Combined GIS and Remote Sensing techniques in Mapping Desertification Sensitivity in the North of the Western Desert, Egypt

GAD, A. and LOTFY, I National Authority for Remote Sensing and Space Sciences, Egypt abdallagad@gmail.com Abstract The rain fed grazing area at the northern coast of Egypt is subjected to erosion and weathering. Environmental systems are generally in a state of dynamic equilibrium with external driving forces. Desertification of an area proceeds if certain land components are brought beyond specific threshold, where further change produces irreversible alterations. In the applied methodology, three quality indices were computed (i.e. Soil Quality Index, Vegetation Quality Index and Climatic Quality Index. ETM satellite images, geologic and soil maps were used as main sources for calculating the indices of Environmental Sensitivity Areas (ESAs) for desertification. The obtained results revealed that the study area is characterized by sensitive quality indices for soil, vegetation and climate. The produced 1:100,000 scale maps of the ESAs show that 55.25% of study area is classified as very sensitive areas, while 42.57% as sensitive and 2.19% as Moderately sensitive. It can be concluded that implementing the maps of sensitivity to desertification is rather useful in the arid and semi arid areas as they give more likely quantitative trend for frequency of sensitive areas. Keywords: Remote sensing, GIS, Desertification, Western Desert, Egypt

1. Introduction Desertification includes a set of important processes, which are active in the arid land due to scarcity of land and water resources. The northwestern area of Egypt (Fig. 1) was known as the breadbasket during the Greeks and Romanian civilization periods. In the recent decades a lot of changes in land use and land cover have been induced mostly by man and resulted in acceleration of different degradation processes. Many descriptive studies are available, however the quantification of the land degradation issues is clearly missed. Recently, many scientific efforts are done to enhance the more likely quantification nature of the situation. In the context of the EU Mediterranean Desertification and Land Use project (MEDLUS), a distinction has been made between degradation processes in European Mediterranean environments and the more arid areas. Physical loss of soil by water erosion, and associated loss of soil nutrient status are identified as the dominant problems in the European Mediterranean region. However, Wind erosion and salinisation problems are most often in the arid Mediterranean areas. Mismanagement of land cover and land use may cause the land surface to be more susceptible to erosion driving forces.

Fig. (1) Location of study area in the north of western desert, Egypt.

Environmental systems are generally in a state of a dynamic equilibrium with external driving forces. Small changes in the driving forces, such as climate or imposed land use tend to be accommodated partially by a small change in the equilibrium and partially by being absorbed or buffered by the system. Desertification of an area will proceed if certain land components are brought beyond specific threshold, beyond which further change produces irreversible change (Tucker et al. 1991; Nicholson et al. 1998). For example, climate change cannot bring a piece of land to a desertified state by itself, but it may modify the critical thresholds, so that the system can no longer maintain its equilibrium (Williams & Balling, 1996). Environmentally Sensitive Areas (ESAs) to desertification around the Mediterranean region exhibit different sensitivity status to desertification for various reasons. For example there are areas presenting high sensitivity to low rainfall while other areas are sensitive due to low vegetation cover, low resistance of vegetation to drought, steep slopes and soft parent material (Ferrara et al, 1999). Desertification indicators are those, which indicate the potential risk of desertification while there still time and scope for remedial action. Regional indicators should be based on available international source materials, including remotely sensed images, topographic data (maps or DEMs), climate, soil and geologic data (Woodcock et al, 1994; Pax-Lenney et al, 1996). At the scale ranging 1: 25,000 to 1:1,000,000 the impact of socioeconomic drivers is expressed mainly through pattern of land use. Each regional indicator or group of associated indicators should be focused on a single desertification process. The various types of ESAs to desertification can be distinguished and mapped by using certain key indicators for assessing the land capability to withstand further degradation, or the land suitability for supporting specific types of land use. The key indicators for defining ESAs to desertification can simply be based on four broad categories defining the qualities of soil, climate, vegetation, and land management (Kosmas et al, 1999). This approach includes parameters, which can easily be extracted from reports on soil, vegetation and climate. 2. Methodology The satellite mosaic image of the study area (Fig. 2) was composed from a number of LANDSAT-TM scenes. The main input data for calculating the environmental indices were driven from the analysis of the image, CONOCO (1989) geologic map of Egypt, climatic data recorded by the Ministry of Agriculture. An image processing system (i.e. ERDAS IMAGINE 8.3) and a GIS system (i.e. Arc GIS 9) were the main tools in indices computations and ESAs mapping. The following three quality indices were computed;

(a) Soil Quality Index (SQI), (b) Vegetation Quality Index (VQI) (c) Climatic Quality Index (CQI) Each index was calculated on basis of related properties, as shown in table (1). Table (1) Soil properties related to desertification sensitivity indices Sensitivity Indexes Soil Quality Index (SQI) Related properties Parent Material (p) Soil Texture (t) Soil Depth (d) Slope (s) Erosion protection (Ep) Drought resistance (Dr) Vegetation cover (Vc) Precipitation (P) Potential Evapotranspiration (PET) Algorithm SQI = (Ip * It * Id * Is)

Vegetation Quality Index (VQI)

VQI = (I Ep * I Dr * I Vc) 1/3

Climatic Quality Index (CQI)

CQI = P/PET

Fig. (2) Satellite image mosaic of LANDSAT images, north of the western desert, Egypt

2.1 Mapping of Soil Quality Index (SQI) A number of four soil parameters were considered at the current investigation (i.e. parent material, soil texture, soil depth and slope gradient). Weighting factors were assigned to each category of the considered parameters, on basis of Basso et al, (1998) and Observatory of the Sahel and Sahara (OSS, 2003). The used algorithm was adapted from Medalus project methodology (European Commission, 1999). Tables (1 to 4) demonstrate the assigned indexes for different categories of each parameter. The soil Quality Index (SQI) was calculated on basis of the following equation, and classified according to categories shown in table (5). SQI = (Ip * It * Id * Is) Ip index of parent material, It index of soil texture, Id index of soil depth, Is index of slope gradient)

Table (1) Classes, and assigned weighting index for parent material Class 1) Coherent: Limestone, dolomite, non-friable sandstone, hard limestone layer. 2) Moderately coherent: Marine limestone, friable sandstone 3) Soft to friable: Calcareous clay, clay, sandy formation, alluvium and colluvium Description Good Moderate Poor Score 1.0 1.5 2

Note: In case of deep Aeolian deposits over a rocky parent material, the Aeolian sediments are considered as parent material.

Table (2) Classes, and assigned weighting index for soil depth Class Very deep Moderately deep Not deep Very thin Description Score Soil thickness is more than 1 meter 1 Soil thickness ranges from <1m to 1.33 0.5 m Soil thickness ranges from <0.5m to 1.66 0.25 m Soil thickness 0.15 m 2.00

Table (3) Classes, and assigned weighting index for soil texture Texture Classes Not very light to average Fine to average Fine Coarse Description Score Areas dominated Areas dominated by water erosion by wind erosion 1 1 1.33 1.66 2 1.66 2 2

Loamy sand, Sandy loam, Balanced Loamy clay, Clayey sand, Sandy clay Clayey, Clay loam Sandy to very Sandy

Table (4) Classes, and assigned weighting index for Slope gradient Classes < 6% 6 18 % 19 35 % > 35 % Description Gentle Not very gentle Abrupt Very abrupt Score 1 1.33 1.66 2

Table (5) Classification of soil quality index (SQI) Class 1 2 3 Description High quality Moderate quality Low quality Range <1.13 1.13 to 1.45 > 1.46

2.2 Mapping Vegetation quality index (VQI) Vegetation quality, according to Basso et al (2000) is assessed in terms of three aspects (i.e. erosion protection to the soils, drought resistance and plant cover). The TM satellite images mosaic covering the north of the western desert area (Fig. 2) is the main material used to map vegetation and plant cover classes. Rating values for different vegetation aspects were adapted on basis of OSS (2003) as shown in table (6). Vegetation Quality Index was calculated according the following equation, while VQI was classified on basis of the ranges indicated in table (7). VQI = (I Ep * I Dr * I Vc) 1/3 Where: IEp index of erosion protection, IDr index of drought resistance and IVc index of vegetation cover)

2.3 Mapping of Climatic quality index (CQI) Climatic quality is assessed by using parameters that influence water availability to plants such as the amount of rainfall, air temperature and aridity, as well as climate hazards, which might inhibit plant growth (Thornes, 1995). Table (8) reveals the classification categories of climatic quality index according to OSS, 2003. The Climate quality index is evaluated through the Aridity Index (AI), using the methodology developed by FMA in accordance with the following formula in the current study, rainfall and evapotranspiration data on a number of 33 metrological stations were used to calculate the CSI as follows; CQI = P/PET Where: P is average annual precipitation and PET is average annual Potential Evapo-Tanspiration Table (6) Classes, and assigned weighting index for different vegetation parameters Class 1 2 3 4 5 Description Perennial cultivation Halophytes Temporal and orchards, mixed with crop land Saharan vegetation < 40% Saharan vegetation > 40% IEp 1 1.33 1.66 2 2 IDr 1 1 1.33 1.66 1 IVc 1 1.33 1.66 1 1

Table (7) Classification of vegetation quality index (VQI)

Class 1 2 3 4

Description Good Average Weak Very weak

Range < 1.2 1.2 to 1.4 1.4 to 1.6 > 1.6

Table (8) Classification of Climatic quality index (CQI)

Class number 1 2 3 4 5

Climatic zone Hyper-Arid Arid Semi-Arid Dry Sub-Humid Humid

P/PET < 0.05 0.05 2.0 0.20 0.50 0.50 0.65 > 0.65

CQI 2 1.75 1.50 1.25 1

2.4 Mapping Environmentally Sensitive Areas (ESAs) to Desertification ArcGIS9 software was used to map ESAs to Desertification (Kosmas et al, 1999) by integrating all data concerning the soil, vegetation and climate. Different quality indices were calculated and displayed as GISready maps from which class areas were deduced. The Desertification Sensitivity Index (DSI) was calculated in the polygonal attribute tables linked with the geographic coverage according to the following equation; DSI = (SQI * VQI * CQI) 1/3 Table (9) Ranges and classes of desertification sensitivity index (DSI) Classes 1 2 3 4 5 DSI < 1.2 1.2 < DSI < 1.3 1.3 < DSI <1.4 1.4 < DSI <1.6 DSI > 1.6 Description Non affected areas or very low sensitive areas to desertification Low sensitive areas to desertification Medium sensitive areas to desertification Sensitive areas to desertification Very sensitive areas to desertification

3- Results and discussions 3.1 Soil Quality Index (SQI) The geologic map was used to deduce the nature of parent material, using the GIS system. The results show that 48% of the territory is originated from soft to friable parent material (i.e. friable sand, calcareous

clay and colluviums materials). The coherent parent materials are limited in the study area. The soil depth (Fig. 3) was also evaluated on basis of both geologic map (CONCO, 1989) and soil map of the Land Master Plan (Ministry of Development, 1986). The soils are mostly characterized by shallow to very shallow soil depth representing 71% of study area. Those soils characterized by deep profiles do not exceed more than 29% of the whole territory, located mainly in the wadies and sandy plains. The very deep soils are limited to the western extension of the Nile Delta and particular spots along the coastline.

Fig. (3) Categories of soil depth as contributing in soil quality index The soil texture was assessed on basis of the geomorphology, deduced from the ETM satellite mosaic. Fig. (4) shows that the most sensitive coarse textured soils amount 40% of study territory. The wadi and undulating landscape are exhibited by very light to average textured soils, covering 47% of all soils. The colluviums (13%), brought by the alluvial fans and ravines, at the fringes of the high land, are exhibited by fine to average textured soils.

Fig. (4) Categories of soil Texture classes as contributing in soil quality index

The slope gradient (Fig. 5) was classified, on basis of topographic maps and digital elevation model (DEM).

Fig. (5) Categories of slope gradient as contributing in soil quality index Calculating the soil quality index (Fig. 6 and table 10) reveal that the moderate quality soil index characterizes 52.3% of the study area in parts of the coastal plain, including the wadi soils and Siwa oasis. Also, the western extension of the Nile Delta is classified as moderate soil quality index. The very low and low soil quality classes characterize most of the western desert soils, covering shallow and rugged landscaped soils at the coastal plain and plateau. They exhibit 46.7% and 1% respectively.

Fig. (6) Categories of Soil Quality Index (SQI) classes

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Table (10) Area percentages of Soil Quality Index (SQI) classes Class Very Low Quality Low Quality Moderate Quality Total 3.2 Vegetation Quality Index (VQI) Hyperid classification of ETM images resulted in identifying a number of four vegetation classes. Each of these classes was given a score evaluating vegetation cover, erosion protection and drought resistance. Calculating the vegetation quality index, on basis of the previous parameters (Fig. 7 and table 11) reveal that the 76.8% of the vegetation cover, spread as desert shrubs, is very weak and sensitive to desertification. The good vegetation index class, which may resist desertification, represents only 2.1% of the vegetation cover and mostly restricted at northeastern corner, on the Nile Delta western extension. The average vegetation Index characterize the orchard vegetation at the coast and the newly reclaimed areas, irrigated from the new El-Hamam canal. Area % 46.7 01.0 52.3 100

Fig. (6) Different categories of vegetation quality index (VQI) classes

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Table (11) Area percentages of vegetation quality index (VQI) classes

Classes Good Average Very Weak & weak

Areas (%) 2.1 21.3 76.7

3.3 Climate Quality Index (CQI) The interpolation of rainfall and potential evapo-transpiration data resulted in obtaining climatic thematic map layers (Figs. 7 and 8). The climatic sensitivity index (CQI) was calculated and displayed in a GIS ready map (Fig. 9). Most rainfed areas are located in the northern coastal region and dont exceed 200 mm. annually. The average annual rainfall drops down to almost zero, at less than 50 150 km distance south of the Mediterranean coast. The average annual potential evapo-transpiration is relatively high in the whole country, however increases southwards. Table (12) shows the areas of climatic quality index classes. The hyper arid climatic conditions characterize 89.3% of the whole study area, while 10.7% is characterized by arid climatic conditions.

Fig. (7) Average annual precipitation in the northwestern area of Egypt, on basis of meteorological data

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Fig. (8) Average annual potential evapo-transpiration in the northwestern area of Egypt, on basis of meteorological data

Fig. (9) Different classes of climate quality (Aridity) index (CQI) in the northwestern area of Egypt

Table (12) Areas of different climatic quality index (CQI) classes Class Hyper-arid Arid Total 100 % 89.3 10.7

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3.4 Environmentally Sensitive Areas (ESAs) to Desertification The three previous indices were used together for the assessment of the environmentally sensitive areas (ESAs) to desertification, on basis of the calculated Desertification Sensitivity Index (DSI). Fig. (10) shows the distribution of ESAs, while table (13) demonstrates their areas. It is clear that most of the study area is very sensitive and sensitive to desertification; these classes exhibit 55.2 and 42.6% of the total area respectively. The western extension of the Nile Delta, covering 2.2% of the area, is classified as moderately sensitive, as its moderate quality soils are protected by good quality vegetation. The oases, as Siwa oasis, lie within the areas vulnerable to high desertification sensitivity index.

Fig. (10) Environmentally sensitive areas (ESAs) for desertification in North of Western desert, Egypt Table (13) Occurrence of Environmentally sensitive areas (ESAs)

Classes Moderately sensitive Sensitive Very sensitive

Areas (%) 2.2 42.6 55.2

4. Conclusions and Recommendations It can be concluded that the quantitative approach for assessing the desertification is rather important for planning sustainable development

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programs. Desertification sensitivity index demonstrates a clearer vision of risk state, thus, reliable priority actions can be planned. Remote sensing, in addition to thematic maps, may supply valuable information concerning the soil and vegetation quality at the general scale. However, field validation will be necessary to insinuate on ground truth information. The Geographic Information System (GIS) is a valuable tool to store, retrieve and manipulate the huge amount of data needed to compute and map different quality indices to desertification. The Northwestern coast of Egyptian is susceptible to very high to high desertification sensitivity. Action measures are essential for the sustainable agricultural projects located in the rainfed area at north of western desert and its oases. It can be recommended that mathematical modeling should be developed for the operational monitoring of different elements contributing in desertification sensitivity. Multi scale an multi-seasonal mapping of ESAs are needed to point out the risk magnitude and causes of degradation, specially for desert oases. 5. References Basso F., Bellotti A., Bove E., Faretta S., Ferrara A., Mancino G., Pisante M., Quaranta, G., Taberner M., (1998). Degradation processes in the Agri Basin: evaluating environmental sensitivity to desertification at basin scale. Proceedings International Seminar on 'Indicator for Assessing Desertification in the Mediterranean'. Porto Torres, Italy 18 - 20 September. Edited by G. Enne, M. D'Angelo, C. Zanolla. Supported by ANPA via Brancati 48 - 00144 Roma. pp 131-145 Basso F., Bove E., Dumontet S., Ferrara A., Pisante M., Quaranta, G., Taberner M., (2000). Evaluating Environmental Sensitivity at the basin scale through the use of Geographic Information Systems and Remote Sensed data: an example covering the Agri basin (southern Italy). Catena 40 : 19-35 CONOCO Inc. (1989). Startigraphic Lexicon and explanatory notes to the geological amp of Egypt 1- 500,000, eds. Maurice Hermina, Eberhard klitzsch and Franz K. List, pp. 263, Cairo: CONOCO Inc., ISBN 3-927541-09-5. European Commission (1999). The Medalus project Mediterranean desertification and land use- Manual on key indicators of desertification and mapping environmentally sensitive areas to desertification, pp. 84, Eds. C. kosmas, M. Kirkby and N. Geeson, European environment and climate

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research program Theme: Land resources and the threat of desertification and soil erosion in Europe (Project ENV4 CT 95 0119). Ferrara A., Bellotti A., Faretta S., Mancino G., Taberner M. (1999). Identification and assessment of Environmentally Sensitive Areas by Remote Sensing. MEDALUS III 2.6.2. - OU Final Report. King's College, London. Volume 2: 397-429 Kosmas C., Ferrara A., Briasouli H., Imeson A. (1999). Methodology for mapping Environmentally Sensitive Areas (ESAs) to Desertification. In 'The Medalus project Mediterranean desertification and land use. Manual on key indicators of desertification and mapping environmentally sensitive areas to desertification. Edited by: C. Kosmas, M.Kirkby, N.Geeson. European Union 18882. pp:31-47 ISBN 92-828-6349-2 Ministry of Development (1986). Land Master Plan, Joint project (Kingdome of the Netherlands Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Directorate General for International Co-operation and Arab Republic of Egypt, Ministry of Development, General Authority for Rehabilitation Projects and Agricultural Development. Nicholson, S.E, C.J Tucker, and M.B Ba. (1998). Desertification, Drought and Surface Vegetation: an example from the West African Sahel. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 79 (5): 815-829. Pax-Lenney, M., Woodcock, C.E., Collins, J. and Hamdi, H. (1996). The status of agricultural lands in Egypt: The use of multitemporal NDVI features derived from Landsat TM. Remote Sensing of Environment. In Press OSS (2003). Map of sensitivity to desertification in the Mediterranean basinProposal for the methodology for the final map, Rome: Observatory of the Sahara and Sahel (OSS). Thornes J.B. (1995). Mediterranean desertification and the vegetation cover. In EUR 15415 - "Desertification in a European context: Physical and socioeconomic aspects", edited by R.Fantechi, D.Peter, P.Balabanis, J.L. Rubio. Brussels, Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities. 169-194 Tucker, C.J, Dregne, H.E, Newcomb WW (1991). Expansion and Contraction of the Sahara Desert from 1980 to 1990. Science 253: 299-301. Woodcock, CE., El-Baz, F., Hamdi, H. et. al (1994), Desertification of Agricultural Lands in Egypt by Remote Sensing. Final Report

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