Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Directory Services
Information Services Cellular Telephone Cable Television Teleconferencing Electronic Data Interchange
Point-to-point Networks
Two and only two devices are connected by a dedicated link is called point-to-point communication or networks as shown in figure. Dedicated means that link carries traffic between connected devices only.
Broadcast Networks
A broadcast network is an organization, such as a corporation or other voluntary association, that provides live television or recorded content, such as movies, newscasts, sports, Public affairs programming, and other television programs for broadcast over a group of radio stations or television stations.
Most networks are primarily either a television network or a radio network, although some organizations run both types of networks.
Streaming media, Internet radio Web casting is sometimes considered a form of broadcasting despite the lack of broadcast stations, in which case its practitioners may also be called "broadcasters" or even "broadcast networks".
- Mesh Topology
- Tree Topology
Bus topology
It is also known as linear bus topology.
It consist of several computers attached to a long common cable act as backbone, to link all the devices in the network shown in figure.
In bus topology, data on the network is send to all the computers on the network, the data travels from one end of the cable to another end.
Star Topology
In star topology each devices has a dedicated point to point link only to a central controller usually called HUB shown in figure.
The devices are not directly linked to each other. A star topology does not allow direct traffic between devices. The controller acts as an exchange, if any device want to send a data to another it sends the data to the controller, which then relay the data to the other connected device. If the central controller fails the entire network is disable.
However, if one computer or the cable that connects it to the HUB fails, the rest of the network continues to function normally.
Since, each computer is connected to central HUB, this topology requires more cable.
Ring Topology
In ring topology computers are connected on single circle of cable shown in figure.
Each device in ring incorporates repeater. When a device receives a signal intended for another device, its repeater regenerate the bits and passes them along. Failure of one computer in ring affects the entire network.
Mesh Topology
In mesh topology every device has a dedicated point-to-point link to every other device shown in figure.
Mesh topology
Installation and reconfiguration are difficult because every device must be connected to every other device.
Hardware required to connect each link can be expensive. It is usually implemented in limited fashion.
Tree Topology
A tree topology is variation of star; nodes in a tree are linked to central hub that controls traffic to the network shown in figure.
However, not every device plugs directly into the central hub. The majority of devices cannot to secondary hub that in turn connected to central hub. The central hub in the tree is an active hub. The active hub contains a repeater, which is a hardware device that regenerates the received bit patterns before sending them out. The secondary hub may be active or passive. A passive hub provides simple physical connection between the attached devices.
Network classify according to their geographical size. Network referring to three primary categories.
Characteristics of LAN :
1. It allows users to share storage devices like Printer, Application data and other network resources.
Advantages of LAN :
1. LAN are the best means provide a cost effective multi-user computer environment.
It may be single network which as able television network or it may be a means of connecting a number of LANs together into a larger network. So that resources may be shared LAN-to-LAN as well as device-to-device.
For example, A company can use a MAN to connect the LANs in all of its offices throughout a city. A MAN can support both data and voice.
Characteristics of WAN :
1. They exists in unlimited geographical area. 2. They are more susceptible to errors due to the distance the data can travel. 3. They interconnect multiple LAN. 4. They are more sophisticated and complex than LAN. 5. Their technology is expensive.
Types of WAN :
Public Network :
Public network are those networks, which are installed and run by the telecommunication authorities and are available to any organization Or individual who subscribes.
Private Network :
The basic technology used in all forms or private WAN is to use private or more usually leased circuits to link the location to be served by the network.
Syntax :
Syntax refers to the format of the data or structure of data syntax tells us the order in which data are presented
Semantics :
Semantics refers to the meaning of each section of bits, how particular pattern to be represented is and what action is to be taken based on that presentation.
Timing :
Timing refers to two characteristics:
At the physical layer, communication is direct: In figure Host A sends a stream of bits to Host B.
PHYSICAL LAYER
The physical layer is responsible for transmitting bits over a physical medium form one node to another node. Physical layer deals with the mechanical and electrical specifications of the interface and transmission medium. The physical layer also concerned with the following: 1. Physical characteristics of interfaces and medium 2. Representation of bits 3. Data rate (Transmission rate) 4. Synchronization of bits 5. Line Configuration 6. Physical Topology 7. Transmission Mode
NETWORK LAYER
The Network Layer is responsible for the source to destination delivery of a packet possibly across multiple networks. If two systems are connected to the same network, there is usually no need for a network layer. However, if two systems are attached to different networks with connecting devices between the networks, there is often a need for the network layer to accomplish source-todestination delivery.
3. It also supplies connection less and connection oriented services to the transport layer
TRANSPORT LAYER
The Transport Layer is responsible for process-to-process delivery of the entire message. A process is an application program running on a host. Other responsibilities of the Transport Layer include the following:
1. Service-Point Addressing (Port Addressing) 2. Segmentation and Reassembly 3. Connection Control 4. Flow Control 5. Error Control
SESSION LAYER
Session Layer defines how connection can be established, maintained and terminated. Session Layer also responsible for the following: 1. Dialog Control 2. Synchronization points
PRESENTATION LAYER
The presentation layer is concerned with the syntax and semantics of the information exchanged between two systems. Specific responsibilities of the presentation layer include the following: 1. Translation 2. Encryption and Decryption
3.
Data compression
APPLICATION LAYER
The application layer is responsible for providing services to the user.
It provides user interfaces and support services such as e-mail, file transfer, database management and other type of distributed information services. Protocol at these level includes:
SMTP
FTP
TFTP
SNMP
TELNET
TCP
UDP
ICMP
IGMP
IP
ARP
RARP
Network or IP Layer :
At the network layer, TCP / IP supports the Internetworking Protocol. IP, in turn, uses four supporting protocols: ARP, RARP,ICMP and IGMP.
Transport Layer :
Traditionally the transport layer was represented in TCP / IP by two protocols: TCP and UDP IP is a host-to-host protocol, meaning that it can deliver a packet from one physical device to another.
UDP and TCP are transport level protocols responsible for delivery of a message from a process (running program) to another process.
A new transport layer protocol, SCTP (Stream Control Transmission Protocol), has been devised to meet the needs of some newer applications.
Application Layer :
The application layer in TCP / IP is equivalent to the combined session, presentation, and application layers in the OSI model. Many protocols are defined at this layer, SMTP, FTP, HTTP, DNS, SNMP and SNMP, etc.
To copy the file some problems must occurs like two systems may use different file structure, two systems may have different way to represent text and data, two systems may have different directory structures. All this problems have been solved by FTP.
FTP is most commonly used to download a file from a server using the Internet or to upload a file to a server (e.g. uploading a Web page file to a server).
4 TCP / IP model did not clearly differentiate between Services, Interfaces and Protocol
- Unguided media
3.2 Network devices: - Network Adapters - Hubs - Switches - Routers - Gateways
- Proxy Server
- Web Server
Transmission Media
Guided Media
Unguided Media
Coaxial Cable
Radio Wave
Micro Wave
Infrared
GUIDED MEDIA
Guided media, which are those that provide a path from one device to another, include twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable, and fiber-optic cable. Twisted-pair cable and Coaxial cable use metallic (copper) conductors that accept and transport signals in the form of electric current. Optical-fiber is a cable accepts and transport signals in the form of light.
Twisted-Pair Cable
A twisted pair consists of two conductors (normally copper), each with its own plastic insulation, twisted together, as shown in Figure-1.
Twisted-Pair Cable
One of the wires is used to carry signals to the receiver, and the other is used only as a ground reference. The signal sent by the sender on one of the wires, interference (noise) and crosstalk may affect both wires and create unwanted signals. If the two wires are parallel, the effect of these unwanted signals is not the same in both wires because they are at different locations relative to the noise or crosstalk sources (e.g. one is closer and the other is farther).
Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cable (or coax) carries signals of higher frequency ranges than those in twisted-pair cable, because the two media are constructed quite differently. Instead of having two wires, coax has a central core conductor of solid or standard wire (usually copper) enclosed in an insulating sheath, which is, in turn, encased in an outer conductor or metal foil, braid or a combination of the two. The outer metallic wrapping servers both as a shield against noise and as the second conductor, which completes the circuit. This outer conductor is also enclosed in an insulating sheath, and the whole cable is protected by a plastic cover (see figure-3).
Category
RG-59 RG-58 RG-11
Impedance
75 50 50
Use
Cable TV Thin Ethernet Thick Ethernet
Fiber-Optic Cable
A fiber-optic cable is made of glass or plastic and transmits signals in the form of light. To understand optical fiber, we first need to explore several aspects of the nature of light. Light travels in a straight line as long as it is moving through a single uniform object. If a ray of light traveling through one object suddenly enters another object, the ray changes direction.
Propagation Modes
Current technology of fiber-optical cable supports two modes (multimode and single mode) for propagation light along optical channels, each requiring fiber with different physical characteristics. Multimode can be implemented in two forms: step-index or graded-index. In multimode step-index fiber, the density of the core remains constant from the center to the edges. A beam of light moves through this constant density in a straight line until it reaches the interface of the core and the cladding. In multimode graded-index fiber, decreases the distortion of the signal through the cable. In graded-index fiber, density is highest at the center of the core and decreases gradually to its lowest at the edge. Single mode uses step-index fiber and a highly focused source of light that limits beams to a small range of angles, all close to the horizontal.
The Subscriber Channel (SC) Connector is used for cable TV. It uses a push/pull locking system. The Straight-tip (ST) connector is used for connection cable to networking devices. The ST connector is more reliable than SC connector. MT-RJ is a connector that is the same size as RJ-45.
- cost
UNGUIDED MEDIA
Unguided media transport electromagnetic waves without using a physical conductor. This type of communication is often referred to as wireless communication. Figure shows the electromagnetic spectrum, ranging from 3 KHz to 900 THz, used for wireless communication.
Radio Wave
Micro Wave
Infrared
Light Wave
3 KHz
1 GHz
300 GHz
400 THz
900 THz
Unguided signals can travel from the source to destination in many ways:
- Ground Propagation
- Sky Propagation
- Line-of-sight Propagation
In Ground Propagation, low-frequency radio signals travels in all the direction through the lowest portion of the atmosphere.
In sky propagation, higher-frequency radio signals radiate upward into the ionosphere where they are reflected back to the earth.
In line-of-sight propagation, very high-frequency signals are transmitted in straight lines directly from antenna to antenna. Antennas must be aligned, facing each other.
Radio Waves
Electromagnetic waves ranging in frequencies between 3 KHz and 1GHz are normally called radio waves.
Radio waves are omni-directional, means when an antenna transmits radio waves, they are propagated in all directions.
In radio wave sending and receiving antennas do not have to be aligned. A sending antenna sends waves that can be received by any receiving antenna.
Radio waves are those waves that propagate in the sky mode, can travel long distances.
- Cordless phones
- GPS receivers
Microwaves
Electromagnetic waves having frequencies between 1 and 300 GHz are called microwaves. Microwaves are unidirectional. When antenna transmits microwaves, they can be narrowly focused. This means that the sending and receiving antennas need to be aligned. Microwaves are used line-of-sight propagation.
Advantages of Microwaves
Microwaves are unidirectional, sending and receiving antennas need to be aligned, so they are not interfering with another pair of aligned antennas. The microwave band is relatively wide, therefore sub-bands are also wider, and a high data rate for digital communication is possible. Microwaves are relatively inexpensive and simple to install.
Disadvantages of Microwaves
Very high frequency microwaves cannot penetrate walls, if receivers are inside buildings. The microwave propagation is line-of-sight, if the towers are far apart need to be very tall. The curvature of the earth does not allow two short towers to communicate by using microwaves. Repeaters are often needed for long distance communication.
Applications of Microwaves
The unidirectional properties of microwaves make them useful for unicasting, in which there is one sender and one receiver.
- Cellular phones
- Satellite networks - Wireless LANs
The section of the electromagnetic spectrum defined as radio waves and microwaves is divided into eight ranges, called bands, each regulated by government authorities.
These bands are rated from very low frequency (VLF) to extremely high frequency (EHF). Below table lists these bands, their ranges, propagation methods, and some application.
Band
VLF (very low frequency
Range
3-30 kHz
Propagation
Ground
Application
Long range radio navigation
LF (low frequency)
MF (medium frequency) HF (high frequency) VHF (very high frequency) UHF (ultra high frequency) SHF (super high frequency) EHF (extremely high frequency)
30-300 kHz
300-3 MHz 3-30 MHz 30-300 MHz 300-3 GHz 3-30 GHz 30-300 GHz
Ground
Sky Sky Sky and Line-of-sight Line-of-sight Line-of-sight Line-of-sight
Infrared
Electromagnetic waves having frequencies from 300 GHz to 400 THz are called infrared waves. Infrared waves can be used for short-range communication.
Advantages of Infrared
Infrared waves are relatively directional and easy to build.
Infrared waves having a high frequency, this advantageous characteristic prevents interference between one system to another; a short range communication system in one room cannot be affected by another system in the next room.
It is useful to communicate with wireless keyboard and mouse in the PCs.
Disadvantages of Infrared
High frequency infrared waves cannot penetrate walls.
Infrared waves are useless for long range communication. Infrared waves do not pass through solid objects. We cannot use infrared waves outside a building because the suns rays contain infrared waves that can interfere with the communication.
Applications of Infrared
The remote controls used on television, VCRs are based on Infrared.
Infrared waves are used in short-range communication e.g., wireless keyboard and mouse. Infrared waves are used for thermal efficiency analysis, remote temperature sensing and weather forecasting.
It has 8 bit or a boot ROM. Transmission rate is 2.5 mbps. It also has a BNC connector and a jumper on a card. The name of the driver for this card is TURBO RXNET (TRXNET). If the stations are wired in the Bus topology the maximum trunk length of the bus segment is 1000 ft.
ARCNET card uses a token ring bus access method but it is not IEEE standard.
ETHERNET Card :
This card consist of PCI (Peripheral Component Interconnect) bus. The slots available are 8, 16, 32 bit. Node address is between 0 to 1023. DIP (Dual Inline Package) switches are not available. The cable use is RG-58.
Thick and thin Ethernet are available. Data transfer rate is 10 mbps.
Thick Ethernet uses AUI (Attachment Unit Interface) connector 25-pin female connector.
Ethernet uses BNC connector. There are no switches for port address settings. The default factor setting port address is fused on the card.
Hubs
Hub is used to create connections between stations in a physical star topology. Hub is a central network device that connects network nodes as shown in figure.
Basically there is two types of hub 1. Active Hub and 2. Passive Hub
1. Active Hub
Active hubs are regenerate and retransmit the signals the same way repeater does. Hub usually have eight to twelve ports for computers to connect to, they are often called multiport repeaters. Active hubs need electric power to run
2. Passive Hub
A passive hub is just a connector. It connects the wires coming from different branches. In a star topology Ethernet LAN, a passive hub is just a point where the signals coming from different stations collide; the hub is a collision point.
Hubs can also be used to create multiple levels of hierarchy, as shown in figure. A hub-based network can be expanded by connecting more than one hub.
Switches
Switches provides bridging functionality with greater efficiency. It acts as multiport bridge to connect devices or segments in a LAN as shown figure.
Switch has a buffer for each link to which it is connected. Switch operates in Data Link Layer of the OSI model. When it receives a frame, it stores the frame in the buffer of receiving link & checks address to find outgoing link. If the outgoing link is free the switch sends the frame to that particular link. There is a two different strategies of switch:
Routers
A router is a three-layer device that routes packets based on their logical addresses (host-to-host addressing). A simplest function of routers is to receive packets from one connected network and pass them to a second connected network as shown in figure.
A router normally connects LANs and WANs in the Internet and has a routing table that is used for making decisions about the route. The routing tables are normally dynamic and are updated using routing protocols. Router is capable of determining which of its connected networks is the best next relay point for the packet. Once a router has identified the best route for a packet to travel, it passes packet along the appropriate network to another router.
Routing Concepts :
Least-cost Routing :
Which path does it select? This decision is based on efficiency of the network. Means which of the available path is the cheapest or shortest?
In routing, shortest means the combination of cheapest, fastest, more secure, most reliable and so no.
Non-adaptive Routing :
In non-adaptive routing in which once a pathway to a destination has been selected, the router sends all packets for that destination along that one route.
Adaptive Routing :
In adaptive routing, a router may select a new route for each packet, In response to changes in condition and topology of the networks. Routers send the packets depending on which route is most efficient at that moment.
Example :
Packet transmission from network A to D.
Adaptive : Once the path A-B-D selected, so all the packets (whole message) are send
through this route (A-B-D).
Non-adaptive : Router send the first packet through the network B (means A-B-D)
Second Packet A-C-D, 3rd Packet A-E-D select best path on that moment. According to the information inside the routing table the router select the best path.
1. Static Router
Routing table informations are entered manually, means the administrator enters the router for each destination into the table. It can not update automatically when there is a change (Shutdown of routers or breaking of link Or some fault in connection) in the Internet. It is more secure, it is always use the same route.
2. Dynamic Router
Routing table is created automatically. Table updated using one of the dynamic routing protocols whenever there is a change in the Internet.
Gateway
Gateway is used to connect two different network systems as shown in figure. Gateway operate in all seven layers of OSI model. Gateway also called as protocol converter.
Gateway
Figure Source : www. archive.networknewz.com
Any device that translates one data format to another is called a gateway.
Some examples of gateways include a router that translates data from one network protocol to another, a bridge that converts between two networking systems, and a software application that converts between two dissimilar formats. The key point about a gateway is that only the data format is translated, not the data itself. In many cases, the gateway functionality is incorporated into another device. Gateway must adjust data rate, size and format. It converts the protocol from one network to another.
3.3 Servers
Text Book Name : Forouzen, Reference : www.en.wikipedia.org Server is a computer or a device which provides service to the other computers or workstations, attached to a network. There are many types of servers like:
- File Server - Print Server - Mail Server - Proxy Server - Web Server
File Server
File server is a computer attached to a network that has the primary purpose of providing a location for the shared storage of computer files (such as documents, sound files (audio files), movies (video files), photographs, databases, etc).
Those files can be accessed by the workstations that are attached to the computer network.
File Server
Figure Source : www.articleweekend.net
The term server highlights the role of the machine in client-server scheme, where the clients are the workstations using the server as storage. In a file server FTP (File Transfer Protocol) is used to transfer a file from one computer to another computer and retrieve the files from file server. A file server is usually not performing any calculations and does not run any programs on behalf of the clients. It is designed primarily to enable the rapid storage and retrieval of data where the heavy computation is provided by the workstations.
Print Server
A print server is a computer that manages one or more printers. A print server or printer server is a computer or device that is connected to one or more printers add to client computers over a network, and can accept print jobs from the computers and send the print jobs to the appropriate printers. Print servers allow printers to be shared by other users on the network as shown in figure.
Mail Server
Mail server is computer or storage area where E-mail is stored for local users. All the function of the mail server is performing by the MTA (Main Transfer Agent) used to transfers electronic mail messages from one computer to another. MTA works in the background, while the user usually interacts directly with a mail user agent. Transmission of mail from sender to receiver consists 3 stages:
First Stage
Email goes from the user to the local server through SMTP, mail is stored in the local server until it can be sent.
Second Stage
Email goes local server to mail access server. E-mail is received by this mail server and stored in the mailbox of the user for later retrieval.
Third Stage
In third stage e-mail goes to mailbox to remote server or mail access client.
SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) is a standard protocol to sending e-mail messages between one system to another system or between servers.
POP3 (Post Office Protocol Version 3) protocol is used to retrieve e-mail from a mail server, although some can use the newer IMAP (Internet Mail Access Protocol) to receive an e-mail.
Mail servers move and store mail over corporate network and across the Internet.
Proxy Server
A proxy server is a server (a computer system or an application program) that acts as an intermediate for requests of its clients by forwarding requests to other servers as shown in figure. A server that sits between a client application such as a web browser and a real server.
A client connects to the proxy server, requesting some service, such as a file, connection, web page, or other resource, available from a different server. The proxy server evaluates the request according to its filtering rules. For example, it may filter traffic by IP address or protocol. If the request is validated by the filter, the proxy provides the resource by connecting to the relevant server and requesting the service on behalf of the client. A proxy server may optionally alter the client's request or the server's response, and sometimes it may serve the request without contacting the specified server. In this case, it 'caches' responses from the remote server, and returns subsequent requests for the same content directly. A proxy server that passes requests and replies unmodified is usually called a gateway or sometimes tunneling proxy. A proxy server can be placed in the user's local computer or at various points between the user and the destination servers on the Internet.
Web Server
Web server is a computer that delivers web pages on the request to clients. Every web server has an IP address and possibly a domain name. Web servers serves static content to a web browser by loading a file from a disk and serving it across the network to a users web browser. The most common use of web servers is to host websites. The most common request is the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP), but there are also other requests like the Internet Message Access Protocol (IMAP) or the File Transfer Protocol (FTP). Web server is a computer program that is responsible for accepting HTTP, requests from web clients, which are known as web browsers, and serving them HTTP responses along with optional data contents, which usually are web pages such as HTML documents and images, etc.
Internet Addresses
An Internet address uniquely identifies a node on the Internet. Internet address may also refer to the name or IP of a Web site (URL). The term Internet address can also represent someone's e-mail address.
Gateway Addresses
A gateway address is the next hop to which a packet goes to whenever the destination subnet is not present in the routing table for that specific packet. It can be manually configured in the connection's tcp/ip properties or automatically assigned by the DHCP (Dynamic Host Control Protocol) server.
Network Address
A network address serves as a unique identifier for a computer on a network. When set up correctly, computers can determine the addresses of other computers on the network and use these addresses to send messages to each other.
Broadcast Addressing
A broadcast address is a logical address at which all devices connected to a multipleaccess communications network are enabled to receive datagrams. A message sent to a broadcast address is typically received by all network-attached hosts, rather than by a specific host.
Doted-decimal Notation
Doted-decimal notation is a presentation format for numerical data. It consists of a string of decimal numbers, each pair separated by a full stop (dot).
A common use of dot-decimal notation is in information technology where it is a method of writing numbers in octet-grouped base-10 (decimal) numbers separated by dots (full stops).
An IP address (version 4) in both dot-decimal notation and binary code Figure Source : heavynetwork.blogspot.com
Loopback Addressing
Loopback address is a special IP number (127.0.0.1) that is designated for the software loopback interface of a machine. The loopback interface has no hardware associated with it, and it is not physically connected to a network. The loopback interface allows IT professionals to test IP software without worrying about broken or corrupted drivers or hardware.
Version
Which version of the protocol the datagram belongs to. The current version number is 4. Next version: 6
IHL :
The number of 32-bit words in the header Because this is 4 bits, the max header length is 15 words (i.e. 60 bytes)
Type of Service
Contains a 3-bit precedence field (that is ignored today), 4 service bits, and 1 unused bit.
Total Length
Total length of the datagram in bytes. We know where the data starts by the header length We know the size of the data by computing "total length - header length"
Identification
Uniquely identifies the datagram. Usually incremented by 1 each time a datagram is sent. All fragments of a datagram contain the same identification value. This allows the destination host to determine which fragment belongs to which datagram.
MF means more fragments to follow. All fragments except the last one have this bit set. It is needed to know if all fragments of a datagram have arrived.
Fragment offset
Number of fragment.
Time to Live
Upper limit of routers.
Usually set to 32 or 64. Decremented by each router that processes the datagram.
Protocol
Tells IP where to send the datagram up to. 6 means TCP 17 means UDP
Header Checksum
Only checks the header part of the datagram, not all the data.
Source IP address
This 32-bit provide source ip address.
Destination IP address
This 32-bit provide destination ip address.
Options
Optional data.
Some examples include having the router put in a IP address of router and a time stamp so the final destination knows how long it took to get to each hop.
Length
A field that specifies the length in bytes of the entire datagram: header and data. The minimum length is 8 bytes since that's the length of the header. The field size sets a theoretical limit of 65,535 bytes (8 byte header + 65,527 bytes of data) for a UDP datagram. The practical limit for the data length which is imposed by the underlying IPv4 protocol is 65,507 bytes (65,535 8 byte UDP header 20 byte IP header).
Checksum
The checksum field is used for error-checking of the header and data. If no checksum is generated by the transmitter, the field uses the value all-zeros. Packet produced at transport layer by UDP is called user datagram UDP is faster than TCP
4.3 IPv6
Text Book Name : Forouzen : Page No : 596, Ref. Book Name : A. S. Tanenbaum IPv6 Internetwork Protocol Version 6 IPv6 also known as IPing (Internetworking Protocol, next generation) In IPv6, format and the length of the IP addresses were changed along with the packet format. IPv6 provide 128 bits addressing IPv6 has some advantages over IPv4 Features of IPv6 : 1. Large Address Space 2. Better Header Format 3. New Options 4. Allowance for extension of protocol 5. Support for Resource Allocation 6. Support for more Security
TCP : Introduction
TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) provides full transport layer service to the applications. It is reliable and connection oriented Protocol. It is port-to-port protocol. (means one process in one computer to the one process in another computer provides service-point addressing [port addressing]) It is connection oriented protocol means connection must be established between both ends of a transmission before either may transmit data TCP generates a virtual circuit between sender and receiver that is active for the duration of transmission. TCP divides long data into smaller data units i.e. called segment. Packets produced at transport layer are called segments. Each segment includes a sequencing number for reordering receipt, together with an acknowledgement ID number and a window-size field for flow controlling. Error controlling and flow controlling is handled by TCP.
Sequence Number
The bytes of data being transferred are numbered by TCP. This numbering of bytes are called byte number.
After bytes have been numbered, TCP assign a sequence number to each segment that is being sent. The sequence number for each segment is the number of the first byte carried in that segment. [ First byte number in first segment is first sequence number. Fist byte number in second segment is second sequence number and so on.]
Acknowledgement Number
This 32 bits field defines the byte number that are the receiver wants to receive. If the byte number x has been successfully received, x+1 is the acknowledgement number.
Reserved
This is a 16-bit field reserved for future use.
Control Field :
This field defines 6 different control flags.
1. URG - Urgent
URG = 1, The value of urgent pointer field is valid
2. ACK - Acknowledgement
ACK = 1, Value of acknowledgement field is valid
4. RST - Reset
RST = 1, The connection must be reset
5. SYN - Synchronize
SYN = 1, Synchronize sequence number during connection
6. FIN - Finished
FIN = 1, Terminate the connection
Window Size
This 16 bits field defines the size of the sliding window. This field is used for flow controlling.
Checksum
This 16 bits field used in error detection.
Urgent Pointer
This field is only valid when URG flag is set. It is a pointer that points to the location from which urgent data starts. Sender is informing the receiver that there are urgent data in the portion of the segment.
Option
This field is up to 40 bytes of optional information in the TCP header. Extra features or functionalities are added in this field.
A cable modem is an external device that allows your computer to connect to the Internet through a cable TV wire, instead of a telephone line (or another system). Basically you just connect the Cable Modem to the TV outlet for your cable TV, and the cable operator connects a Cable Modem Termination System (CMTS) in his end (the Head-End). A cable modem can be added to or integrated with a set-top box that provides your TV set with channels for Internet access. In most cases, cable modems are furnished as part of the cable access service and are not purchased directly and installed by the subscriber. A subscriber can continue to receive cable television service while simultaneously receiving data on cable modems to be delivered to a personal computer (PC) with the help of a simple one-to-two splitter (see Figure 5.1). The data service offered by a cable modem may be shared by up to sixteen users in a local-area network (LAN) configuration.
A cable modem has two connections: one to the cable wall outlet and the other to a PC or to a set-top box for a TV set.
A cable modem does modulation between analog and digital signals, it is a much more complex device than a telephone modem. It can be an external device or it can be integrated within a computer or set-top box. In a business environment, the cable modem interfaces with a local area network (LAN) through an Ethernet hub, switch or router, providing access to multiple users through a single cable modem.
2) Always-on service
Cable modem service is always on. With a cable modem, you will receive a constant stream of information to your computer. You will not experience busy signals, dial-up errors, or disconnects due to inactivity. Cable modem access transforms the Internet into an important tool that you can use every day, because getting information on the Internet is faster and easier than looking in the paper or the Yellow Pages.
3) Cost
Cable Internet access is as cost-effective as dial-up services, even though dial-up services are significantly slower. For one fixed monthly fee, you get unlimited Internet access without having to pay the "hidden costs" of an extra telephone line or additional usage charges. Often, the cost of a second phone line is the difference between the cost of cable modem service and dial-up service.
ADSL used an adaptive technology that tests the condition and bandwidth availability of the line before setting on a data rate. The data rate of ADSL is not fixed; it changes based on the condition and type of the local loop cable.
The modulation technique used by ADSL is called the discrete multitone technique (DMT) which combines QAM and FDM. Typically, and available bandwidth of 1.1 MHz is divided into 256 channels.
Channel 0 is reserved for voice communication. Channels 1 to 5 are not used and provide a gap between voice and data communication. Channels 6 to 30 (25 Channels) are used for upstream data transfer and control. One channel is for control and 24 channels are for data transfer. Channels 31 to 255 (225 Channels) are used for downstream data transfer and control. One channel is for control, and 224 channels are for data. The figure 5.3 shows an ADSL modem installed at a customers site. The local loop connects to a splitter which separates voice and data communications. The ADSL modem modulates and demodulates the data, using DMT (Digital Multitone Technique), and creates downstream and upstream channels.
Fast Ethernet (100BASE-T) offers a speed increase ten times that of the 10BaseT Ethernet specification, while preserving such qualities as frame format, MAC mechanisms, and MTU. Such similarities allow the use of existing 10BaseT applications and network management tools on Fast Ethernet networks. Officially, the 100BASE-T standard is IEEE 802.3u. Like Ethernet, 100BASE-T is based on the CSMA/CD LAN access method. There are several different cabling schemes that can be used with 100BASE-T, including: 100BASE-TX: two pairs of high-quality twisted-pair wires
The Fast Ethernet specifications include mechanisms for Auto-Negotiation of the media speed. This makes it possible for vendors to provide dual-speed Ethernet interfaces that can be installed and run at either 10-Mbps or 100-Mbps automatically.
The TX and FX medium standards are collectively known as 100BASE-X.
The 100BASE-TX and 100BASE-FX media standards used in Fast Ethernet are both adopted from physical media standards first developed by ANSI, the American National Standards Institute.
Gigabit Ethernet (GbE or 1 GigE) is a term describing various technologies for transmitting Ethernet frames at a rate of a gigabit per second (1,000,000,000 bits per second), as defined by the IEEE 802.3-2008 standard. Half-duplex gigabit links connected through hubs are allowed by the specification but in the marketplace full-duplex with switches is normal. Under the International Standards Organizations Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model, Ethernet is fundamentally a Layer 2 protocol. 10 Gigabit Ethernet uses the IEEE 802.3 Ethernet Media Access Control (MAC) protocol, the IEEE 802.3 Ethernet frame format, and the minimum and maximum IEEE 802.3 frame size. Just as 1000BASE-X and 1000BASE-T (Gigabit Ethernet) remained true to the Ethernet model, 10 Gigabit Ethernet continues the natural evolution of Ethernet in speed and distance. Since it is a full-duplex only and fiber-only technology, it does not need the carrier-sensing multiple-access with collision detection (CSMA/CD) protocol that defines slower, half-duplex Ethernet technologies. In every other respect, 10 Gigabit Ethernet remains true to the original Ethernet model.
1000BASE - X
1000BASE-X is used in industry to refer to gigabit Ethernet transmission over fiber, where options include 1000BASE-CX, 1000BASE-LX, and 1000BASE-SX, 1000BASE-LX10, 1000BASE-BX10 or the non-standard -ZX implementations.
1000BASE - T
1000BASE-T (also known as IEEE 802.3ab) is a standard for gigabit Ethernet over copper wiring. Each 1000BASE-T network segment can be a maximum length of 100 meters (328 feet), and must use Category 5 cable or better. Category 5e cable or Category 6 cable may also be used.
FDDI Devices :
In addition to the FDDI components, the FDDI standard defines the types of devices that can be connected to the ring. These devices include the following:
Stations
DAS: dual attach station (usually attaches directly to FDDI dual ring) SAS: single attach station (attaches to the FDDI ring through a concentrator)
Concentrators
DAC: dual attach concentrator (usually attaches directly to the FDDI dual ring) SAC: single attach concentrator (attaches to the FDDI ring through another concentrator) FDDI is a product of American National Standards Committee and conforms to the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model of functional layering. It can be used to interconnect LANs using other protocols.
FDDI-II is a version of FDDI that adds the capability to add circuit-switched service to the network so that voice signals can also be handled. Work is underway to connect FDDI networks to the developing Synchronous Optical Network (SONET).
Advantages of FDDI :
FDDI supports real-time allocation of network bandwidth.
The FDDI compensates for wiring failures. The stations wrap within themselves when the wiring fails.
Disadvantages of FDDI :
There's a potential for multiple ring failures. As the network grows, this possibility grows larger and larger. The use of fiber optic cables is expensive.
- Message format
- User agent
Domain name system is a client server application that identifies each host on the internet, with a unique user friendly name. Domain name system is a method to identifying hosts with user friendly names instead of ip addresses. Because to remember numeric addresses are difficult compare to names.
In Domain Name System names must be unique because the addresses are unique.
Each Domain is partitioned into sub domains. Once an Organization assigned domain name, the name is reserved for the Organization, means no other Organization will be assigned the same name. To map a name into IP address, an application program calls a library procedure called the Resolver, passing it the name as a Parameter. The Resolver sends a UDP packet to local DNS server, which then looks up the name and returns the IP address to the resolver, which then returns it to the caller process. Domain names are always read from the bottom to top.
1. Generic domain : Generic domain defines registered host according to their generic
behavior. Each node in the tree defines a domain.
DESCRIPTION Commercial Organization Educational Institutions Government Institutions International Organization Military Groups Network Organization
Org
The World Wide Web (WWW) is a collection of information linked together from points all over the world. The WWW has a unique combination of flexibility, portability, and user-friendly features that distinguish it from other services provided by the Internet. The World-Wide Web was developed at CERN (European Laboratory for Particle Physics) in Geneva, to create a system to handle distributed resources. The WWW today is a distributed client/server service, in which a client using a browser can access a service using a server. The World-Wide Web was developed to be a pool of human knowledge, and human culture, which would allow collaborators in remote sites to share their ideas and all aspects of a common project.
However, the service provided is distributed over many locations called sites, as shown in Figure below:
Architecture of WWW Figure Source : Data Communication & Networking, -Forouzen (Page no )
Each site holds one or more documents, referred to as Web Pages. Each web page can contain a link to other pages in the same site or at other sites. The pages can be retrieved and viewed by using browsers. As shown if figure-(a), the client send a request through its browser, a program that is designed to fetch Web documents. The request includes address of the site and the Web page, called the URL (Uniform Resource Locator). URL defines four things: protocol, host computer, port address, and path as shown below:
PROTOCOL
://
HOST
PORT
PATH
The protocol is the client/server program used to retrieve the document. Many different protocols can retrieve a document; among them are FTP and HTTP. The most common protocol is HTTP (Hyper Text Transfer Protocol). HTTP is a protocol used mainly to access data on the World Wide Web. HTTP functions as a combination of FTP and SMTP. There is no separate control connection; only data are transferred between the client and the server. The host is the computer on which the information is located. Web pages are usually stored in computers. The URL can optionally contain the port number of the server. If the port is included, it is inserted between the host and the path, and it is separated from the host by a colon. Path is the pathname of the file where the information is located.
According to the figure-(a), the server at the site A finds the document and sends it to the client. The client sends another request to the new site, and the new page is retrieved. The retrieved page is in HTML form, Hyper Text Markup Language is a language for creating Web pages. Web pages are formatted by HTML tags for interpretation by a browser. For example the text displayed in boldface with HTML, we put beginning and ending boldface tags in the text, as shown below:
<B>
</B>
The two tags <B> and </B> are instructions for the browser. When the browser sees these two marks, it knows that the text must be boldfaced.
A markup language such as HTML allows us to formatting instructions in the file itself. The instructions are included with the text. In this way, any browser can read the instructions and format the text according to the specific workstation.
The web page is stored in Server. Each time a client request arrives, the corresponding document is sent to the client. To improve efficiency, servers normally store requested files in a cache in memory; memory is faster to access than disk. A server can also more efficient through multiprocessing. In this case, a server can answer more than one request at a time.
E-mail is most popular network services, used to send messages to others on the network.
To send an E-mail to someone, you just need their E-mail ID means address which is divided in two parts, the username and the domain name. These two parts are separated by @ sign. A typical E-mail address might read,
SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) is the standard protocol use for electronic mail in the internet.
Message Format :
Sending Mail :
To send mail, the user creates mail that looks like similar to postal mail. It has an Envelope and a Message (see the figure)
Message Format Figure Source : Data Communication & Networking, -Forouzen (Page no )
Envelope contains the sender address, the receiver address and other information.
Message contains the header and body. Header of the message contains the address of the
sender, receiver and subject of the message, date etc.
Body of the message contains the actual information to be read by the recipient. Receiving Mail :
The e-mail system periodically checks the mailboxes. If user has mail, it informs the user with a notice. If the user is ready to read the mail, a list of mail displayed with sender address, subject, date and time the mail was sent etc. The user can select any of the messages and display its contents on the screen.
Addresses :
To deliver mail, a mail handling system must have an addressing system with unique addresses.
Figure Source : Data Communication & Networking, -Forouzen (Page no ) 1) Local Part: It defines the name of a special file, called the user mailbox, where all the mail
received for a user is stored.
2) Domain Name: The second part of the address is the domain name. An organization
selects one or more hosts to receive & send e-mail, they are sometimes called mail exchangers.
User Agent :
The user agent prepares the message, creates the envelope and puts the message in envelop. Mail transfer agent (MTA) transfers the mail across the internet. Services Provided by user agent :
1. Composing Messages
2. Reading Messages
3. Replying Messages
4. Forwarding Messages
5. Handling Mailboxes
1. Composing Messages :
User agent provides a template or a form on the screen to be filled in by the user. A user can use their favorite text editor or word processor to create the message and impart it or cut and paste into the uses agent.
2. Reading Messages :
When a user login, first User Agent checks the mail in the incoming mailbox.
User Agent show a one-line summary of each received mail which contain following details number field of the message, the size of the message, the sender name, the subject field, flag field, which shows if the mail is new, already read but not replied, read and replied and so on.
3. Replying Messages :
After reading message, a user can use the user agent to reply to a message. The reply message contains the original message and the new message.
4. Forwarding Messages :
Forwarding means to send the message to the third party.
User Agent allows the receiver to forward the message, with or without extra comments to a third party.
5. Handling Mailboxes :
A uses agent creates two mailboxes :-
The outbox keeps all the send emails until the user deletes them.
Mail Protocols :
SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol)
POP3 (Post Office Protocol Version 3)
MIME (Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions) SMTP is a standard protocol to sending e-mail messages between one system to another system or between servers.
POP3 protocol is used to retrieve e-mail from a mail server, although some can use the newer IMAP protocol to receive an e-mail.
MIME used to formatting non-ASCII messages so that they can be sent over internet