Organisational Development

KSR CAS
ORGANISATIONAL DEVELOPMENT
2012
A R Lakshmi Rajan
2012
KSRCAS
ORGANIZATIONAL DEVELOPMENT PART I
A.R.LAKSHMI RAJAN KSRCAS
Introduction: Definition of Organization Development (OD) History of Organization Development Values, Assumption and Beliefs of OD. DEFINITION OF ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT: Beckhard 1969 Organization Development is an effort planned, organization-wide and managed from the top, to increase organization effectiveness and health through planned interventions in the organizations processes using behavioral science knowledge. Bennis, 1969 Organization Development is a response to change, a complex educational strategy intended to change the beliefs, attitudes, values, and structure of organizations so that they can better adapt to new technologies, markets and challenges and the dizzying rate of change itself. Cummings and Worley, 1993 Organization Development is a systematic application of behavioral science to the planned development and reinforcement of organizational strategies, structures, and process for improving an organizations effectiveness. Wendell L. French, Cecil H. Bell Jr, Veena Vohra Organization Development is a long term effort, led and supported by top management to improve an organizations visioning, empowerment, learning and problem-solving processes, through an ongoing, collaborative management of organizations culture with special emphasis on the culture of intact work teams and other team configurations using the consultantfacilitator role and the theory and technology of applied behavioral science, including action research. Characteristics of Organization Development 1. OD focuses on culture and processes. 2. OD encourages collaboration between organization leaders and members in managing culture and processes. 3. Teams of all kinds are particularly important for accomplishing tasks and are targets for OD activities. 4. OD focuses on the human and social side of the organization. 5. Participation and involvement in problem solving. 6. Decision making by all levels of the organization. 7. OD focuses on total system change. 8. OD practitioners are facilitators, collaborators, and co-learners. 9. OD seeks betterment of both individuals and the organization.
Source : Wendell L. French and Cecil H .Bell Junior. 2001. Organizational Development [Second Edition]. Prentice Hall of India. New Delhi.
ORGANIZATIONAL DEVELOPMENT
The aims of OD: Enhancing congruence between organizational structure, processes, strategy, people and culture. Developing new and creative organizational solutions. Developing the organizations self-renewing capacity. HISTORY OF ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT: OD emerged from five major backgrounds or stems, as follows I. The first was the growth of Laboratory training (National Training Laboratories NTL) and the development of the training groups, otherwise known as sensitivity training or T-groups. II. The second stem of OD is action research conducted by social scientists interested in applying research to managing change. III. The third stem of OD is Participative management to organization structure and design. IV. The fourth stem is the approach focusing on productivity and the quality of work life. V. The fifth stem of OD is the most influence on current practice, involves strategic change and organization transformation. Laboratory training Laboratory training, or the T-group a small, unstructured group in which participants learn from their own interactions and evolving dynamics about such issues as interpersonal relations, personal growth, leadership and group dynamics. Laboratory training began in the summer of 1946 by Kurt Lewin and his staff at the Research Centre for Group Dynamics at the Massachussetts Institute of technology (MIT). A workshop was developed, and the community leaders were brought together to learn about leadership and to discuss problems. At the end of each day, the researchers discuss privately what behaviors and group dynamics they have observed. The community leaders asked first permission to sit in on the feedback sessions. Reluctant at first, the researchers finally agreed. Thus, the first T-group was formed in which people reacted to data about their own behavior. The researcher findings through T-group experiment: Feedback about group interaction was a rich learning experience. The process of group building had potential for learning. As a result of this experience, the office of Naval Research and the National Education Association provided financial banking to form the National Training Laboratories. The first basic skill groups were offered in the summer
of 1947. The program was so successful the Carnegie foundation provided support for programs in 1948 and 1949. This led to a permanent program for NTL. In the 1950s, three trends emerged 1) The emergence of regional laboratories. 2) The expansion of summer program sessions to year-round sessions. 3) The expansion of the T-group into business and industry. Application of T-groups methods at companies initiates new term organization development. Applying T-group techniques to organizations gradually became known as team building a process for helping work groups become more effective in accomplishing tasks and satisfying member needs. Action Research and Survey Feedback The action research began in 1940 with studies conducted by social scientists John Collier, Kurt Lewin, and William Whyte. They discovered that research needed to be closely linked to action if organization members were to use it to manage change. A collaborative effort was initiated between organizations members and social scientists to collect research data about an organizations functioning, to analyze cause for problems, and to invent and implement solutions. After implementation, further data were collected to assess the results, and the cycle of data collection and action often continued. The result of action research, as follows 1) Members of organizations were able to use research on themselves to guide action and change. 2) Social scientists were able to study that process to derive knowledge. A key component of action research studies was the systematic collection of survey data that was fed back to the client organization. Likert and Floyd Mann administered a companywide survey of management and employee attitudes at Detroit Edison. Over a two year period, three sets of data were developed: 1) The viewpoints of eight thousand nonsupervisory employees about their supervisor, promotion opportunities, and work satisfaction with fellow employees, 2) Similar questions to first and second line supervisors. 3) Information from higher levels of management. The major findings of the survey were first reported to top management and then transmitted throughout the organization. The feedback sessions were conducted in task groups, with supervisors and their immediate subordinates discussing the data together. Feedback sessions used as a process to change. Participative management:
Participative management is research by Likert. Organizations have one of four types of management systems, as follows. Exploitative authoritative systems (system 1) exhibit an autocratic, top-down approach to leadership. Employee motivation is based on punishment and occasional rewards. Communication is primarily downward, and there is little lateral interaction or teamwork. Decision making and control reside primarily at the top of the organization. System 1 results in average performance. Benevolent authoritative systems (system 2) employees are allowed a little more interaction, communication and decision making but within boundaries defined by management. Consultative systems (system 3) increase employee interaction, communication and decision making. Although employees are consulted about problems and decisions, management still makes final decisions. Productivity is good, and employees are moderately satisfied with organization. Participative group systems (system 4) are almost the opposite of system 1. Designed around group methods of decision making and supervision, these methods promote higher degree of member involvement and participation. Communication occurs both laterally and vertically, and decisions are linked throughout the organization. System 4 achieves high levels of productivity, quality and satisfaction. Quality of Work Life Background: Eric Trist and his colleagues at the Tavistock Institute of Human Relations in London, early practitioners in Great Britain, Ireland, Norway and Sweden developed work designs aimed at better integrating technology and people. The QWL programs generally involved joint participation by unions and management in the design of work. Work design gives employee high levels of discretion, task variety and feedback about results. QWL developed self managing work groups, which is composed of multi-skilled workers who were given the necessary autonomy and information to design and manage their own task performances. QWL defined in terms of peoples reaction to work, particularly individual outcomes related to job satisfaction and mental health. QWL is technique and approach used for improving work. QWL is synonymous with words such as job enrichment, self managed teams, and labor management committees. In 1980, more than eighteen hundred people attended QWL conference in Toronto, which comprise of academics, managers and workers. Today, this second phase of QWL activity continues primarily under the banner employee involvement. Employee involvement emphasis on how employee can
contribute more to running organization so it can be more flexible, productive and competitive. Strategic change Background: The strategic change background is a recent influence on ODs evolution. As organizations and their technological, political, and social environments have become more complex and more uncertain, the scale and intricacies of organizational change have increased. This trend has produced the need for a strategic perspective from OD and encouraged planned change processes at the organization level. Strategic change involves improving the alignment among an organizations environment, strategy and organization design. Strategic change interventions include efforts to improve both the organizations relationship to environment and the fit between its technical, political and cultural systems. The need for strategic change is usually triggered by some major disruption to the organization, such as lifting of regulatory requirements, a technological advance or a new executive officer coming in from outside the organization. VALUES, ASSUMPTIONS AND BELIEFS OF OD: A belief is a proposition about how the world works that the individual accepts as true; it is a cognitive fact for the person. Values are also beliefs and are defined as: beliefs about what is a desirable or a good and what is undesirable or a bad. Assumptions are beliefs that are regarded as so valuable and obviously correct that they are taken for granted and rarely examined or questioned. Thus values, assumption and beliefs are all cognitive facts, with values being beliefs about good and bad, and assumptions are unexamined beliefs accepted as the truth. Values, assumptions and beliefs help people to understand the world around them. Early statements of OD values and assumptions Normative goals of OD practitioners proposed by Warren Bennis 1. Improvement in interpersonal competence. 2. A shift in values so that the human factors and feelings come to be considered legitimate. 3. Development of increased understanding between and within working groups in order to reduce tensions. 4. Development of more effective team management, that is, the capacity for functional groups to work more competently.
5. Development of better methods of conflict resolution. 6. Development of organic rather than mechanical systems. Mechanical systems rely on authority and organic systems rely on mutual confidence and trust. Assumptions held by OD practitioners proposed by Richard Beckhard 1. The basic building blocks of an organization are groups. Therefore, the basic units of change are groups, not individuals. 2. Change goal is the reduction of inappropriate competition between parts of the organization and development of a more collaborative competition. 3. Decision making in a healthy organization is located where information sources are rather than in a particular role or level of hierarchy. 4. Organizations, subunits of organizations, and individuals continuously manage their affairs against goals. Controls are interim measurements, not the basis of managerial strategy. 5. One goal of a healthy organization is to develop generally open communication, mutual trust, and confidence between and across levels. 6. People support what they help create. People affected by a change must be allowed active participation and a sense of ownership in the planning and conduct of the change.
PART II Theory and management of OD: Models and theory of planned change systems theory participation and empowerment teams and team work parallel learning structure managing the OD process diagnosis action component the programme management component. MODELS AND THEORY OF PLANNED CHANGE: THREE STAGE MODEL OF THE CHANGE PROCESS KURT LEWIN
Unfreezing Creating readiness Lack of confirmation Creation of guilt Psychological Safety Changing - viewing things differently Identifying a new mentor or new role. Scanning environment for data Refreezing Integrating with the new scenario The new personality New Relationships
BURKE-LITWIN MODEL OF ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE
First Order Change OD interventions directed towards structure, management practices, and systems (policies & procedures) result in first order change.
ORGANIZATIONAL DEVELOPMENT happens when some features of the organization change Leads to: Transactional change Organizational climate
In first order change, some features of the organization change but the fundamental nature of the organization remains the same Organizational climate is defined as peoples perceptions and attitudes about the organization whether it is a good or bad place to work. Organization climate is easy to change. Transactional leaders are leaders who guide or motivate their followers in the direction of established goals by clarifying role and task requirements. Second Order Change OD interventions directed towards mission and strategy, leadership, and organization culture result in second order change. happens when the organization undergoes certain fundamental changes. Leads to: transformational change Change in organizational culture In second order change, the nature of the organization is fundamentally altered the organization is transformed. Organizational culture is defined as deep seated assumptions, values and beliefs, difficult to change. Transformational leaders are leaders who inspire followers to transcend their own self interest for the good of organization. SYSTEMS THEORY System is an organized, unitary whole composed of two or more interrelated parts, components or subsystems, and delineated by boundaries Kast and Rosenzweig. System is an arrangement of interrelated parts- Hanna.
Nature of system: Systems operate through the input-throughput- output mechanism. Inputs- money, people, raw materials, information etc Through put conversion or transformation Output - final product/service Every system is delineated by boundary. What is inside the boundary is the system, and what is outside the boundary is the environment. Boundaries of open systems are permeable, in that they permit exchange of information, resources and energy between system and environment. Open systems have purpose and goals. Information is important in system. Feedback is information from the environment about system performance. Systems are bombarded by all kinds of information. Subsystems exist within larger systems. Congruence among system elements Organizations are open systems in active exchange with their environment
Input factors Environment imposes constraints and opportunities about what the organisation can and cannot do Resources capital, people, knowledge, and technology. History consist of memories of past successes, failures, important events, and critical decisions. Organizational Elements Strategy what the organization is trying to accomplish and how it plans to do it. Work task people perform to create products and service. People structures, processes and systems for performing the work. Formal Organization formal structure for performing the work. Informal Organization informal rules and understandings. Output Factors System Unit Individual Sociotechnical systems: Sociotechnical systems theory was developed by Eric Trist, Fred Emery. All organizations comprised of two interdependent systems: 1. Social system 2. Technical system To achieve high productivity and employee satisfaction, organizations must optimize both systems. Changes in one system affect the other system. Open systems planning Open systems planning entails 1. Scanning the environment to determine the expectations.
ORGANIZATIONAL DEVELOPMENT 2. Developing scenarios of possible future. 3. Developing action plans to ensure that a desirable future occurs. PARTICIPATION AND EMPOWERMENT
Participation in OD programs is not restricted to elites or top people; it is extended broadly throughout the organization. Increased participation and empowerment have always been central goals and fundamental values of OD. Participation enhances empowerment and empowerment in turn enhances performance. Participation is especially an effective form of empowerment. Empowerment is the key to getting people to want to participate in change. To empower is to give someone power, which is done by giving individuals the authority to make decisions, to contribute their ideas, to exert influence and to be responsible. OD interventions are deliberately designed to increase involvement and participation by organization leaders and members. Autonomous workgroups, quality circles, team building, survey feedback, quality of work life programs are all created to increase participation. Kouze and Posner identified five leadership practices and ten behavioral commitments exhibited by successful, empowering leaders. 1. Challenging the process a. Search for opportunities b. Experiment and take risk 2. Inspiring a shared vision a. Envision the future b. Enlist others 3. Enabling others to act a. Foster collaboration b. Strengthen others 4. Modeling the way a. Set example b. Plan small wins 5. Encouraging the heart a. Recognize individual contributions b. Celebrate accomplishments. TEAMS & TEAMWORK Many tasks are so complex that they cannot be performed by individuals; people must work together to accomplish them. Putting those empowered individuals into teams creates extraordinary effects on performance. Teams create synergy i.e. sum of efforts of team is far greater than sum of individual efforts. A number of OD interventions are specifically designed to improve team performance. Examples team building, quality circles, grid OD etc Characteristics of successful teams
1. clear, elevating goal 2. result driven structure 3. competent members 4. unified commitment 5. collaborative climate 6. standards of excellence 7. external support and recognition 8. principled leadership Teams are important for following reasons Individual behavior is rooted in the sociocultural norms and values of work team. Teams norms and values effects on individual behavior. Many tasks are so complex they cannot be performed individuals; people must work together to accomplish them. Team creates synergy. Groupware is electronic and nonelectric tools designed to help teams to function better. Tools available are as follows Telephones Computers Electronic mail Voice mail Teleconference Copyboard Local area network Groupware speeds up decision making, allows contribution, focuses attention, facilitates setting priorities, enhances contribution and to provide quick feedback. PARALLEL LEARNING STRUCTURES Parallel learning structure is a structure (that is a specific division and coordination of labor) created that operates parallel (side by side) with the formal hierarchy and structure and has the purpose of increasing an organizations learning. A parallel learning structure consists of a steering committee and a number of working groups (Idea groups, action groups, implementation groups etc.) that study what changes are needed, make recommendations of improvements, and monitor the change efforts. The parallel learning structure should be a microcosm of the larger organization, that is should have representatives from all parts of the organization. One or more top executive should be part of steering committee Representatives from all parts of the organization MANAGING THE OD PROCESS
ORGANIZATIONAL DEVELOPMENT THREE BASIC COMPONENTS OF OD PROGRAMS: Diagnosis Action Program management
Continuous collection of data about total system, its subunits, its processes, and its culture All activities and interventions designed to improve the organizations functioning All activities designed to ensure success of the program
DIAGNOSING ORGANIZATIONAL SUBSYSTEMS Diagnostic targets Information sought The total organization Q) What is organizations culture? Q) Are organizational goals and strategy understood and accepted? Q) What is organizations performance? Large and complex Q) What are the unique subsystems demands on this subsystem? Q) Are organization structures and processes related to unique demands? Q) What are the major problems confronting this subsystem? Small and simple subsystem Q) What are major problems of the team? Q) How can team effectiveness be improved? Q) Do individuals know how their jobs relate to organizational goals? Intergroup subsystems Q) How does each subsystem see the other? Q) What problems do the two groups have in working together? Q) How can they collaborate to improve performance of both groups? Q) Do people perform
Methods of Diagnosis Examination of organizational records rules, regulations, policies Questionnaire survey Interviews (both group & individual) Questionnaire survey Interviews Observations Organization records
Individuals
Individual interviews group meeting to review the interview data Questionnaires Observation of staff meetings and other dayto-day operations Interviews of each subsystem followed by sharing the data meeting Flowcharting critical processes Meetings between both groups Interviews
ORGANIZATIONAL DEVELOPMENT according to organizations expectations? Q) Do they need particular knowledge or skills? Q) What career development opportunities do they have/ want/ need? Q) Is the role defines adequately? Q) What is the fit between person and role? Q) Is this the right person for this role?
A.R.LAKSHMI RAJAN KSRCAS Information from diagnostic meetings Data available with HR department
Roles
Role analysis Observations Interviews
DIAGNOSING ORGANIZATIONAL PROCESS Organizational Processes Information sought Communication patterns, Q) Is communication open or styles & flows closed? Q) Is communication directed upward, downward, laterally? Q) Are communications filtered? .. Why? How? Goal setting Q) Do people set goals? Q) Who participates? Q) Do they possess necessary skills for effective goal setting? Decision making, problem Q) Who makes decisions? solving & action planning Q) Are they effective? Q) Are additional decision making skills needed? Conflict resolution and management Q) Where does conflict exist? Q) Who are involved parties? Q) How is it being managed? Q) What are the prevailing leadership styles?
Methods of Diagnosis Observations in meetings Questionnaires Interviews and discussion with group members Questionnaires Interviews Observations Observations of problem-solving meetings Analysis of videotaped sessions Organizational records Interviews Flowcharting critical processes Meetings between both groups Questionnaires Interviews
Superior-subordinate relations
ORGANIZATIONAL DEVELOPMENT Q) What problems arise between superiors and subordinates? Q) Who is responsible for looking ahead and making long term decisions? Q) Do they have adequate tools and support? Q) Have the recent long range decisions been effective?
Strategic management & long range planning
Interviews of key policy makers Group discussions Examination of historical records
Diagnosis The Six-Box Model
ACTIONS Interventions are the actions taken to produce desired changes. Four conditions that give rise to the need for OD interventions: 1. The organization has a problem (corrective action to fix it) 2. Organization sees an unrealized opportunity (enabling action to seize the opportunity) 3. Features of organization are out of alignment (alignment action to get things back in sync) 4. Yesterdays vision is no longer good enough (action for new vision actions to build necessary structures, processes and culture to make new vision a reality) PROGRAM MANAGEMENT Phases of OD programs
OD programs follow a logical progression of events a series of phases. Warner burke describes the following phases of OD programs. 1. Entry 2. Contracting 3. Diagnosis 4. Feedback 5. Planning change 6. Intervention 7. Evaluation Entry represents initial contact between consultant and client; exploring the situation that led client to seek a consultant; and determining whether the problem or opportunity , the client and consultant constitute a good match. Contracting involves establishing mutual expectations reaching agreement on expenditures of time, money, resources and energy. Diagnosis is fact-finding phase through interviews, observation, questionnaires, examination of organization documents and information. Feedback represents returning the analyzed into the client system. Planning change involves the clients deciding what action steps to take based on the information. Interventions implements sets of action designed to correct problem or seize opportunity. Evaluation represents assessing the effects of the program. Cummings and Worley identified 5 sets of activities required for effective change management:
1. Motivating change a. Creating readiness to change b. Overcoming readiness to change 2. Creating a vision a. Mission b. Valued outcomes
ORGANIZATIONAL DEVELOPMENT c. Valued conditions d. Midpoint goals 3. Developing political support a. Assessing change agent power b. Identifying key stakeholders. c. Influencing stakeholders 4. Managing the transition. a. Activity planning b. Commitment planning c. Managing the structures 5. Sustaining monmentum a. Providing resources for change b. Building a support systems for change agents c. Developing new competencies and skills d. Reinforcing new behaviors.
PART III
OD Interventions Classifying OD interventions Team intervention intergroup and third party peacemaking interventions comprehensive interventions structural interventions. Classifying OD interventions OD interventions are sets of structured activities in which selected organizational units (target groups or individuals) engage in task or a sequence of tasks with the goals of organizational improvement and individual development. 1. Diagnostic activities : a. Fact finding activities designed to ascertain the state of the system, the status of a problem, the way things are. b. Data collection methods interviews, questionnaire, surveys, meetings and examining organizational records. 2. Team Building activities : a. Activities designed to enhance the effective operation of teams. b. These activities focus on task issues such as the way things are done, the skills and resources needed to accomplish task, relationship among team members and how well the team gets it job done. 3. Intergroup activities : a. Activities designed to improve the effectiveness of interdependent groups groups that work together to produce a common output. b. They focus on joint activities and the output of the group. 4. Survey Feedback activities : a. Activities that rely on questionnaire surveys to generate information. b. Groups analyze the data regarding their performance and design action plans to correct problems. 5. Education and training activities : a. Activities designed to improve individuals skills, abilities, and knowledge. b. Activities may be directed towards technical skills, interpersonal competence, leadership, decision making, problem solving, planning etc. 6. Techno structural or structural activities : a. Activities designed to improve the effectiveness of organizational structures and job designs. b. The activities may be new organizational structures and new technical resources to bear on problems. 7. Process consultation activities :
a. Activities that help to the client to perceive, and understand process. b. Primary focus on process such as communications, problem solving, decision making. 8. Grid organizational development activities : a. Model starts with upgrading individual managerial skills and leadership abilities, moves to team improvement activities, then to intergroup relations activities. b. Later phase include corporate planning for improvement. c. Finally, evaluation phase assessing change in the organizational culture. 9. Coaching and counseling activities : a. Define learning goals. b. Learn how others see their behavior. c. Learn new behaviors to help them better achieve goals. 10. Third party peacemaking activities : a. Activities conducted by a skilled consultant designed to help two members of an organization manage their interpersonal conflict. Team Interventions Teams and work groups: strategic units of organizations A work group is a number of persons, usually reporting to a common superior and having some face to face interaction, who have some degree of interdependence in carrying out tasks for the purpose of achieving organizational goals. A team is a form of group, but has some characteristics in greater degree than ordinary groups, including a higher commitment to common goals and higher degree of ordinary groups, including a higher degree of interdependency and interaction. Cross functional teams Cross functional teams typically comprised individuals who have a functional home base - e.g., manufacturing, design, engineering, marketing, etc but who meet regularly to solve ongoing challenges requiring inputs from a number of functional areas. Cross functional teams might be permanent, but temporary teams can be created to solve short term problems. Effective teams Organization is system of interlocking groups individuals who occupy membership in two groups by being a boss in one group and a subordinate in another. Through these interlocking groups the work of the organization gets
done. Individuals in organization functions not so much as individuals alone but as members of groups or teams. For an individual to function effectively, the team must function effectively. Characteristic of an effective team Clear purpose Informality Participation Listening Consensus decision making Open communications Clear roles and work assignments Shared leadership High performance teams High performance teams have strong personal commitment to each other commitment to the others growth and success. The formal group diagnostic meeting The purpose of formal diagnostic meeting is to conduct a general critique of the performance of the group, that is, to take stock of: where we are going and hoe we are doing and to uncover and identify problem. Leader and consultant discuss the strength, problem, task and relationships. Group assembles for half day group discussion. Discuss problem. The formal group team building meeting The formal group team building has the goal of improving the teams effectiveness through better management of task demands, relationship demands, and group processes. Inward look at its own performance, culture, eliminate dysfunctional and strengthen functional ones. Develop strategies and group performance goal Initiated manager in consultation with third party (consultant). One to three day meeting held away from work place. Consultant interview (strength, problem, function, obstacle) each of group member and leader prior to meeting. Group examines and discuss problem. Establish action steps. Process consultation interventions
Important organizational processes Communication Role and function of group member Problem solving Decision making Process consultation intervention is method of intervening in an ongoing system, greater emphasis on diagnosis and understanding process events. Consultant role is non directive and gets group to solve their problem. Consultant work with team and helps them to develop skill necessary to diagnose and solve the process problem that arise. A Gestalt approach to team building A form of team building that focuses more on individual than the group. The approach rests on a form psychotherapy called gestalt therapy. Gestalt therapy is based on the belief that the person function as whole, total organisms. And each person possess positive and negative characteristic. People get into trouble when they do not accept their total selves, and when they are trying to live up to the demands of others rather than being themselves. Goals of gestalt therapy is Awareness Integration Maturation Authenticity Self regulation Behavior change. The primary thrust is to make the individual stronger, more authentic, and more in touch with the individuals own feelings which help to build better team. INTERGROUP AND THIRD PARTY PEACEMAKING INTERVENTIONS When tension, conflict or competition exist among groups, some predictable things happen Each groups sees other as an enemy Each group describes the other in terms of negative. Interaction and communication between the two groups decrease
Cutting off feedback and data input between them. Each group begins to prize itself and denigrate others. Several strategies for reducing intergroup conflict have been identified, Common enemy Increasing the interaction and communication among the groups Finding a common goal Rotating the members of the group Training Intergroup team building interventions The focus of this team building group of interventions is on improving intergroup relations. The goals of these activities are to increase communications and interaction between work related groups, to reduce the amount dysfunctional competition. A significant amount of dysfunctional energy spent in competition, misunderstanding, and miscommunication. Set of activities developed by Blake, Shepard and Mouton. 1. Leaders of two groups meet with the consultant and are asked if they think the relations between the two groups can be better and are asked if they are willing to search for mechanisms or procedures that may improve intergroup relations. 2. The two groups meet in separate rooms and build two lists. In one list they give their thoughts, attitudes, feelings and perceptions of the other group what the other group is like, what it does that get in their way and so on. In the second list the group tries to predict what the other group is saying about them. 3. The two groups come together to share with each other the information on the lists. 4. The two groups return to their separate meeting places and are given two tasks. a) They react and discuss what they have learned about themselves and the other group. b) To make a list of the priority issues that still need to be resolved between two groups. 5. The two groups come back together and share lists with each other. Then they make one list contains the issues and problems that should be resolved. They set priorities in terms of importance and immediacy. Together they generate action steps for resolving the issues and assign responsibilities for the actions. 6. As a follow up to the intergroup team building activity, a meeting of two the two group or their leaders to assess how the groups are doing.
Third party peacemaking interventions Third party peacemaking interventions used when two persons are in conflict. A basic feature of third party intervention is confrontation: the two key individuals must be willing to confront the fact that conflict exists and that it has consequences for the effectiveness of the two parties involved. The third party must know how, when and where to utilize the confrontation tactics that exposes conflict for examination. The third must be able to diagnose conflict situations. There are two types of issues leads to conflict. 1. Substantive issues involve disagreement over policies and practices. 2. Emotional issues involve negative feelings between two parties (e.g., anger, distrust, fear) Ingredients of productive confrontation Mutual positive motivation. Balance in situational power of the two individuals. Synchronization of their efforts. Openness in dialogue. Reliable communication. Moderate stress on the parties. The third party will intervene directly and indirectly in facilitating dialogue between the individuals. Organization mirror interventions Organization mirror intervention is designed to improve the relationships between groups and increase the intergroup effectiveness. The organization mirror is a set of activities in which a particular organizational group (host group) gets feedback from several other organizational groups about how it is perceived and regarded. The flow of event is as follows. An organizational unit that is experiencing difficulties (host unit) asks key people from other units to come to a meeting to provide feedback on how they see the host unit. The consultant interviews the people attending the meeting before the meeting takes place in order to get a sense of the problems. Outsiders fishbowl (the fish bowl is a group seating and talking configuration in which there is an inner circle of chairs for people who talk and an outside circle of observers). The fishbowl allows the invited
participants to talk about the host unit in a natural uninterrupted way while the host group members listen and learn. Group members fishbowl and talk about what they have heard. Subgroup composed of both host groups and invited participants are formed to work on problems. Total group convenes to work out action plans. Partnering In situations in which two or more organizations are likely to incur unnecessary conflict and cost overruns such as in the owner contractor relationship in a large construction project, an intervention called partnering can be productive for both parties. Partnering is a variation of team building, intergroup team building and strategic planning having the objective of forming an effective problem-finding / problem-solving management team composed of personnel from both parties. Comprehensive interventions OD interventions that are comprehensive in terms of the extent to which the total organization is involved and the depth of cultural changes addressed. Getting the whole system in the room Getting the whole system in the room mean getting all key factors of complex organization together in team building and future planning kind of session. If people with interdependencies get together to work on matters of mutual concern, good things can happen. Example managers of all the functional area, representative of top management. Search conferences Search conferences largely emerged with consulting practices in Great Britain, Europe and Australia. The basic design of the search conference has the three following phases as quoted from Emery and Pursers The Search Conference: 1) Environmental appreciation a) Changes in the world around us b) Desirable and probable future 2) System analysis a) History of the system b) Analysis of the present system c) Desirable future of the system 3) Integration of system and environment
ORGANIZATIONAL DEVELOPMENT a) Dealing with constraints b) Strategies and action plans
Future search conference Weisboards future search conference model consists of the following steps 1. Consultant meets with a voluntary committee of four to six potential participants. Many aspects are planned, including the overall focus, who should attend, dates and times, location, group task and so on. 2. Up to 50 or 60 people are invited. People from all of the functional areas and levels of the organization; people from all racial, ethnic, sex and backgrounds; and might include customers, suppliers and union leaders. People are asked to bring newspaper and magazine clippings that describe events they believe are influencing and the organizations future. 3. Participants sit at tables of six to eight, with marking pens and tape. All groups output is recorded on paper. 4. The conference has four segments (a) build a database (b) look at it together (c) interpret what they find (d) draw conclusion for action. 5. The first major activity focus on past. Each person individually is asked to make notes on significant events, milestones and so on. 6. The second major activity focus on present factors both external and internal that are shaping the future of the organization. 7. The third scenario focuses on the future. New groups are formed and given one to two hours to develop draft of a preferred future scenario. Beckhards Confrontation meeting The confrontation meeting developed by Richard Beckhard, is one day meeting of the entire management of an organization in which they take a read of their own health. In a series of activities, that management group generates information about its major problems, analyses the underlying causes, develops action plans to correct problems. Beckhards confrontation meeting is appropriate in following There is a need for total management group to examine its own workings Very limited time is available for the activity. Top management wishes to improve the conditions quickly There is real commitment to resolving the issue on the part of top management The organization is experiencing some major change. The steps involved in the confrontation meeting are as follows. 1. Climate setting 2. Information collecting
ORGANIZATIONAL DEVELOPMENT 3. 4. 5. 6. Information sharing Priority setting and group action planning Immediate follow up by top team Progress review
The confrontation meeting provides a quick and accurate means of diagnosing organizational health, problem identification and problem solving, enhances upward communication within the organization, and increases involvement and commitment to action on the part of the entire managerial group. Strategic management activities Strategic management activity is outward looking intervention directed towards environmental analysis and strategic planning to ensure that organization is in synchrony with environment. Strategic management activity is development and implementation of overall strategy relating to its current and future environmental demands. Task involved in Strategic management activity Goal formulation Environmental analysis Strategy planning Strategy evaluation Strategy implantation Strategic control Real time strategic change A process congruent with search conferences and strategic management activities is Robert Jacobs real time strategic change intervention. Jacob describes six key steps for developing strategy: 1. Indentifying and clarifying the basic, important issues facing the organization as whole. 2. Agreeing one overall purpose of the change effort. 3. Deciding which people need to be involved in the change effort and how. 4. Determining how much influence these people need to have over the development of this strategy. 5. Clarifying the information people will need to do quality work and make wise decisions regarding their collective future. 6. Exploring the methods, processes and approaches that will boost support people in making real time strategic changes. Stream analysis
Stream analysis is Jerry Porras valuable model thinking about change and managing change. Stream analysis is system for graphically displaying the problems of an organization, examining interconnections between the problems, identifying core problems and graphically tracking the corrective actions taken to solve problems. Categorize important features of organization work setting (environment in which people work) into 4 classes. 1. Organizational arrangement a. Goal b. Strategies c. Structure d. Procedure e. Reward system 2. Social factor a. Culture b. Interaction process c. Network 3. Technology a. Tool b. Equipment c. Technical system 4. Physical setting a. Space configuration b. Physical ambience c. Interior design Thorough diagnosis of organization problems and barriers to effectiveness through brainstorming and questionnaire. Task force review problems and categorize Interconnections between problems are noted Problems with many interconnections are identified as core problems Action plan developed. Survey feedback Survey feedback is process of systematically collecting data about the system and feeding back the data for individual and groups at all levels of the organization to analyze, interpret meanings and design corrective action steps. Steps 1. Organization members at the top of the hierarchy are involved in the preliminary planning. 2. Data are collected from all members.
3. Data are fed back to the top executive team and then down through hierarchy is functional teams. 4. Superior discusses data with subordinates. Subordinate interpret data, plan for constructive change. 5. Feedback meeting includes consultant. Grid organizational development Grid OD is developed by Blake and Mouton. Six phase program 3 to 5 years. Examines managerial behavior and frames ideal strategic model. Conducted by internal members. Pre phase 1 key manager attend grid seminar will later become instructor learn grid concept. Phase 1 the managerial grid Grid seminar to managers Assess individual managerial style, problem solving, communication skills and synergetic team work. Phase 2 teamwork development Focus work team and analysis of team culture. Develop plan, objective and problem solving. Feedback given to each manager about individual and team behavior. Phase 3 intergroup development Intergroup relations, intergroup cooperation and competition explored. Each group analyzes ideal relationship. Action plan developed. Phase 4 developing ideal strategic corporate model. Focus corporate strategic planning. Top management engages in strategy planning. Design ideal strategic corporate model. Phase 5 implement ideal strategic corporate model. Phase 6 systematic critique Measuring and evaluating what changes has been made, what barriers still exist and must be overcome and what new opportunities have developed that may be exploited. Scheins cultural analysis Scheins cultural analysis is complex, probes deeply into organization culture. STRUCTURAL INTEVENTIONS
Structural interventions are change efforts aimed at improving organization effectiveness through changes in task, structural, technological and goal process in the organization. Socio technical systems To create a better fit among the technology, structure, and social interaction. Effectiveness work system must jointly optimize the relationship between social and technical parts. System must effectively manage the boundary setting and relating them to the environment. The creation and development of self managed teams is an important implementation. Work redesign Work redesign is based on a theoretical model of what job characteristics lead to the psychological states that produce high internal motivation. Core job characteristics 1. Skill variety 2. Task identity 3. Task significance 4. Autonomy 5. Feedback from job. Motivation and performance can be enhanced through redesigning jobs to heighten skill variety, task identity, autonomy, and feedback from the job. MBO and appraisal MBO and appraisal is goal setting and performance review process. Goal setting subordinate provide input. Performance review a collaborative examination of the major significant forces in the situation needs to be made, including the superiors and the teams impact of the subordinates performance. MBO programs evolve a collaborative organization diagnosis and are systems of joint target setting and performance review designed to increase focus on objectives and to increase the frequency of problem solving discussions between superiors and subordinates and within work teams. Collaborative management by objectives 1. A collaborative diagnosis of organizational problems. 2. Increase skill in interpersonal communication and group process. 3. Real subordinate participation.
ORGANIZATIONAL DEVELOPMENT 4. Team approach to individual and group targets. 5. Relationship within team, superior and subordinate.
Quality circles The quality circle concept is a form of group problem solving and goal setting with a primary focus on maintaining and enhancing product quality. Quality circles have been extensively used in Japan. Quality circles consist of a group of seven to ten employees from a unit who have volunteered to meet regularly to analyze and make proposals about product quality and other problems. Recommendations are forwarded to a coordinating or steering committee; meetings typically held once a week. Prior to the formation of quality circles, those superiors who have volunteered to participate are trained by quality control experts and facilitators in such matters as quality control concepts, including necessary statistical tools, in leading participative discussions and in group dynamics and communication skills. Parallel learning structure Parallel learning structure generally consist of a steering committee and number of working groups that study what changes are needed in the organization, make recommendations for improvement and then monitor the resulting change efforts. Physical settings and OD Physical settings are congruent with OD. Physical settings are important parts of organizational culture that work groups should learn to diagnose and manage. Example A personnel director promoted to vice president, a position inheriting the mandatory practice of having a secretary share the same office, with the resulting lack of privacy. Total quality management TQM is a combination of a number of organizational improvement techniques and approaches including the use of quality circles, statistical quality control, statistical process control, self managed teams and task forces and extensive use of employee participation. Features of TQM Primary emphasis on customers. Competitive benchmarking
Continuous search for sources of defects with a goal of eliminating them entirely Participative management Emphasis on teams and teamwork Emphasis on continuous training. Self design strategy Self design strategy is learning model to help organizations develop the built in capacity to transform them to achieve high performance in todays competitive and changing environment. Basic components are An educational component consisting of reading, presentation, visit to other companies and conferences. Diagnosis of the current state of the organization. Changes are then designed and implemented. High involvement and high performance team High performance and high commitment are possible outcomes in organization that are designed to for high involvement. Features of high involvement organization Decision making moved downward. Self managed teams Compensation system that link rewards. Widely shared information Participative and shared leadership. Large scale systems change and organizational transformation Large scale systems change mean organization change that is massive in terms of the number of organizational unit, number of people affected, sub system altered and depth of cultural change involved. Example restructuring (reduction in hierarchical level) PART IV Training Experiences T Groups Behavioral modeling Life & Career Planning Issues Between consultant and client relationship Entry & Contracting Diagnosis and appropriate interventions Consultant as a model Implications of OD for the client.
ORGANIZATIONAL DEVELOPMENT T Groups
Early T Groups (T for training) were used for team building. Later it helps in diagnostic, issue oriented, problem-solving, and organizational focus. A T-group is an essentially unstructured, agendaless group session for about 10 to 12 members and a professional trainer who acts as catalyst and facilitator for the group. The data for discussion are the data provided by interaction of the group members. Actions, reactions, interactions are the data for the group. The group typically meets for three days to two weeks. Communication skills, interpersonal skills, individual personality and group dynamics are part of the program. Learning derived from T group varies from individuals. Benne, Bradford, Ronal Lippitt list the goals of the T Group as follows. 1. Increased awareness and sensitivity to emotional reactions and expressions in him and others. 2. Greater ability to perceive and learn from the consequences of his actions through attention to feelings, his own and others. 3. Development of personal values and goals. 4. Achievement of behavioral effectiveness. T-Group training: Group exercises in which individual focus on the actions. How others perceive them. How others generally react to them. Participants often learn about unintended negative consequences of certain types of behavior. Individuals may be asked to sit in a circle and discuss values.
To promote honest behavior, rather than behavior designed to yield positive impressions, the group meets in a safe setting away from regular work duties. T-group training is aimed at helping individual associates and managers learn about themselves in a group setting and then transfer the learning to the work place. Behavior modeling Behavior modeling is a training technique designed to improve interpersonal competence. For improving interpersonal skills, behavior modeling is an important training option. Behavior modeling is an excellent way to make first-line supervisors more effective and to improve organizational performance. For example, many first-line supervisors find it difficult to discipline employees. To learn this behavior they must see a link between successful disciplining and desired outcomes and must come to believe they can do it. This latter belief can be introduced through the methodology of behavior modeling: by viewing a model similar to them being successful, by discovering the specific behavioral skills that led to success, and by practicing the skills until they too are proficient. Behavior model training: Behavior description: the ability to describe behavior of self or others in specific concrete terms. Justification: the ability to clearly explain the impact of an observed behavior on the individual, the observer, or the organization. Active listening Participative problem solving Positive reinforcement
The steps involved in behavior modeling are simple. First determine the most pressing problems facing a target group, say, first-line supervisor. These usually consist of such issues as counseling the poor performer, correcting absenteeism, encouraging the average performer. Training modules are developed, the core of which are videotapes showing a person (model) correctly handling the situation. The specific behaviors exhibited by the model that cause success are highlighted as learning points. Weekly training sessions of four hours are scheduled for groups of approximately ten participants. At the training sessions the problem situation is announced and briefly discussed. Participants then observe a videotape in which the model successfully solves the problem by enacting specific behavioral skills. The trainees discuss behavioral skills and then role play the situation receiving feedback from the group and the trainer on their performances. Role play continues until each participant successfully masters all the specific skills. Behavior modeling works; it teaches the skills and behaviors needed to deal with interpersonal problems. Life and career planning A number of approaches exist to help the individual think through and analyze his or her life and career trajectory. This information is often used in workshop or other educational settings in the context of small group discussions and some theory input. Career anchors
Edgar Schein has provided the concept of career anchors, which are useful individually and in voluntary group discussions in career development workshops. Career anchor is the pattern of self perceived talent, motives and values that serves to guide, constrain, stabilize and integrate the persons career and that tend to remain stable throughout the persons career. The five career anchors are as follows: 1. Technical / functional competence. 2. Managerial competence 3. Creativity 4. Security or stability 5. Autonomy
Life goals exercise One series of life and career planning exercises is shown in the outline that follows. 1) First phase a) Draw a straight horizontal line from left to right to represent your life span. The length should represent the totality of your experience and future expectations. b) Indicate where you are now. c) Prepare a life inventory of important happenings for you, including the following. i) Any peak experiences you have had. ii) Things which you do well. iii) Things which you do poorly. iv) Things you would like to stop doing. v) Things you would like to learn to do well.
ORGANIZATIONAL DEVELOPMENT vi) Peak experiences you would like to have. vii) viii)
Values (power, money, etc) you want to achieve. Things you would like to start doing now.
d) Discussions in subgroups. 2) Second phase a) Take 20 minutes to write your own obituary. b) Form pairs. Take 20 minutes to write a eulogy for your partner. c) Discussions in subgroups. The collage and the letters 1) First individuals working in small groups are asked to make a collage a symbolic representation of their lives constructed of art materials, old magazines and newspapers; these are posted on the walls for later discussion. 2) Second individuals writ two letters, the instructions for which are as follows a) Now imagine that you have died ten years from now. Write a letter from one of your best friends to another good friend, telling about you and your life. What do you want him able to say about you? b) Next, imagine you have been killed in an accident next week. Now write a similar letter. What would he be likely to say about you? At this point the group discusses the collage and letters of each individual, giving the individual the chance to get feedback from the rest of the group about their reactions and allowing the group to learn more about each other. Issues in Consultant Client relation Relationships Entry and contracting Entry represents the initial contact between consultant and client; this includes exploring the situation that led the client to seek a consultant and
determining whether there is a good match between the client, the consultant, and the problematic situation. Contracting involves establishing mutual expectations; reaching agreement on expenditures of time, money, and resources; and generally clarifying what each party expects to get and give to the other. 1. Executive has some concerns, consultant has been recommended as someone who could help. Brief description of some of problems and consultants expertise takes place. 2. Appointment at executives office. Consultant explores potential client. 3. Consultant and client and sort out group; which is to be included and excluded. 4. Consultant describes how he or she usually proceeds. 5. When and where the activities take place? 6. Agree psychological contract. 7. Agree financial contract. Diagnosis and appropriate interventions The consultant should do what he or she can do, but the intervention be appropriate to the diagnosis, which requires an intensive look at the data , for example, the themes from interview. The wider the range of intentions with which the consultant is familiar, of course the more options the consultant can consider. The more the consultants expertise and experience, the less agonizing to be required in selecting or designing appropriate interventions. The consultant as a model Another important issue is whether change agents are willing and able to practice what they preach.
In the area of feelings, for example, the consultant may be advocating a more open system in which feelings are considered legitimate and their expression important to effective problem solving and at the same time suppressing his or her own feelings about what is happening in the client system.
In particular, this problem can be a frequent one for less experienced practitioners, and usually has an impact on this persons feeling of competency. Extensive T-group experience for OD consultant will pave the remedial measure. Implications of OD for the client
An OD effort has some fundamental implications for the chief executive officer and top managers of an organization and these implications need to be shared and understood. 1. To enlarge the database for making management decisions. 2. To expand the influence process. 3. To capitalize on the strengths of the informal system and to make the formal and the informal system more congruent. 4. To become more responsive. 5. Collaborative management. 6. To examine its own leadership style and ways of managing.
PART - V System Ramification resistance to change effort training and development of consultation skills reward constructive feedback staffing - & career development organizational justices monetary cost skill and demand. Future of OD changing environment fundamental strength of OD OD future. System ramification consequences and challenges in an organization; all must be attended to if and OD effort is to succeed for the long term. Ripple effect occurs as OD interventions begin to occur in an organization. Resistance to change efforts The reasons for resistance to change efforts are many and vary with the circumstances. Loss of position or status. Inequitable treatment. Loss of use of present competencies. Extra work in future. Fear of unknown. Technical resistance. Political resistance. Cultural resistance. Change is unclear. Modify established pattern of working relationship between people. Benefit and reward not adequate. Ways to overcome resistance to change. 1) Empathy and support a) Identify people who are having trouble accepting the change. b) Active listening. c) Joint problem solving. 2) Communication a) Effective communication about change. 3) Participation and involvement
a) Involve organization member directly in planning and implementing change. Training and the development of consultation skills Training is extremely important for organizational members to develop competencies for the new assignments. Therefore the training department and managers throughout the organization must anticipate and be on top of emerging training needs. OD process suggests the need for some additional kinds of training. For example, managers, supervisors, and teams at all levels will need training in group problem solving, in effective group participation, and in the management of team meetings. Human resource staff members and line managers are trained to do some OD work in collaboration with external and internal OD consultant. Training of internal consultants might include T-group experience, courses in OD and related subjects, apprenticeship with an experienced professional.
Rewards Edward Lawler says, effective organizational change efforts must pay attention to the reward system. When the pay system is not changed in a timely fashion, it can prevent the changes in several ways. It may not reward the behavior which is needed to make the change. It may even reward behavior that is against the change. Organization improvement processes that depend upon the cooperation, teamwork, creativity, and intensified effort of organizational members must pay attention to allocation of rewards if the process is to be sustained. When OD efforts are supported by ongoing, frequent recognition of individual and team efforts, and by financial rewards consistent with improved organizational goal attainment, the OD effort and organizational improvement are likely to be sustained. Constructive feedback Expression of feeling and attitude is an integral part of an OD effort. People will have to learn how to give and manage feedback in such a way that it is helpful and not destructive. Encouraging more constructive feedback means training in giving and receiving feedback and it means paying attention to feedback systems. Interpersonal level - feedback:
ORGANIZATIONAL DEVELOPMENT It It It It It It is is is is is is
fairly immediate after the event. specific. given when the basic motive is to improve relationship. given in private or in a supportive group atmosphere. given in the spirit of mutual give and take. given in the context of sharing appreciations as well as concerns.
Subunit level feedback: Directly to the manager or team who can take remedial action. Frequently enough so the manager or team can plan remedial action. Staffing and career development Selection Training of present employee in effective interviewing of candidates. Team member involvement in the selection of both team members and new team members. Orientation and assimilation Attention needs to be paid to the process of introducing new people into the system. Group methods in orientation and assimilation seem to be particularly useful. Career development and progression If the OD process is to shift organizations culture move toward more honesty, more openness, more mutual support, and improved personal development, the career and growth aspirations of all organization must be area of concern. More attention to advancement and transfer opportunities. Career planning workshop. Increase opportunities for internal mobility. Job posting notifying job vacancies to present employee. Bidding permitting people to apply for these vacancies. Career ladders diagram of routes of promotion and transfer. Organizational justice A shift in team and organizational culture toward more openness and toward more mutual concern should, in large part, facilitate the airing of felt injustices. Grievances tend to be raised when they occur and are worked out quickly. Organizational due process established procedures for handling complaints and grievances, protection against punitive action for using such established procedures, and careful, systematic, and thorough review of the substance of complaints and grievances. Formalized appeal system may be needed to protect individuals.
Monetary cost and skill demands The use of external and internal third parties in the role of practitioners, the use offsite workshops, and additional training programs are obviously going to cost money. If an organization development is successful, however, it must have commitment of top management. Development of human resources and the social system is a continuous process worthy of an ongoing investment. The cost in terms of effort and skill demands should not be ignored. The future and organizational development
Changing environment The environment in which organizations operate is increasingly unstable in an era of global, national, and regional commercial competitiveness. Alliances, mergers and acquisitions are all common in competitive era. Production and communication technology are changing. Dislocation of people through downsizing and restructuring. Business startups. Yesterday strategy is not likely to work in tomorrows work place. Top down autocratically directed, rigid hierarchy giving way to new. Organization will be flattening. High performance organization focus customer, continuous quality improvement, high value on human resource, high performance team.
1)
2) 3) 4)
Fundamental strength of OD The central strength of OD is the processes a) Careful tuning into perceptions and feeling of people. b) Creating safe conditions for surfacing perceptions and feelings. c) Involving people in diagnosing the strengths and weaknesses of their organsiations and making action plans for improvement. d) Focusing on team. e) Redesigning work. f) Motivation. g) Training. h) Leadership. i) Third parties. Democratic structure. OD approaches promote and help sustain democratic processes. Blending of attention to people oriented processes with attention to the design of the human technical system. Organizations are recognizing the need for assistance in getting the right people together to talk constructively about important organizational and
transorganizational matters and for developing processes for making things better. 5) OD wont go away; it cant go away. It would be reinvented under a new label. ODs future Leadership and values For OD to flourish, top management CEOs, board of directors, top executives, including the human resource executive and OD consultants must place high value on strong individual, team and organizational performance coupled with people-oriented values. Profitability, humanistic and developmental objective. Establish direction. Aligning people. Motivating and inspiring. OD training Training organization organizations to provide training on organizational development. OD conferences. National and internal organization. Training interventions. T-group training for all organizational members, including first line supervisors. Accreditation for OD practitioners. Interdisciplinary nature of OD ODs future, to an extent, is related to others disciplines. OD built from theory, research, and practice in social psychology, adult education, community development, general systems theory, family group therapy, anthropology, philosophy, counseling, psychiatry, general management, social work, human resource management, large conference management and other fields. Diffusion of technique Technique may be used without sufficient understanding of their theoretical research and historic foundations. Misapplication. Gradual diffusion of the OD field across other specialties loss of values, theory and history. Loss of focus. People in all kinds of disciplines and occupations have been exposed to training.
Some people practice utilizing without understanding and without quality training.
Mergers, acquisitions and alliances As the tempo of business transactions worldwide increases, the phenomena of acquisitions, mergers and alliances will also become more evident. Rediscover and recording history The history of OD is indispensable for retaining and improving effective OD interventions and approaches. Some portions of OD history are in danger of being lost forever, although some are likely to be reinvented from time to time. Hundreds of interventions devised by OD consultants have been tremendously successful in particular applications, and used perhaps two or three times again, but never recorded and published.

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KSR CAS

ORGANIZATIONAL DEVELOPMENT PART I

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BURKE-LITWIN MODEL OF ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE

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Role analysis Observations Interviews

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Strategic management & long range planning

Interviews of key policy makers Group discussions Examination of historical records

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Diagnosis The Six-Box Model

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ORGANIZATIONAL DEVELOPMENT a) Dealing with constraints b) Strategies and action plans

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ORGANIZATIONAL DEVELOPMENT T Groups

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