Zoning Prohibitionsof HighImpact Activities

AssociationofTowns MarcellusShaleWorkshop June24,2011 HelenSlottje,Esq.&DavidSlottje,Esq. CommunityEnvironmentalDefenseCouncil,Inc. CedcLaw.org hslottje@cedclaw.org

Overview
Disclaimer:Educational NotLegalAdvice Whataretownsauthorizedtoprotect? Whatformofactionscantownstake? Answerstosometypicalquestions.

RestrictionsonLocalPower
Amunicipalitycannotadoptlocallawsthatareinconsistent withtheStateConstitutionoranygenerallawoftheState. MHRL10(1)(ii) Preemptionmaybeexpressorimplied. Whendealingwithanexpresspreemptionprovision,aswe dohere,itisunnecessarytoconsiderthedoctrinesofimplied orconflictpreemption.Instead,theresolutioninthiscase turnssolelyuponproperstatutoryconstructionofTILAs credit cardapplicationandsolicitationpreemptionprovision.People oftheStateofNewYorkv.AppliedCardService,11N.Y.3d105 (2008)(citingFrew Run,citationsomitted).

Preemption
NewYorkStateOil&GasLaw,ECL230303(2):

Theprovisionsofthisarticleshall supersedealllocallawsorordinances relatingtotheregulationoftheoil,gas andsolutionminingindustries; butshallnotsupersedelocalgovernment jurisdictionoverlocalroadsortherightsof localgovernmentsundertherealproperty taxlaw.

RequirementsforLocalActions
Consistent,Rational. Determinationmusthavearationalbasis notarbitrary andcapricious. Ordinancemustbedesignedingoodfaithtoaccomplish thegeneralpublicgoodforwhichtheordinanceis adopted. Courtscannotinquireintomotivesinducinglegislative act(absentfraud/corruption)butwillconsiderpurpose. Considerproblemspresentedandreasonableand uniformprovisionstodealwiththem,thattendto promotethegeneralcommunitywelfare(ascomparedto individuals).

Whataresomeimpactsfrom gasdrilling?
Thereareissueswithdrillingwells,buttheydontcomefrom fracking....Wecantearuparoad,wecanbenoisy,wecan createdust,wecanhurtsomebody,andsometimesthereisa lackoftransparencyaboutoperations.Allthosearelegitimate concerns,butfracking isnotthestory. ChesapeakeCEOAubreyMcClendononApril8,2011. http://sabew.org/2011/04/mcclendontobusinessjournalists getthestory/

Canweprotectourtowns againstthesekindsofimpacts?

PublicHealth,Safety&Welfare
Anordinanceregulatingpropertyusewillthereforebeupheld unlessitisclearlyarbitraryandunreasonable,havingno substantialrelationshiptothepublichealth,safety,moral,or generalwelfare.VillageofEuclidv.AmblerRealtyCo.,272US 365(1926)

LackofAdequate Infrastructure
Mayusezoningtopreventusesforwhichthephysical andfinancialresourcesofthetownareinadequate. Goldenv.TownofRampano,30NY2d359(1972)

CharacterandValueof ResidentialProperty
Thereforeitseemstousquiteinaccordancewiththe decisionsandprinciplestowhichwehavereferredthatzoning authoritiesshouldhavetherightinaresidentialdistrictto promotethesepurposes[thesafe,healthful,andcomfortable familyliferatherthanthedevelopmentofcommercial instinctsandthepursuitofpecuniaryprofits]andtoprotect thepeopledesiringtoenjoytheseconditions.tosay nothingofotherthingssuchasthedestructionofthe characterofthedistrictasaresidentialoneandthe impairmentinvalueofpropertyalreadydevotedtoprivate residences. Wulfsohnv.Burden,241NY288(1925)

TrafficCongestion
ZoningOrdinancesmaybedesignedtolessencongestionsin thestreets.TownLaw 263,VillageLaw 7704,CityLaw 20(24) Theinterestofthegovernmentinpreservingcomparative tranquilityinresidentialareasisunquestionablylegitimate andprotectsquietplaceswheremotorvehiclesarerestricted. VillageofBelleTerrev.Boraas,416US1(1974) Localgovernmentmayconsiderandrespondtohealthand safetyconcernsfromdieselexhaust,truckaccidents,dangers topedestrians.

DestructionofHighways
Publichighwaysareavailableforordinaryuse, transportation,andtrafficinanyreasonablemanner. the[government]hastherighttoconsidertheconvenienceof thegreatmajorityofthecitizensandtheburdensthatmaybe imposeduponthembytaxationforconstructionand maintaininghighways. Ithasthepowerandrighttoexcludefromtheuseofthe highwayspersonsusingvehiclesconstitutingadangertothe integrityofthehighwayitself.... [Theserestrictionsare]intendedtoprotectandpreservefor ordinaryandcommonusetheimprovedhighwaysconstructed atgreatexpense. (cont nextslide)
TownofWaterfordv.LBBrockettLumberCo.,237NYS436(3rd Dept.1929)

PeaceandQuiet
Publicsafety,publichealth,morality,peaceandquiet,law andorderthesearesomeofthemoreconspicuousexamples ofthetraditionalapplicationofthepolicepowertomunicipal affairs.Yettheymerelyillustratethescopeofthepowerand donotdelimitit. Bermanv.Parker,348US26(1954) Mayexcludeindustrialusesfromresidential,commercialand agriculturaldistricts. VillageofBelleTerre, 416US1(1974)

NegativeImpactsonNeighbors
Applicablecaselawdrawsadichotomybetweenthose regulationsthatdirectlyrelatetothephysicaluseoflandand thosethatregulatethemannerofoperationofabusinessor otherenterprise.Inthefirstgroupareregulationsrelating eithertotheuseofsuchlandortothepotentialimpactof landuseonneighboringproperties.Courtsgenerallyuphold suchregulations,includingthosedirectedatphysical externalities suchaslight,airquality,safety,population density,traffic,andevenlesstangibleexternalitiessuchas propertyvalues,aesthetic,orenvironmentalvalues. LouhalProperties,Inc.v.Strada,743NYS2d810(NassauCty 2002),affd 763NYS2d773(2nd Dept.2003)

CommunityRights
Amunicipalityisnotobligedtopermittheexploitation ofanyandallnaturalresourceswithinthetownasa permitteduseiflimitingthatuseisareasonableexercise ofitspolicepowerstopreventdamagetotherightsof othersandtopromotetheinterestsofthecommunityas awhole. Gernatt AsphaltProducts,Inc.v.TownofSardinia,87NY2d 668(1996)

Whatformofactioncanwe take?

Moratorium
Maybeadoptedasastopgaporinterimmeasurewhereitis reasonablydesignedtotemporarilyhaltdevelopmentwhile themunicipalityconsiders,interalia,comprehensivezoning changes.CellularTelephonev.VillageofTarrytown,624 NYS2d170(2nd Dept.1995) Enactmentofmoratoriumrequiresfollowingsamelegal proceduresashadtobefollowedwhenthelegislationthatit suspends. MoratoriumisaTypeIIActionandisexemptfromSEQRA
6NYCRR 617.5(c)(30)

StandAlonePolicePowerLaw
Withorwithoutzoning Thelocallaw(prohibitingwastedisposalfacilitieswithinthe town)isnotazoningordinance;itdoesnotinvolvea comprehensiveormasterplanfordividingthecommunityinto zoneswherespecifiedusesarepermittedbutratheris directedatoneparticularactivitynomatterwhereinthe townitiscarriedout.NiagaraRecyclingInc.v.Townof Niagara,443NYS2d939(2nd Dept1981)

AmendmenttoZoning
Amendmentsthatmakeitclearthatallnonpermitteduses areprohibited. Amendmenttospecificallyprohibitallgasdrillingand/or relatedindustrialactivities. Amendmenttoprohibithighimpactindustrialuses.

TypicalQuestions

MustweUpdatethe ComprehensivePlan?
Appellantsfirstmaintainthatthestatementsofpurposeinthe zoningordinanceandMasterPlanrelatingtothe establishmentofaconservancydistrictaretoogeneralized tosustainthelegitimacyoftheamendedordinanceasapplied [inthiscase].Specifically,theycomplainthat[p]rohibition of theextractionofstoneisnotevensuggestedbytheMaster Plantoberelatedtothispurpose(ortoanyother).They seemtosaythat,inorderfortheprohibitionofquarryingto berelatedlegitimatelytotheCity'sstatedaimsofmaintaining flexibilityregardingfuturelanduse,thePlanorthezoning ordinancemusthavegivenexplicitreasonsforthatparticular prohibition.

No BroadObjectivesWork
Werejectthiscontention.Althoughthezoningordinance,as appliedto[thiscase],mustsubstantiallyadvancelegitimate interestsoftheCity,thefederalconstitutiondoesnotrequire ittocontainaspecificexplanationforeachprohibitionagainst aparticularlandusewithinthedistrict.Nosuchrequirement wasplacedontheCityofTiburon,California,inAgins,supra. The[Supreme]Courtacceptedassufficientthegeneral purposesunderlyingtheTiburonzoningordinancewhich,like theSaratogaSpringsdesignationofconservancydistricts,will discouragetheprematureandunnecessaryconversionof openspacelandtourbanuses.Comparablebroadobjectives havebeenrepeatedlyupheldasadequateinthepast.Pompa ConstructionCorp.v.CityofSaratogaSprings,706F.2d418 (1983)

Whatifwerequireaspecial usepermitforanactivity?
Specialusesarealloweduses theirinclusioninazoningcode isequivalenttoalegislativedeterminationthattheyare properforthezone.Asageneralmatter,atowncannotdeny theapplicationonthegroundthatitisnotinharmonywith thepurposeandintentofzoning.Areviewingboardisthus requiredtograntthepermitunlesstherearesignificant negativeimpacts.NorthShoreSteakHouseInc.V.Boardof AppealsofIncorporatedVillageofThomaston,30NY2d238 (1972) Allowsheightenedlevelofreview,mayimposemitigating conditions.

Canwereallyjustprohibitan activity?

ProhibitionofTransferStation Upheld
Theexclusionofcommercialsolidwastetransferstations fromthescheduleofpermittedusescontainedinthetowns zoningordinancedoesamounttoacompleteprohibition. However,suchaprohibitionisnotperseunreasonable;the ordinancemustbescrutinizedtodeterminewhetheritis clearlyarbitraryandunreasonable,havingnosubstantial relationtothepublichealth,safety,moralsorgeneralwelfare. Totheextentthatthisordinanceprohibitstransferstations,it issufficientlyrelatedtothetownsconcernswiththeeffect thatgarbage,rubbishandrefusekept,eventemporarily,on privatelandswithinthetownwouldhaveonthepublichealth, safetyandwelfare.Norcantheordinancebesaidtounduly burdeninterstatecommerce. TownofLaGrangev.Giovenetti Enterprises,507NYS2d54(2nd Dept.1986)

ProhibitionofHotelUpheld
Zoningcodeprovisionupheldthatprohibitedandexcluded operationofhotel.Thegoaloftheamendedzoningwasto provideforfutureneedsforofficespaceandtopromotean officeparkenvironmentTheimpactonresidentialdistricts wastobeminimizedbyprovidingusesthatwouldnot generatetrafficintheeveningsorweekends.TheCourt foundthattherewasareasonablerelationshipbetweenthe endssoughttobeachievedbytheregulationandthemeans adoptedtoachievethatendandthusconstitutesavalid exerciseofthevillagespolicepowercompatiblewithdue processandalegitimatezoningpurpose.Mindelv.Villageof Thomason,541NYS2d526(2nd Dept.1989)

ProhibitionofStorageof HazardousGoodsUpheld
ATownszoningcodeprovisiononlyallowedwarehousestostore nonpollutingandnonhazardousmanufacturedgoods.Petitioners desiredtouselandforawarehouseforstorageoflubricatingoiland grease.TheZBAinterpretedthezoningcodetoexcludethestorage ofpetroleum.TheCourtupheldtheZBAs findingandrejectedthe petitionersargumentthatthetownsprohibitionagainstwas expresslyandimpliedlypreemptedbythePetroleumBulkStorage Code.TheCourtfoundthatthezoningordinancedidnotpertainto theinstallation,maintenanceandabandonment,orstorageof petroleum.Rather,asinterpretedbytheZBA,thezoningordinance categoricallyprohibitedtheusesoughtbythepetitioners.... Moreover,theinterestoftheTowninpreventingwaterpollutionis notinconsistentwiththeunderlyingpurposeofarticle17oftheECL, whichis,inpart,topreventwaterpollutionarisingfrompetroleum spillsandleaks.JIJRealtyCorp.v.Costello,658NYS2d92(2nd Dept. 1997)

Denialbasedontraffic
PlanningBoarddeniedaspecialusepermitforamine, finding: substantialtrafficcongestionandsafetyhazardswouldbe createdbytrucks..withnofeasiblealternativespresented trucksnecessaryfortheoperationoftheminewouldcreate safetyproblemstravellingthroughMainStreetintheVillage. heavyvolumeofpedestrianandvehiculartrafficexistedat schoolcampusbywhichthetruckroutewouldhavetopass. Courtupheldthedenialandfoundthattheminingcompanys promisetocorrectormitigateproblemslater,ifsodirectedby NYSDOT,wasreasonablyfoundtobeinadequateinlightof theimpactonthecommunity.
R.J.Valente GravelInc.v.TownofKinderhook,673NYS2d265(3rd Dept.1998)

Aresomeusesspecial?
[E]ven religious[andeducational]institutions[must] accommodatetofactorsdirectlyrelevanttopublichealth, safetyorwelfare,inclusiveoffireandsimilaremergencyrisks, andtrafficconditionsinsofarastheyinvolvepublicsafety [citationsomitted]CornellUniversityv.Bagnardi,510NYS2d 861(1986)quotingJewishReconstructionist Synagoguev. IncorporatedVil.ofRoslynHarbor,379N.Y.S.2d747,[Breitel, Ch.J.,concurring]).

Whataboutexclusionary zoning?
ExclusionaryZoningDefined: Exclusionaryzoningmayoccureitherbecausethe municipalityhaslimitedthepermissibleuseswithina communitytoexcludecertaingroupsorhasimposed restrictionssostringentthattheirpracticaleffectistoprevent allbutthewealthyfromlivingthere.Itisaformofracialor socioeconomicdiscriminationwhichwehaverepeatedly condemned. AsianAmericansforEqualityv.Koch,72NY2d121(1988) (internalcitationsomitted).

Areindustrialuseslike disadvantagedpeople?
Theruleagainstexclusionaryzoning,however,doesnotapply topreventtheexclusionofindustrialuses.Gernatt Asphalt,642 N.Y.S.2dat173,664N.E.2d1226.Thus,plaintiff'sallegationthatit wasbarredfromestablishingasuperstoreintheTowndoes notstateaclaim. GreatAtlantic&PacificTeaCo.v.TownofEastHampton,997 F.Supp.340(1998)

Isanindustrialuselikean adultuse?
Norisitsignificantthatdefinitionsofadultusesinthe AmendedZoningResolutionarebasedinpartonthecontent oftheentertainmentofferedratherthanexclusivelyonthe ageofthebusinesses'clientele.ThetestunderbothIslipand Rentonisnotwhethertheregulatedestablishmentsare definedwithoutreferencetocontentbutwhetherthe ordinance'sgoalisunrelatedtosuppressingthatcontent.That testisplainlymethere. Stringfellows ofNewYorkLtdv.CityofNewYork,91NY2d382 (1998) Adultusesareprotectedfromcontentregulationasfree speech.

Isalanduseprohibitiona taking?
AstheUnitedStatesSupremeCourthasnoted,the submissionthat[apropertyowner]mayestablishataking simplybyshowingthattheyhavebeendeniedtheabilityto exploitapropertyinterestthattheyheretoforehadbelieved wasavailablefordevelopmentisquitesimplyuntenable. BriarcliffAssociatesInc.v.TownofCortlandt,534NYS2d215 (quotingPennCentralTransp.Co.v.CityofNewYork,438US 104.)

Whataboutequalprotection?
Asageneralrule,legislaturesarepresumedtohaveacted withintheirconstitutionalpowerdespitethefactthat,in practice,theirlawsresultinsomeinequality.Accordingly,this Court'scasesareclearthat,unlessaclassificationwarrants someformofheightenedreviewbecauseitjeopardizes exerciseofafundamentalrightorcategorizesonthebasisof aninherentlysuspectcharacteristic,theEqualProtection Clauserequiresonlythattheclassificationrationallyfurthera legitimatestateinterest. Nordlingerv.Hahn,505US1(1992)

THANKYOU
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