GUIDANCE SERVICES IN SCHOOL

The Dissertation submitted to Tamil Nadu Teachers Education University in partial fulfillment of the course

BACHELOR OF EDUCATION

SUBMITTED BY SHAGANA.L REG.NO:

1281411BD076

SRI BALAJI COLLEGE OF EDUCATION

(ACCREDITED WITH B GRADE BY NAAC)

CHERANMAHADEVI BATCH: 2011-2012

CONTENT

Guidance services in school: 1. Guidance: 1.1. Introduction:

Guidance and counseling, concept that institutions, especially schools, should promote the efficient and happy lives of individuals by helping them adjust to social realities. The disruption of community and family life by industrial civilization convinced many that guidance experts should be trained to handle problems of individual adjustment. Though the need for attention to the whole individual had been recognized by educators since the time of Socrates, it was only during the 20th cent. That researcher actually began to study and accumulate information about guidance. This development, occurring largely in the United States, was the result of two influences: John Dewey and others insisted that the object of education should be to stimulate the fullest possible growth of the individual and that the unique qualities of personality require individual handling for adequate development; also in the early 20th cent., social and economic conditions stimulated a great increase in school enrollment. These two forces encouraged a reexamination of the curricula and methods of secondary schools, with special reference to the needs of students who did not plan to enter college. The academic curriculum was revised to embrace these alternative cultural and vocational requirements. Early guidance programs dealt with the immediate problem of vocational placement. The complexities of the industrial economy and the unrealistic ambitions of many young people made it essential that machinery for bringing together jobs and workers be set up; vocational guidance became that machinery. At the same time, counseling organizations were established to help people understand their potentialities and liabilities and make intelligent personal and vocational decisions. The first vocational counseling service was the Boston Vocational Bureau, established (1908) by Frank Parsons, a pioneer in the field of guidance. His model was soon copied by many schools, municipalities, states, and private organizations. With the development of aptitude and interest tests, such as the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test and the Strong Vocational Interest Blank, commercial organizations were formed to analyze people's abilities and furnish career advice. Schools organized testing and placement services, many of them in cooperation with federal and state agencies. Under the provisions of the

National Defense Education Act (1958), the federal government provided assistance for guidance and counseling programs in the public secondary schools and established a testing procedure to identify students with outstanding abilities. The U.S. Dept. of Labor has been an active force in establishing standards and methods of vocational guidance, helping states to form their own vocational guidance and counseling services. The personnel departments of many large corporations have also instituted systems of guidance to promote better utilization of their employees. Modern high school guidance programs also include academic counseling for those students planning to attend college. In recent years, school guidance counselors have also been recognized as the primary source for psychological counseling for high school students; this sometimes includes counseling in such areas as drug abuse and teenage pregnancy and referrals to other professionals (e.g., psychologists, social workers, and learning-disability specialists). Virtually all teachers colleges offer major courses in guidance, and graduate schools of education grant advanced degrees in the field.

1.2. Definition of Guidance:

According to stoops and wahlquist, Guidance is a continuous process of helping the individual development to the maximum of his capacity in the direction most beneficial to himself and the society.

1.3. THE COMPONENTS OF GUIDANCE:

Guidance can be defined as a process, developmental in nature, by which an individual is assisted to understand, accept and use his/her abilities, aptitudes and interests and attitudinal patterns in relation to his/her aspirations. Guidance as an educational construct involves those experiences that assist each learner to understand him/herself, accept him/herself, and live effectively in his/her society. This is in addition to the learners experiences in the world of work and the people found there. Guidance can also be looked at as a programme or services to individuals based upon the need of each individual, an understanding of his/her immediate environment, the influence of environmental factors on the individual and the unique features of each school. Guidance is designed to help each individual adjust to his/her environment, develop the ability to set realistic goals for him/herself, and improve his/her education. As a process, guidance is not a simple matter, but involves a series of actions or progressive steps which move towards a goal. As a service, we can isolate four major services, those of educational, vocational, personal and social guidance. 1. Educational Guidance Educational guidance, in so far as it can be distinguished from any other form of guidance, is concerned with the provision of assistance to pupils in their choices in, and adjustment to, the curriculum and school life in general. Educational guidance is, therefore, essential in the counselling service. Guiding young people to pursue the right type of education is necessary, while ensuring that the right balance is kept in order to

meet the human resource needs of a nation. 2. Vocational Guidance Vocational guidance is a process for helping individuals to choose an occupation, prepare for it, enter it and develop in it. Vocational happiness requires that a persons interests, aptitudes and personality, be suitable for his/her work. It plays its part by providing individuals with an understanding of the world of work and essential human needs, and familiarizing individuals with such terms as the dignity of labour and work value. 3. Personal and Social Guidance Personal and social guidance is the process of helping an individual to know how to behave with consideration towards other people. Primarily, personal and social guidance helps the individual to understand himself, know how to get on with others, learn manners and etiquette, pursue leisure time activities, practise social skills, develop family and family relationships, and understand social roles and responsibilities. Units 2, 3 and 4 will deal with each of these four major guidance services in detail. Unit 4, however, will combine both personal and social guidance since there is a very close relationship between the two. Group Work: 1. Plan a 5-minute presentation on the following: Sexism involves differentially valuing one sex, in this case, men, over the other Sexism has been in large part the result of the relatively low numbers of women faculty and students at academic and research institutions... reflects a broader societal prejudice against women, which is embodied in the assumption that what women do, think, or say is unimportant or uninteresting. (Renzetti & Curran, 1989, p. 8). 2. In your presentation discuss how sexism in the early development and nature of guidance could have influenced the kind of guidance services that are provided today. 3. Considering that girls and boys have unique needs, problems and concerns, a) how would you design guidance and counselling services to address these unique needs and concerns? b) how would you determine these needs.

1.4 Guidance Services

Choosing Courses Choosing courses that satisfy your childs needs now and in the future is not always an easy task. That is why we believe it is important for your child to consider course selection carefully, with a mind to the future. We encourage you to take an active role in helping your child choose a school program. In addition to your help, the Guidance Departments in our schools will play an important role in helping your child select a school program that meets the needs of postsecondary educational or career choices. If your child wishes to change his or her course selection, it is important that he or she contacts

the Guidance Department immediately. Each school has different procedures with regards to changing a course selection. Usually a change will require consultation with the teacher, guidance counsellor, student and parent. It is also important that your child continue attending assigned classes until timetable changes have been formally processed. Confidential Consultation Students in high school can arrange individual counselling interviews that will provide an opportunity to discuss matters of interest and concern with a trained counsellor. Students are encouraged to request an appointment with a counsellor whenever they feel it would be helpful. Consultation regarding course selection, post-secondary, educational and career planning, and of a personal nature, are all matters students can address during a counselling session. In addition, our counsellors welcome interviews with parents, which can be arranged by phone or in person at the school.

Classroom Guidance
Each month, we visit classrooms in all grades. In grades CD, K, and 1 we have lessons twice a month that last about 30 minutes. In grades 2-5 our lessons last 45 minutes, and are taught once a month. All lessons are based on the South Carolina Comprehensive Developmental Guidance and Counseling Program Model. Lessons address standards that fall into three learning domains of Learning to Live, Learning to Learn, and Learning to Work. We also incorporate character education activities and skills into these lessons, as appropriate. Students are encouraged to listen and actively participate in each lesson in order to apply these individual lessons and skills to their everyday lives.

Small Groups
Small group counseling is a unique component to school counseling, in that students are grouped together based on similar needs and concerns and are allowed time together to share their experiences and address their needs. Topics for small groups this year include Study Skills, Grief, Separation/Divorce, Anger Management, and Friendship. Additional groups will be formed as the needs arise. In order to participate in small groups, parents must sign a permission form for their student to join. This ensures that the parents are aware of their childs participation and also allows parents the opportunity to share specific information about their childs needs with the counselor.

Individual Services
School counselors are trained to meet individually with students for needs related to their academic and social success. Most school counselors are not licensed or trained as clinical counselors, so our scope of individual services is limited. If the need for in-depth counseling is beyond what we are able to provide, then we will

gladly refer you to outside services that would be more appropriate, such as Mental Health or other local family counseling agencies.

Consultative Services
School counselors consult regularly with teachers and administrators to determine and address the needs of our students. Sometimes, teachers will ask for counselors to attend parent conferences to provide more information or support to the family. Counselors are here to help in any way that we can!

Other Services Other services offered by the Guidance Department within each of our high schools include:

Help with information about training, colleges and universities, student loans, scholarships, campus tours, etc. Academic documentation for both post-secondary admission and employer reference Assistance with manual and computerized career searches and interest inventories Assessment of present study habits and strategies to make study time more effective Contact with community agencies that may be of service to parents and students Assistance with references, transcripts and information that the student may need now, or in the future

2. Educational guidance:

2.1. Definitions:
Educational guidance is intented to aid the individual in choosing an appropriate programme and in making progress in it. -Ruthstrang Educational guidance is concerned with principally with matters relating to schools,curriclam and school life rather than vocational,social or personal matters -carter v.good

2.2 The components of educational guidance:

The components of educational guidance include study skills, time-tabling, notetaking, sitting for examinations, and academic counselling. 1. Study Skills A number of students fail their examinations, or fail to deal with educational activities, because they lack effective study skills and habits. They spend a considerable amount of time playing, and only a small fraction of their time on productive or school activities. This makes the provision of effective study skills.

2. Time-Tabling
There is a need for you to develop a formal time schedule and a personal study time-table, so that you can regulate your movements. Moreover, you can avoid the tendency to procrastinate in your work until the last moment and only work under pressure. Time-tabling will also help you to treat study times as serious commitments and to respect times for home chores and recreation. This is particularly important for girls who are required to do household chores every day. 3. Note-Taking Many students have difficulty in taking notes during the class or presentations. This is due to the fact that they lack note-taking skills. Some teachers always try to prepare notes and distribute them to the class, while others use study time to write notes for students on the chalkboard. While this might help students when they prepare their examinations, it deprives students of an opportunity to acquire note-taking skills. It also denies them a chance to learn how to select what is important from a lesson or lecture. Some students, as a result, miss lessons because they know that they can get notes from the teacher during study time. As indicated by Lindhard (1985), taking notes properly is an important part of learning. This is because it helps a student to remember information presented in class or read from the textbook. Notes help to summarize large chunks of information to

remind ourselves, when preparing for examinations. Taking notes during class, or when reading, can help you concentrate on the subject at hand. We should be selective when taking notes write down only those things that are essential. At the end of the lesson or reading, you must prepare more detailed notes while everything is still fresh in your mind.

4. Sitting for Examinations

While examinations have been misused and abused, especially when they were used for accepting or eliminating students, they can be a useful tool for evaluating the effectiveness of educational programmes or measuring student progress. It is important for a student to know how to prepare for, and take, examinations. Notwithstanding the numerous limitations of examinations in assessing other skills that the student might have acquired during their education, they can help students to learn from what was taught in the course of the year. It is important for every student to learn how to deal with the anxiety and stress generated by examinations. Proper guidance is necessary to help students acquire skills and techniques required to pass examinations.

5. Academic Counselling
Students should be assisted at various levels in their educational development by providing academic counselling. All sorts of students: the gifted and talented, the lowachievers, the handicapped and delinquents, should be assisted to plan their educational progress. This calls for an appraisal of the educational needs of a particular student, and the preparation of a cumulative record, which is a device for recording and filling all the relevant data on that student. With this information each student can be helped to plan a satisfying educational programme.

2.3 THE IMPORTANCE OF EDUCATIONAL GUIDANCE:

Educational guidance is important in schools and colleges in the following ways: 1. Educational guidance helps young people to pursue the right type of education. In this way, the individual is motivated to maximize his/her contribution to society. 2. It assists individuals to make informed decisions about their education.. Individuals have to know the choices that have to be made, and determine whether the choice is between subjects, curricula, schools or colleges. They have to know subject combinations or options, what the subject involves in the classroom, available courses and where each course leads, the available schools and colleges, admission requirements, and educational opportunities. 3. It facilitates the smooth transition for children from home to school, from primary to secondary school, from secondary to post-secondary educational institutions, and to the world of work. The final transition from the educational system to the labour force appears to be most important and challenging for students. 4. It helps students to cope with examination anxiety. The fear of failure and the craving for the highest grades are major sources of pressure among students. 5. It helps students to develop effective study habits. The students are assisted to improve their competence in reading, note-taking, and academic achievement. 6. It provides students with meaningful educational experiences. The students are

able to relate the curriculum to occupational groups. The guidance counsellor needs to give special attention to females as they often find themselves in conflictual situations if they do not follow gender stereotypes in selecting the subjects they study.

3. Guidance services in schools: 3.1 School Guidance and Counseling Services:

One of the functions of education is to provide opportunities for each student to reach his full potential in the areas of educational, vocational, personal, and emotional development. Guidance is an integral part of education and is centered directly on this function. Guidance and counseling services prepare students to assume increasing responsibility for their decisions and grow in their ability to understand and accept the results of their choices (Gibson, 2008; Kauchak, 2011). The ability to make such intelligent choices is not innate but, like other abilities, must be developed. In this paper, I examine the aims of guidance and counseling programs, the role of the counselor, major guidance and counseling services, methods of counseling, and evaluation of guidance and counseling programs.

3.2 School guidance services:

There are certified, professional school counselors in every elementary, middle, and high school in the Las Cruces Public Schools. School counselors are critical partners in the delivery of a high quality education for all students and contribute significantly to the removal of barriers to learning. School counselors work in partnership with school staff to teach students skills that are necessary for academic success and to promote positive academic, personal, interpersonal, health, and career development for all students.

3.3 Aims of Guidance and Counseling Programs:

The aims of the guidance and counseling service are similar to the purposes of education in generalto assist the student in fulfilling her basic physiological needs, understanding herself and acceptance of others, developing associations with peers, balancing between permissiveness and controls in the educational setting, realizing successful achievement, and providing opportunities to gain independence .The purposes of guidance and counseling provide emphasis and strength to the educational program. Some specific aims of the school guidance and counseling program include the following (Gibson, 2009): To Provide for the Realization of Student Potentialities To all students, the school offers a wide choice of courses and co-curricular activities. A significant function of education is to help students identify and develop their potentialities. The counselor's role is to assist students to distribute their energies into the many learning opportunities available to them. Every student needs help in planning his major course of study and pattern of co-curricular activities.

To Help Children with Developing Problems Even those students who have chosen an appropriate educational program for themselves may have problems that require help. A teacher may need to spend from one-fifth to one-third of his time with a few pupils who require a great deal of help, which deprives the rest of the class from the teacher's full attention to their needs. The counselor, by helping these youngsters to resolve their difficulties, frees the classroom teacher to use his time more efficiently. To Contribute to the Development of the School's Curriculum Counselors, in working with individual students, know their personal problems and aspirations, their talents and abilities, as well as the social pressures confronting them. Counselors, therefore, can provide data that serve as a basis for curriculum development, and they can help curriculum developers shape courses of study that more accurately reflect the needs of students. Too often, counselors are not included in curriculum development efforts. To Provide Teachers with Technical Assistance Pre-service teacher training institutions typically provide very limited experience with the more technical aspects of guidance work. Thus, a need exists in most schools for assistance with guidance and counseling functions essential to the educational program. Specifically, the guidance counselor is qualified to assist teachers with selecting, administering, and interpreting tests; selecting and using cumulative, anecdotal, and other types of records; providing help and suggestions relative to counseling techniques, which teachers can use in counseling their students; and providing leadership in developing and conducting professional development of teachers in guidance functions. To Contribute to the Mutual Adjustment of Students and the School Guidance has a responsibility for developing and maintaining a cooperative relationship between students and the school. Teachers and counselors must be cognizant FRED C. LUNENBURG of students' needs. Students also must make adjustments to the school. They have a responsibility to contribute something to the school. A major contribution of students is that of making appropriate use of the school's resources and working toward accomplishments. Such mutual adjustment of students and school is facilitated by providing suggestions for program improvements, conducting research for educational improvements, contributing to students' adjustment through counseling, and fostering wholesome school-home attitudes.

3.4 The Role of the Counselor :

The major goals of counseling are to promote personal growth and to prepare students to become motivated workers and responsible citizens. Educators recognize that in addition to intellectual challenges, students encounter personal/social, educational, and career challenges. School guidance and counseling programs need to address these challenges and to promote educational success. The guidance and counseling program is an integral part of a school's total educational program; it is developmental by design, focusing on needs, interests, and issues related to various stages of student growth. The scope of the developmental guidance and counseling program in today's school include the following components (Cooley, 2010; Coy, 2004): Personal/social - In addition to providing guidance services for all students, counselors are expected to do personal and crisis counseling. Problems such as dropping out, substance abuse, suicide, irresponsible sexual behavior, eating disorders, and pregnancy must be addressed. Educational - Students must develop skills that will assist them as they learn. The counselor, through classroom guidance activities and individual and group counseling, can assist students in

applying effective study skills, setting goals, learning effectively, and gaining test-taking skills. Counselors also may focus on note taking, time management, memory techniques, relaxation techniques, overcoming test anxiety, and developing listening skills. Career - Planning for the future, combating career stereotyping, and analyzing skills and interests are some of the goals students must develop in school. Career information must be available to students, and representatives from business and industry must work closely with the school and the counselor in preparing students for the world of work.

3.5 Major Guidance and Counseling Services :

The primary mission of a school's guidance and counseling program is to provide a broad spectrum of personnel services to the students. These services include student SCHOOLING assessment, the information service, placement and follow-up, and counseling assistance. These four areas should constitute the core of any guidance program and should be organized to facilitate the growth and development of all students from kindergarten through post high school experiences . Assessment The assessment service is designed to collect, analyze, and use a variety of objective and subjective personal, psychological, and social data about each pupil. Its purpose is to help the individual to better understand herself. Conferences with pupils and parents, standardized test scores, academic records, anecdotal records, personal data forms, case studies, and portfolios are included. The school counselor interprets this information to pupils, parents, teachers, administrators, and other professionals. Pupils with special needs and abilities are thus identified. Information The information service is designed to provide accurate and current information in order that the students may make an intelligent choice of an educational program, an occupation, or a social activity. Essentially, the aim is that with such information students will make better choices and will engage in better planning in and out of the school setting. Students must not only be exposed to such information but must also have an opportunity to react to it in a meaningful way with others. Placement and Follow-up The school assists the student in selecting and utilizing opportunities within the school and in the outside labor market. Counselors assist students in making appropriate choices of courses of study and in making transitions from one school level to another, one school to another, and from school to employment. Placement thereby involves pupil assessment, informational services, and counseling assistance appropriate to the pupil's choices of school subjects, co-curricular activities, and employment. Follow-up is concerned with the development of a systematic plan for maintaining contact with former students. The data obtained from the follow-up studies aid the school in evaluating the school's curricular and guidance programs. Counseling The counseling service is designed to facilitate self-understanding and development through dyadic or small-group relationships. The aim of such relationships tends to be on personal development and decision making that is based on self-understanding and knowledge of the environment. The counselor assists the student to understand and accept himself thereby clarifying his ideas, perceptions, attitudes, and goals; furnishes personal and environmental information to the pupil, as required, regarding his plans, choices, or problems; and seeks to develop in the student the ability to cope with/and solve problems and increased competence in making decisions and plans for the future. Counseling is generally accepted as the heart of the guidance service. Methods of Counseling Counseling students is one of the basic functions of the school guidance program. Counseling skills are needed by school principals, teachers, teacher-advisors, athletic coaches, and club sponsors as

well as by professional counselors. Although counseling of serious emotional problems is best handled by professional counselors, teachers and other faculty personnel find themselves in situations daily where counseling is necessary (Coleman, 2009). Acquaintance with counseling methods and points of view is useful to them. Counseling methods and points of view have developed from research and theories about how individuals grow and develop, change their behavior, and interact with their environment. These counseling methods are generally classified into three broad types or schools of thought: directive, nondirective, and eclectic (Neukrug, 2011; Parsons, 2009a; Parsons, 2009b; Parsons, 2009c). One of the most fundamental philosophical and theoretical questions that confronts the counselor in the course of her training and professional practice is which method to select in counseling students. The directive counselor is said to be more interested in the problem than he is in the counselee. This belief is an exaggeration. The student and her problem cannot be separated. All service professions are, by their very nature, concerned with the person to be helped. All teaching, for example, is pupil centered even when a teacher has thirty students in a class. The directive counselor, however, focuses attention on identifying and analyzing the problem and finding an appropriate solution to it. He tends to make use of test data, school records, and reports, and to be more disposed to giving advice and information based on such data. Directive counseling is the method most commonly used by counselors in school settings (Coleman, 2009). Directive counseling seems to be most successful when the counselee is relatively well adjusted, the problem is in an intellectual area, a lack of information constituted the problem, the counselee has little insight into the problem, inner conflict is absent, and the client suffers from anxiety, insecurity, or impatience (Coleman, 2009; Parsons, 2009a). The nondirective approach is more effective in the treatment of many types of emotional problems. However, many students who come to the counselor have few if any such emotional problems. Many cases merely call for information or some other routine assistance. Although there are many proponents of nondirective counseling, Carl Rogers is best known, because he started the movement and has given it leadership for more than six decades (Rogers, 1942). The aim of nondirective counseling is, according to Rogers, to help the student "to become a better organized person, oriented around healthy goals which [he] has clearly seen and definitely chosen" (p. 227). It aims to provide the student with a united purpose, the courage to meet life and the obstacles that it presents. Consequently, the client takes from his counseling contacts, not necessarily a neat solution for each of his problems, but the ability to meet his problems in a constructive way. Rogers defines effective counseling as a definitely structured, permissive SCHOOLING relationship that allows the client to gain an understanding of himself to a degree that enables him to take positive steps in the light of his new orientation. This hypothesis has a natural corollary, that all the techniques used should aim toward developing this free and permissive relationship, this understanding of self in the counseling and other relationships, and this tendency toward positive, self-initiated action (Fall, 2011; Parsons, 2009b; Rogers, 1942). Possibly the greatest contribution of the nondirective technique has been its influence in personalizing counseling. Nevertheless, even though this approach may be more effective in certain counseling situations, it is unlikely that this approach will be used in most schools because of the extreme training essential to its application in the counseling process (Coleman, 2009). Eclectic counseling is the result of selecting concepts from both directive and nondirective approaches. Thus, the eclectic counselor uses whatever approach seems best suited to the situation. Real help given to most students in schools would be located between the highly directive and the eclectic views rather than client centered (Coleman, 2009; Parsons, 2009c). The effectiveness of the counselor will depend more on the relationship existing between the student and his counselors than on the method she chooses and how well she performs within the method she employs.

3.6 School guidance Services at All Levels

Provide comprehensive counseling and guidance services to all students. Communicate and consult with students, staff, parents, and community members about services available through school counseling. Provide information to students and families about academic programs and opportunities. Inform families about community resources. Work with students and families to support students in their transition from one school level to another. Understand and support the unique needs of the diverse school population. Provide services to address problems that affect student success in the school setting. Support the school when there is a crisis in the school community.

3.7 School guidance Services at the Elementary School Level

Elementary school counselors provide comprehensive counseling and guidance services that address the particular needs of students enrolled in Kindergarten through 5th grades. Elementary school counselors have specific knowledge of the developmental needs of children within this age group. They meet regularly with all students through school wide programs and classroom guidance lessons. School counselors also provide individual and group counseling for students when academic or behavior needs arise. School counselors help students develop knowledge and skills appropriate to their age and grade in the areas of academic success, personal growth, career awareness, and interpersonal relationships such as making and keeping friends, how to handle peer pressure and how to safely resolve conflicts. School counselors also regularly consult with parents and teachers to discuss ways in which they can support students. School counselors at the elementary school level are always available as a resource for parents to answer questions they may have about their childs development.

3.7.1 ELEMENTARY GUIDANCE SERVICES:

The goal of elementary guidance counselors is to work with students, parents, school personnel, and community agencies to provide an environment that will foster maximum intellectual and emotional growth for each student. A system of several coordinated services exists within the general framework of the Elementary Guidance Services: 1. Consultant Services: Guidance counselors shall be available to consult with students, parents, and teachers in the process of diagnosing student needs and exploring viable options for addressing those needs. 2. Counseling Services: Counselors' attention shall be focused on the educational, vocational, physical, social, and adjustment needs of students. Counseling sessions may be one-to-one, small group, or whole class. 3. Referrals: Individual students believed to be in need of special help shall be referred to the building counselor. Referrals may originate with school personnel, parents, or the student. 4. Staffing: The building counselor shall be a member of the building staffing team.

5. Pre-School Screening: The counselor shall be involved in the interpretation of test performance and in readiness/grade I placement recommendations for students entering their first year of school. 6. Enrichment Program: The counselor along with the enrichment coordinator will be involved in the assessment, functioning, and programming of students.
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3.8 GUIDANCE AND COUNSELLING SERVICES IN PRIMARY SCHOOLS:

Education is undoubtedly a process by which children and young people also are trained and instructed in order to discover their talents and potentials. It is a process of change and national development, through which a society meets her ends. In order to meet the socioeconomic, political, cultural and technological changes of the modern world, the Federal Government of Nigeria saw the need for a clear statement of objectives or policy guidelines The objectives suggest the direction in which the country is supposed to move educationally Thus, primary education forms the bedrock upon which the entire system of education depends. The rest of the educational system is built upon it and this becomes the key to either success or failure the whole system. This implies that the system needs to be greatly effective in its operations. Unfortunately, the system, has a lot of hindrances. As observed by Owoeye [2008], poor standard of personal living, poor public utilities, poor health delivery, pathetic and unhealthy school environments, ignorance, poverty, diseases, poorly trained teachers and political mismanagement are some of the factors affecting childrens academic pursuits. It is pertinent to note that it seems that these militating factors against primary education can only be overcome in an educational system powered and controlled by guidance services. The present day society and its crises, changing values and general development of the child have been observed as what cause childrens problems, even in early childhood education .Most primary schools in Nigeria do not have established guidance and counselling units for now . However, somehow, most Nigerian educators, parents, politicians, church and mosque groups are aware that something significant is missing in the process by which children are being brought up nowadays There is no gain saying the fact that primary education grooms up the child psychologically and eventually, moulds him into a good citizen. Also, for the form of education pupils receive during their elementary education to be total, physically and psychologically rewarding, guidance and counselling units must be established by trained counsellors in primary schools in Nigeria

However, causal observations have also shown that the primary school system in Nigeria is still faced with the problem of non- availability of guidance and counselling units that could help the Nigerian child to have the right physical, psychological and social setting for growth. Section 10, sub- section 84[11] of the National policy on Education had emphasized the training of interested teachers in guidance and counselling and the fact that it would feature in teacher education programmes in an attempt to highlight the importance of educational services in the educational system Hence, the Grade II Teachers Colleges, Advanced Teachers Colleges, Colleges of Education, Institutes of Education, National Teacher institutes and teachers Centers have outlined professional training for teachers to equip them for effective performance of their duties . By and large, the curriculum of these teacher training organizations has taken care of general introduction and specific training in guidance and counselling at various levels. Therefore, this study was an attempt to find out the level of awareness of teachers towards the effectiveness of guidance and counselling services in primary schools. Furthermore, it was an attempt to find out teachers level of preparedness to the reception of the establishment of effective guidance and counselling units in primary schools in Nigeria.

3.8.1 GUIDANCE SERVICES AND USES OF TESTS IN PRIMARY SCHOOLS:

Primary education forms the basic foundation on which other levels of education rest. It prepares the individuals for the challenges that are usually encountered in life. A weak foundation at primary level could lead to inability of individuals to experience normal development and consequently find it difficult to be independent and self-actualized The relevance of Primary education to human development necessitates proper training of Primary school teachers in order to equip pupils with necessary knowledge and skills needed for survival. The job of the Primary School teachers is not limited to teaching of different Subjects alone. Teachers are expected to assist students to achieve total development in terms of cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains. This is necessary because education is not limited to the ability to read and write. it covers intellectual physical, moral and spiritual development The rampant cases of indiscipline in Nigeria cannot be divorced from the neglect of affective domain at primary schools as more emphasis is placed on cognitive domain at the expense of other domains. The consequences of this neglect manifest in forms of corruption high crime rate and indiscipline especially among the Youths. There is therefore the need for the primary school teachers to acquire skills on how they can assist primary school pupils in Nigeria to be good citizens and true leaders of tomorrow. One of the ways by which primary school teachers could assist in promoting morality in primary schools is through the acquisition of

knowledge and skills in Guidance and Counselling.

3.8.2 Guidance and Counselling in Primary Schools:

Guidance is a term that covers all the means whereby an institution identifies and responds to the individual needs of pupils and thereby helping them to develop their potentials to the maximum. (Ipaye, l983).Generally there are six guidance services which should be provided at the primary school level. In the absence of professional counsellors, teachers could provide these services as para- counselor. The services are: a. Orientation Service: This involves the introduction of newly admitted pupils to schools and the community. Orientation assists pupils to be familiar with the school environment and to adjust effectively in schools. b. Information Service: It is the provision of useful information to pupils in areas of education, vocation and interPers0flal relationship. Such information would assist pupils to understand their environment and plan for the future. c. Counselling Service: This is a process by which a counsellor or a teacher assists a pupil on face-to-face encounter to address his/her concerns. It is an enlightened process through which counsellors or teachers help pupils by facilitating positive change through an exercise of growth, development and self-understanding (Makinde 1983). d. Appraisal Service: This involves gathering organizing and interpreting data about pupils for the purpose of assisting them to understand themselves (Oladele, 1987).It is believed that when pupils understand themselves and are aware of their potentials, they would be able to prepare adequately for the future. c. Referral Service: It is a guidance service through which pupils that needs special attention or services are directed to relevant institutions or agencies in the society. Primary school teachers are expected to be observant and direct pupils who need special assistance to appropriate organizations for necessary services. e. Follow-up Service: This involves monitoring of pupils progress even after the completion of primary education. Follow-up provides opportunity for teachers to continually assist their pupils and assess their performance in other areas of life. The performance of a school can be determined through the quality of their products and this is determined through a follow-up study. The service also

promotes positive relationship between ex-pupils and school personnel. In addition to the provision of guidance services, primary school teachers need to acquire skills in the usage of tests. A test is a task, treatment or situation designed to elicit the behaviour or performance of pupils or persons with a view to determining or drawing inferences about specific abilities or other attitudes of pupils (Abiri, 2006).Test can also be described as an instrument used for assessing individual differences in one or more behaviours (Akinpelu, 2004). Kolo (2001) identified six categories of tests that are used in schools. They are: a. Achievement Test: This test assesses the performance of pupils after an exposure to a prescribed content. It measures the extent to which pupils have mastered the subject or content they had been taught. Examples of achievement tests are WAEC Examinations, NECO Examination and Teacher-made- test b Aptitude Test: This test is designed to measure the potential for success of pupil in a given area of training and learning. Aptitude test predicts potentials and can provide information on the ability or inability of pupils to succeed in a task. The different types of aptitude tests are mechanical aptitude tests, scholastic aptitude tests, clerical aptitude test, and musical aptitude test. C. Attitude Test: The test measures pupils reactions to events, situations or objects in their environment. Pupils attitude could be negative or positive. This information is required by primary school teachers in perform their duties. d. Mental Ability Test: Mental ability test is also known as intelligence tests. It is designed to assess the intellectual capability of pupils. The mental ability of any pupil consist of his/her perception, conceptions, memory, Language, reasoning and creative abilities. Examples of mental ability tests are Standard Progressive Matrix and Weschler intelligence Scale. e. Interest Inventories: These are instruments designed to assess pupils likes and dislikes. Thus, interest inventories are usually based on pupils education, vocational and social interest. Examples of Interest inventory are Vocational Interest Inventory and Strong Vocational Interest Blank. f. personality Test: The test is designed to measure human characteristics such as emotions, adjustment, social interaction and motivation. The test assesses an individuals characteristics, temperament and behavioural dispositions. Personality test is broader in scope and measures different dimensions of human behaviours.

3.9 School Counseling Services at the Middle School Level

Middle school counselors provide comprehensive counseling and guidance services that address the particular needs of students in 6th through 8th grade. Middle school counselors have specific knowledge of the developmental needs of children within this age group. Middle school counselors promote and enhance the academic, personal, social, health and career development of all students and guide students and their families in making informed educational decisions. Middle school counselors focus on helping students explore careers, enhancing self-esteem, building more mature communication and relationship skills, and developing positive work habits. Middle school counselors support students as they transition from elementary school to middle school and from middle school to high school. Middle school counselors also serve as a resource for parents and teachers and as a liaison with community agencies.

3.10 Guidance Services in Secondary Schools

A student's middle school and high school years are some of the most challenging and important in his educational career. While the exact services offered vary from school to school, most guidance counselors offer students in secondary school a number of similar guidance services, including test preparation, program planning, individual counseling and career/college planning to help make their secondary school years as pain-free as possible.

1. Test Preperation
o

The Guidance Services Department at most schools offers students test preparation materials to help the students prepare for the various standardized tests they are exposed to during their middle school and high school careers. These materials include test overview handouts, statistics and practice tests for tests that range from the SAT I and SAT II, to the ACT and the standardized tests for each state.

Program Planning
o

Program planning is what is often thought of when guidance counseling is discussed. Program planning involves helping the student decide what classes he wants to take during his middle school and high school career. Program planning not only helps the student decide what electives to take and what classes are best for his academic abilities, it ensures that the classes the student is taking fulfill the high school's graduation requirements.

Individual/Group Counseling
o

Individual counseling and group counseling comprise counseling sessions held between a guidance counselor and a student or group of students. These sessions seek to address psychological, social and academic issues that can range from problems with school work, to bullying, to health concerns like depression. During these types of sessions, the parents of the student may be contacted and

the student may be referred to an outside agency if the problem warrants such action.

College/Career Planning
o

One of the primary services offered by guidance counselors is college and career planning. This service seeks to help students decide what they want to do after they are finished with their high school career. If the student wants to attend college after high school, the school selection and application process can be overseen or aided by the guidance counselor. If the student wishes to enter the workforce immediately after high school, the guidance counselor can aid the student in finding work, resume building, interview etiquette and many other employment-seeking skills.

3.10.1Career Guidance in Secondary Schools

Career education has been part of the British education system for more than 40 years. The subject has undergone a number of changes over the years and the government made it a core curriculum subject for all pupils from the late 1990s onwards. A major problem with careers education and guidance studies (CEGS) was no clear guidance on how the subject should be taught. In late 2009, the government produced guidance notes and resource packs for all schools on the teaching of CEGS.

1. History
Careers education in secondary schools began in the 1960's for years 8, 9 and 10 pupils. Before then, English departments taught pupils how to fill out applications and prepare for interviews. The subject gained increasing importance from the 1970's onwards and in the late 1990s, Careers and Education Guidance Studies (CEGS) was made a compulsory part of the curriculum for all pupils.

Considerations
Although CEGS was made a core curriculum subject, no guidance was given as to how it should be taught, and in some schools there was little or no actual teaching of the subject. It became obvious at the start of the 21st century that some schools were pushing their own agendas. Schools were persuading youngsters to stay on rather than go to the local further education college. Government set out to address this problem with the 2007-8 Educations and Skills Bill, which stated that schools and colleges "must not unduly promote any particular options over any others."

Benefits
o

Careers guidance is designed to prepare young people for their life after school and in the world of work. Government's recognition that some schools were partisan in their interpretation of CEGS eventually led to their acknowledgement that "the greatest potential for improving CEGS delivery lies in driving up the quality and relevance of careers education in schools."

Effects
o

Guidance for careers had become partisan in schools because there were no clear guidelines as to where it should fit within the curriculum, nor how it should be taught. A formal consultation between the government and the heads of all schools and pupil referral units in summer 2009 led to the production of formal guidance notes and a set of resources for all schools and referral units.

Potential
o

The ways in which CEGS in secondary schools has improved should benefit pupils enormously and give them the confidence to progress with their education and make their personal contribution to society as fulfilled individuals. The government has given advice to heads of all schools and pupil referral units as to how the guidance should be carried out and how they might "meet their statutory duties in relation to careers education and..ensure that the young people for whom they are responsible receive the support that they need."

3.11 School Counseling Services at the High School Level :

High school counselors provide comprehensive counseling and guidance services that address the particular needs of high school students. High school counselors have specific knowledge of the developmental needs of high school students. High school counselors help guide and support students through academic and career planning. School counselors monitor and support student progress in coursework and graduation plans. Academic and career advisement is conducted in collaboration with the Districts Career and Technical Education office and school faculty. School counselors also provide guidance and counseling to students to improve coping skills, decision-making, interpersonal relationships, personal responsibility, and other skills essential for being a productive citizen

5. Personal and Social Guidance

COMMON PROBLEMS AND THEIR UNDERLYING CAUSES:
Personal and social guidance is the process of helping an individual to know how to behave with consideration for other people, in order to improve the quality of life. In the course of their development, individuals encounter a lot of problems. These problems include emotional conflicts, anxieties, frustrations, fears, poor self-image, indecision, alcohol and drug abuse, unwanted pregnancies, the AIDS epidemic, delinquency, suicide, inability to set a goal in life, poor interpersonal relationships, dependence on other people and, in general, an inability to change unsuitable behaviour. This topic explains some of the common problems and their underlying causes, and gives suggestions on how to alleviate them.

1. Stress/Anxiety
Anxiety exists when individuals are at odds with themselves. The underlying conflict springs from a clash between incompatible impulses, desires, or values. Such a conflict prevails when a person is angry but is afraid of giving offence. It also exists when a person is eager to be popular, but has scruples against doing what may be necessary to become popular. The conflict and frustration in the individual produce anxiety and tension. Since the emotional states are uncomfortable and distressful ones for the individual, attempts to allay them are made by putting up defences. These defence mechanisms help the individual to deal with distress and inner conflict. According to Horney (1950), individuals may survive in a threatening environment by moving against others, and becoming competitive: seeking to surpass others in schoolwork, business, sports, or any area of life. Individuals may also move away from others, withdraw, remain aloof and detached. Individuals may also wish to move along with others in a policy of compliance, conformity, and self-effacement. According to the Freudian Theory of defences against anxiety, feelings of anxiety warn the ego or self of impending danger, usually in the form of a repressed impulse. The self then uses specific defence mechanisms to ward off forbidden and dangerous impulses. Anna Freud (1958) elaborated the following defence mechanisms: repression, projection, denial, displacement, rationalization, reaction formation, undoing, intellectualization, regression, sublimation, and turning against the self. These defence mechanisms are devices or techniques which the self develops unconsciously, in order to enable the individual to deal with psychic pain and frustration. Failure to employ these mechanisms may lead to a total disintegration of the personality of the individual. Let us now look at the defences. Anxiety-Producing Stresses in Adolescence Many adolescents are seriously confronted for the first time with facts about themselves and their backgrounds that may produce serious conflicts. For example, they face problems of independence versus dependence, conformity versus nonconformity, self-assertion versus self-negation, early versus later maturing, development of the genitals, and financial troubles. All these produce stress.

Factors of Stress in School Children a. Family problems Parental disapproval, feeling unloved and abandoned, parents' fighting, parents' divorce or separation, competing with sibling(s), not spending much time with parents, lack of parental support, having different goals from those of parents, dealing with, and conflict with, step-parents. b. Not feeling in control Others telling them what to do, not being allowed to think for themselves and make decisions, feeling that no one is listening to them, lack of resources. c. Feeling different Feelings of inferiority, not having the same materials as others, lack of awareness of self (strengths and weaknesses), not accepting self. d. School related problems Teachers not liking or understanding them, fear of failure, not getting homework done, failing to meet the expectations of parents with regard to academic achievement, not having friends, not seeing the relevance of attending school, adjusting to different teachers and students. e. Discipline Afraid of being punished, unfair punishment, parents and teachers being too critical. f. Peer Pressure Wanting to be accepted by friends, participating in things they do not feel comfortable with (drugs, smoking, drinking, etc), not having the resources to be part of their group, not being accepted, being afraid of doing and saying the wrong thing. g. General Concerns Doing something wrong, feeling insecure, feeling that something is frightening, adjusting to developmental changes, not having enough autonomy, not understanding things in their lives, not accepting themselves, being different, having different expectations from those of parents and teachers. h. Drug and alcohol abuse Use of cigarettes, drugs and alcohol. i. Future Career decisions, accepting responsibilities, relationships as they affect future decisions, dealing with the many uncertainties of life, not understanding themselves enough to make decisions about the future. j. Boredom Inadequate entertainment, sports and cultural activities. There is a need for young people to break the stereotype that boredom can only be broken externally. Further, there is a need to provide psychological empowerment to help young people deal with boredom. Transition: Aside from anxiety/stress, another common problem encountered by students is poor self-image.

2. Poor Self-image
Self-image is our sense of self. Its basis is our knowledge of what we have been and have done. Its function is to guide us in deciding what to be, and do, in the future.

Self-image, therefore, helps us to understand ourselves and control, or regulate, our behavior. The real self is the person's own concept of what he/she is like, but the ideal self is a person's concept of what he/she wants to be like. Middle childhood is an important time for the development of self-esteem, a positive self-image, or self-evaluation. Children compare their real and ideal selves, and judge themselves by how well they measure up to social standards and expectations, and how well they perform. It is when they are among other children that youngsters develop a self-image and build self-esteem. They form opinions of themselves by seeing themselves as others see them. This is their basis for comparison. This self-esteem is important for success and happiness. Factors That Contribute to Self-Esteem People base their self-image on the sense of: a. significance: the extent to which they feel loved by those who are important to them. b. competence: ability to perform a task they consider important. c. virtue: attainment of moral and ethical standards. d. power: the extent to which they influence their own and other people's lives. How Counsellors Can Enhance the Self-Image in Children a. Counsellors should facilitate groups to enhance self-esteem because many factors of stress are related to a negative evaluation of the self. b. Counsellors should give guidance classes to increase the students' awareness of themselves. This should help to alleviate the factors that are related to a lack of self-understanding and non-acceptance of the self. c. Children should be taught how to manage stress in groups and in individual sessions. d. Counsellors should be able to manage their own stress, so that they can be good role models. Transition: A third common problem encountered by students is difficulty in asserting themselves. 3. Difficulty in Asserting Themselves 4. Drug and Alcohol Abuse A substance is considered abused if it is deliberately used to induce physiological or psychological effects, or both, for purposes other than therapeutic ones; and when its use contributes to health risks, the disruption of psychological functioning, adverse social consequences or a combination of them. Thus, although drugs may be prescribed for specific therapeutic purposes, they may also be abused by obtaining and taking them without prescription, for the purpose of experiencing side effects. Substance Abuse It is likely in the near future that the term substance abuse rather than drug abuse, will be used, because not all abused chemicals are drugs. Abused substances other than drugs include glue, cleaning fluids, gasoline, and other chemicals that can cause adverse psychological effects. Why Young People Use Drugs Young people use drugs for the following reasons: a. For social reasons, i.e., to conform to peer pressure.

b. Drugs make them feel good. c. When they are feeling anxious, depressed or alienated, young people use drugs due to a lack of self-esteem, and the presence of peer pressure, family problems, and emotional problems. d. They do not feel good unless they are a little high, for instance, on marijuana. Patterns of Progressive Drug Abuses A drug abuser rarely becomes a habitual user immediately. He/she undergoes the following stages: a. Experimentation He/she starts with experimentation, perhaps under peer pressure. During this stage, there are few effects and the consequences are negative. b. Occasional social and recreation use This time, the abuser exhibits the following characteristics: decrease in academic performance, loss of interest in hobbies, seeks out drug-using friends, and changes clothing habits. c. Certain circumstances or situations He/she then becomes a habitual user when he/she wants, for example, to relax after a stressful event, to stay awake to perform a demanding task, or to sleep. Situational use may intensify and become part of daily routine. d. Obsessive or dependent Eventually, the drug can become the individual's main concern. Thus, the individual becomes addicted, or dependent on the drug. He/she has severe discomfort if the drug is not available. He/she has 5. Alcohol and tobacco problems Alcohol and tobacco are the largest drug problems for children for the following reasons: a. they are readily available. b. they are advertised for sale. c. children usually receive their first exposure to, and first experiment with, these substances at home. There is evidence that cigarette smoking alone is estimated to take the lives of more people than all other drugs combined. Hence, it is a good idea to concentrate on preventing children and young people from starting smoking and drinking. Transition: The onset of puberty at about the age of eleven marks essential changes in the individual concerned. He/she is changed physically, morally, psychologically, and socially. The individual is termed an adolescent. Adolescence is generally viewed as a time of greater storm and stress than other periods of life. For instance, there is a strong sexual urge for the individual to engage in pre-marital intercourse. With increasing sexual activity has come an increased incidence of teenage pregnancies, AIDS and other Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs), also referred to as Venereal Diseases(VD). Let us now talk about another common problem encountered by young people as a result of their sexuality. 6. Teenage pregnancy Sexual experimentation and ignorance baffle many teenagers, and sometimes lead them to things which they do not expect and find difficult to handle. One of the consequences of sexual experimentation and ignorance is teenage pregnancy.

A teenager who is pregnant usually has one of four choices: marry the father of the child, raise the child alone, give the baby up for adoption, or have an abortion. The question is what happens to the father of the child. In a number of cases, the father of the child is not another teenager, but an adult or civil servant, or some responsible senior official or important person in government. What impact does this have on the social fabric? Regardless of her choice, the teenage-mother will probably manage alone. The role of a guidance counsellor is to aid the teenage mother to make a choice. Better still, the guidance counsellor should already be there even before the teenager becomes pregnant. He/she needs to be there to prevent it by teaching/guiding adolescents, so that the following principles are followed: a. The best precaution for teenage pregnancy is abstinence, until it is possible to establish a mutually faithful monogamous relationship. b. There is a need for self-respect and self-control in sexual matters. c. Youngsters should avoid smoking, taking alcohol, and dangerous drugs, as these might stimulate them to indulge in irresponsible sexual behaviour. d. Youngsters should avoid conduct likely to provoke sexual responses in the opposite sex. Family Life Education should be advocated. e. Youngsters should recognize the sanctity and purpose of the family, hence they should develop desirable attitudes to family life . f. Youngsters should be encouraged to view life positively. g. Youngsters should avoid any behaviour that may damage their procreational abilities, especially the problems of Sexually Transmitted Diseases. h. Youngsters should have a respect for human life. In the matter of abortion, teenagers should know the rights of the foetus, and those of the pregnant teenager, and consider the consequences to the teenager herself, and to 7. Sexually Transmitted Diseases These are diseases which are spread through sexual contact. These include syphilis, gonorrhea and AIDS. a. Syphilis Syphilis is caused by the bacterium treponema pallidium. Syphilis goes through two stages, and usually manifests itself in three weeks. First, there is a painless pimple, blister, or sore where the germs entered the body. Then, there is a rash, hair loss, and swollen glands. Its complications are brain damage, heart disease, paralysis, insanity, and death. Babies born to untreated women may be blind, deaf, or crippled by the disease. b. Gonorrhea This is caused by the bacterium neisseria gonorrhoeae. Males have a pus-like discharge but most infected women show no symptoms. Its complications include back pains, urination problems, arthritis, and sterility. Babies of infected mothers may be born blind. c. Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) AIDS damages the body's immunity against infection, leaving its victim without any defence against a host of serious diseases. The disease is caused by the Human Immuno-Deficiency Virus (HIV). The symptoms include tiredness, fever, loss of appetite, diarrhoea, night sweats, and swollen glands. These symptoms occur from about six months after infection

to five years or longer. This is called the incubation period. The three largest groups of people who get AIDS are: i. sexually active people. ii. intravenous drug users. iii. blood-transfusion recipients. How to Prevent AIDS AIDS can be prevented by: a. Abstinence: this means avoiding sexual intercourse altogether. If young people delay becoming sexually active until marriage, the risk of getting AIDS is reduced. b. Faithfulness: people who are married should be faithful to their life partners. c. Mutually monogamous relationships: if an uninfected couple have intercourse only with each other, they cannot become infected through sexual transmission. d. Screening of donated blood, sperm, organs, or any body tissue, to ensure they are free of HIV. e. Avoiding direct contact with another person's blood. e. Avoiding sharing instruments which cut and pierce the skin. 8. Juvenile Delinquency Juvenile delinquency is a legal term that indicates violation of the law by one who is not legally an adult, but a juvenile. When someone who is not legally an adult commits an act that could result in arrest by the police, he/she is said to have committed a delinquent act. The extent of juvenile delinquency is difficult to determine, because many such acts do not result in arrests. Moreover, some laws are so vague or loosely worded that delinquency is not clearly defined. Furthermore, some acts are illegal if committed by a juvenile, but legal if committed by an adult. Other delinquent acts are clearly criminal; they are considered morally wrong and punishable by law, regardless of the age of the person who commits them. Acts that are illegal only when committed by a minor are called status offences. These include truancy, running away from home, buying or possessing alcoholic beverages, and sexual promiscuity. On the other hand, juveniles may commit index crimes, crimes that are illegal regardless of a person's age. These include robbery, rape, murder, vandalism, shoplifting, theft, armed robbery, and assault. Factors that increase the probability that a youngster will exhibit delinquent behaviour include the following: a. problems at school. b. low verbal intelligence. c. alcoholism and arrest record of parents. d. reliance on welfare, or poor management of family income. e. crowded, disorderly, or broken home. f. erratic supervision and lax or inconsistent parental discipline. g. indifference, or hostility of parents and siblings, towards the child. h. drug or alcohol abuse. Thus, parents who provide little emotional warmth, little supervision or control of

the child's activities, exercise erratic and punitive discipline, and who provide a model of lawless behaviour in the home, are most likely to have delinquent children. All in all, the causes of juvenile delinquency have their social roots in problem homes, the socio-economic status of parents, television and the mass-media, peer group influence, and the school. Therefore, curbing juvenile delinquency is a joint venture involving parents, teachers, religious leaders, the community, and counsellors. In modelling, contingency contracting, shaping and reinforcing students' behaviour in order to curb juvenile delinquency, teachers, administrators and counsellors, should realize that relevance is the key issue to be considered. Interesting school programmes and flexible curricula should be developed to cater for varying talents, interests, abilities, and goals in life. School programmes should help young people to know their rights and responsibilities. Students who might have become delinquent for want of a school programme, which is relevant to their particular interests and needs, should find a vent for their special talents. 9. Suicide Suicide is increasingly common in our society. This takes many forms including hanging, or deliberately taking an overdose. Causes Some common events that push the adolescent into suicide, or suicide attempts, include: a. getting into trouble with the authorities, such as the police or school; not knowing and fearing the consequences; b. disappointment and rejection, such as a dispute with a boyfriend or girlfriend; failure in school; failure to get a job, or rejection by a college; c. anxiety over impending change; d. timing shortly before, or after, the anniversary of the death of a friend or relative; e. knowing someone who committed, or attempted suicide; f. poor performance in examinations. Adolescent suicidal behaviour has the following characteristics: a) The decision to attempt suicide is often an impulsive act carried out by a person in crisis. b) There are often warning signs. c) Peers may be the first to know about a suicidal teenager. Suicide Warning Signs The warning signs include the following: a. Feelings Hopelessness Fear of losing control, going crazy, harming self and others Helpless, worthless Overwhelming guilt, shame, self-hatred Pervasive sadness Persistent anxiety or anger b. Action or event Drug or alcohol abuse Themes of death or destruction in talk or written materials

Nightmares Loss of family member or close friend Loss of job, money, status, self-esteem Parents' divorce or separation Pregnancy, abortion, or legal arrest Agitation, restlessness Loss of reliable faith Aggression, recklessness c. Change in personality: more withdrawn, tired, apathetic, indecisive, or more boisterous, talkative, out-going in behaviour: unable to concentrate on school, work, routine tasks in sleep pattern: over-sleeping, insomnia, sometimes waking early in eating habits: loss of appetite and weight, or over-eating loss of interest in friends, hobbies, personal grooming, sex, or other activities previously enjoyed sudden improvement after a period of being depressed or withdrawn d. Threats Statements like, How long does it take to bleed to death? Threats like, I wont be around much longer Plans, for instance, putting affairs in order, giving away favourite things, studying drug effects, obtaining a weapon Gestures or attempts, for example, over-doses, wrist-cutting. Preventing Suicide A school-based programme which addresses adolescent suicide should include the following: a. Talk to the person about his/her suicidal thoughts, so that he/she can bring feelings out into the open. b. Provide mental buffers for suicidal young people. This includes giving clear, immediate options, or alternatives, including positive and continuously available support which is always available to them. c. Increase the effectiveness of those who come into contact with suicidal young people. This means that students, members of staff, and parents, must know the warning signs and how to respond, make professional support immediately available. d. Provide positive support for those who attempt suicide, as well as the next of kin, and other members of the community, of those who commit suicide. e. Do as much as possible to relieve the pressures that seem so intolerable to those who attempt suicide, whether that means calling a former boyfriend or girlfriend, lending money, or interceding with an employer. In a personal and social guidance programme, the immediate goal is to establish a school-based expertise, backed by local providers who can respond to adolescent suicidal behaviour. The objectives of such a programme are to enable: a. persons who may come into contact with potentially suicidal adolescents, to identify them more readily, know how to respond to them, and how to refer them rapidly for additional help;

b. troubled adolescents become aware of, and have immediate access to, help so that they may be more inclined to seek it as an alternative to suicidal behaviour. Transition: The following are the last two common problems experienced by young people: difficulty in making decisions and solving problems, and inability to set a goal in life. 10. Difficulty in Making Decisions and Solving Problems To counteract this problem, it is important that students learn skills in decisionmaking and problem solving. It is also important for them to have a knowledge of power relations. 11. Inability to Set a Goal in Life A client comes for counselling to avoid future maladjustment, gain relief or success and avoid pressure, punishment, or failure. For example, a student may seek help to be able to study more effectively, or to overcome certain fears and anxieties. The goal is to effect a change in behaviour that will enable the student to live a more productive, satisfying, life within the limitations of society. Alternatively, the goal is the attainment of positive mental health. However, the setting of goals does not always work, because the student may be confused, or may face too many problems. This explains why goal-setting skills are important. Many students lack goal-setting skills. This is partly because the school curriculum does not provide them with enough opportunities and experience to facilitate their acquisition. Secondly, the world is ever-changing and more complex than before. There is also a great deal of uncertainty about the future. Many students are not sure whether what they would like to focus on in the future would still be valid by the time they finish school. They may also lack sufficient information on how to deal with realities. It is sometimes a lack of information on how to deal with problems that may cause anxiety and stress in students. Limited guidance, and a lack of empowerment, may also contribute to student failure to adjust to an ever-changing society and the life of today. Transition: Apart from helping students with the common problems they usually encounter, counsellors should also consider the recreation of the students. It is time for counsellors to start helping students plan their recreation as well as work. Counsellors should recognize the importance of recreation.

6. PARENTS INVOLVEMENT IN THE GUIDANCE PROGRAMME:

For the effective provision of guidance services, guidance counsellors should aim at facilitating and/or developing regular and effective communication between parents and teachers. It is through such regular and effective communication that the guidance programme can achieve its goal of serving the interests of boys and girls. Various media can be used to effect communication between teachers and parents. Among them are newsletters, parent-teacher meetings, letters, parents meetings, prize-giving/open day ceremonies, parents days, etc. There is a need to develop a sense of partnership between parents and teachers.

This can only be done through regular contacts between them. The guidance counsellor should, therefore, facilitate the process of creating a welcoming, friendly, purposeful atmosphere, which promotes contacts between parents and teachers. Parents should cooperate with teachers, especially the guidance counsellors, in helping the child develop his/her potential, as well as overcome his/her problems. Parents should provide guidance counsellors with background information (about the child), which is necessary to facilitate growth and assist teachers to help children make academic and career decisions based on accurate information. This is to avoid raising false hopes. This information could include the childs health, developmental concerns, family background, and other data that can be useful in assisting the child. This information should be filed and kept confidentially in the guidance counsellors office. In addition to providing background information on the child, parents need to help analyze their childrens strengths and limitations. Parents should also work with teachers in developing the right attitudes in children. Guidance counsellors should engage parents as resource persons during career fairs, career talks, guidance seminars for boys and girls, and other activities such as open days and prize-giving ceremonies. Parents could also participate in cultural activities such as traditional dancing and other related performances. Parents participation in these activities at school will make them feel they are part of the school. In addition, parents will feel welcome and appreciate that their knowledge and expertise is recognized by the school.

7 . Evaluation of Guidance and Counseling Programs

Evaluation consists of making systematic judgments of the relative effectiveness with which goals are attained in relation to specified standards. In evaluating a function like guidance and counseling services, we attempt to determine to what extent the objectives of the service have been attained. The major objectives of guidance are to assist individuals to develop the ability to understand themselves, to solve their own problems, and to make appropriate adjustments to their environment as the situation dictates (Gibson, 2008). Evaluation is the means by which school personnel can better judge the extent to which these objectives are being met (Popham, 2010). The ten characteristics cited following provide criteria for evaluating the effectiveness of a school's guidance and counseling services (Cobia, 2007; Dimmitt, Carey, & Hatch, 2007; Gysbers, 2006). Pupil Needs Effective guidance programs are based on pupil needs. Some needs are typical among pupils of a given age; others are specific to certain individuals in particular regions or schools. In effective guidance programs, teachers, counselors, and administrators listen carefully to what pupils say, because they know they are expressing either personal or situational inadequacies. FRED C.
LUNENBURG

Cooperation The staff of effective guidance programs works cooperatively. Cooperation is exhibited in the degree of active interest, mutual help, and collaboration among teachers, counselors, and administrators. Process and Product Effective guidance programs are concerned with both process and product. The questions "How well is the program operating?" and "What are the outcomes?" guide the focus in effective guidance programs. The most important outcome of a guidance program is desirable change in the behavior of students, such as improved school attendance, better study habits, better scholastic achievement,

fewer scholastic failures, lower dropout rate, better educational planning, and better home-school relations. Balance Effective guidance programs balance corrective, preventive, and developmental functions. Personnel in such programs know when to extricate pupils from potentially harmful situations, when to anticipate pupil difficulties, and when to provide assistance necessary to a pupil's maximum development. Stability The ability to adjust to loss of personnel without loss of effectiveness is associated with program quality. Stability requires that the system is able to fill vacant positions quickly and satisfactorily. Flexibility Effective guidance programs manifest flexibility. Flexibility enables the program to expand or contract as the situation demands without significant loss of effectiveness. Qualified Counselors Counselors hold a graduate degree in counseling and are fully certified by the state in which they practice. Adequate Counselor-Student Ratio Most accrediting agencies (Southern Association, North Central Association, for example) require a counselor-student ratio of one full-time counselor for 250 to 300 students. A caseload of this magnitude is satisfactory if counselors are to have adequate time to counsel students individually and in small groups, as well as consult with faculty, administrators, and parents. Physical Facilities Are the facilities for guidance work sufficient for an effective program? Physical facilities that are well planned and provide for adequate space, privacy, accessibility, and the like are characteristic of quality guidance programs. Records Appropriate records are maintained on each student including achievement test scores, information supplied by teachers, administrators, parents, employers, and other professional personnel.

Conclusion:
The primary school teachers could also use non-test devices to obtain information from pupils. Some of the non-test devices that can be used to complement test data are cumulative record folder, anecdotal record, observation record, socio-metric techniques and case conference. Primary school teachers are not expected to limit themselves to teaching alone, but to also assist in emotional and physical developments of the pupils. Thus, there is need for continuous learning and skill acquisition in different areas of education. These areas of necessity include expertise in Guidance and counseling test administration, interpretation and usage.Guidance and counseling services play an integral part in the overall student services department of any elementary or

secondary school. The aims of guidance and counseling programs in schools are to assist individuals to develop the ability to understand themselves, to solve their own problems, and to make appropriate adjustments to their environment. Major guidance services include student appraisal, information giving, placement and follow-up, and counseling. Broadly conceived, two methods of counseling include directive and nondirective approaches. On the one hand, directive counseling focuses attention on identifying and analyzing the problem and finding an appropriate solution to it using all available data. Nondirective counseling, on the other hand, provides the counselee not with a neat solution, but instead with the ability to meet her problem in a constructive way. Ten criteria are used in evaluating guidance and counseling programs: student needs, cooperation, process and product, balance, stability, flexibility, quality counselors, adequate counselor-student ratio, adequate physical facilities, and appropriate record keeping.

REFERENCE Reference books:

BOOKS:

Adediran, S.A (1995). Handbook of Guidance and Counseling Ado Ekiti. Hope books publishing. Federal republic of Nigeria (1981, 2004) National policy on education, Lagos: federal Ministry of Education. Ogunsannmi. J.O. (2001). The place of guidance and counselling in primary schools in Nigeria in the new millennium. Basic issues in and secondary education. Lagos : prospect publications. Ogunsanmi, J.O. [2004]. Incorporation computer education into guidance and counselling practices in schools, The Nigeria Journal of guidance and counseling, 9[1] 25-36. Okeke, B.A & Ani, Z.N [Editors] [2006]. Guidance and Counselling for Primary Schools: A guide for counsellors. Enugu: Rhyce Kerex Publishers. Owoeye, M.O. [2008]. Factors affecting childrens academic pursuit in Osun State, Nigeria, Published Conference Proceedings of the counselling Association of Nigeria. Thompson, C.L., Rudolph, L.B & Henderson, D.A. (2004) Counselling Children. U.S.A: Books Cole Thompson Learning.

WEBSITE REFERENCE:
http://www.ehow.com/info_7928499_guidance-services-secondary-schools.html#ixzz1qhhZ9jt8 http://www.ehow.com/about_6584620_career-guidance-secondaryschools.html#ixzz1qhi4USXz http://www.smcdsb.on.ca/cms/One.aspx?portalId=36&pageId=1636 http://www.lcps.k12.nm.us/departments/Instruction/Counseling.shtml