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(x) dx = 1
f (x) (x a) dx = f (a)
where f is continuous at x = a. The last is called the sifting property of the -function.
To make proofs with the -function more rigorous, we consider a -sequence, that
is, a sequence of functions that converge to the -function, at least in a pointwise
sense. Consider the sequence
n
(x) =
n
(nx)
2
e
Note that
_
2
z
n
(x) dx =
2n
e
(nx)
2
dx =
2
e dz = erf () = 1
0 0
1
_
_ _
_ _
_ _ _
_ _ _
_ _ _
_ _
_
Denition [2D Delta Function] The 2D -function is dened by the following
three properties,
0, (x, y) = 0,
(x, y) =
, (x, y) = 0,
(x, y) dA = 1,
f (x, y) (x a, y b) dA = f (a, b) .
1.2 Greens identities
Ref: Guenther & Lee 8.3
Recall that we derived the identity
D
(G F + F G) dA =
C
(GF) ndS (1)
for any scalar function G and vector valued function F. Setting F = u gives what
is called Greens First Identity,
dA = n) dS (2)
D
_
G
2
u + u G
_
C
G(u
Interchanging G and u and subtracting gives Greens Second Identity,
u
2
GG
2
u dA = (uGGu) ndS. (3)
D C
2 Solution of Laplace and Poisson equation
Ref: Guenther & Lee, 5.3, 8.3, Myint-U & Debnath 10.2 10.4
Consider the BVP
2
u = F in D, (4)
u = f on C.
Let (x, y) be a xed arbitrary point in a 2D domain D and let (, ) be a variable
point used for integration. Let r be the distance from (x, y) to (, ),
r = ( x)
2
+( y)
2
.
Considering the Greens identities above motivates us to write
2
G = ( x, y) = (r) in D, (5)
G = 0 on C.
2
_ _ _
_ _ _
_ _ _ _
_ _ _
_ _ _
The notation (r) is short for ( x, y). Substituting (4) and (5) into Greens
second identity (3) gives
u(x, y) GFdA = fG ndS
D C
Rearranging gives
u(x, y) = GFdA + fG ndS (6)
D C
Therefore, if we can nd a G that satises (5), we can use (6) to nd the solution
u(x, y) of the BVP (4). The advantage is that nding the Greens function G depends
only on the area D and curve C, not on F and f.
Note: this method can be generalized to 3D domains.
2.1 Finding the Greens function
To nd the Greens function for a 2D domain D, we rst nd the simplest function
that satises
2
v = (r). Suppose that v (x, y) is axis-symmetric, that is, v = v (r).
Then
1
2
v = v
rr
+
r
v
r
= (r)
For r > 0,
1
v
r
= 0 v
rr
+
r
Integrating gives
v = Aln r + B
For simplicity, we set B = 0. To nd A, we integrate over a disc of radius centered
at (x, y), D
,
1 = (r) dA =
2
vdA
D
D
From the Divergence Theorem, we have
2
vdA = v ndS
D
C
where C
is the boundary of D
dS = 2A
C
C
r=
C
Hence
1
v (r) = ln r
2
3
_
_ _
This is called the fundamental solution for the Greens function of the Laplacian on
2D domains. For 3D domains, the fundamental solution for the Greens function of
the Laplacian is 1/(4r), where r = (x )
2
+(y )
2
+(z )
2
.
The Greens function for the Laplacian on 2D domains is dened in terms of the
corresponding fundamental solution,
1
G(x, y; , ) = ln r + h,
2
h is regular,
2
h = 0, (, ) D,
G = 0 (, ) C.
The term regular means that h is twice continuously dierentiable in (, ) on D.
Finding the Greens function G is reduced to nding a C
2
function h on D that
satises
2
h = 0 (, ) D,
1
h =
2
ln r (, ) C.
The denition of G in terms of h gives the BVP (5) for G. Thus, for 2D regions D,
nding the Greens function for the Laplacian reduces to nding h.
2.2 Examples
Ref: Myint-U & Debnath 10.6
(i) Full plane D = R
2
. There are no boundaries so h = 0 will do, and
1 1
_
2 2
G = ln r = ln ( x) +( y)
2 4
(ii) Half plane D = {(x, y) : y > 0}. We nd G by introducing what is called an
image point (x, y) corresponding to (x, y). Let r be the distance from (, ) to
(x, y) and r
= ( x)
2
+( + y)
2
We add
1
1
_
2 2
h = ln r = ln ( x) +( + y)
2
2
to G to make G = 0 on the boundary. Since the image point (x, y) is NOT in D,
then h is regular for all points (, ) D, and satises Laplaces equation,
2
h
2
h
= = 0
2
h
2
+
2
4
_
G
(
2
1
/
2
,
2
1
/
2
;
)
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
5
0.7
0
0
2
4
6
8
10
5
Figure 1: Plot of the Greens function G(x, y; , ) for the Laplacian operator in the
upper half plane, for (x, y) = (
2,
2).
for (, ) D. Writing things out fully, we have
2 2
1 1 1
1 r 1 ( x) +( y)
G =
2
ln r + h =
2
ln r
2
ln r =
2
ln
r
=
4
ln
( x)
2
+( + y)
2
(7)
G(x, y; , ) is plotted in the upper half plane in Figure 1 for (x, y) =
_
2,
2 .
Note that G as (, ) (x, y). Also, notice that G < 0 everywhere and
G = 0 on the boundary = 0. These are, in fact, general properties of the Greens
function. The Greens function G(x, y; , ) acts like a weighting function for (x, y)
and neighboring points in the plane. The solution u at (x, y) involves integrals of
the weighting G(x, y; , ) times the boundary condition f (, ) and forcing function
F (, ).
On the boundary C, = 0, so that G = 0 and
G
1 y
n = = G
=0
( x)
2
+ y
2
The solution of the BVP (6) with F = 0 on the upper half plane D can now be
written as, from (6),
_ _
y f ()
u(x, y) =
C
fG ndS =
( x)
2
+ y
d,
2
which is the same as we found from the Fourier Transform, on page 13 of fourtran.pdf.
5
_ _ _ _
_ _ _ _
_
_
_ _
(iii) Upper right quarter plane D = {(x, y) : x > 0, y > 0}. We use the image
points (x, y), (x, y) and (x, y),
1
_
2 2
1
_
2 2
G =
2
ln ( x) +( y)
2
ln ( x) +( + y) (8)
1
_
2 2
1
_
2 2
2
ln ( + x) +( y) +
2
ln ( + x) +( + y)
For (, ) C = D (the boundary), either = 0 or = 0, and in either case, G = 0.
Thus G = 0 on the boundary of D. Also, the second, third and fourth terms on the
r.h.s. are regular for (, ) D, and hence the Laplacian
2
=
2
/
2
+
2
/
2
of each
of these terms is zero. The Laplacian of the rst term is (r). Hence
2
G = (r).
Thus (8) is the Greens function in the upper half plane D.
For (, ) C = D (the boundary),
_ _
0
G
G
fG ndS = f (0, )
d + f (, 0)
d
C
=0
0
=0
_
G
G
= f (0, )
d f (, 0)
d
0
=0
0
=0
Note that
G
4yx
_
2
_ _
2
_
=0
=
x
2
+(y + ) x
2
+(y )
G
4yx
2 2
=0
=
(x ) + y
2
(x + ) + y
2
The solution of the BVP (6) with F = 0 on the upper right quarter plane D and
boundary condition u = f can now be written as, from (6),
u(x, y) = fG ndS
C
4yx
_
f (0, )
=
0
_
x
2
+(y + )
2
_ _
x
2
+(y )
2
_d
4yx
_
f (, 0)
+ _ _ _ _d
0
(x )
2
+ y
2
(x + )
2
+ y
2
(iv) Unit disc D = {(x, y) : x
2
+ y
2
1}. By some simple geometry, for each
point (x, y) D, choosing the image point (x
, y
= ( x
)
2
+( y
)
2
.
6
_ _
_ _
_ _
_ _
_ _
_ _
[DRAW] Using the law of cosines, we obtain
r
2
=
2
+
2
2cos
1
r
2
=
2
+
2
2 cos
where =
_
x
2
+ y
2
, =
_
2
+
2
and ,
= _ _ =
2
, = 1.
r
2
1 +
1
2
2
1
cos
Thus the Greens function for the Laplacian on the 2D disc is
1 r 1
2
+
2
2cos
G(, ; x, y) = ln _ _
2 r
2
+1 2cos
ln =
Note that
G
1 1
2
= G n =
=1
2
1 +
2
2 cos
Thus, the solution to the BVP (5) on the unit circle is (in polar coordinates),
1
_
2
1
2 _
_
d
u(, ) = _ _f
2
0
1 +
2
2 cos
_ _
+
1
_
2
_
1
ln
_
2
+
2
2cos
_
_
_
F
_
,
_
d d
4
0 0
2
+1 2cos
The solution to Laplaces equation is found be setting F = 0,
u(, ) =
1
_
2
1
2
_ _f d
2
0
1 +
2
2 cos
This is called the Poisson integral formula for the unit disk.
2.3 Conformal mapping and the Greens function
Conformal mapping allows us to extend the number of 2D regions for which Greens
functions of the Laplacian
2
u can be found. We use complex notation, and let
= x + iy be a xed point in D and let z = + i be a variable point in D (what
were integrating over). If D is simply connected (a denition from complex analysis),
7
| | | |
_
then by the Riemann Mapping Theorem, there is a conformal map w (z) (analytic
and one-to-one) from D into the unit disk, which maps to the origin, w () = 0
and the boundary of D to the unit circle, |w (z)| = 1 for z D and 0 |w (z)| < 1
for z D/D. The Greens function G is then given by
1
G =
2
ln |w (z)|
To see this, we need a few results from complex analysis. First, note that for z D,
w (z) = 0 so that G = 0. Also, since w (z) is 1-1, w (z) > 0 for z = . Thus, we
can write w (z) = (z )
n
H (z) where H (z) is analytic and nonzero in D. Since
w (z) is 1-1, w
maps the upper half plane D onto the unit disc, where asterisks denote the complex
conjugate. Note that w () = 0 and along the boundary of D, z = x, which is
equidistant from and
= x iy, in the
lower half plane. Thus for z D/D, |w (z)| = |z | / |z
|
|
=
2
ln
r
2
u u = F in D,
u = f on D,
has fundamental solution
1
2
K
0
(r)
where K
0
(r) is the modied Bessel function of order zero of the second kind.
The Greens function method can also be used to solve time-dependent problems,
such as the Wave Equation and the Heat Equation.
9