TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT & ACCIDENT INVESTIGATION By: PROF.

OSCAR GATCHALIAN SORIANO, LC BSCrim, MSBA, MACrim, PhDCrim =================================================== History of Transportation The history of transportation can be conveniently-if over-simply--divided into period during which motive power was most characteristically furnished by human and animal muscle, by such natural forces as wind and gravity, and by fuel-operated machines. 1. Manpower

Stone Age mans transportation of firewood and of animals killed in the hunt probably led to the invention of the sled. From the sled early man may have got the idea for ski pieces of smooth board resembling sled runners but worn on the feet of the hunterand later of snowshoes. The first watercraft, the man-powered raft and canoe, probably evolved from the floating log. The greatest advance in land transport after the sled was the wheel, probably first invented in the Tigris-Euphrates Valley sometime before 3500 BC. The ancient Egyptians took little or no part in the invention. The great blocks of stone that went to make the pyramids were floated on barges down the Nile River and then moved over land on sleds running on rollers. Gangs of slaves dragged

the blocks of stone by means of large ropes, while other slaves at the rear of sled picked-up the rollers over which the sled had passed and hurried around and place them at the front. To raise the blocks of stone to their positions in the pyramids, the Egyptian built ramps. 2. Animal Power

But while human muscle power was still in widespread use for transport in ancient Egypt, animal muscle power was being widely exploited in the other river valley civilizations. The ox, the ass, and the camel were tamed somewhere in the Middle East by 3000 BC. In arctic snows the reindeer, which can carry a load of about 130 lbs. (60 kg.) without much effort, is still widely used. In the higher altitudes of the Himalayas the yak, a species of ox, is used as pack animal. In India the beast of burden is often the elephant. In Peru the llama is domesticated and used as pack animal. The horse was tamed somewhere in its native habitat on the steppes of Central Asia. The invention of the bit and bridle before 3000 BC gave steppe folk control of the horse for riding. The stirrup was not invented until Roman times, probably somewhere in Western Asia. The earliest known stirrups have been found in South Russia in tombs dating from between 100 BC and 400 AD. Until the invention of horse collar, about 900 AD, horses were harnessed like oxen. A yoke passed over the withers, and a strap tightened on the horses chest when it pulled, half strangling the animal. The Romans, knowing little anatomy, did not realize that a good harness for the ox was a very poor harness for the horse. This fact

explains why the horse was little used as a draft animal until late in the middle ages, whereas the ox almost universally used as draft animal from 3000 BC. Where the horse was used for transportation during the middle ages, it was mainly as a pack carrier at its sides. Another invention that played a great part in the history of transportation was the horseshoe. In its wild state the horse can gallop for longdistance on soft grass of the Asiatic steppes. But if it is driven on a hard, metal road its soft hoofs soon become broken and it goes lame. An iron horseshoe, mailed around the edge of the hard hoof, stops the hoof from breaking away. It appears that the iron horseshoe was invented in Gaul about the time of Julius Caesar, and taken to Britain soon afterward. 3. Wind Power

Primitive man may have hoisted crude sails of skins on his rafts of canoes, for there is clear evidence of the migration of peoples over wide stretches of ocean long before 3000 BC. The ships of Egypt, Phoenix, and Greece were driven partly by a large square sail of mid ships and partly by oars. The war gallery, in which a greater degree of maneuverability was needed, had narrower lines and depended more on oars than did the trading vessels. In other parts of the world the original dugout canoe developed into different kinds of watercraft. In the North Sea a ship that was sharp at both ends, like canoe, developed, where as the Mediterranean type of vessel had a rounded stern. In the Pacific, through rafts remained in the use in some regions, a completely different type of

ocean-going watercraft, the outrigger canoe, developed. In Chinese waters at junk appeared. Mediterranean ships were all carvel built, that is, the planks were placed side by side like the boards on a floor, and the cracks between the boards made watertight with tar. The ships of the North Sea, however, were made of overlapping planks, or clinker built. North Sea ships had only one steering oar, placed on the steer board, or starboard, quarter, whereas the Mediterranean ships had two steering oars one on each side of the stern. The rudder that is used for steering in modern ships did not make its appearance until about 1200 A.D. great aid to sea transportation reached Europe about 1300 AD in the form of the ships compass, a device first known among Chinese sailors and then transmitted by the Arabs. An important improvement in ship-building took place about 1450 AD with the development of the three-master ship. Thereafter the story of sea transportation is largely the story of the conquest of the whole globe by the three-mastered skin. 4. Roads and Vehicles A

The Romans brought road building to its highest point of perfection in ancient times. The Roman road network reached a total of about 50,000 mi. (80,000 km.), with feeder roads branching out from the main highways. The roads were costly because Roman road engineers assumed that deep foundations, formed by layer after of heavy stones were necessary to make roads that would carry heavy traffic for many years. This theory was not completely abandoned until John L. Mc Adam

perfected the macadamized road in England about 1815. Realizing that dry native soil would support any weight. Mc Adam made the surface of his roads completely watertight and curved so that main would run off them as off a roof. He did this pounding and rolling a layer of small stones into a hard surface. This road remained the best that could be devised until the rubber tires of the last country. Significant improvement of road vehicle began with the adoption of coach spring about 1650. In the mid 18th century English roads were so bad that coaches could average only about 4 mph (6.4 km/h), and the mail was usually carried by boys on horses for delivering the mail. The first mail coach run in March 1785 and by 1800 the English mail coach system was in full swing. Canals, railways, and steamboats. The improvement in roads, in the horses and in coaches had solved the problem of fast transportation of passengers and light freight, but there still remained the problem of heavy transportation. This problem was met first by the development of canals and later by railroads. In 1761, the Duke of Bridgewater arranged with an engineer, Jones Brindley, to Manchester, 7 mi. (11 km) away. As a result the price of coal dropped by half, while still allowing the Duke plenty of profit on his investment. Brindleys success led to England, in particular was covered by a network of canals. The first American canal, opened in 1825, connected Lake Erie with the Hudson River at Albany. of English canals fell into decay with the coming the railroad. William Mardlock and Richard

Trevthick had made early types of locomotives before 1800. But it was George Stephenson who pushed through the final stages of the fully developed railway locomotive. Stephenson built his first model in 1814 for use in hauling trucks of coal. The first railroad was the Stockton and Darlington Line, begun in 1825. The second, the Liver Pool and Manchester, followed in 1829. At first, it was certain that these early crude locomotive should be more satisfactory than horses. It was assumed that locomotives would not be able to haul heavy loads up an incline, since the wheels, it was thought, would spin without gripping the rails. This theory was later found to be false, but only after long sections of English lines, at great cost, had been made as near horizontal as possible. By 1840 the English railways had put nearly all the main coaching companies out of business, and the road ceased to be an important factor in inland transportation until the automobile era began about 1900. In the USA, the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad Company began work on the first American railroad in 1828. Construction of Canadas first railroad, the Champlain and St. Lawrence, began in 1832. The development of the steamboat proceeded simultaneously with the development of the steam locomotive. Here the steam engine was to impart a rotary motion to paddle wheels. The first successful steamboat journey in USA was made by Robert Fultons Clermont up to the Hudson River in 1807. By 1811 the first steamboat appeared on the Ohio River, inaugurating the great steam boating era on the inland waterways.

5.

The Bicycle

The bicycle is important in the history of transportation, not only in its own right, but because of the part of bicycle industry played as a nursery of automobile builders. One of ancestors of the modern bicycle was the Hob Horse, or Dandy Horse, which could be seen on the English macadamized roads after 1818. The wheels of these machines were of wood, with tires of iron, and the riders pushed themselves along with their feet on the ground. There was a steady improvement in the bicycle throughout the 19th century, until the safety bicycle, with pneumatic tires, at last appeared. Some of the earliest automobiles ran on four bicycle wheels. 7. The Automobile

In England for some times after 1800 it seemed that the future of mechanical road transportation with the steam carriage. Stem traction engines were a familiar sight on many roads throughout the world toward the end of the 19th century. The future of mechanical road transport, however, lay with vehicle driven by the internal combustion engine, the invention of which usually attributed to the Frenchman Etiene Lenoir. By 1865 there were 400 Lenoir gas engines in France doing such light work as cutting chaff and driving of the modern automobile when he put toward the invention of the modern automobile when he put one of this as engines in a carriage and drove around his factory. This carriage also made a journey of some miles to Paris.

Two German inventors, Nicolaus Otto and Gottlieb Daimler, also pioneered the manufacture of gas engines, and Daimler later became a successful manufacturer of automobiles. At the same time a small array of inventors was at work in various countries on the development of early types of automobiles. The invention of the pneumatic bicycle tire by Scott, John Boyd Dunlop in 1988 gave a tremendous impetus to this early work. 8. Air Transport

Not until the development of the internal combustion engine can the era of air transportation be said to have begun. Men were making balloon and flights, however, or more than a century before Wilbur and Orville Wright made their famous first flight at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina, USA, in 1903. The progress of air transportation was hastened by World Wars I and II. An important advances in aircraft propulsion occurred with the invention of the jet engine. Until this invention practically every great advance in transportation techniques had been the result of the application of the principle of rotary motion. The jet engine has made possible speeds that could never had been attained by the rotary action of the air-crew is effective only in the earths atmosphere. The rocket, however is effective beyond the earths atmosphere, and its development has opened up the era of space exploration and interplanetary travel.

The Word Traffic The word traffic originates from Greco-Roman word Trafico with reference to the movement of people that dates back from the dawns of history: from the domesticated horse-drawn wheels to horseless carriage. The Greek originally called the system Trafriga after the early horse-drawn chariots with spoked wheels. If savants of Rome are to be believed, there is no dispute that the word Trafico is a Greco-Roman word, but the word traffic was created from the famous Trafalgar Square, the hub-center of commerce and culture in the heart of London. But in Latin, the word traffic is denominated as Commercium with reference to the movement and control of goods in transit from un-wheeled axle to horseless carriage. This intellectual discourse of discoveries only reinforced the universal dictum that traffic refers to the movement of people and goods and not vehicle. Perhaps this is the missing jewels in the systematic strategies of traffic management. Legal Basis in the Traffic Management Process 1. Republic Act No. 4136, The Land Transportation Code of the Philippines, as Amended. 2. Republic Act No. 7160, The Act Providing for a Local Government Code of 1991.

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Definition of Traffic Management Traffic Management presupposes an understanding of the motivation behind the behavior of motorist, commuters, and pedestrians. Any attempt to redirect their behavior without understanding will not be able to effectively solve the traffic problems. Innovative Policy to Address Traffic Problems 1. Reiterate the use of public roadways as a matter of privilege and not as matter of right. 2. All forms of privatization thoroughfares should be controlled. of public

3. Must encourage the development of a mass transport system and de-emphasize the use of private vehicles. The Main Management Tasks Required to Improve Traffic

1. Consolidate the single road use handbook, all the traffic laws, rules and regulations, guidelines, must be revised and issued yearly. 2. Ensure that each traffic user is trained and disciplined. 3. Revalidate all drivers licenses and all certificates of vehicle registration. 4. Clear the road network of obstructions.

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5. Streamlining process. 6. Fast-track system. the

the

traffic to a

adjudication mass transit

shift

7. Complete the basic framework of the road network. Causes of Traffic Congestion 1. Immediate

Congestion grows most obviously and at alarming rate primarily in areas experiencing rapid population growth, which cause parallel increase in the ownership and u se of automotive vehicles. 2. Long-Term

Commuting during certain hours add considerably to traffic congestion. The so-called rush-hours are concentrated in relatively short period each day, mainly from 7:00 to 9:00 in the morning and from 5:00 to 7:00 in the evening, when most people rush to and from work. Strategies in Resolving Traffic Congestion 1. Supply-Side Strategy

Expansion of the peak-hour carrying capacity of an areas transportation system seems to be the most intuitively obvious response to greater congestion can be implemented through diverse means: 1)

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Building more roads or widening existing ones in areas that have experienced rapid growth; and 2) making transportation systems more efficient. 2. Demand Side

One of the demand-side tactics transportation economist advocate is peak-hour pricing. This is achieved by charging all drivers who use crowded highways during peak-hours a toll large enough to discourage many others from doing so. Another demand-side strategy is shifting peak-hour trips to other times of the day. This may be achieved by staggering work hours among different organizations, adopting flextime policies or even four-day weeks. Changing week hours would slightly more effective at reducing congestion in the morning. The 5Es of Traffic Management The concepts of traffic although originated in Egypt are being claimed by other countries. While its sophistication and the principle of the 3Es Enforcement, Engineering, and Education was developed in Rome, there is however, no historical impediment that the original traffic philosophy began in Egypt. By historical perspective, 3Es was dovetailed in Egypt, chiseled in Rome and upstaged in the U.S., by time and event. It was an indispensable ingredient in the traffic gems, mined from years after years of event.

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At present time, it is a clinical autopsy on traffic management to dissect and create new ideas that can bury the corpse of 3Es concept to give birth to the 4th E Environment, and the 5th E Economics. Giving birth to the additional 2Es, traffic management now a day deals with 5Es, i.e., enforcement, engineering, education, environment and economics. Definition of Traffic Enforcement It is an action taken by the traffic law enforcers and the count to compel obedience to traffic laws and ordinances, regulating the movement and use of motor vehicle for the purpose of creating deterrence to unlawful behavior by all potential violators. The Five (5) Essential Steps of Traffic Enforcement 1. Detection

Wholly a traffic law enforcers responsibility and entails in looking for the defects in the behavior of motorist, pedestrians, vehicles, equipment, and roadway condition. However, requires knowledge of law on the part of the traffic law enforcers. 2. Apprehension

Wholly a traffic law enforcers responsibility where the traffic law enforcers are required to take action at once to prevent continued and future violations.

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3.

Prosecution

While this is a court function the traffic law enforcers also provides corresponding influence through preparation and introduction of evidence or by close contact with the prosecuting officer. 4. Adjudication

While this is obviously a court function, the traffic law enforcers provides influence on this step by acting as witness to the prosecution or supplying additional evidences, this step determines the guilt or innocence of the respondents. 5. Penalization

The court imposes the penalty upon the respondents. The penalty is greatly influenced by previous records of conviction as provided by the traffic law enforcers. Major Elements Activities 1. of Traffic Law Enforcement

Enforcement System

Consist of legislation, police and the courts. Legislation defines and specifies correct or incorrect road user behavior. Traffic law enforcers and the courts is charged with the responsibility of insuring that these laws are adhered to.

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2.

Road User System

Includes pedestrians, pedal cyclist, drivers, passengers and others. 3. Traffic System Consist of the entire road and vehicle complex. Kinds of Traffic Law Enforcers Action 1. Arrest

It is enforcement actions which consist of taking person into custody for the purpose of holding or detaining him to answer a charge of law violation before a court. Arrest is made when the: 1) the offense committed is serious; 2) detention is necessary to avoid continued violation; and 3) there is reasonable doubt that the violator will not appear in court. 2. Traffic Citation

A means of having violators appear in court, without physical arrest. Kinds of which are: 1) Traffic Citation Ticket; 2) Temporary Operators Permit; 3) Traffic Warning. An enforcement action which does not contemplate possible assessment of penalty by the court or otherwise as a results of warning alone. It is of three (3) types: 1) visual; 2) verbal; and 3) written

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Definition of Traffic Supervision It is defined as keeping informed on streets, highways within existing regulations to make their use safe and expeditious. Definition of Traffic Control The control of vehicles or pedestrian at a certain point or area by mechanical means, fixed objects or manpower. Major Causes of Traffic Jams 1. Multiple Head-on Collisions

Statistics tell us that the impact of any headon collision on the highway is beyond comprehension for flesh and debris littered on the roadways. An even experienced investigator is sometimes shocked at the gory sight of the tragedy and may cause his investigation in snail pace. This undue delay is an invitation to traffic jams. 2. Flooded Area

The cause may be attributed to clog drainage network or engineering failure to consider the interplay of ecology in road constructions. 3. Bridged Collapsed

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Rampaging flood due to heavy downpour may cause soil erosion of the river bank and in the process weak bridge foundation, collapsed. 4. Landslide

Denudation of the forest, causes to loosen the earth surface and as a consequence of torrential rains may cause the earth and boulders to fall or landslide. 5. Overturned Fourty-Footer Van

When detach may go wayward or uncontrollable and rest across the street, constricting of fully block the road to traffic. Its removal can only be effected by a ten-toner towing machine. 6. Logs Rolled from the Trailer Trucks

A freak accident but may precipitate at traffic jam if strewn across the road for its removal cannot be made manually but only either to heavy crane or bulldozer. 7. Oil Leaks

From tanker that covers three to five kilometer oil leaks on cemented pavement could create pandemonium traffic accidents that would give rise to suits and counter-suits. Instant Solutions to Traffic Jams 1. One Way Traffic

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An important tool to decongest the traffic standstill until such time that the density of the vehicle is reduced to accommodate the regular flow. 2. Counter-Flow Traffic

A temporary scheme when the volume of one lane direction is so saturated that the movement of the vehicles is practically nil, while the flow of the opposites direction is light in scale, the only solution under the circumstances if to counterflow. 3. Re-Routing of Traffic

When the density of vehicles in opposite directions has reached such proportion tantamount to a complete halt of movement, the only alternatives is to adapt the re-routing of traffic to secondary streets. 4. Diverting of Traffic

When the magnitude of traffic conflicts was on vast scales: flooded area, landslide, bridge collapsed and other contingencies, the only feasible solution is diversion of traffic. The difference between re-routing and diverting of traffic, the latter is large in scope, long and tedious in perspective. 5. To Open Private Roads for Temporary Access

Most often than not, residents of exclusive subdivisions vigorously opposed the use of their roads under the many real or imaginary pretext.

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But the objection can be assailed under the police power of the state.

6.

Stop-and-Go Signal

One of the secrets to unlock the monstrous traffic gridlock is for one lane to move. Unless this can be affected the problem would be aggravated by the passage of time. The scheme should only be implemented when other alternative is seemingly un-adaptable. 7. X-Option

When the situation is so grave that solutions are nowhere in sight, traffic enforcers should adapt the multi-options as the viable approach to solve the traffic orgy. Traffic Engineering Forecasting of future traffic and evaluating the magnitude of street hazards through traffic engineering is not as simple as measuring the height, length and width of the cube. Taking the prevailing attitudes and atmosphere of publics impatience towards the strange-shaped of geometrical road design is more than meet the eye. Public attitude has turned corrosively negative for they believed they were betrayed by promises for safe travel. This is the unspoken sentiment of the public in view of agonizing twists and turns of events. But what is worse, if we hear

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no voices, except silent murmurs of the despised citizenry. To escape from frustrations and wants, traffic engineering must know all and forestall all effects whether natural or man-made calamities. A formula that will dance to the tune of new technology, new horizon and new vistas to open the floodgate of traffic engineering in contemporary times. Definition of Traffic Engineering Traffic Engineering is the science of: 1. Measuring traffic and travel.

2. The study of basic laws relative to the traffic law and generations. 3. The application of this knowledge to the professional practice of planning, deciding, and operating traffic system to achieve safe and efficient transportation and goods. Geometric Design A traffic engineering phraseology for forecasting future traffic demand on target year for road design. It is indicator dictated by development of land use, industry, economy, and population component. Many countries vary on the target year for road design on account of topography, development, environment, cultural idiosyncrasies and road factors. From the viewpoint of traffic

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engineering, the maximum life for road design is within the range of 15 to 25 years, and the prevailing range now is 20 years. The geometric design of road in order to have a reliable forecast for viable projection of traffic demand is determined by traffic generators, among others: developmental plan, economic index, zoning schemes, land use and population growth. The hourly, daily and annual volume of traffic is graphically taken into consideration for road designs. Corollary, to maximize safe and speed, the physical features of the highway is considered in the formulation of the design speed to determine road design and safety factors. Functions of Traffic Engineering 1. Fact finding, surveys and recommendations of traffic rules and regulations. 2. Supervisions and maintenance application of traffic control devices. 3. Planning of traffic regulations. to the

Road Check Objectives The objectives of road check are to detect and inspect the following: 1. 2. 3. Faulty vehicle equipment. Registration and licensing of violations. Intoxicated drivers.

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4. The load or cargo of transportation vehicle for load weight.

commercial

Considerations Taken When Conducting Road Checks 1. 2. Minimum delay to motorist. Thorough checking procedure.

3. Protection, safety of both motorists and police officers. 4. Timing, location and frequency.

Kinds of Traffic Control Devices 1. 2. 3. Traffic Signals Road Signs Road Markings Classification of Traffic Control

Functional Devices 1.

Regulatory Devices

It is having an authority of the law and impose precise requirement upon the action of the road user. 2. Warning Devices

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Are used to inform the road user of potentially hazardous roadway conditions or unusual traffic movements which are not readily apparent to passing traffic. 3. Guiding Devices

Are employed simply to inform the road user of route, destination, and other pertinent information. Primordial Purpose of Signal Control 1. delay. 2. 3. To minimize traffic conflicts and time

To reduce vehicular accident. To economize manpower.

Classes of Traffic Signs 1. Danger Warning Signs

These signs are intended to warn road users of danger that lies ahead of its nature. 2. Regulatory Signs

These are intended to warn road users of special obligations, restrictions or prohibition with which they must comply. It is subdivided into three categories: 1) Priority Signs

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These are signs intended to regulate priority over a particular road section or roadway intersection. 2) Prohibitory or Restrictive Signs be used on specified will be easily seen by regulation which is in nature.

These signs can section of the road which motorist to indicate prohibitive or restrictive 3) Mandatory Signs

These signs are intended to guide road users of special rules in which they must comply for the safety, convenience and smooth flow of traffic. 3. Informative Signs

These signs are intended to guide road users while traveling, and are subdivided into: 1) Advance Signs

These are the names and distances of the principal destination or destination served by the intersecting roads. 2) Direction Signs

Unlike the advance direction signs, direction signs shall be placed at the right of intersection to show the direction and destination of a route. Direction signs are different from mandatory signs, since these signs gave only information as to

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direction and destination of place, while mandatory signs require compliance.

3)

Place Identification Signs

These may be used to show the frontier between two countries or for the purpose of showing the beginning and/or end of built-up areas. 4) Confirmatory Signs

These are used to confirm the direction of a road. They shall bear the names of one or more places. Where distances are shown, the figures expressing them shall be placed after the name of the locality. 5) Other signs to guide drivers. 6) users. providing useful information

Other signs indicating facilities for road

Road Classifications 1. According to Political Subdivision 1) National Roads with a

The main road as conduit system right of way from 20 meters to 120 meters. 2) Provincial roads

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The linkages between two municipalities with right of way from 15 meters to 60 meters.

3)

City Roads

The inter-link between municipalities and within city proper with right of way of 15 meters. 4) Municipal Roads with

All roads within the town proper right of way of not less than 120 meters. 5) Barangay Roads

Commonly called farm to market road with right of way of not less than 2 meters. 2. According to Functions 1) Feeder Roads Intended for farm-to-market roads. 2) Local Collector Roads traffic from feeder

Intended to collect road to municipal road. 3) Major Collector Roads

Intended as major arteries to inter-locality traffic to provincial road. 4) Major Highway

collect

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Serves as main artery that caters on big volumes of vehicular traffic on national roadway.

5)

Expressway traffic for free-flow of

A through vehicular movement. 6) Tunnel Road

A passage of wide section cut through a hill or sea to shorten circuitous roadway. 7) Subway underground conduct running entirely ground for fast travel route of

An under the commuters. 8)

Skyway roadway above

A modern urban system of street level for free-flow traffic. 3.

According to Topographical Terrain 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) Flat Road Zigzag Road Steep-Hill Climbing Road Down-Hill Road Winding Road

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6) 7)

Mountainous Road Roller Coaster Road

Boulevards and Avenues Distinguished Many are in the quandary as to the whale of difference between avenue and boulevard. There is an international acceptance that they are both national roads. Both are broad thoroughfares, but boulevard is more prestigious in sophistication than an avenue. Often than not, boulevard is teeming with grassplots and tress along the center, the sidewalk and oftentimes, boulevard is with lighted post in highly urban centers of the world. It is for this reason that the boulevard is named after great men and heroes. Sidewalks It is an integral part of the roadways metropolitan cities of the worldit is also the specie of geometric designs. Sidewalk answer for the safety of pedestrian safety. sidewalk reduced the hazards of pedestrian slender yardstick of traffic engineering. Intersections Today, urban cities of the world walk on 2-legs man and machine. But the continuity of its locomotion depends upon the inter-link of in any one of is the Thus, to the

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connecting road traffic demand.

network

at

intersection

to

meet

The plan and design of intersection is based on traffic component, traffic volume, speed, traffic distribution, canalizations of traffic accidents and future traffic demand. Kinds of Intersections 1. Three-Leg Intersection 1) 2) 2. T-Type Y-Type

Four-Leg Type 1) 2) Right Angle Oblique

3. 4.

Multi-Leg Intersection Rotary Intersection

Fundamental Principles of Intersections 1. Intersection should be avoided on curve section, bridge, attaching part, cutting, and crest, near entrance of tunnel and besides railroad crossing. 2. Intersection should not be greater than 4 legs. While 4-leg intersection is better than 3leg intersection, however, if 5-leg intersection is unavoidable it must be used only as an exit.

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3. Two roads should not intersect as a small angle. Intersecting at less than 60 degrees makes it difficult for drivers to turn at acute angle and in effect constrict his visibility particularly 10wheeler trucks. 4. Distances between two intersections should be based on land use of density of road network. Factors that determine the minimum distance of two intersectionsqueue length by the control of traffic signals, length of weaving section, length of turn and limit of drivers concentration. Definition of Filter Lane The word filter in its literal meaning is to control or constrict the movement of vehicle as it passes through the lane designated therefore. This traffic engineering design is to prevent traffic gridlock at the intersection when turning left at the green arrow filter signal. Channelization A traffic engineering terminology that separates or regulates the conflict of traffic movements into a definite paths of travel by means of traffic island or pavement markings for the safe and orderly travels of both man and machine. Principles of Channelization 1. It reduces the area of conflict in large paved intersection. In view of uncontrolled

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vehicle and pedestrian congestions and accidents.

movements

it

creates

2. The speed of traffic stream at the intersection may be controlled by the curvature employed in the bending of the roadways. Thus the minor flows will be sent to conform to the main traffic stream. 3. Likewise, the speed of traffic stream at the intersection may be controlled by funneling. A scheme which not only controls the speed of entering vehicles but prevents overtaking and passing in a conflict area. 4. It blocks prohibited turns. To divert traffic streams, islands may be employed to encourage drivers in the strict observance of prohibited turns. 5. It provides refuge for turning, and crossing vehicles. Adequate shadowing provides safe refuge for waiting vehicle to cross or enter and uncontrolled traffic stream. 6. It is essentially required for an effective signal control at intersection with complex turning movement. 7. It provides location for the installation of traffic control devices at the intersection of multi lane roadways with complex turning movements. Traffic Education Traffic education is the crowning jewel of traffic management, an abstract architect of social

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life and an unyielding master of mans destiny on the roadways. As one of the 5Es of traffic management, it is a priceless gem in total gamut of social order on the road, likened to an oasis in a desert of roadways. Therefore, traffic education must be free and there must no economic barrier to its acquisition. In sum, what is needed are men of courage and vision to initiate reforms and craft a more viable formula that will shape the future quality of traffic education. Considerations to Road Discipline Considered in this light, what has to change is not culture, but the heart and mind towards road discipline. A vivid proof that discipline remains in shaping force of our vision and it towers like mountain above other values. Safe to say, what is needed now is to harness the armed conscience of the silent majority to cease to be silent and join the crusade against the scourge of moral decay on the roadways. For only by its fruits can we know the tree. Traffic Education as a Merchandize Traffic education by itself is merchandize difficult to sell, not only because it is expensive, but there are varying shades of acceptability among the masses. And the seeds of reforms are not always sowed on fertile soil. But without social transformation, all traffic laws,

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even with punitive sanctions will be ineffective in the crusade to institute reforms. For there is no way of inculcating new moral order into the consciousness of uneducated people. Mistaken Notion About Traffic Education Many have the mistaken notion that education is only the acquisition of knowledge, the accumulation of facts of learning of information by rote. Traffic education is more than just the absorption of information and learning of skills. Traffic education is the making of a whole person, of a human and humane being, of civilized or cultured individual inculcation in the youth of norms, moral and ethical behavior, good manners and right conduct. Complexity of Traffic Education Traffic education is too complex to be covered only by limited topics or by the volume of scholarly books for it encompasses vast intellectual novelties that cannot just be left to the market forces of experts but to the articulation of the academe. Having put the idea forward, it must be pursued to the end to reap the expected dividends. This is not the utopian demand, but a challenge for a better future and new order on the roadways. Only with moral climate can we open new frontiers and move toward new horizon and learn the lessons of the past for the present and the wisdom to know the difference that past failures should not foreclose future successes.

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Environment Environment is not a mere creative philosophy, but a new vision with unique force that could reshape the world of traffic management. In word of scholar, environment is a single phrase that is an anathema to purist and idealist but by word to ecologist. It reflects the bountiful blessings of nature in prestige form: tress in greenest state and seas abounding with fishes and marine life, until man like carpetbaggers, wrought wanton damages to contemporary damages. It is about time that environment be institutionalized as a pillar of traffic management. For one of the real tragedies of traffic administrator today is the failure of traffic titans to incorporate environment as the 4th E of traffic management. If the past experience is any guide, there are just too many variables that affect the system whose common denominator of solutions is equated to environment. It is the system which destroys and it is the system which saves. External Factor Driving is not a theoretical fixture. In driving, the attitudinal norms of drivers are varied, subject to the tempo of time and space, cultural relativism, values and environment. Behavioral patterns of drivers are disturbed by the external factor of environmental elements on the roadways decreases the drivers skills, keen

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perception and sound judgment. If drivers are unaware of these unwanted variables while cruising the highways, they are courting dangers and thus, prone to accidents. The following are the common external factors: 1. Heat

It is a form of energy which causes the body to rise in temperature, to fuse and to evaporate that can excite emotionally the drivers skill while behind the wheels. 2. Storm

This atmosphere disturbance with strong winds and rains is usually accompanied by thunder and lightning. With these ambient atmosphere and environmental mal-conditions, the drive on wheels is affected physiologically and emotionally. At the height of heavy downpour and torrential rains the visual range is limited impairing his effective control of the vehicle. Under these adverse conditions, the driver must have stock of theoretical and practical knowledge in driving for experience alone is not sufficient to measure proficiency. 3. Fog

Unlike the cloud which is visible mass above the earths surface, fog is condensed water vapor in cloudlike masses that forms close to the ground. This feature is its distinctive difference. Sometimes fog is caused by masses of floating materials of either dust or smoke that obscures the

36

visibility of the driver to less than 1, 100 yards. Irritated by this environmental phenomenon, judgment of the driver is substantially affected not knowing what to do and what not to do. Against those backdrops, driver should be guided not by the dictates of the heart but by the wisdom of the mind. In countries where the weather condition is foggy, vehicle should be equipped with a yellow for lights. Although there is negative finding that yellow light does not totally penetrate the foggy weather, however, in the absence of viable alternative, the usability of yellow fog lights has its universal acceptance. Internal Factor Internal factors is a behavioral pattern of man which appears early in life. Many voices are advocating the hypothesis of relationship between stress and environment. Even doctors failed to identify the true traits of the individual which most often do not surface in his personality test. While today there is commonality of consensus that internal factors reacts on the chemistry of environment, still a need arises for savants to the further flex their intellectual muscles to act as arbiter of the present and future destiny of the drivers tailored on human dimensions. The following are the most common identifiable internal factors that cause road accidents: 1. Personality

It is in this internal factor that distinctly distinguishes an individual driver from other

37

drivers in relation to environment. The qualities of the driver constitute his personal being and social traits. His personality is best tested when confronted by the greatest odds of the environmental factors. 2. Character From the beginning of time, the complex characters as to behavior and habits, attitudes and interests and personal philosophy in life distinguishes a particular driver from the other. Another scientific marvel is the discovery of a detectable organism that is the result pf the presence of gene or group of genes that differentiates one driver from the other. Driver may probably have developed the tenacity for survival, but his character may yield to massive onslaught of a violent environment, and thus brook peril and misfortunes while behind the wheels. Drivers by way of omissions succumb to human lapses and adversarial curse of the environment which may end in road accident. 3. Epilepsy

The word epilepsy is derived from the Greek word, epilambanein, meaning to take hold. It is defined as a chronic nervous disorder of the human brain affecting the mans consciousness and muscular control with various degrees of severity. It may be congenital of brain damage caused by tumor, injury, glandular imbalance or toxic substances and may result in convulsions or lost of consciousness. 4. Sleeping Sickness

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A chronic disease e occurring in tropical countries like Africa, this is caused by parasites trypanosoma gambiense and rhodosiense and carried by flies. It causes fever, physical and mental lethargy, and very often death. It also occurs in Central Africa and commonly called encyphalitis lethargica. What is pathetic is that this incidence becomes common to drivers while cruising along the mountain trails and forested areas, when stung by these insects, the tendency of the drivers body function is to diminish or at worst, cease. This in effect is an ominous sign that danger lurks ahead as the driver may lose control off the vehicle which may ultimately end in road mishap or may flung into the deep ravine. Threats to Environment As one travels on the highways or roadways, probably they are unmindful of the following environmental threats to man and nature: 1. Greenhouse Effect

Scientifically, the greenhouse effect is a natural phenomenon that makes earth habitable, without which the earth would be frozen like Mars and other celestial bodies. 2. Ozone Depletion

The disastrous effect of ozone depletion is the uncontrolled emission of ultra-violet light and not

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climatic change. Ozone per se is an allotropic form of oxygen created when oxygen molecules are bombarded with ultra-violet rays from the sun. If the ozone layer fails to absorb the ultra violet rays from passing the earths surface, the ultraviolet radiations causes skin cancer and cataracts. 3. World-wide Effect

Change in UV-B radiation may have been caused by a chemical reaction as a consequence of gases spewed into the atmosphere by volcano eruption. Other scientific findings have reported that measurements by satellite and by high-altitude balloons detected record of thinning of ozone due to volcanic eruption. 4. Effect in Climate

The transition fro the Ice Age to warmer weather in which our civilization flourished took only a few decades, and the climate could change as quickly as possible. Motor Vehicle its Effects to Environment In so many words the major environmental effects of the use of motor vehicles are air and noise pollution: 1. Air Pollution

The most lethal effect of motor vehicle is the pollution caused by engine exhaust. The finding shows that the carbon monoxide emission has higher percentage in highly urbanized areas.

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Air pollution is usually measured in concentration of pollutants over time, parts per million of air per hour or in pollution to vehicle usage in grams per mile.

terms of such as terms of vehicle-

The primary pollutants in motor vehicles exhausts are carbon monoxide (CO); hydro-carbons (HC); nitrogen oxides (NO); mostly nitrogen dioxide; lead (Pb), and particulate matter. Likewise, larger engines emit considerable amounts of sulfur oxides (SO), mostly sulfur dioxide. 2. Noise Pollution

Less dangerous than air pollutions, but admittedly more vexing and annoying, is the problem of vehicular noise. Of several sources of vehicular noise, the cars tire-roadway interaction and truck exhaust noise have been identified as the primary cause of noise pollution. Noise levels are measured in decibels (dB) on a logarithmic, rather than in arithmetic scales. Study showed that a decrease of only 10dB would whisper at 5 feet (1.5 m) will register about 34 dB; the interior of a quiet office will average 55 dB; and the sound level at the side of an expressway may be as high as 90 dB. The effects of traffic noise on human seem to be more psychological than physiological. Several studies have pointed to annoyance as being the widespread effect. There is no question that highway noises alone can causer hearing damage, but the effects of noise annoyance on behavior and mental health cannot be disregarded.

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Pollutants Caused by Motor Vehicles The following pollutants are known damage to vegetation and thus, to man: 1. Ozone to cause

As a component of the photochemical complex, ozone is considered to one of the most damaging air pollutants to vegetation. Ozone produces a characteristics fleck of stipple on the upper surfaces of sensitive plants. Prolonged exposure or high concentrations will cause complete tissue collapse. 2. Peroxyacyl Nitrate (PAN)

PAN can produce the characteristics systems of glazing or bronzing of the lower surfaces of the younger leaves of sensitive plants. Even a low concentrations, i.e., 0.01 ppm for 8 hours, PAN produces chlorosis and early senescence. 3. Hydrocarbons

Ethylene is the only hydrocarbon from vehicle exhaust that is known to cause a variety of symptoms in many plants, including early senescence, chronic injury, flower and fruit drop, and growth suppression. 4. Carbon Monoxide

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The effects produced by carbon monoxide similar to those of ethylene; however, concentrations must be very high. 5. Petrol Additives

are the

Lead, nickel, boron and manganese are known to be toxic to plants to accumulate in sufficient quantities. The additives may accumulate in plant tissue without injuring the vegetation, but they may prove toxic to animals and human being who obtain food from these plants. The Laws of Nature as Applied to Motor Vehicles Some of known laws of nature that affects the skill of the driver and efficiency of the machine in relation to environment are as follows: 1. Inertia

It is the first law of motion as espoused by an undisputed man of science. 1) Inertia of Rest

Any object at rest will remain at rest unless no external factor forced it to move. This is the reason why it is difficult to push stalled vehicle at rest. 2) Inertia of Motion

Any object in motion will constantly move in straight line unless other forces intervene to change its speed or course. This explains why a

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stalled vehicle when in motion finds no greater obstacle to gain momentum of speed. This law of motion gives birth to the development of seat belt and other accessories to cushion the impact from the abrupt change from inertia of rest to inertia of motion. 2. Centrifugal Force

A scientific term of force that pushes a moving object in circular motion away from the center. To better understand its effects, if a ball is tied to a string and whirled around in fast speed, the pulling of the ball in circular path away from the center is known as centrifugal force. And is the string breaks from the ball it shall not follow the circular path of motion but will follow the direction where the string breaks. Similarly, a car negotiating a curved road is subject to same force as the ball and string model. The car is to the ball and the string to the friction between the tire and the road. Thus, if the friction breaks the car will skid or careen-off the roadways. To cushion the effect of centrifugal force on curve roads, man has developed three kinds of road surfaces on curves, these are: 1) Crowned Curve

Is designated to better serve the drainage system but not necessarily the safety factor, especially on high speed. The curve according to studies, press the car against the road surface, in effect lessening the friction between the tires and pavements.

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2)

Flat Curve

According to authorities it offers no resistance to skidding onward, hence, dangerous at high speed. 3) Bunked Curve

Of the three, bunked curve is unquestionably the best for the inertia of motionit is counteracted by the nature of the road on the car. 3. Gravity

Simply stated, it is a kind of force that tends to pull all objects to the center of earth. To the layman, the effect of gravity can be better noticed when a car is negotiating an uphill trend. Because of the gravity, it needs to accelerate its power to counter-balance the pull. But in downhill course, driver should be extracautious because of the braking force of the engine pull and gravity pull are on the same direction and must be counteracted, otherwise the car may careen off the roadway if uncontrolled. It should be noted that the center of gravity of an object is the point where its weight is evenly balance. This is the rationale why the car designsthe center of gravity is taken into consideration to forestall a turn-turtle when the car suddenly changes its course while in motion.

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4.

Kinetic Energy

It is an established fact that anything that moves possesses this kind of energy. It is safe to conclude, therefore, that any energy of motion is denominated as kinetic energy. To better appreciate its importance, a car traveling at higher speed demands a period of time before it can totally stop, because the greater the speed of moving object, the greater it is kinetic energy. Unless the driver is conversant of the implication of this law of nature, he is at peril to meet an accident on sudden brake. 5. Friction

It is that kind of natural force that causes resistance of one surface against the other when it comes to contact. This could be better observed when a car either moves or starts. According to studies, the increase or decrease of friction on the pavements depends whether the road is dry or wet. However, there are three factors that could reduce the road-wheel friction. 1) 2) 3) 6. Weather condition. Worn tire thread. Bumpy road.

Force of Impact

The amount of force when two objects collide is known as force of impact and it expressed in

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pounds. This force according determined by:

to authorities object and

is the

1) The speed of the moving angle at which they collide. 2)

The weight of the object or objects. an object is

3) The distance within which stopped after the initial impact. Economics

Economic, oils the wheels of traffic. Time has come that the economics of traffic be rescued from the barred waste of wrong perceptions: traffic and economics are strange bedfellows and their unity in diversity is a mere fiction. Experts must have an open mind not just revite4d to the narrow confines of 3Es of traffic and refuse to look beyond the costly illusion of its advocate. These are decisions that might be charting unpopular course but hope to give shapes and sinews to empty illusions of the past and to look forward to the new complexion of the present system with new vision of the future: the crowning of the 5th E of traffic, economics. This is not a choice of necessity but signs of time. For decades, scholarly studies have noted the fast decline of the 3Es philosophy from the pedestal of respect and the patterns is traceable to the shifting demands around the world. The fact that there is indeed a mountain of books in the fields of 3Es does not alter the unseen forces of recession. Economic-Traffic Interactions

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Human gregariousness craves for many wants and seems to admit no satisfaction: problems begin. But all of these wants are not free and can only be acquired at the altar of sacrifice: most goods are scarce. Goods are not necessarily chosen to satisfy basic wants either directly or indirectly. Capital goods are produced for industries to produce goods for consumption. The element of choice on how to satisfy the present wants for the future wants. Even with modern infrastructure as an alternative solution to the ills of traffic will put to naught if the resources is scarce, a classical balancing interaction of traffic and economics. Economics as the 5th Es of Traffic Non-incorporations of economics as the 5th Es of traffic is complex pattern that traffic taipans would find it difficult to defend. As long as these traditional thinking experts refuse to veer away from the old-school to the modern traffic ideology, then we are creating more problems than solutions on the road. This argument is broadened further by the studies that technocrats are guided and influenced by their own self interest in shocking disregard of the changing world behavior on the traffic system. Traffic Accident Investigation

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Successful traffic accident investigation requires considerable basic background knowledge. To know what question to ask, and what to look for, you must also have some fundamental ideas about accidents and their causes. To avoid wasting time and making mistakes, especially during the urgent activities at the scene of an accident, you need to plan what you are going to do and to continually revise your plan as you proceed. What is a Traffic Accident A traffic accident is that occurrence in a sequence of events which usually produces unintended injury, death, or property damage, or a traffic accident is something happened that was not expected. Criminal charges arising out of traffic accidents are mostly due to negligence on the part of the driver. Negligence means failure to take proper care. There are two (2) main kinds: 1. Errors of Commission

Where a person does thing that he should not have done. 2. Errors of Omission

Where a person does not do something he should have done. Classification of Traffic Accidents 1. Motor-Vehicle Traffic Accident

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Is any motor-vehicle accident occurring on a traffic way, for example, the ordinary collision of motor vehicles on a highway? 2. Motor-Vehicle Non Traffic Accident

Is any motor vehicle accident which occurs entirely in any place other than a traffic way, for example, a motor vehicle accident on a farm or in a private driveway? 3. Non Motor-Vehicle Traffic Accident

Is any accident occurring on a traffic way involving persons using the traffic way for travel or transportation, but not involving a motor vehicle in motion, for example, collision between a pedestrian and a bicyclist on a sidewalk? Definition of Motor Vehicle It is every device which is self-propelled and every vehicle which is propelled by electric power obtained from overhead trolley wires, but not operated upon rails. Definition of Traffic Way It is the entire width between the boundary lines of every way or place of which any part is open to the use of public for purposes of vehicular traffic as a matter of right or custom. Chain of Events of a Traffic Accident

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1.

Perception of Hazard

Is the seeing, feeling, or hearing and understanding the unusual and unexpected movement or condition that could be taken as a sign of the accident about to happen. 2. Encroachment Is the movement into the path assigned to another traffic unit, perhaps the most important encroachment is crossing a center or barrier line. Another is entering a crosswalk when it is occupied. Pedestrians can encroach on the path assigned to motor vehicles. 3. Leaving the Roadway

Is the moving off the roadway, Roadway is that portion of traffic way which is improved, designed, or ordinarily used for vehicular travel exclusive of the shoulder. The event takes place when one wheel of the vehicle may leave the roadway. A vehicle may leave the roadway on the left as well as on the right side. 4. Leaving the Road

Is the moving off the road and shoulder, if any, this may mean going into the ditch or over a curb. The event takes place when one wheel of the vehicle climbs the curb or goes off the shoulder, 5. Initial Contact

Is the first accidental touching of an object collides with by a traffic unit in motion, before this, there is no force between the objects colliding, and afterwards there is force.

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6.

Maximum Engagement

Is the greatest collapse or overlap in a collision, the force between the traffic unit and the object collided with are greatest at maximum engagement. 7. Disengagement

Is the separation of a traffic unit in motion from an object which it has collided. Force between the objects ceases this time. 8. Stopping

Is the coming to rest. It usually stabilizes the accident situation. Stopping may occur with or without control by the driver or pedestrian. Definition of Injury Is receiving bodily harm. Definition of Key Event It is an event on the road which characterizes the manner of occurrence of a motor-vehicle traffic accident. There are several types of collisions and non-collisions on the road, but there is only one key event in a traffic accident regardless of how many traffic units are involved. It fixes the accident with respect to time, place, and type. Key Events of Traffic Accident

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1. 2. 3.

Running off the road. Non-collision on the road. Collision on the road.

Classification of Accident According to Severity 1. Property Damage

It is nay motor vehicle accident in which there is no injury to any person but damage to the motor vehicle, to other property including injury to animals. 2. Non-Fatal

It is any motor vehicle accident that results in injuries other than fatal to one or more persons. The injuries maybe as follows: 1) Fatal Injury

It is an injury that results in death within 12 months of the motor vehicle traffic accident. 2) Serious Visible Injury

It is a bleeding wound, distorted member, or any condition that requires the victim to be carried from the scene of the accident. Consider the injury to be visible if symptoms are present even though the injury itself is not visible. 3) Minor Visible Injury

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It is an abrasion, bruise, limping, or obviously painful movement. 4) Non-Visible Injury

swelling,

It is complaint of pain without visible signs of injury; or momentary unconsciousness. 3. Fatal

It is any motor vehicle accident that results in fatal injuries to one or more persons. Crucial Events It is used instead of key event to characterize what occurs to each traffic unit individually rather than to the whole accident and with reference to the available path rather than the entire road. Crucial Events in a Traffic Accident 1. Leaving the available path, not the same as running of the road. 2. Turning collision. 3. over in the path without

Other non-collision in path. non-traffic object in or

4. Collision with adjacent to the path.

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5. Collision with other traffic unit in the path, not marked vehicle.

The Three Points in Traffic Accident 1. Point of Possible Perception

It is the place and time at which the unusual or unexpected movement or condition could have been perceived by a normal person. This point always comes at or before the point of perception. Delay in perception or perception time between the point of possible perception and the actual perception. If the hazard is actually perceived as soon as nearly as possible, perception is said to be prompt. Maximum delay of perception occurs when the traffic unit does not sense a hazard until hit it. The perception point and the point of possible perception are used mainly in trying to discover and evaluate contributions of drivers and pedestrian to accidents. Did the driver do anything or fail to do anything before the perception point that contributed to his difficulty. Inattention is probably the most common contribution of driers to their delayed perception; but speed is a common contributor to accidents before perception point. The perception point is particularly useful in trying to discover what the driver or pedestrian did or should have done but did not do to avoid the accident or to make it less serious. 2. Point of No Escape

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Is that place and time after or beyond which the accident cannot be prevented by the traffic unit under consideration. Nothing the driver or pedestrian can do will save him from this point on, although he still may be able to mitigate the accidentfor example, by slowing down as much as possible before a collision. Sometimes the point of no escape and point of perception are the same. Sometimes the point of no escape comes before the point of perception, for example when a persons attention is diverted until just before the crash. Often the point of no escape comes after the point of perception. This circumstance generally indicates faulty judgment on the part of the driver in his attempt to prevent the impending accident. 3. Point of Impact

It is term which, although widely used in connection with traffic accidents, does not seem to have very precise meaning. Impact generally means the same thing as collision but it also means the force involved. Point of impact is sometimes used to mean the same as point of initial contact, sometimes used to mean the same as point of maximum engagement and sometimes center of force. Because the term has varied meanings, other more specific terms are preferable. Technical Aspects of Traffic Accident Investigation The traffic accident investigator should know how to make proper sketch of an accident with correct measurements of all the important data. He should know how to photograph the scene of the accident properly, to show the important facts. He should know what kind of physical evidence to look

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for in hit-and-run cases. He must know how to get the facts, records the facts correctly, and then figure out what happened in order to help the prosecutor present the case in court. Definition of Attributes An attribute is any inherent characteristics of a traffic way, a vehicle or a person making a trip on a traffic way that affects the probability of a traffic accident. Purposes of Traffic Accident Investigation 1. Everyone involved is curious about causes and circumstances of the accident. 2. Police are also interested in finding out whether there is enough evidence of law violation in the accident to take enforcement action. 3. Insurance agencies and adjusters want to determine negligence on the part of the drivers involved in the accident so that damage claims can be properly adjusted. 4. Government authorities want accidents to know accidents. officials and other concerned specific information about better how to prevent future

Basic Steps in Traffic Accident Investigation 1. Go to the scene as quickly as possible.

2. Park correctly to avoid further collision and facilitate traffic flow.

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3. Assess the situation and call for whatever assistance is necessary. 4. Care to injured and protect their personal property. 5. Protect collision. 6. the scene against additional

Locate drivers and establish identities. drivers, participants and

7. Interview witnesses.

8. Note and record physical conditions at the scene, locations of vehicles and evidence. 9. Take photograph when possible and inspect the vehicles when

10. Test applicable.

11. Arrest or cite violators when applicable. 12. Have the scene cleared up. 13. Follow-up at the hospital. 14. Notify relative and survivors. 15. Prepare reports. Levels of Activity in Accident Investigation 1. Reporting

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2. 3. 4. 5.

At-scene Investigation Technical Preparation Professional Reconstruction Cause Analysis

Hit-and-Run Investigation The search for physical evidence at the scene of a hit-and-run accident must be done properly and quickly because it is not possible to close-off and guard the scene of this kind of crime? The roads must be cleared to permit ordinary flow of traffic as soon as possible? Another problem is that passing vehicles will crush of blow away important pieces of small physical evidence. The following are the good ways of searching the scene of a hitand-run accident: 1. Look over the ground at what seems to be the point of collision. 2. Follow the path that the vehicle took in leaving the scene to find out if it left tire prints in the soft dirt, or where parts of the vehicle or broken glass fell off as is drove away. 3. Study the objects the vehicle has struck to see if there is a transfer of physical evidence like paint. 4. Look for things that may have spilled from the vehicle.

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The investigator should collect all materials found at the scene of the crime which cannot satisfactorily explained. Broken parts of the motor vehicle are the most important physical evidence in hit-and-run accidents. When the broken parts match parts still on the car, this is a good positive identification. Broke parts are more important than damaged parts. Part of a broken bumper of door handle is better than a damaged hubcap. Proving Driving In all case of traffic offense, intoxicated driving or hit-and-run, the first and most important thing that must be proved is that the accused person was driving the car at the time of the offense. This can be done either by eye witnesses or by physical evidence. But it must be proved. The investigator must not assume that the owner of the vehicle was the person actually driving it. Nature of Common Hit-and-Run Cases 1. Run over of roadway or crosswalk. pedestrian crossing on the

2. Sideswiped of pedestrian on the sidewalk or road shoulders. 3. Collided with a moving overtaking on same direction. 4. Collided with a moving overtaking on opposite direction. vehicle vehicle while while

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5. Damaged parked vehicle along the roadside and parking areas. 6. 7. Crushed police road blocks. Bumped stray animal on the roadway.

Technical Preparation Delayed traffic accident data collection and organization for study and interpretation. The data collected are essentially factual. Technical preparation includes making additional measurements and photographs, preparing maps and diagrams, simple speed estimates, matching damage areas, and making experiments to obtain specific data. It is third level of traffic accident. Triangulation A method of locating a spot in the area by measurements from two or more reference points, the location of which are identical for future reference. Compare with coordinates. Determining Speed from Skid marks One of the most common problems in accident investigation is: How fast was he going? it is difficult question to answer, but speeds in excess of the legal limits are important to the police, because they must decide if the driver did his best to avoid accidents. The criminalist cannot determine exactly how fast a vehicle was traveling,

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but he can make a very good estimate by mathematical calculations based on the skid marks left by a vehicle before the collision. It is important that the field investigator take correct and accurate measurements to help the criminalist make correct calculations. Skid Marks Skid marks are marks lefts on the road by tires that are not moving because the brakes are applied strongly enough to lock the wheels. There are two (2) kinds of skid marks: 1) made by a car going straight ahead, and 2) made by a car going sideways. The second type is commonly called scuffs. It is important not to confuse skid marks with tire prints. Tire prints indicate that the wheel was still turning. Tire prints should not be used in calculating speed. To make an accurate estimate of speed, it is important that the marks of all four tires are obtained. A car is always going faster than the speed calculated from skid marks, because in addition to losing speed in sliding as shown by the skid marks, the car also losses its speed in one or more of the following ways: 1. Skid marks do not happen until the tire slides far enough to get hot enough to smear the rubber on the paving.

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2. The total distance of the skid marks cannot be seen because the car hits something before stopping. 3. Some braking action occurs before the skid marks appear. 4. The brakes are not put on hard enough to lack the wheels. In accidents with pedestrian, the skid marks are most reliable because there is nothing to stop the forward movement of the car. In a collision accident, the amount of damage to the cars must be considered in determining the reliability of speed from skid marks. Scuffmarks A friction mark on pavement made by a tire which is both rotating and slipping, acceleration scuff yaw marks, flat tire marks. Skip-Skid A braking skid marks interrupted at frequent regular intervals, the skid mark made by a bouncing wheel on which brakes keep the wheel from turning, compare with gap skid. Gap Skid A braking skid marks release and reapplication which interrupted by of brakes or which

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terminates by release of brakes before collision, compare with skip skid.

Flip The movement of vehicle without touching the ground from a place where its forward velocity is suddenly stopped by an object such as curbs or furrow-in below its center of mass with the result that the ensuing rotation lifts vehicle off the ground. A flip is usually sidewise, but if it is endwise, it is spoken as a vault. Length of Vehicle The investigator sometimes makes mistakes of determining the speed from the total length of the skid marks he finds. Remember that the beginning and end of the skid marks may include both the front and rear wheels of the car and unless it is possible to measure each wheel base, distance between the middle of the hubcap of the front wheel to the middle of the hubcap of the back wheel, should be subtracted from the total length of the skid marks. Grade or Slope Grade or slope means the steepness of a hill and is important in calculating speed from skid marks, because a car going downhill take longer to stop than a car going uphill, or slope is the number of meters the road rises for each meter of level distance along the road. The resulting

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number is less than 0.1 except for very steep hill. It can be measured by using traffic template or with an ordinary carpenters level. Put the carpenter level on the road with one end uphill and the other down. Raise the down hill end until the bubble centers. Hold the level in that position while you measure the distance from the bottom of the level down the road. Divide this distance by the length of the level. For example, if the level is one meter long and lower end is one centimeter off the ground the grade would be 0.01. Calculation of Speed from Skid marks There are charts and tables and even special measuring devices from which the speed can be calculated from the skid mark. The criminalistic investigator, however, should understand the exact mathematical formula which the speed is calculated because he may ask by the judge in court to explain how he arrived at his estimate. The formula is not difficult and the only hard part is determining the square root. This can be easily done by means of a set of tables or a slide rule, but in the range of measurement with which the investigator is concerned, there is a simple formula for determining square root that is sufficiently accurate for the purpose. Find the nearest number to your measurement which has an even square. Example: 4, 9, 25, 36, 64, 81, 100, etc. If the number in your calculation is 30, for example, the closest number is 25 which is only 5 numbers away rather than 36, which is 6 numbers away. Since 5 X 5 equals 25, divide your number by 5, then average the result by

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the divisor, and you will get a square sufficiently accurate for the purpose.

root

Formula: S = 15.9 d X (F + g)

Where: S d g F or S = 5.5 d X (F + g) = = = = speed in kilometer per hour slide-to-stop distance in meters grade or slope drag factor

Where: S d g F = = = = speed in miles per hour slide-to-stop distance in meters grade or slope drag factor

Example:

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A vehicle going down hill with a slope of 0.15 and a drag factor of 0.70, leaves a skid marks of 20.6 meters. What is the speed of the vehicle? 1. SPEED = 15.9 20.6 X (0.70 0.15)

The vehicle is going down hill, so the grade is negative and is subtracted. 2. SPEED = = 15.9 15.9 20.6 11.33 number whose X 3 = 9). 3.78 = 3.39 = 53.90 km/hr square is X 0.55

The nearest whole closest to 11.33 is 3 (3 3. 4. 5. 11.33/3 3.78 + 3 SPEED = =

= 6.78/2 15.9 X

3.39

All calculations are resolved in favor of the driver, so: 6. Factor Any circumstances contributing to a result without which the result could have not occurred; an element which is necessary to produce the result, but not by itself, sufficient, operational factor and conditional factor. SPEED = 54 km/hr

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Operational Factor Functional failure of the highway transportation system that contribute to the cause of traffic accident. The failures may be malfunctions or perception, decisions, or performance in trip planning driving strategy, or evasive tactics. Sequential Factor Factors which must be present at the same time to contribute to the cause of an accident, generally operational factors. Simultaneous Factor Factors which must present at the same time to contribute to the cause of accident, generally condition factor. Drag Factors It is a number representing the acceleration or deceleration of vehicle or other body as decimal fraction of the acceleration of gravity, the horizontal force needed to produce acceleration in the same direction divided by the weight of the body to which the force is applied. When a vehicle slides with all the wheels locked, the coefficient of friction and drag factor have the same value. Co-Efficient of Friction

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The number representing the resistance to sliding of two surfaces in contact; the drag factor of a vehicle or other object sliding on a roadway or other surfaced required to keep an object sliding on that surface in motion, divided by the force of the object against that surface, measured in pounds per pounds, often designated by the Greek letter Mu. Reaction Time The time from perception to reaction.

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ANSWERS TO REVIEW QUESTIONS IN TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT & ACCIDENT INVESTIGATION =========================================================== 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. B C A A B A B B B A D A C D D B C C D D D A C D B 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. C C A A C A B A D C D A B D C A B B D B D B B A B 51. 52. 53. 54. 55. 56. 57. 58. 59. 60. 61. 62. 63. 64. 65. 66. 67. 68. 69. 70. 71. 72. 73. 74. 75. C A B D C A C A B D C C B B A B D A A B D D A B D 76. 77. 78. 79. 80. 81. 82. 83. 84. 85. 86. 87. 88. 89. 90. 91. 92. 93. 94. 95. 96. 97. 98. 99. 100. A B A B D C A C B A B D A A B C D D C D D A B B B