people, such as ministers or priests, who are trained or ordained for religious duties. COADJUTOR assistant to a bishop. CONDITIONED ARISING effect. the Buddhist teaching on cause and
DHAMMAPADA a collection of 423 verses taken from the Sutta Pitaka that are regarded as the most succinct expression of the Buddhas teachings and provide signicant insight into the Buddhist understanding of peace. DHARMA the teachings of the Lord Buddha and the laws of the universe; a persons religious duty. DHARMASHASTRA books containing specic ethics addressing specic religious duties. DHIKR the spiritual exercise of mindfulness, (group) recitation or singing of devotional phrases and prayers from the Quran. DHUL-HIJJA 12th month of the Muslim year, so called because it is the month in which the rituals of the Hajj are performed. DIASPORA the spread of Jewish communities around the known world. DIOCESE a region administered by a bishop.
DISCIPLE a follower, particularly a follower of Jesus of Nazareth. DISCIPLESHIP community. the fellowship offered by the Christian
DISSENTERS Protestants who left the Church of England after 1662, either because they disagreed with the churchs practices and theology or because they believed that the legal establishment of one church was wrong. Also known as nonconformists. DIVINATION the use of the magical or the supernatural to foretell the future. DIVINE from or like God or a god. moral or religious principles taught by a particular
CONFUCIANISM a Chinese school of philosophy and ethics. CONSCIENCE our individual sense of what is right and wrong.
CONSERVATIVE JUDAISM combines a positive attitude toward modern culture, acceptance of critical secular scholarship regarding Judaisms sacred texts and commitment to Jewish observance. Conservative Judaism believes that scholarly study of Jewish texts indicates that Judaism has constantly been evolving to meet the needs of the Jewish people in varying circumstances, and that a central halachic authority can continue the evolution. CONSTITUTION the way in which a state is organised, the body of legal principles regulating the relation of state authorities to each other. COSMOLOGY the science or theory of the universe. COVENANT the relationship between God and his people that came through Abraham and Moses, carrying with it special rights and responsibilities. DANA generosity.
DOCTRINE group.
DREAMING a European term that refers to the essence of truth in Aboriginal religious beliefs. DUALITY holding two things together.
DUKKHA the teaching that every aspect of ordinary life has some aspect of suffering or incompleteness. ECLECTIC choosing certain aspects of a system of thought without accepting the whole of the system. ECOLOGICAL concerning the relationship of organisms to one another and to their surrounding environment. ECUMENISM seeking worldwide Christian unity.
EDDAS collections of folk tales of the Vikings. EGALITARIAN person or society committed to the equality of all people regardless of their social, economic or political situation.
Glossary
445
EGALITARIANISM a commitment to the equality of all people regardless of their social, economic or political situation. EIRENE the word for peace in the New Testament.
GURU a spiritual guide who dispels darkness and is known for the quality of his teaching. HADITH used for individual sayings of the Prophet, and as a collective term to refer to the entire corpus of such sayings. As a collective term it is a name for the second foundation text of Islam, the rst being the Quran. HAIDEN a Shinto prayer hall.
EKKLESIA a church or congregation in the early Hellenic Christian communities. EMA BOARDS a ve-sided wooden board on which prayers have been written (Shinto). EMPOWERMENT someone else. the authorising or giving of power to
ENLIGHTENMENT a blessed state in which the individual transcends desire and suffering and attains Nirvana. EPICS the Ramayana and the Mahabharata.
HAJJ the annual pilgrimage to Mecca and the attendant ceremonies held between the seventh and tenth day of dhulhijja, the twelfth month of the Muslim year. HALACHA commandmentsthe way of Jewish law given to Moses on Mount Sinai and transmitted throughout the generations by rabbis and sages. HARIJANS Untouchables or Gods people. a modern term, also known as the Tanakh.
EPISTLE a letter with teaching or instruction contained within it. EPISTEMOLOGY the theory of knowledge. ESTABLISHED CHURCH a state church, controlled by the government, that enjoys a higher status than other Christian denominations (for example, the Church of England as it is in England). ETHICS a set of practices based on moral beliefs, clarifying what is right and wrong. EUCHARIST Christian sacrament that commemorates the Last Supper of Jesus Christ. Also known as communion, holy communion or the Lords Supper. EUTHANASIA the act of bringing about a persons death out of a desire to relieve the person of suffering. EVANGELICAL a theology that places a high priority on personal conversion, the authority of the Bible and missionary outreach. EVANGELISM the preaching of the gospel to non-Christians.
HEBREW BIBLE HEDONISM HELLENIC
the belief that pleasure is the chief good. emanating from the Greek world.
HERMENEUTICS the science of analysing and interpreting texts. HIGH CHURCH a term used to describe the Anglo-Catholic worship tradition in the Anglican Church. HIJRA migration. The Hijra was Muhammads migration from Mecca to Madina in 622 CE. Hijra year is the Muslim calendrical year, based on a lunar month calendar dating from the year of the migration. HODEN the kamis prayer hall, situated behind the haiden. This is a sacred space which only the priests can enter. HOMILY explanation of the Gospel given by the celebrant of the service. HOMOSEXUALITY sexual attraction to or activity among members of the same sex. HUACA the Incan nature spirits. IBADAT acts of devotion, religious observances. IHRAM ritual consecrated state of one making the pilgrimage; clothing indicating an individual is in this consecrated state. IJMA consensus of the ulama (and community) on an issue of Islamic law. IMMANENT RELIGION a religion that holds that gods, goddesses or divine spirits live within nature and that the universe was created by these spirits and is maintained by their power. INCARNATION Jesus Christ. God become human in the Divine person of
EVANGELISTIC relating to or promoting the ardent preaching of the Christian gospel. FAJR FAST rst light, dawn. abstention from food, drink, smoking and sex.
FEMINIST THEOLOGY the movement to reconsider tradition and scripture from a feminist perspective, recovering new interpretations and new inclusive understandings of Christianity. FIQH Islamic jurisprudence.
FIVE PILLARS the ve basic religious duties of every Muslim: profession of faith in God and his Prophet, praying ve times a day, paying a poor tax, fasting during Ramadan and making a pilgrimage to Mecca. FIVE PRECEPTS a commonly held set of ethical rules in Buddhism: to abstain from killing sentient life forms; never to take what is not given; never to harm anyone through sensual pleasures; to avoid harming anyone through speech; to avoid all mind-changing substances. FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS nature of suffering. Buddhist teachings that examine the
INDULGENCES a remission of punishment for sins granted for good works done. INJIL the revealed book given to Jesus (not to be confused with the Christian narrative Gospels about Jesus). IRWONSANG the symbol of ultimate reality adopted by Won Buddhists. ISLAM the religion revealed to and preached by Muhammad; act of acceptance of this religion. ISNAD line of transmitters of a saying of the Prophet (hadith); hadith. JATI caste.
GEMARA collection of commentaries containing ancient rabbinic discussion of the Mishnah. GENTILE a person who is not of the Jewish faith.
GNOSTIC WRITINGS writings containing secret wisdom about Jesus ministry and teachings that were not included in the New Testament. GOMPA meditation hall in Vajrayana (Tibetan) Buddhism.
JESUS MOVEMENT the group of early Christians who set out to spread the good news about Jesus. JEW a member of the Israelite people. levels of meditation practice in Buddhism.
GOSPELS the rst four books of the New Testament, attributed to Matthew, Mark, Luke and John, that tell the story and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth.
JHANAS
446
JIHAD
effort, struggle (moral or physical).
JIHAD BIL NAFS the greater jihad which is the struggle to control evil within oneself. JINGA a small, house-like shrine constructed for Shintos kami. JIVA soul or individual self that experiences death and rebirth.
LITURGY worship.
ofcial public worship, the set order for communal
LOW CHURCH evangelical reformed Protestant Churches that rely on the Bible. MAARIV evening prayer service. MAHATMA a title given to a person of outstanding character and spirituality, translated as great soul. A person who is great in spirit. MAHAYANA the School of the Great Wheel in Buddhism found in northern countries of Asia. MALAS Tibetan prayer beads.
JUDAISM a term rst used about 2000 years ago to explain the Jewish religion to non-Jewish people. JUMUA Friday. Day of congregational prayer, from which it takes its name. JUZ a 30th part of the Quran.
KABA cube-shaped structure in the Sacred Mosque in Mecca, the house of God. KABBALAH KADDISH of God. KADI KAHIN KAMA a mystical strand of Judaism. a central prayer, blessing and sanctifying the name
MANDAP the wedding altar as prepared by the brides family. MANDELAS spiritual maps of the various realms of the Buddhas. MANDIR a Hindu temple.
a judge in an Islamic court or tribunal. a shaman or soothsayer in pre-Islamic Arabia. sexual or sensual pleasure.
MANTRA a short saying or verse from the Vedas uttered to invoke the power of a deity, a spiritual formula containing a name of God. MASJID mosque.
KAMI the Shinto spirits that are associated with a particular place. KARMA the consequence of all acts that are done willingly.
MASS the commemoration of the Last Supper in a formal ceremony. MATERIALISM a worldview that shows more interest in physical and monetary possessions than spiritual values. MATSURI any ritual occasion where the offering of thanks and praise is made to the kami at a shrine. MEDITATION exercises that serve as a support for prayer and contemplation of God. MESSIAH the anointed one who would save the Jews and usher in the reign of God. MEZUZAH a box attached to a doorpost. Gods name is engraved inside. The Shema is written on a scroll and placed inside this box. MIDDLE WAY OR PATH at some point Buddha came to a conclusion that the right path of extremism and non-extremism was somewhere in the middle and he called it the middle path. MIDRASH rabbinic commentary on the scriptures, often in the form of a story. MIMIS Aboriginal spirits or spirit gures. afternoon prayer service.
KASHRUTH the Jewish food laws that determine what is clean and unclean. KETUBAH a marriage contract between husband and wife that is signed before the wedding. KIBBUTZ a communal agricultural settlement.
KIDDUSHIN the rst stage of the Torah-mandated marriage process. Kiddushin is accomplished beneath the chuppah. (canopy) when the groom gives the bride the ring. KINSHIP highly sophisticated networks of relationships governing interactions between members of Aboriginal language groups. KINSHIP SYSTEM highly sophisticated networks of relationships governing interactions between members of Aboriginal language groups. KRISHNA one of the ten incarnations or avatars of Vishnu. the warrior class (varna) of Hindu society.
KSHATRIYAS
KUMBH MELA a Hindu festival held every four years, culminating in the Maha (Great) Kumbh Mela held once every twelve years at Prayaga. KUSALA a good act.
MINCHA
MINYAN a group of ten adults over the age of 13 necessary for certain prayers to be said in Judaism. MISHNAH part of the Talmudic literature, compiled over a period of 400 years. It is legal material written down since the time of Torah. It aims to clarify matters through repetition and discussion. MISSIONARIES men and women who travel outside their homeland to spread the teachings of their religious faith. MISSIONISATION the policy of forcing Aboriginal people to reject their own religion and to accept Christianity. MITZVOT commandments in Judaism.
LAITY all the people in a religious organisation who are not clergy. LAND RIGHTS the inherent rights of Aboriginals to their land, forming the basis of a movement designed to ensure the preservation of Aboriginal spirituality and culture. LAST SUPPER the last meal shared by Jesus with his apostles that instituted the Eucharist. LAWS OF MANU (MANUSMRITI) contains guidelines on dharma. A model of how the Brahmin priests thought society ought to be. LIBERAL JUDAISM a form of Judaism that takes a more liberal approach to the interpretation of the Law than other streams. LINGA a symbol or sign indicating the Absolute Being, originally thought to be a phallic symbol, a symbol of potency associated with the god Shiva.
MOKSHA liberation from samsara, the cycle of rebirths, and the discovery of the true self. MONASTICISM a style of Christian life that emphasises community, often of priests, brothers, nuns or lay believers. MONOTHEISM belief in a single God: Judaism, Islam and Christianity are monotheistic faiths.
Glossary
447
MORALITY system.
the decisions people make based on their ethical
PANCASILAM
the ethical precepts of Buddhism.
MOSAIC LAW law given to the community of believers. It is covenantal, a contract with God. MUAMALA human affairs and relationships. MUDRAS body postures.
PANTHEISM the belief that God and the universe are one there is no divine power outside of the universe, but everything that makes up the universe is God. PANTHEON a collection of gods. PAPACY the leadership of the Pope and Cardinals based in Rome. PARADIGM the core belief of a particular religious tradition that is the basis for all other beliefs held by believers of that tradition. PARADISE another term for heaven or the afterlife.
MUEZZIN a male Muslim who utters the call to each of the ve daily prayers from the minaret. MUHAJIR(UN) migrant(s)those who accompanied or followed Muhammad from Mecca to Madina. MURTI MUTAR MUSLIM MYSTICAL NABI an image, often a sculpture, that represents a deity. those actions which are permissible. one who professes faith in Islam. spiritually symbolic.
PARANIRVANA the departure of the Lord Buddha from this world into nirvana. PARISH a geographical region in which worshippers centre on a particular Christian church. PAROCHIAL related to or located in a parish. PATRIARCHY a society where males have primary responsibility and control. PENTECOSTAL a group within Christianity that is characterised by enthusiastic prayer, contemporary music, large stadium style events and informal liturgy. PHARISEES a rst-century Jewish group who valued the oral law of Moses and the Torah as guidance for how to live life as a Jew. PIKUACH NEFESH Jewish law requiring its adherents to violate almost all prohibitions in order to preserve human life. PILGRIMAGE a journey to a sacred place. PILGRIMS people who journey to a sacred shrine for spiritual development. POGROM an organised massacre or persecution of a particular ethnic or religious group. POLYTHEISM belief in many gods and goddesses: Hinduism is an example of a polytheistic religion PRAJNA PRASADA wisdom and insight into what reality truly is. gifts offered to the deity.
prophet. the name given to Shintos female clergy.
NAI-SHOTEN
NATIVE TITLE the exclusive title, rights and interests that Aboriginal people have in regard to land. Extinguishment of native title requires compensation. NATIVE TITLE ACT 1993 Australian federal legislation that recognises the existence of Aboriginal native title in Australian federal law and the native title rights of Aboriginal people. These rights are limited, however, to Aboriginals who can show a connection with a parcel of vacant crown land. The Act came into force on 1 January 1994. NATIVE TITLE (MABO) JUDGMENT judgment of the High Court of Australia, delivered on 3 June 1992, declaring that the Meriam people were entitled to the Murray Islands as owners, possessors and occupiers. The judgment recognised the existence of Aboriginal native title. NATURAL LAW the order that governs the natural universe.
NAYANARS a group of poets and saints from South India who were devotees of Shiva. NEO-PAGANS those who have revived the old forms of paganism that rejected organised religion, male domination and the abuse of nature. NER TAMID eternal light found above the ark in the synagogue. NICENE CREED the statement of faith that is most widely used in Christian liturgy. NIRVANA the teaching of the ultimate destiny for all sentient life forms. NISSUIN marriage, the wedding ceremony.
PRAYER forms of address to achieve a moment of interaction with God. PROCURATOR provinces. Roman ofcial appointed to govern Roman
PROGRESSIVE JUDAISM a stream of Judaism that believes that while the Torah came from God, it is up to people to apply it to modern-day situations. It sees Jewish law as dynamic rather that a static set of rules from the past. PROTECTORATE SYSTEM British policy enacted to protect the natives. It became a mechanism of control over Aboriginal people. PROTESTANT REFORMATION a 16th-century movement to reform the Catholic Church that led to the formation of the Protestant Churches. PUJA private or public ritual; worship involving offerings to a deity. PURANAS a collection of sacred Hindu texts.
NOBLE EIGHTFOLD PATH in Buddhism, a means for attaining the end of suffering. NON-CONFORMISTS Protestants outside the Church of England, often from the Baptist, Methodist, Presbyterian or Congregationalist denominations. OCCULATION hidden state of the twelfth Imam, who is to return to inaugurate the millennium at a time of Gods choosing. OLMEC an early race of people, thought to have inhabited the same region as the Aztecs, c. 1400400 BCE. OMEN a sign that foretells of good or evil.
QIYAS the use of analogy to determine an issue according to Islamic law. QURAN the book revealed to Muhammad, the prime foundation text of Islam. QURAYSH the custodian tribe of the Mecca shrine; the tribe into which Muhammad was born. RABBI a Jewish scholar or teacher.
ORTHODOX JUDAISM traditional Judaism. A term rst used in 1795 to distinguish between traditional and progressive Jews. Orthodox believe that both the written and oral law were given to God on Mount Sinai; therefore, the law cannot be changed.
448
RABBINICAL JUDAISM the rabbi as teacher became the central focus rather than the priest. The synagogue replaced the Temple. Study of the Torah replaced sacrice. No new material was introduced to the Bible. RAKA a cycle of postures and recitations comprising a unit in the ritual prayer. RAMA one of the ten incarnations or avatars of Vishnu.
SAKYAMUNI
the historic Buddha.
SALAT ritual prayer (used of the ve obligatory daily prayers, collectively or individually). SALVATION deliverance from sin gained through the death and resurrection of Jesus. SAMADHI the practice of meditation in Buddhism.
RAMADAN ninth month of the Muslim yearthe month of fasting from the rst sign of dawn to sunset. RATIONAL HUMANISM the position that the proper focus of human concerns is the human, with an emphasis on human reason to determine what a person should think and do. RECONSTRUCTIONIST JUDAISM founded in the United States in the 1920s by Rabbi Mordecai Kaplan, this form of Judaism rejects the concept of a supernatural God and asserts that Judaism is a people, a culture and a faith community. REFORMATION a 16th-century movement for renewal of the church, led by Luther, Zwingli, Knox and Calvin. REFORMED TRADITION those religious groups whose formation was the result of the 16th-century Protestant Reformation. RENUNCIATES sannyasi, wandering holy men.
SAMHITA a collection of hymns addressed to a variety of deities. The most ancient of the four Vedas. SAMSARA the cycle of rebirths; the teaching that at death a persons karma will nd a new life form. SANATANA DHARMA the immemorial way of right living an expression used to refer to the way of life of a Hindu. Immemorial refers to the belief that the Hindu religion has always been there, that it had no founder. It has always been passed down from one generation to the next. Also known as the eternal law or dharma. The term comes from Sanskrit. SANGHA the community of Buddhist believers and, more specically, Buddhist monks and nuns. SANHEDRIN the assembly of judges in Jerusalem, the High Court of the Jews. SANNYASI SANSKRIT renunciates, wondering holy men. language of the Vedas. persistence in the truth.
REVELATION the message of God to all humanity, fully expressed in the person of Christ. RISHIS ancient sages.
SATYAGRAHA
SCIENTIFIC HUMANISM the belief that the proper study of humans is the human, using scientic research and methods. SECRET-SACRED certain aspects of Aboriginal religion and spirituality that are reserved for initiated Aboriginal persons. SECTARIANISM excessive devotion to a particular religious denomination. SECULARIST person who believes that government and education should not be connected to religion. SEGREGATION/PROTECTION government practices and policies that set Aboriginals physically apart from white settlements. SENTIENT all creatures that possess senses and respond to the environment in which they live. SERMON teaching about Christianity given usually by the celebrant during worship services. SHABBAT the Sabbath or seventh day of the week when Jews abstain from work. The Sabbath begins on Friday evening and concludes one hour after sunset on Saturday. SHACHARIT morning prayer service. SHAIVAS devotees of Shiva. Also known as Shaivites.
RITE the detailed description of a particular ritual, such as the Rite of Marriage. RITUALS these can be both religious and secular in nature, and can be described as a patterned series of activities that are capable of being repeated. A clear example in the religious sphere is worship. RODEF pursue (Hebrew). Din rodef (law of the pursuer) holds that a person can defend themselves against someone pursuing them to kill them. RRARK cross hatchingan Aboriginal artistic style characteristic of Arnhem Land. RUSUL messengers (of God). Singular rasul.
SABBATARIANISM the conviction that the Fourth Commandment was part of Gods moral law and that Sunday should therefore be kept with the same strictness as the Jewish Sabbath. Civil courts enforced observance in Britain, its colonies and the United States. SABBATH the day of rest established by the Jewish tradition.
SACRAMENTS sacred rites or ceremonies involving change for the individual. SACRED SITES natural land formations where Aboriginal Ancestral Spirits interacted with creation. SADDUCEES Jesus. SADHU a priestly class of the Jewish people at the time of
SHAKTI the name given to the wife of Shiva when she is regarded in her own right rather that as the wife of Shiva. SHALOM Jewish word for peace.
SHAMAN a medicine man. SHAMANISTIC having the character of a shamanone who can fall into a trance-like state and have knowledge of the spirit world. SHAPE-SHIFTER a person or animal that takes on the features of another person or animal by physically changing appearance. SHARIA the party of Ali. The wing of Islam that believes that guidance of the community resided in Ali and the Imams descended from him. The twelfth Imam was taken into occultation in 8734 CE, and will return to introduce the millennium. SHELOSHIM the period of 30 days following the shiva. Less intense period of mourning.
an ascetic or holy man.
SAGAS stories of the Vikings. SAHABA companions of Muhammad during his life. SAHIFA the covenant made between Muhammad and his community with the communities of Madina after the migration from Mecca. SAKAKI TREE a Japanese tree, branches of which are used to sprinkle holy water on worshippers.
Glossary
449
SHEMA the prayer that states the oneness of God: Hear, O Israel: the Lord is our God, the Lord alone (Deuteronomy 6:4). SHIA the wing of Islam that believes the authority and guidance of the community after the death of Muhammad resides in Ali and his line. SHIN TAO the way of the spirits (Shinto).
SUFI one who lives an unostentatious life in an attempt to experience the presence of God in the heart. SUFISM the mystical path of Islam which promotes a direct and personal encounter with God. SUNNI the wing of Islam that believes that the authority and guidance of the community is decided by the community itself. SUNS the ve stages of creation of the Aztec world. void, emptiness as the basis of all reality. belief in the supernatural. another term for the Ultimate Reality or
SHIVA one of two principal gods. Sometimes spelt Siva. Known in the Vedas as Rudra, a god of passion. SHOMERIM people who sit with a body until the funeral takes place. SHOTEN the name given to Shintos male clergy.
SUNYATA
SUPERSTITION SUPREME BEING Brahman. SURA
SHRADDHA rites or offerings for departed relatives given at puja. SHRAMANAS SHRINE holy men and women.
a chapter of the Quran.
a place where people come to worship.
SUTTA PITAKA the collections of sayings of the Lord Buddha and stories about his life. SYNOD a group of church delegates convened to discuss and decide on church affairs. TALISMAN an object which is believed to hold special powers.
SHRUTI that which was heard, for example, the Vedas. Revealed wisdom. SHUDRA SHUL artisan class (varna) of Hindu society.
Yiddish for synagogue.
TALLIT a fringed prayer shawl used during certain Jewish rituals. TALMUD the collective name for rabbinical writings composed from the rst century BCE to around 500 CE. TANAKH an acronym from the three sections of the Hebrew Bible: Torah, also known as the Pentateuch; Neviim, meaning the prophets; and Ketubim, meaning scriptures, writings or wisdom books. TAOISM ancient system of religion and philosophy originating in China. TASBIH type of rosary consisting of 99 beads for counting the recitation of the 99 most beautiful names of God. TAWHID declaration that God is One.
SHULCHAN ARUCH a practical guide to Jewish observance written by Joseph Caro (14881575). SILA the ethical system within Buddhism.
SITUATION ETHICS making the right choice according to the situation, often called the love ethic, popularised by Joseph Fletcher in 1966. SKANDRAS ve combinations of energy which make up the ever-changing human being. SKINLINE bloodline of Aboriginal people.
SMRITI literature remembered by humans and handed down by word of mouth. It is preserved by tradition. Everything after the Vedas. SOCIAL COHESION the way a society works together to remain harmonious. SOCIAL DARWINISM a theory assigning a hierarchy of the human race according to skin colour. SOCIAL TRANSFORMATION the way a society changes and develops over time. SOLA FIDE the doctrine of justication which states that we are saved by faith alone. SOLA SCRIPTURA the doctrine that the Bible is the only authority for Christian faith. SOODAR the mark made with red paste on the brides hair parting. SOVEREIGNTY supreme controlling power, or the power by which a people is self-governing. SPRITUAL of or concerning the spirit as opposed to matter divine, inspired. STEREOTYPES conforming to a widely held belief.
TAWRAH the revealed book given to Moses (not to be confused with the Torah). TEFILLIN phylacteriessmall boxes containing a small piece of parchment on which is written the Shema. These boxes are strapped on the arm and forehead at morning prayers. TEMPERANCE abstinence from alcohol. central place of worship for Jewish
TEMPLE OF JERUSALEM adherents.
TEPPAM a joyous Hindu festival held in January or February each year. TERRA NULLIUS Latin words literally meaning land belonging to no one. An erroneous British concept according to which the continent of Australia was not inhabited by Indigenous peoples, and therefore was available for claim and colonisation. TESHUVA the accountability of each person for their own deeds and personal introspection. THANGKAS THEOLOGY THERAVADA East Asia. THESES Tibetan spiritual images. the study of religion and religious beliefs. the School of Elders in Buddhism found in South-
STEWARDSHIP the responsibility given to humanity to care for the earth as outlined in Genesis. STOLEN GENERATIONS the taking of Aboriginal children from their parents by the authorities and the placing of these children in institutions far removed from their families. STREAM-ENTERER a person who realises that everything is an illusion, and there is nothing but nirvana. STUPAS monuments that house relics of holy men and women, in particular, relics of the Lord Buddha.
arguments or ideas. the Buddha, dhamma and sangha.
THREE JEWELS
THREE REFUGES the principal teachings of Buddhism on the Buddha, the Dharma and the Sangha; also known as the Three Jewels. TIKKUN OLAM the rebuilding or repair of the world.
450
TOLTEC TORAH
the empire preceding the Aztecs. the rst ve books of the Hebrew Bible.
TORII gateways, made of timber or stone, which dene the sacred space of Shinto shrines. TOTEMISM the word totem comes from the Algonquin (native North American) language. It refers to an entityplant, animal or natural objectthat has become the token or emblem of an individual or a language group. The entity cannot be gathered, hunted or even painted by those who have it as their totem since it is believed to link them to the spiritual force responsible for their existence. TRANSCENDENT beyond human experience.
VEDA means sacred knowledge. The Vedas are regarded as sacred scripture, a part of the wisdom that God naturally possesses. They are revealed knowledge or shruti. VIHARA shrine room in Theravada Buddhism.
VINAYA the rst collection of the Tripitaka (sacred texts) in Buddhism indicating the laws for monks. VISHESHA DHARMA Indian society. the religious duties of the four classes of
VISHNU the one who pervades all. One of two principal Hindu gods. Known in the Vedas and concerned with the order of the world. Said to have ten incarnations or avatars. VIVAHA marriage. offering given in fullment of a vow or to
TRANSCENDENT RELIGION a religion that holds that there are beings that exist beyond the known universe that are not subject to the laws of nature; polytheism and monotheism are the two principal types of transcendent religion. TRIMURTI the three divine manifestations of Brahman Brahma, Shiva and Vishnu. TRINITY the triune God who is Father (Creator), Son (Redeemer) and Spirit (Sanctier). TRIPITAKA the Buddhist sacred texts (the three baskets) made up of the Sutta Pitaka, the Vinaya Pitaka and the Abhidharma Pitaka. TSAAR BAALEI CHAYIM suffering of living creatures: the principle of not causing unnecessary pain to animals. ULAMA Islamic faith leaders especially learned in the Law and its application. ULTIMATE REALITY Brahman. UMAYYA another term for the Supreme Being or
VOTIVE OFFERING gain favour.
WALI a saintly person, close to God thanks to outstanding virtue; friend, protector; sometimes friend of God. WESAK an annual festival celebrating Gautama Buddhas birth, enlightenment and paranirvana. WHITE AUSTRALIA POLICY the government policies that restricted the immigration of non-whites to Australia from 1901 to 1973. WORLDVIEW a general philosophy or view of life. WOWSERISM a common view among Protestants from the 1890s, one that openly disapproved of consumption of alcohol, gambling, dancing and Sunday leisure time activities in general. (Wowser is an acronym for We Only Want Social Evils Remedied.) XIALBA a Mayan term for the underworld. YAHRZEIT a time of remembering the dead commemorated every year on the anniversary of the death. YATHRIB the former name of the city to which Muhammad migrated from Mecca in 622 CE, now known as Madina. YATRA pilgrimage.
the wealthier branch of the Quraysh tribe.
UMRA the lesser pilgrimage to Mecca. UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE the right of all adult citizens to vote. UNTOUCHABLES outcastes, people who lived on the fringes of settlements. They were the garbage collectors, the leather tanners, the carriers of corpses. Untouchability is now outlawed in India. The term in common usage today is dalit. UPANISHADS the last section of Vedic literature; the word means to sit down beside. UTILITARIANS those who believe that circumstances are important in deciding the rightness of an act. VAISHNAVAS followers or devotees of the god Vishnu. Also known as Vaishnavites. VAISHYA merchant class (varna) of Hindu society. VAJRAYANA the school of Buddhism found in Tibet and Nepal. VARANASI the most sacred place of pilgrimage, situated on the River Ganga (Ganges). VARNAS the four major classes of society.
YHWH the unutterable name of God, revealed to Moses at the burning bush (Exodus 3:14). It is often translated I am who I am. YIDDISH the language used by Ashkenazi Jews. It is written in the Hebrew script and has many Hebrew and German words. YOGA a spiritual activity through which a person seeks union with the absolute. ZABUR the revealed book (of psalms) given to David (not to be confused with the book of Psalms in the Tanakh). ZAKAT the poor tax.
ZAMZAM miraculous spring of plentiful pure water next to the Sacred Mosque. ZAPOTEC a Mesoamerican tribal group thought to have been present c. 500 BCE1000 CE. ZEALOTS a rst-century Jewish group looking for a Messiah who would lead a revolt against the Roman authorities.
Glossary
451
Index
Abduh see Muhammad Abduh Abhidharma Pitaka, 43, 244 Aboriginal people art, 18, 223 religious function, 223 beliefs and spirituality, 1728 connection to the land, 19, 257, 204, 213 deaths, 208 dispossession, 207 initiation ceremonies, 2056 land boundaries, 26 land and economics, 27 names of objects, 267 obligations to people, 2057 oral tradition, 22 sacred sites, 19, 24 spirituality, 20319 and land, 204, 20712 and religious traditions, 2325 story-telling theology, 234 symbolism, 223 theology, 2335 value systems, 204 Womens Business, 24 worldview, 1920 Aboriginal Tent Embassy, 214 abortion Buddhist ethics, 2501 Christian ethics, 282 Hindu ethics, 31112 Islamist ethics, 345 Jewish ethics, 148, 367 Abraham, 1312 descendants in Egypt, 132 absolute beings, 76 absolutists, Buddhism, 240 Abu Bakr, 105, 107, 108 contribution, 108, 109 Abu Hanifa, 336 Abu Sufyan, 109 Abu Talib, 105 Abul-Qasim see Muhammad advaita, 302, 3034 agnosticism, 416, 425 and human aspirations and behaviour, 427 agnostics, 180, 181 ahimsa, 11, 240, 242, 250, 253, 254, 302, 309, 386 Buddhism, and peace, 390 dened, 240, 386 Hinduism, and peace, 409 Ahmad ibn Hanbal, 336 Aisha bint Abu Bakr, 105, 109, 3323 Al-Amin, 100, 103 Al-Fatiha, 100 Al-Ghazali, 3402 teaching on contraception, 345 alcohol, 195 Ali, 1045, 108 appointed Caliph, 109 as rst Imam, 11112 murdered, 110 alvars, 302, 306 anatma, 32, 37, 41 anatta, 240, 251 angels, 11415 Angkor Wat, 15 Anglicanism, 634 in Australia, 1823, 191, 222 marriage ceremony, 293, 295 preservation of life, 283 rite of baptism, 290 worship service, 296 anicca, 32, 37, 41, 240 animism, 416, 417 aninut, 356 ansar, 100, 109 anthropomorphism, 156 anti-Semitism, 180 Aqida, 100, 11415, 386 Arabia before Islam, 1013 Arahats, 32 meetings, 36 Aranyakas, 76, 88, 89 Arjuna, 311 Aron Kodesh, 356, 379 Aryans, 76, 778 asceticism Buddhism, 32 Christianity, 76 Ashkenazic synagogue tradition, 379 ashrama dharma, 76, 934 atman Buddhism, 32, 33 Hinduism, 76, 83, 89 Australia Christianity arrival, 1818 contribution, 192, 1935 as dominant faith, 1823 ecumenical movement, 22830 current religious landscape, 2226 Hindu temples, 325 interfaith dialogue, 231 multi-faith religious dialogue, 22835 religion modern developments, 2267 post-1945, 20235 pre-1945, 18097 religious expression, post-1945, 21927 Australian Aboriginals see Aboriginal people avatars, 76, 79 aveilut, 356, 375 Ayodhya, 302, 321, 323 Aztecs, 15763 decline of empire, 162 deities, 160, 161 inuence of religion on society, 160 on origin of the universe, 158 principal beliefs, 159 rituals, 160, 162 temple life, 162 baal tashchit, 356, 370 ashramas, 76, 934 Asoka, 2415 and development of Buddhism, 2425 expression, 2445 and ethical teachings, 244 pilgrimages, 255 signicance, 245 Assalamu alaikum, 399, 401 assimilation, 202, 209, 21112 atheism, 416, 425 and human aspirations and behaviour, 427
452
Banu Hashim, 100 baptism, 28992 as expression of Christian belief, 291 signicance, 292 bar mitzvah, 356 blessing, 376 bardo, 32 basilea, 386 bat mitzvah, 130, 137 blessing, 376 Beatitudes, 70, 386 belief systems, Australia post-1945, 20235 beliefs Aztecs, 159 Buddhism, 3942 Christianity, 657 Hinduism, 836 Incas, 166 Islam, 11415 Judaism, 1401 Maya people, 164 Nordic religion, 174 Shinto, 171 Benares see Varanasi BFP see Buddhist Peace Fellowship Bhagavad Gita, 76, 79, 92 abortion, 311 on peace, 408, 409 Bhajan Kirtan, 302 bhakti, 302, 305 Bhakti Movement, 3067 Bible, 68 Luthers translation, 276, 277 scholarship, contribution of Schssler Fiorenza, 280 see also Gospels; New Testament Biblical exegesis, 270 bimah, 356, 380 bioethics Buddhism, 2502 Christianity, 2823 dened, 270 Hinduism, 31112 Islam, 3456 Judaism, 3669 bishops, 180 Blue Mosque, Istanbul, 419 bodhisattvas, 9, 32, 37, 240 Brady, Don, 234 Brahma, 76, 83 Brahman, 32, 76, 83, 88, 302
teaching of Shankara, 3034 Brahmana, 76, 88, 89 brahmins, 32, 76 Buddhism, 33 brit milah, 356 blessing, 376 Broughton, William, 183 Buber, Martin, 3579 contribution to Judaism, 359 Buddha, 32, 345, 240 one of Three Jewels, 39 Buddha nature, 240, 247 Buddhism, 24067 in Australia, 189 post-war, 221, 224 bodhisattvas, 9 cultural differences, 910 ethical teachings, 456, 244, 2504 historical and cultural context, 33 origins, 338 and peace, 38993 concept of ignorance, 390 for individuals, 3912 world peace, 392 personal devotion, 47 pilgrimage, 2559 principal beliefs, 3942 relationship with Shinto, 168 sacred texts and writings, 434 schools, 378 signicant practices, 25565 Three Refuges, 9 Buddhist Peace Fellowship (BFP), 393 bullroarers, 4, 23, 202 burial, Islamic practices, 349 bush brotherhoods, 180, 193 Bush Church Aid Society, 193 business ethics, Islam, 3478 Caliphs, 1089 contribution, 1089 Calvin, John, 278 inuence of St Paul, 275 castes India, 33, 35, 93, 311, 418 and marriage, 314, 316 catechisms, 270, 277 Catholic Earthcare, 286 Catholic epistles, 270 Catholicism, 64 in Australia, 1846, 1912, 222 marriage ceremony, 293, 294 preservation of life, 2823 rite of baptism, 290
views on marriage, 294 worship service, 296 censorship, 195 ceremonialism, 202 ceremonies, 13 Aboriginal people, 2057 Chabad-Lubavitch, 3645 charismatic churches, 202, 226, 396 charisms, 52, 63 Chassidism, 130, 356, 357, 359 Chevra Kadisha, 356, 374 chinampas, 156, 157 Chisholm, Caroline, 184 Christ, 52, 270 see also Jesus Christ Christian feminist theology see feminist theology Christianity, 5273, 27099 arrival in Australia, 1818 in Australia contribution to social welfare, 192 dominance, 1823 general contribution, 1935 compared with modern science as belief system, 4289 response to human person, 431 response to social responsibility, 431 response to the transcendent, 428 early history, 613 ethical teachings, 6970, 2828 historical and cultural context, 545 impact on Aboriginal society, 232 nominal Christianity, 2323 ofcial establishment in Australia, 182 origins, 5364 and peace, 3948 for individuals, 396 principal teachings, 395 world peace, 3978 personal devotion, 71 in post-war Australia, 221, 2223 principal beliefs, 657 religious practices, 28997 benets, 289 sacred texts and writings, 68 New testament, 394 signicant people and ideas, 27182 chuppah, 356, 377 Church of England see Anglicanism climate change, 2857 cloning, Buddhist ethics, 251 colonisation, 209
Index
453
commandment of love, 70 concept of ignorance, and Buddhist understanding of peace, 390 conditioned arising, 240 Confucianism, 240, 246 Congregationalists, 186 conscience, 270 conservative Judaism, 130, 137 Constitution, 202 contraception Hinduism, 311 Islam, 345 Judaism, 371 cosmology, 416 Council of Nicaea, 62, 65, 275 Covenant, 52, 130, 386 and peace, 405 cows, in Hinduism, 313 dana, 240, 261, 262 darshan, 76 darshana, 302 dawa, 330 death Islamic practices, 349 Judaic practices, 3734 Decalogue, 52 see also Ten Commandments decree, 115 Deists, 180, 181 denominational schools, 194 denominations, 180 switching between, 226 destiny, 416 Devarim see Ten Commandments Devils Marbles, 19 devotees, 302 devotion (Buddhism) see puja Dhammapada, 386 and peace, 38990 dharma Buddhism, 32, 35, 36, 240, 244, 389 one of Three Jewels, 39 dened, 386 Hinduism, 76, 85, 302 recognition by pilgrimage, 257 Dharmashastra, 76, 90, 302 and abortion, 311 dhikr, 330 Dhul-Hijja, 100 diaspora, 52 dioceses, 180 disciples dened, 52, 302
of Jesus Christ, 57, 61 discipleship, 270 of equals, 279 dissenters, 180 divination, 156 divine, 416 divorce, 195 Dixon, Fr James, 181, 184 doctrines, 180 Dodson, Patrick, 235 Dreaming, 4, 1721, 202 in Aboriginal art, 18 its importance, 1820 spirituality, 203 stories, 201 and women, 24 Dreamtime Spirit cooking of the damper (story), 20 duality, 156 dukkha, 32, 240, 250 mark of existence, 41 one of Four Noble truths, 41 Theravada School, 37 Durga, 834 eclectic, 240 ecological awareness, 424 ecology dened, 416 ecumenism, 416 in Australia, 22830 inuence of Schssler Fiorenza, 281 Eddas, 156 egalitarianism, 4, 202, 211 Eightfold Path to Perfection see Noble Eightfold Path eirene, 386 ekklesia, 270 ema boards, 156 empowerment, 416 enlightenment, 32 Buddha, 34 environmental ethics Buddhism, 2534 Christianity, 2847 teaching sources, 284 Hinduism, 31213 Islam, 346 Judaism, 36970 epics, 76, 902 epistemology, 330 Epistles, 612, 270, 272 Established Church, 180 ethical monotheism, 366 ethics, 4, 11, 52, 270
Buddhism, 456, 244, 2504 Christianity, 6970, 2828 in Pauls epistles, 275 Hinduism, 934, 31114 Islam, 1201, 3458 Judaism, 1489, 36672 role of religions, 418, 420 search for guidance, 4212 Won Buddhism, 2489 see also situation ethics Eucharist, 270 euthanasia Buddhist ethics, 252 Christian ethics, 2823 dened, 240, 270 Islamist ethics, 346 Jewish ethics, 3678 evangelical, 180 exegesis see Biblical exegesis Exodus from Egypt, 132, 1335 fajr, 100 Fatima al-Zahra (Fatima the Radiant), 104, 111, 3334 Federation, 21112 female initiation, Aboriginal people, 206 feminist theology, 270, 279, 280 Fiorenza, Elisabeth Schssler see Schssler Fiorenza, Elisabeth qh, 100, 120, 330 re ceremony, 318 Five Pillars of Islam, 1225, 386 and understanding of peace, 400 Five Precepts (Buddhism), 45, 386 and peace, 390 and world peace, 392 Flynn, John, 193 Foster, Tom, 233 Four Noble Truths (Buddhism), 34, 412, 386 and peace, 390 and sexual ethics, 253 Friday congregational prayer, Islam, 350 funeral ceremonies, Aboriginal people, 2067 Gabriel (angel), 1045, 114 gambling, 195 Ganesha, 83, 84 Garrawurra, Dhalanganda, 235 Garuda, 79 Gautma, Suddhartha see Sakyamuni Geiger, Abraham, 138 Gemara, 147, 356 genetic screening, 3689
454
gentiles, 130, 270 Ghandi, Mohandas Karamchand, 30910 Gilbert, Kevin, 235 Gnostic writings, 52 Gompa, 240 Gondarra, Djiniyini, 233 Gospels, 52, 57, 58, 60 Grant, Cecil, 233 Greek Orthodox Church, in Australia, 188 gurus, 76 hadith, 100, 105, 11819, 330, 386 on peace, 399 haidens, 156 Hajj, 100, 124, 330, 351 Rabia al-Adawiyya, 339 halacha, 130, 356, 386, 406 Harappan civilisation, 778 Hari see Vishnu harijans, 302, 310 see also untouchables Harris, Charles, 235 Hasan (Muhammads grandson), 108, 111, 112 Hassidic groups, 136 hatha yoga, 86 Hebrew Bible, 130, 132, 1426 Hebrew scriptures, 1426 hedonism, 202 Hellenic, 52, 270 hermeneutics, 270, 279, 280 Heschel, Abraham Joshua, 3602 contribution to Judaism, 362 philosophy, 361 interaction with God, 361 social and religious concerns, 3601 high church, 180, 270 hijab, 121 Hijaz, 102 Hijra, 100, 105 Hindu Council of Australia, 411 Hinduism, 33, 7697, 30227 in Australia, 190 ethical systems, 934 ethical teachings, 31114 gods and goddesses, 792, 834 origins, 7782 and peace, 40811 principal teachings, 409 world peace, 411 personal devotion, 945 pilgrimage, 3204
in post-war Australia, 221 principal beliefs, 836 religious practices, 31519 sacred texts and writings, 8792 signicant people and ideas, 30310 Hinduism Today, 411 Hirsch, Samson Raphael, 136 hodens, 156 Holocaust, 361 homain, 318 homilies, 270 homosexuality, 270 Buddhist ethics, 253 Christian ethics, 2878 Judaism, 372 Howard, John, 216, 217 huacas, 156 human history, religious dimension, 41720 expressions, 41718 meaning and purpose for individuals, 41819 signicance, 41820 social cohesion, 419 social transformation, 420 humanism and human aspirations and behaviour, 427 see also rational humanism; scientic humanism Husayn (Muhammads grandson), 108, 111 as Imam, 112 ibadat, 330, 345 ignorance see concept of ignorance ihram, 330 ijma, 121, 330, 3345 Ikara (story), 21 Imami, 113 immanent religions, 4 worldview, 78 incarnation, 386 Incas, 1667 India 6th century, 33 castes, 33 Indigenous Australians see Aboriginal people indulgences, 270, 276 Indus Valley, 778 initiation ceremonies, Aboriginal people, 2056 Injil, 100
inner peace, 387 interfaith dialogue, 231 Irwonsang, 240 Islam, 10027, 33053 in Australia, 189 dened, 100 ethical teachings, 1201, 3458 Four Rightly Guided Caliphs, 10810 individualism, 331 modest clothing, 121 origins, 10113 civil war, 10910 and peace, 399402 for individuals, 401 principal teachings, 400 world peace, 402 pilgrimage, 351 in post-war Australia, 221 principal beliefs, 11415 religious practices, 34951 sacred texts and writings, 11619 schools of thought and law, 3347 signicant people and ideas, 33144 Islam ve pillars, 1225 Islamic banking, 3478 Islamic jurisprudence, 1201 Islamic Relief Worldwide, 402 Ismailis, 112 Isnad, 100 Istanbul, Blue Mosque, 419 jatis, 76 Jerusalem, Wailing Wall, 136 Jesus Christ birth and early life, 56 as challenge to authority, 58 commandment of love, 70 death and resurrection, 656 divinity, 53, 65 historical gure, 65 as Messiah, 53, 54 miracle worker, 58 model for Christian life, 60 as teacher, 57 as viewed by other religions, 60 Jesus Movement, 52, 61, 270 discipleship of equals, 279 Jewish Voices for Peace and Justice, 407 Jews, 130, 132 jhanas, 32, 42 jihad, 100, 330, 348 jihad bil nafs, 386 jingas, 156 Jinja Shinto, 169
Index
455
jiva, 302 John the Baptist, 53, 56 Johnson, Richard, 181, 1823 Judaism, 13053, 35683 in Australia, 190, 225 dened, 130 ethical teachings, 1489, 36672 origin of the term, 132 origins, 1315 and peace, 4037 for individuals, 406 principal teachings, 4045 world peace, 407 peace on earth, prophetic vision, 4034 principal beliefs, 1401 religious practices, 37381 sacred texts and writings, 1427 signicant people and ideas, 35766 jumua, 330 Juz, 100 Kaba, 100, 103, 124, 125, 330, 351 Kabbalah, 130, 356 Kaddish, 356 at funeral services, 374 in periods of mourning, 375 kadi, 330 kahins, 100, 102 Kali, 84 kama, 302, 313 kami, 156, 168, 170 Karlu Karlu, 19 karma Buddhism, 32, 41, 42, 240 effect of pilgrimage, 256, 257, 258 and peace, 390 and world peace, 392 dened, 386 Hinduism, 33, 76, 85 Kashruth, 270 Kata Tjuta, 204 Keating, Paul, 217 ketubah, 356, 377 Ketubim, 146 Khadijah, 1034 Khadijah bint Khuwaylid, 332 Kharijites, 110 kibbutz, 356 Kiddushin, 356, 377 kinship, 4 Aboriginal people, 205 kinship system, 202 Koran see Quran
Koshitsu Shinto, 169 Krishna, 76, 79, 86, 3078 and abortion, 311 ten avatars, 80 kshatriyas, 302 Kumbh Mela, 302, 320, 322 kusalas, 32, 240 laity, 180 land rights, 4, 202, 21316 Lang, John Dunmore, 187 Last Supper, 270 Laws of Manu, 76, 93, 94 legitimists, 109 Leibowitz, Nechama, 3634 liberal Judaism, 130 lingas, 76, 81, 302 liturgy, 52 Lotus of the Good Law, The, 43 low church, 270 Luther, Martin, 2768 contribution to Christianity, 277 emphasis on the Bible, 277 impact on Christianity, 278 inuence of St Paul, 275 Lutherans, 182, 188 Maariv, 356, 380 Mabo et al. v Queensland see Native Title (Mabo) Judgment MacKillop, Mary, 185 Madina, 1067 see also Yathrib Mahabharata, 90, 91 see also Bhagavad Gita Mahaparinirvana Sutta, 255 Mahatma, 302, 309 Mahayana School of Buddhism, 32, 378, 240, 247 origins, 36 Mahisa, 83 malas, 240 Malcolm, Arthur, 233 male initiation, Aboriginal people, 2056 Malik ibn Anas, 3356 mandalas, 32, 38 mandaps, 302, 316 mandirs, 302, 320 mantras Buddhism, 32, 38 Hinduism, 302 Shinto, 156 Manu, 94 manusmriti see Laws of Manu
marks of existence, 41 marriage Christian ceremony, 2925 as expression of Christian belief, 2934 signicance of ceremony, 294 Hindu ethics, 314 Hindu practices, 31519 ceremony, 31619 Judaism, 376 signicance, 378 Marsden, Samuel, 183 Marx, Karl, 425 masjids, 100 Mass, 270 masturbation, Buddhist ethics, 253 materialism, 416, 423 matsuris, 156 Mauryas, 241 Maya people, 1645 on origin of the universe, 164 temple, 164 Mecca, 1245 Medina see Yathrib meditation, 416 Buddhism, 32 and peace for individuals, 391 and personal fullment, 421 in temple puja, 261 Christianity, 52, 71 and peace for individuals, 396 Hinduism, 40910 Messiah Christianity, 52, 53, 54 Judaism, 130, 141 prophesies, 54 Methodists, 1867 metta bhavana, 391 Mezuzah, 130, 150, 356 Middle Path (Buddhism), 32, 35 Midrash, 356, 386 and death, 373 mimis, 4 Mincha, 356, 380 minyan, 356 Minzoku Shinto, 169 Mira Bai, 3078 Mishnah, 130, 147, 356 missionaries, 240 Buddhism, 243 missionisation, 202, 209, 2323 Mitzvot, 356, 366 modern Judaism, 1369
456
modern science compared with Christianity as belief system, 4289 response to human person, 431 response to social responsibility, 431 response to transcendent, 428 see also scientic humanism moksha, 302, 386 Buddhism, 32 Hinduism, 76, 86 monastic communities, 63 monasticism, 52 monotheism, 4, 6, 7, 52, 416, 418 see also ethical monotheism morality, 270 Mosaic law, 130 Moses, 132, 1335 Mount Sinai, 134 muamala, 330, 345 Muawiya, 109, 110, 112 mudras, 32 muezzins, 100 muhajirun, 100 Muhammad, 1037 appointment as Gods messenger, 1045 death, 107 ght against Mecca, 1067 life in Madina, 1067 preaching and opposition, 105 Muhammad Abduh, 3434 Muhammad al-Shai, 336 murti, 76 Muslims, 100, 330 mutar, 386 mystical, 416 nabis, 100 Nai-Shoten, 156 names, given in the Dreaming, 267 Narayan see Vishnu Nataraja, 81 National Council of Churches in Australia (NCCA), 22930 Aboriginal and Islander Commission, 235 Act for Peace campaign, 397 statement on environment, 285 native title, 202, 21316 Native Title Act, 1993 (Cwlth), 202, 21516 Native Title (Mabo) Judgment, 202, 215 natural law, 270 nayanars, 302
NCCA see National Council of Churches in Australia neo-pagans, 202 ner tamid, 356, 380 Neve Shalom/Wahat al-Salaam, 407 Neviim, 144 New Age religions, 2267, 4214 factors inuencing rise, 4234 new religious expressions see New Age religions New Testament, 386, 394 see also Epostles Nguthanunga Mai Ambatanha (story), 20 Nicene Creed, 68, 386 Nicholls, Doug, 233 nirvana, 32, 42, 240, 386 Mahayana School, 378 one of Four Noble Truths, 41 nissuin, 356, 377 Noble Eightfold Path, 41, 386, 390 non-conformists, 180 non-religious worldviews, 4257 Nordic religion, 1745 Norse mythology, 174 NSW Ecumenical Council, 230 occultation, 113 Oesberg ship, 175 Olmec, 156 omens, 156 organ transplants, Buddhist ethics, 251 origin of the universe Aztec beliefs, 158 Inca beliefs, 166 Mayan beliefs, 164 Shinto beliefs, 16970 origins Buddhism, 338 Christianity, 5364 Hinduism, 7782 Islam, 10113 Judaism, 1315 Orthodox churches, 64 marriage ceremony, 293, 294 rite of baptism, 290 views on marriage, 294 worship service, 296 see also Greek Orthodox Church Orthodox Judaism, 130, 136 Orthodox Peace Fellowship, 397 Palestine, 54, 56 under the Romans, 55 Pancasilam, 32, 240, 252
pantheism, 4, 8 pantheons Aztecs, 157 dened, 156 papacy, 270, 276 parables, 57 paradigms, 4, 9 Paradise, 156 Aztec beliefs, 159 paranirvana, 32, 36 parishes, 180 parochialism, 180 Parusha Sukta, 87 Parvati see Shakti Pascal, Blaise, 425 Passi, Fr Dave, 235 Passover, 134 Patanjali, 86 patriarchy, 270, 279 Paul of Tarsus, 2715 central ideas, 273 and Christianity as a world religion, 271, 273 contribution to Christianity, 274 impact on Christianity, 2745 journeys, 272 letters, 612, 272 mission, 272 Pax Christi, 397 peace for individuals, 3878 and religion, 386413 peace on earth, prophetic vision, 4034 Pentecostalism, 64, 202 in Australia, 223 personal devotion Buddhism, 47 Christianity, 71 Hinduism, 945 Judaism, 1501 personal fullment, 421 Pharisees, 52, 55, 270 philosophy of dialogue, 358, 359 Pikuach Nefesh, 356 pilgrimage Buddhism, 2559 beliefs and practices, 257 motivation, 256 signicance to Buddhist community, 259 signicance for individual, 258 stages, 256 dened, 386
Index
457
Hinduism, 3204 and peace, 410 sites, 321 Islam, 351 see also Hajj pilgrims, dened, 240 pogroms, 180 Polding, John Bede, 183, 184, 185, 194 polytheism, 4, 6, 416, 41718 poor tax, Islam, 123 prajna, 32, 42, 240, 257 inter-relatedness with sila and samadhi, 250, 253 prasada, 76 prayer, 52 Christianity, 71 and peace for individuals, 396 Islam, 1223, 350 Judaism, and peace for individuals, 406 premarital sex Buddhism, 252 Judaism, 371 Presbyterians, 187 preservation of life Christian teaching, 2823 see also abortion; euthanasia procurators, 52 profession of faith, Islam, 122 progressive Judaism, 130, 1389 Prophetic Vision, 149 Prophets, 1445 protectorate system, 202 Protestant Reformation see Reformation Protestantism, 64 see also Anglicanism public rituals, 12 puja Buddhism, 32, 47, 240 dened, 386 Hinduism, 76, 945, 302 see also temple puja; Wesak puja Puranas, 76, 90 qiyas, 121, 330, 334, 335 Quakers see Society of Friends Quetzalcoatl, 158, 161 Quran, 100, 11619, 330, 386 on the Kaba, 103 on the last day, 115 on Muhammads life, 104 origins, 105 on peace, 399, 400 on revealed books, 115
Quraysh, 100, 105, 109 Qutb see Sayyid Qutb rabbinical Judaism, 130 rabbis, 130, 136 Rabia al-Adawiyya, 33840 raka, 330 Rama, 76, 79, 86 Ramadan, 100, 1234 Ramanuja, 305 Ramayana, 901 rasul, 100 rational humanism, 416, 426 reconstructionist Judaism, 130 reductionism, 202 Reform Judaism, 137 Reformation, 52, 63, 270 inuence of Luther, 276, 278 reformed tradition, 202 religion Australia impact of immigration, 2235 post-1945, 20235 pre-1945, 18097 characteristics, 1, 813 contribution to individuals, 14 society and culture, 1516 nature, 516 and peace, 386413 religions of ancient origin, 15677 religious calendars, 12 religious expression post-war Australia, 21927 census data, 21921 renunciates, 76 revelation, 52, 667, 386 rishis, 76, 78 rites, 270 rites of passage, 12 rituals, 4, 1213, 202, 416 Aztecs, 160, 162 dened, 156, 270 Hinduism, 88 Incas, 167 Maya people, 165 Nordic religion, 1745 Shinto, 172 road to Jerusalem, 58 rodef, 356 Rosedale, George, 233 Royal Aalal-Bayt Institute for Islamic Thought, 402 rrark, 4 Rudd, Kevin, 218
Rudra see Shiva rusul, 115 sabbatarianism, 180, 195 Sabbath Christianity, 270 Judaism see Shabbat sacraments, 52, 180, 270 Luthers beliefs, 278 sacred sites, 4, 202 Aboriginal people, 19, 24 Incas, 167 Maya people, 164 Nordic religion, 174 protective rules, 204 sacred texts and writings, 10, 387 Buddhism, 434 Christianity, 68 Hinduism, 8792 Islam, 11619 Judaism, 1427 Sadducees, 52, 55 sadhus, 302 Sagas, 156 sahabas, 100 sahifa, 100, 106 Sakaki tree, 156 Sakyamuni, 32, 345 salat, 100, 330 salvation, 52, 67, 270, 386 emphasis by Luther, 278 for non-believers, 67 samadhi, 32, 35, 240, 257 inter-relatedness with sila and prajna, 250, 253 Samanya Dharma, 85 samatha, 391 Samhita, 76, 87, 89 samsara, 32, 42, 76, 240 San, Soe-tae see Won Buddhism Sanatana Dharma, 76, 77, 78 Sangha, 32, 35 formation, 36 move outside, 254 one of Three Jewels, 3940 in shrine rooms, 260 signicance for pilgrims, 257, 258 under Asoka, 242, 243, 244, 245 in Wesak festivals, 263, 264 Sanhedrin, 52, 55 sannyasin/sannyasi, 76, 302 Sanskrit, 76 Santamaria, B.A., 192 Saraswati, 83 Saturday/Sunday worship
458
Christianity, 2957 as expression of Christian beliefs, 296 signicance, 297 satyagraha, 302 Saul see Paul of Tarsus Sayyid Qutb, 344 School of the Elders see Theravada School of Buddhism Schssler Fiorenza, Elisabeth, 27981 contribution to Christianity, 280 impact on Christianity, 281 scientic humanism, 416, 4267 scientic progress, 423 search for meaning Incas, 167 Maya people, 165 Nordic religion, 175 Shinto, 173 secret-sacred, 4, 17 sectarianism, 180, 181, 1912 secularism, 227 secularists, 180 segregation/protection, 202, 209, 210 self-determination, 212 sentient beings, dened, 32 separation, 21011 Sephardic synagogue tradition, 379 Sermon on the Mount, 57 sermons, 270 seveners, 112 sexual ethics Buddhism, 2523 Christianity, 2868 sources of teaching, 286 Hinduism, 313 Islam, 347 Judaism, 3712 Shabbat, 130, 1501 Shacharit, 130, 140, 356, 380 Shaivas, 76, 82, 302, 3067 Shakti, 76, 82, 83 shalom, 386, 394, 403, 4045 shamans, 156, 168 Shankara, 3034 shape-shifters, 156 Sharia law, 1201, 330, 334 Sheloshim, 356, 375 Shema, 130, 140, 356 and dying, 373 in synagogue services, 380 shemira, 374 Shia, 100, 330 emergence, 11113
spiritual position of Fatima, 3334 Shin Tao, 156 Shinto, 16873 example of animism, 417 festivals, 172, 173 principal beliefs, 171 rituals, 172 shrines, 168, 169, 172 texts, 170 types, 169 Shiva (Hindu god), 76, 812, 86 pilgrimage sites, 3223 shiva (Jewish mourning period), 356, 3745 shomerim, 356 Shoten, 156 shraddha, 302 shramanas, 32, 33 shrines dened, 156 Shinto, 168, 169, 172 shruti, 76 shudra, 302 shul, 356 Shulchan Aruch, 356, 370 shuma Shinto, 169 signicant people and ideas Buddhism, 2419 Christianity, 27182 Hinduism, 30310 Islam, 33144 Judaism, 35766 sila, 35, 39, 42 dened, 32, 240 effect of generosity, 262 effect of meditation, 261 effect of Wesak, 264 Eightfold Path to Perfection, 41 inter-relatedness with prajna and samdhi, 250, 253 in Mahayana school, 38 need for clarity of mind, 45 observation on pilgrimage, 256, 257 and opportunity to become human, 251 in Theravada School of Buddhism, 37 situation ethics, 270, 282 skandras, 32 skinline, 202 Slaughterhouse Creek Masaacre (1838), 208 smriti, 76 social cohesion, 416, 419 social Darwinism, 202, 209
social transformation, 416, 419 Society of Friends preservation of life, 283 and world peace, 3978 worship service, 296 Soe-tae San see Won Buddhism sola de, 270 sola scriptura, 270 soodar, 302 sovereignty, 202 spiritual, 416 stereotypes, 416 Stern, Sigmund, 138 stewardship, 270, 416 Stolen Generation, 202 stone of Tizoc, 162 stream-enterers, 32, 42 stupas, 240, 242, 244, 259 Bhopal, 242 Subramanya, 83 Susm, 330, 33744, 386 and peace, 401 Sunnis, 100, 330 emergence, 111 spiritual position of Fatima, 334 sunyata, 240 superstition, 416 Supreme Being, 76 Sura, 100, 330 sutta, 32 Sutta Pitaka, 43, 386, 38990 synagogue services, 37981 signicance, 381 synods, 180 tafsir, 120 talismans, 156 tallit, 356 Talmud, 130, 137, 147, 356, 386 Tanakh, 100, 130, 132, 386 Taoism, 240, 246, 2478 tasbih, 330 Tawhid, 100, 114, 386 Tawrah, 100 tellin, 130, 140 temperance, 180 Temple of Jerusalem, 52 temple puja, 255, 25963 beliefs and practices, 261 signicance, 2623 temple worship, Hinduism, 3245 Ten Commandments, 69, 134, 148 Tenochtitlan, 157, 159 Teppam festival, 302, 323
Index
459
terra nullius, 202, 207, 215 teshuva, 130 Tezcatlipoca, 158, 161 thangkas, 240 theology, 270 Theravada School of Buddhism, 32, 37, 240 origins, 36 theses, 270 Luther, 276 Three Jewels (Buddhism), 3940, 386 Three Refuges, 240 acknowledgment by pilgrims, 260, 261 celebration by Wesak, 264 Tibetan Book of the Dead, 43 tikkun olam, 130, 138, 149, 356, 360, 386, 405 Toltec civilisation, 156, 157 Torah, 52, 54, 356 commandments, 1489 Judaism, 130, 143 Leibowitzs approach, 363 Progressive Jews, 139 torii, 156 totemism, 4, 19, 25, 202, 204 transcendent religions, 4, 202, 416 worldview, 67 trimurti, 76 Trinity, 66, 386 Tripitaka, 32, 43, 240, 244 Theravada School, 37 tsaar baalei chayim, 356 Twelvers, 113 Ulama, 330 Ultimate Reality, 76 Uluru, 26 Umar, 107, 108 Umayya, 100, 105 Umayyad dynasty, 110 Umra, 330 Uniting Church, 2223 universal suffrage, 180, 184
Untouchables, 76, 302 Upanishads, 33, 76 on creation of the world, 312 Hinduism, 83, 889 Uthman, 108 contribution, 109 utilitarians, 240, 250 views on abortion, 251 Vaishnavas, 76, 82, 302, 307 vaishya, 302 Vajrayana School of Buddhism, 32, 38, 240 origins, 36 Valhalla, 174 Varanasi, 302, 320, 322 varnas, 76, 934, 302 Vaughan, Roger Bede, 184, 185 Vedas, 32, 33, 76, 78, 83, 879 Venkateshwara, 79 Vihara, 240 Vinaya, 32, 36 Vinaya Pitaka, 43, 46 vipassana, 391 vishesha dharma, 76 Vishishtadvaita, 305 Vishnu, 76, 79, 82, 86 pilgrimage sites, 3234 teaching of Ramanuja, 305 vivaha, 302 votive offerings, 240 Wahat al-Salaam see Neve Shalom/ Wahat al-Salaam Wailing Wall (Jerusalem), 136 wali, 330 Waraqa, 104 WCRP see World Conference of Religions for Peace Wesak, 240, 2635 beliefs, 264 signicance, 2645 Wesak puja, 263 White Australia Policy, 202 Wik Peoples v Queensland, 216
Wilpena Pound (story), 21 women, and the Dreaming, 24 Won Buddhism, 2469 and development of Buddhism, 247 contribution to expression of Buddhism, 2489 ethical teachings, 2489 impact on Buddhism, 249 World Conference of Religions for Peace (WCRP), 388 world peace, 387, 388 Buddhism, 392 Christianity, 3978 Hinduism, 411 Islam, 402 Judaism, 407 worldviews, 5 Aboriginal people, 1920 immanent religions, 78 religious and non-religious compared, 4289 transcendent religions, 67 see also non-religious worldviews wowserism, 180 Xialba, 156 Yahrzeit, 356, 375 Yasukuni shrine, 172 Yathrib, 100, 105 yatras, 302, 3204 Yazid, 112 Yemenis, 1012 Yhwh, 54, 130, 133 Yiddish, 130, 136 yoga, 86, 386 Zabur, 100 zakat, 100 Zalman, Shneur, 365 Zamzam, 100, 103 Zapotec, 156 Zealots, 52, 55 Zwingli, Ulrich, 278
460
In Oxford Studies of Religion, the emphasis is on comprehensive information and review questions to encourage deeper levels of understanding of the major religious traditions. This book was written with both students and teachers in mind. It closely addresses the NSW Board of Studies Stage 6 subject, Studies of Religion. The text covers both the Preliminary and HSC courses and, as with the syllabus, assumes no prior knowledge on the part of the reader. The text covers the ve major religious traditions of Buddhism, Christianity, Hinduism, Islam and Judaism, as well as addressing Aboriginal spirituality and religions present in Australia. It pays specic attention to the areas of religion and non-religion, religion of ancient origins and religion and peace. This text has been written by both academics and Studies of Religion teachers who have demonstrated excellence within their respective elds.
Included in this comprehensive text are features such as: recent developments in Aboriginal issues as related to the syllabus the two new areas of Religion of Ancient Origin and Religion and Peace, as well as suggestions about how to study these topics a comprehensive glossary of terms for each chapter and timelines for each religious tradition review and assessment questions to aid students understanding and prepare them for exams activities designed to provoke discussion and stimulate the research and writing skills of individuals and groups. Online professional support at oup.com.au/sor includes assessment and marking guidelines, worksheets and activities for each of the religious traditions and updates on current issues.
visit us at: oup.com.au or contact customer service: cs.au@oup.com

Studies of Religion

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Studies of Religion

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Oxford Studies of Religion

PRELIMINARY & HSC COURSE

ROSEMARY KING JOHN MOONEY ELIZABETH CARNEGIE

HELEN SMITH ANTHONY JOHNS DAVID JOHNS

ANNE PATTEL-GRAY SANDY HOLLIS KELVIN MCQUEEN

The nature of religion and beliefs

Prelim | Chapter 1 The nature of religion

Oxford Studies of Religion

The nature of religion

Prelim | Chapter 1 The nature of religion

The transcendent religious worldview

The immanent religious worldview

Prelim | Chapter 1 The nature of religion

The characteristics of religion

Oxford Studies of Religion

FIG. 1.5 Buddhist ordination ceremony, Sri Lanka

Prelim | Chapter 1 The nature of religion

FIG. 1.7 Women throwing petals at a Christian religious parade, Peru

3. Describe some of the common features of sacred texts.

Oxford Studies of Religion

Prelim | Chapter 1 The nature of religion

Oxford Studies of Religion

Prelim | Chapter 1 The nature of religion

The contribution of religion

Oxford Studies of Religion

Prelim | Chapter 1 The nature of religion

Oxford Studies of Religion

Australian Aboriginal beliefs and spirituality the Dreaming

The nature of the Dreaming

Prelim | Chapter 1 The nature of religion

The importance of traditional beliefs and the Dreaming

Oxford Studies of Religion

Prelim | Chapter 1 The nature of religion

Stories of the Dreaming

Oxford Studies of Religion

FIG. 1.18 Wilpena Pound, South Australia

Prelim | Chapter 1 The nature of religion

Aboriginal symbolism and art

Oxford Studies of Religion

and ritual objects role in the telling of stories and in

preserving the sacred laws handed down from the past

Prelim | Chapter 1 The nature of religion

Women and the Dreaming

Oxford Studies of Religion

Connection of the Dreaming, the land and identity

Prelim | Chapter 1 The nature of religion

Oxford Studies of Religion

Land and economics

Prelim | Chapter 1 The nature of religion

Review and assess

Oxford Studies of Religion

Exam style questions

Prelim | Chapter 1 The nature of religion

Prelim | Chapter 2 Buddhism

ANATMA ANICCA ARAHATS ASCETICISM ATMAN BARDO

BODHISATTVA BRAHMAN BRAHMINS BUDDHA DHARMA DUKKHA

SHRAMANAS SILA SKANDRAS

JHANAS KARMA KUSALA MAHAYANA

MANDALAS MANTRAS MEDITATION

VAJRAYANA VEDAS VINAYA

MIDDLE WAY OR PATH

Oxford Studies of Religion

FIG. 2.1 Hindu gods and goddesses