THE OSI MODEL:

An ISO standard that covers all aspects of network communications is the OSI model. The purpose of the OSI model is to open communication between different systems without requiring changes to logic of underlying hardware and software. The OSI model is not a protocol, it is used for understanding and designing a network architecture. OSI LAYERS: Sender wants to send a message to receiver, Message travel via a number of intermediate nodes. These intermediate nodes usually involve only the first three layers of the OSI model. The sender and the recipient use the other four layers. Peer-to-Peer Processes: Within a single machine, each layer calls upon the services of the layer just below it. Layer 3, uses the service provided by Layer 2 and provides services for layer 4. Between machine, layer x on one machine communicates with layer x on another machine. This communication is governed by an agreeupon series of rules and conventions called protocols. Communication between machines is therefore a peer-to-peer process using the protocols appropriate to given layer. Headers and Trailers: At the physical layer communication is direct, machine A sends a stream of bits to Machine B. at the higher layers, however, communication must move down through the layers on machine A, over to machine B, and then back up through the layers. Each layer in the sending machine adds its own information to the message it receives from the layer just above it and passes the whole package to the layer just below it. This information is added in the form of headers or trailers.

Interfaces between layers: The passing of the data and network information down through the layers of the sending machine and back up through the layers of the receiving machine is made possible by an interface between each pair of adjacent layers. Organization of the layers Layers 1,2and3 are the network support layers; they deal with the physical aspects of moving data from one device to another. Layers 5,6 and 7 are the user support layers; they allow interoperability among unrelated software systems. Layer 4 ensures end-to-end reliable data transmission. Layer2 ensures reliable transmission on a single link. The upper layer implemented in software, lower layers are a combination of hardware and software, except physical layer. Physical layer implemented in hardware. An overall view of the OSI layers: L7 data means the data unit at layer 7; L6 data means the data unit at layer 6 and so on. The process starts out at layer 7, and then moves from layer to layer in descending order. At each layer (except 7 and 1), a header is added to the data unit. At layer 2, a trailer is added as well. At layer 1 is changed into an electromagnetic signed and transported along a physical link. OSI LAYER FUNCTIONS: PHYSICAL LAYER: It is concerned with sending raw bits between the adjacent nodes, across the communication medium. It deals with the mechanical and electrical specifications of the interface and transmission medium. To do this, the source and the destination nodes have to agree on a number of factors such as what voltage constitutes a bit value 0, what voltage constitutes bit value 1, what is the bit interval, whether the communication is only in one direction or in both directions, simultaneously and so on.

 The physical layer is concerned with the following o Physical characteristics of interfaces and media o Representation of bits o Data rate o Synchronization of bits o Line configuration o Physical topology. o Transmission mode. DATA LINK LAYER: It is responsible for transmitting a group of bits between the adjacent nodes. The group of bits is called as frame. The network layer passes a data unit to the data link layer. At this stage, the data link layer adds header and trailer information to this. It is a reliable link for node-tonode delivery. Specific responsibilities of the data link layer include the following o Framing o Physical addressing o Flow control o Error control o Access control NETWORK LAYER: The network layer is responsible for routing a packet within the subnet. i.e., from the source to the destination nodes across multiple nodes in the multiple network. This layer ensures the successful delivery of a packet to this destination node. If two systems are connected to the same link, there is usually no need for a network layer. However, if the two systems are attached to different networks, there is often a need for the network layer to accomplish source-to-destination delivery. Specific responsibilities of the network layer include the following: o Logical addressing o Routing

TRANSPORT LAYER: It is responsible for source-to-destination delivery of the entire message. A header at the transport layer contains information that helps to send the message to the corresponding layer at the destination node. The transport layer ensures that the complete message arrives at the destination, and in the proper order and is passed on to the proper application. The transport layer may create a connection between the two end ports. Creating a connection involves three steps: o Connection establishment, o Data transfer, o Connection release. Specific responsibilities of the transport layer include the following o Service point addressing o Segmentation and reassembly. o Connection control. o Flow control o Error control SESSION LAYER: The main functions of the session layer are to establish, maintain and synchronize the interaction between two communicating hosts. It makes sure that a session once established is closed gracefully, and not abruptly Specific responsibilities of the transport layer include the following o Dialog control o Synchronization PRESENTATION LAYER: The presentation layer is concerned with the syntax and semantics of the information exchange between two systems. The presentation layer is responsible to take care of (a) data encryption and decryption for security and (b) data compression and decompression for more efficiency in data transmission.

APPLICATION LAYER: The top most layers in the OSI model, enables a user to access the network. The application programs using the network services also reside at this layer. This layer provides user interface for network applications such as remote file transfer, electronic mail, database access, World Wide Web etc.,