Coordinating Conjunctions The short, simple conjunctions are called "coordinating conjunctions": and, but, or, nor, for,

, yet, so A coordinating conjunction joins parts of a sentence (for example words or independent clauses) that are grammatically equal or similar. A coordinating conjunction shows that the elements it joins are similar in importance and structure: Look at these examples - the two elements that the coordinating conjunction joins are shown in square brackets [ ]:

I like [tea] and [coffee]. [Ram likes tea], but [Anthony likes coffee].
Coordinating conjunctions always come between the words or clauses that they join. When a coordinating conjunction joins independent clauses, it is always correct to place a comma before the conjunction:

I want to work as an interpreter in the future, so I am studying Russian at university.

However, if the independent clauses are short and well-balanced, a comma is not really essential:

She is kind so she helps people.

When "and" is used with the last word of a list, a comma is optional:

He drinks beer, whisky, wine, and rum. He drinks beer, whisky, wine and rum.
The 7 coordinating conjunctions are short, simple words. They have only two or three letters. There's an easy way to remember them - their initials spell: F For A And N Nor B But O Or Y Yet S So

Subordinating Conjunctions The majority of conjunctions are "subordinating conjunctions". Common subordinating conjunctions are: after, although, as, because, before, how, if, once, since, than, that, though, till, until, when, where, whether, while A subordinating conjunction joins a subordinate (dependent) clause to a main (independent) clause: Look at this example: main or independent clause Ram went swimming subordinate or dependent clause although subordinating conjunction A subordinate or dependent clause "depends" on a main or independent clause. It cannot exist alone. Imagine that somebody says to you: "Hello! Although it was raining." What do you understand? Nothing! But a main or independent clause can exist alone. You will understand very well if somebody says to you: "Hello! Ram went swimming." A subordinating conjunction always comes at the beginning of a subordinate clause. It "introduces" a subordinate clause. However, a subordinate clause can sometimes come after and sometimes before a main clause. Thus, two structures are possible: Ram went swimming although it was raining. it was raining.

Although it was raining, Ram went swimming. Passive Voice The passive voice is less usual than the active voice. The active voice is the "normal" voice. But sometimes we need the passive voice. In this lesson we look at how to construct the passive voice, when to use it and how to conjugate it. Construction of the Passive Voice The structure of the passive voice is very simple: subject + auxiliary verb (be) + main verb (past participle) The main verb is always in its past participle form. Look at these examples: subject Water 100 people I We Are auxiliary verb (to be) is are am are they not main verb (past participle) drunk employed paid paid paid by everyone. by this company. in euro. in dollars. in yen?

Use of the Passive Voice We use the passive when:

we want to make the active object more important we do not know the active subject
subject give importance to active object (President Kennedy) active subject unknown Look at this sentence: President Kennedy My wallet verb was killed has been stolen. object by Lee Harvey Oswald. ?

Note that we always use by to introduce the passive object (Fish are eaten by cats).

He was killed with a gun.

Normally we use by to introduce the passive object. But the gun is not the active subject. The gun did not kill him. He was killed by somebody with a gun. In the active voice, it would be: Somebody killed him with a gun. The gun is the instrument. Somebody is the "agent" or "doer". Conjugation for the Passive Voice We can form the passive in any tense. In fact, conjugation of verbs in the passive tense is rather easy, as the main verb is always in past participle form and the auxiliary verb is always be. To form the required tense, we conjugate the auxiliary verb. So, for example:

present simple: It is made present continuous: It is being made

 present perfect: It has been made

Here are some examples with most of the possible tenses: infinitive present past simple future conditional present past continuous future conditional present past perfect simple future conditional perfect continuous present past future conditional Collocations What is a collocation? A collocation is two or more words that often go together. These combinations just sound "right" to native English speakers, who use them all the time. On the other hand, other combinations may be unnatural and just sound "wrong". Look at these examples: Natural English... the fast train fast food a quick shower a quick meal Unnatural English... the quick train quick food a fast shower a fast meal It will have been washed. It would have been washed. It has been being washed. It had been being washed. It will have been being washed. It would have been being washed. It will be being washed. It would be being washed. It has been washed. It had been washed. It will be washed. It would be washed. It is being washed. It was being washed. to be washed It is washed. It was washed.

Why learn collocations? Your language will be more natural and more easily understood. You will have alternative and richer ways of expressing yourself. It is easier for our brains to remember and use language in chunks or blocks rather than as single words.

How to learn collocations

Be aware of collocations, and try to recognize them when you see or hear them. Treat collocations as single blocks of language. Think of them as individual blocks or chunks, and learn strongly
support, not strongly + support.

When you learn a new word, write down other words that collocate with it (remember rightly, remember distinctly,

remember vaguely, remember vividly). Read as much as possible. Reading is an excellent way to learn vocabulary and collocations in context and naturally. Revise what you learn regularly. Practise using new collocations in context as soon as possible after learning them. Learn collocations in groups that work for you. You could learn them by topic (time, number, weather, money, family) or by a particular word (take action, take a chance, take an exam). You can find information on collocations in any good learner's dictionary. And you can also find specialized dictionaries of collocations. Types of Collocation There are several different types of collocation made from combinations of verb, noun, adjective etc. Some of the most common types are:

Adverb + Adjective: completely satisfied (NOT downright satisfied) Adjective + Noun: excruciating pain (NOT excruciating joy) Noun + Noun: a surge of anger (NOT a rush of anger) Noun + Verb: lions roar (NOT lions shout) Verb + Noun: commit suicide (NOT undertake suicide) Verb + Expression With Preposition: burst into tears (NOT blow up in tears) Verb + Adverb: wave frantically (NOT wave feverishly)

Sample Collocations There are several different types of collocation. Collocations can be adjective + adverb, noun + noun, verb + noun and so on. Below you can see seven main types of collocation in sample sentences. 1. adverb + adjective

Invading that country was an utterly stupid thing to do. We entered a richly decorated room. Are you fully aware of the implications of your action?
2. adjective + noun

The doctor ordered him to take regular exercise. The Titanic sank on its maiden voyage. He was writhing on the ground in excruciating pain.
3. noun + noun

Let's give Mr Jones a round of applause. The ceasefire agreement came into effect at 11am. I'd like to buy two bars of soap please.
4. noun + verb

The lion started to roar when it heard the dog barking. Snow was falling as our plane took off. The bomb went off when he started the car engine.

5. verb + noun

The prisoner was hanged for committing murder. I always try to do my homework in the morning, after making my bed. He has been asked to give a presentation about his work.
6. verb + expression with preposition

We had to return home because we had run out of money. At first her eyes filled with horror, and then she burst into tears. Their behaviour was enough to drive anybody to crime.
7. verb + adverb

She placed her keys gently on the table and sat down. Mary whispered softly in John's ear. I vaguely remember that it was growing dark when we left.
Infinitives Infinitives are one of the three groups of non-finite verbs (also called verbals), the others being gerunds and participles. We shall look at this particular type of verb from three angles:

1. how it looks (its form or morphology); 2. what work it does in a sentence (its function or syntax); and 3. its meaning (or semantics).
How Can You Recognize an Infinitive? We can recognize it from its form, which is usually as follows: to eat, to drink, to play, to be, etc. (with a 'to' before it). In some cases the word 'to' is dropped. We speak of such a verb (with the word 'to' dropped) as a bare infinitive. The bare infinitive is the standard form of an English verb. What Work Does an Infinitive Do? If we look at the function, that is, the work it does in a sentence, we may consider it to be both a noun and a verb. The Infinitive As Noun and Verb Here is an example: I like to finish the work quickly. In this sentence the phrase to finish does the following jobs:

It is the object of the finite verb like - therefore to finish is similar to a noun (because being an object is a noun's

job). The phrase to finish has its own object, work - so to finish is a verb (since verbs have objects). The adverb quickly modifies (i.e. tells us something more about) to finish. Since the phrase to finish is modifiable by an adverb, it must be a verb.

We can say that the infinitive, though born in the verb family, does not limit itself to being a verb. It often behaves like a noun when it goes around socializing in the world of sentences!

The Infinitive As Adjective or Adverb In some cases...

It behaves even like an adjective, as in the following sentence.

That was a game to watch! In this sentence, to watch tells us something more about the quality of the game (a noun). Describing a noun is the work of an adjective.

Sometimes it behaves like an adverb. The sentence below illustrates this.

Her voice is pleasant to hear. The phrase to hear tells us something more about the quality of being pleasant. The word pleasant is an adjective, and words that tell us more about an adjective (adjective modifiers) are traditionally called adverbs. The Infinitive and Meaning. If we take the meaning (semantics), then the infinitive could be viewed as a pure, unadulterated form of a verb. This pure meaning we modify, change, or mutate, by imposing on it such things as tense, modality, voice, etc. The infinitive in itself (semantically) is a pure action word (to do, to write, etc) or a word denoting existence (to be).The Gerund A Gerund is a verbal or non-finite verb and is often referred to as a verbal noun. There are three kinds of non-finite verbs. The other two are the infinitive and the participle. The Morphology Of the Gerund It has an "-ing" ending. Please note that all verbs ending in "-ing" are not gerunds. Present participles also have the same form. They Syntax of the Gerund The Gerund does the work of a noun in a sentence. This means, it can be any one of the following:

1. The subject of a verb, as in the sentence... 2. 3. 4. 5.

Swimming is good exercise. The word swimming is the subject of the verb is. The object of a finite verb, as in... You enjoy learning a new language. The word learning is the object of the finite verb enjoy. The object of a non-finite verb... She intends to begin writing the story soon. The word writing is the object of to begin, an infinitive (i.e. a non-finite verb). The object of a preposition... He is interested in joining the group. The word joining is the object of the preposition in. The indirect object of a verb... She gave reading great importance in her life. The word reading is the indirect object of the verb gave.

All these functions which the Gerund is shown doing are usually those of a noun. Depending on the function, the grammatical case of the gerund will be nominative or accusative or genitive, etc. The Semantics of the Gerund You know that the noun is a name. The Gerund is also a name. It's the name of an activity.

In so far as it is an activity, it is a verb. In so far as it is a name, it is a noun.

Avoiding Confusion Sometimes, not only the morphology, but also the syntax may lead us to believe a word is a present participle. At such times semantics helps us to recognize a Gerund. Here are two examples:

walking stick - the word walking looks like an adjective describing stick...but it is not.
walking stick is not a stick which walks. It is a compressed form of "stick for walking". So walking is the object of the preposition for. So walking is a Gerund.

reading room - the phrase does not mean that the room reads. It is a compression of "a room for (the purpose of)
reading". So reading is a Gerund. Participles Common Errors in the Use of Participles When this page comes, it will help you to recognize and avoid errors like dangling participles. It will also deal with some related things which look errors, but aren't. Functions of the Past Participle Once you are able to recognize the Past Participle by its form, we can move on to its functions (i.e. the work it does in sentences). Some of its functions are similar to those of the Present Participle and some are different. Here are the functions along with examples: 1. Perfect Tenses In perfect tenses, the past participle is part of the finite verb phrase, as in... has sung had sung will have sung 2. Passive Voice In all the passive voice forms of finite verb phrases, the past participle is the main verb... is sung was sung will be sung is being sung was being sung has been sung had been sung will have been sung has been sung had been sung will have been sung

3. As Participial Adjectives Past participles too behave like adjectives (participial adjectives) in the same way as the present participles do... healed person written instructions trained teacher beaten path

risen sun fallen angels

4. Usually has an passive meaning, but can have an active meaning sometimes... In the four examples on the left column of the table above, please note:

the healed person is not doing the healing; the instructions are not doing the writing; the teacher is trained by somebody else; the path does not beat itself, people beat (create) the path by regularly walking there.

So each past participle in these examples has a passive meaning. But less frequently, you can find past participles with active meanings, as in the two examples in the right column above... risen sun, where the sun does the rising; fallen angels, where the angels fell. The verbs rise and fall, from which risen and fallen are formed, are both intransitive; so, rising and falling cannot be done to the sun or the angels. 5. Acts like a Verb Like the present participle, the past participle too can function as the head of a participial phrase. What we mean by this is that just like any verb, the past participle can have an object and can be modified by modifiers. See this example:

Lovingly taught English by her father, she eventually became a fine writer.
In this sentence, the word English is the object and the adverb lovingly modifies the past participle taught, which is the head of the participial phrase 'lovingly taught English by her father'. 6. Acts as an Adjective Like the present participle, the past participle shares the nature of an adjective, in that it can be modified by a degree modifier. Fully healed of his own bad memories, he went on to become an outstanding counsellor. In the participial phrase 'fully healed of his own bad memories', the past participle healedis modified by the degree modifier fully. The Use of the Past Participle The meaning which this participle conveys is of an action-based description, where the action is completed action.

risen sun - the rising activity of the sun is complete broken glass - the glass is not breaking at the moment of speaking; the breaking activity is complete before that.
Linking Verbs A linking verb implies a state of being or condition for the subject, not an action. It links the subject to an equivalent word in the sentence. [In the following examples, the linking verb is bold and the predicate nominative or predicate adjective is underlined.]

1. The test indicates that Sarah is a genius. 2.

1. The subject (SARAH) is linked to a noun that is, in a sense, standing in for her (GENIUS). Toni Morrison was the first African-American woman to win the Nobel Prize in Literature. 1. The subject (TONI MORRISON) is linked to a noun that is of equal weight in terms of description. (WOMAN).

A linking verb may connect the subject with a noun:

1. Roads were a slushy mess on Monday along parts of the East Coast.
1. ROADS is linked to MESS, which is equal in terms of description.

2. Smoking appeared to be the cause of the blaze.

1. SMOKING is linked to CAUSE, which restates the subject.

3. It was a sad day.

1. IT is linked to a noun DAY, which restates the subject. A linking verb may connect the subject with a pronoun:

1. The book could be his.

1. The subject (BOOK) is linked with the pronoun indicating its state of being (HIS).

2. The robbery victim pointed and yelled, "That is he."

1. THAT is linked with HE, which is equal in terms of description. A linking verb may connect the subject with an adjective:

1. The writer was proud of her efforts. 2.

1. The subject (WRITER) is linked with her state of being (PROUD). Before the show, Malik seemed nervous. 1. MALIK is linked with NERVOUS, which is equal in terms of description.

Although the modifiers following linking verbs may answer the question "what?" as a direct object does for a transitive verb, they do not receive any action.

1. In federal courts nowadays, every sentence is the same.

1. We can ask: Every sentence is what? and the answer is: THE SAME. But, the same is not receiving the action of the verb as with a transitive verb. SAME is restating or indicating the state of being of SENTENCE. Female inmates are the fastest-growing subpopulation in prison. 1. INMATES are what? Answer: SUBPOPULATION. But, the SUBPOPULATION is not being acted upon; it is restating or indicating the state of being of the WOMEN.

2.

Typically, linking verbs are a form of the verb TO BE: IS, WAS, AM, ARE, WERE, BEEN [In the following examples, the linking verb is bold and the modifier is underlined.]

1. The crew's mission is to create the best topographic map of Earth. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

1. The subject is MISSION. The linking verb is IS, and the descriptorin this case a predicate nominative is TO CREATE. The solution was judges who would mete out longer prison sentences. 1. The subject is SOLUTION. The linking verb is WAS, and the descriptorin this case a predicate nominativeis JUDGES. Leonardo said, "I am the king of the world." 1. The subject is I. The linking verb is AM, and the descriptorin this case a predicate nominativeis KING. The number of minor children with one or both parents behind bars is 1.5 million. 1. The subject is NUMBER. The linking verb is IS, and the descriptorin this case a predicate adjectiveis 1.5 MILLION. Law-abiding Americans were far less safe in 1980 than in 1960. 1. The subject is AMERICANS. The linking verb is WERE, and the descriptorin this case a predicate adjectiveis SAFE. Some see this as a societal commitment to imprisonment on a scale that would have been unthinkable a quarter of a century ago in this, or any other, country. 1. The subject is THAT. The linking verb is WOULD HAVE BEEN, and the descriptorin this case a predicate adjectiveis UNTHINKABLE

BUT, the verb "to be" does not always mean a linking verb. Forms of the verb TO BE can act as auxiliary verbs for transitive, intransitive and linking verb. The auxiliary verb is not linking but rather helping the main verb. [In the following examples, the auxiliary verb is bold and the lexical verb is underlined.]

1. Juvenile crime has been plummeting since 1995.

1. auxiliary verb to the lexical verb plummeting (intransitive verb)

2. Nyoko was crossing a bridge when the earthquake hit. 3.

1. auxiliary verb to the lexical verb crossing. (transitive verb) Margaret Ann was feeling tired. 1. auxiliary verb to the lexical verb feeling. (linking verb)

The verb TO BE can act as an intransitive verb when what follows it indicates location rather than state of being. This intransitive form of the verb TO BE is easily identified by the prepositional phrase that follows it.

1. Changes in the criminal statutes are behind the staggering increase in the incarceration rate
1. BEHIND signifies location, not state of being. Therefore, the verb is intransitive.

2. Professor Freelove has been in a coma since the car accident 3.

1. IN A COMA indicates a location, not state of being. Although COMATOSE is a state of being, being IN A COMA is not. Therefore, the verb is intransitive. Lucia's books are on the refrigerator 1. ON THE REFRIGERATOR indicates a location, not state of being. Therefore, the verb is intransitive.

The verb TO BE is not a linking verb when it acts as part of a verb presented in passive voice. It is part of a transitive verb.

1. When Clinton was elected president, some groups had high hopes he would champion their cause. 2.
1. ELECTED is the main verb. It is weakened by the use of WAS and the failure to make a subject do the action, but WAS is not a linking verb. It is part of a transitive verb. Umberto is coached by a former Olympic champion. 1. COACHED is the main verb. It is weakened by the use of IS and by not making the mysterious champion coach Umberto. Still IS is part of a transitive verb

Other common linking verbs: APPEAR, BECOME, FEEL, GET, GROW, SIT, LOOK, PROVE, REMAIN, SEEM, SMELL, SOUND, TASTE, TURN.

1. Even with the nomination out of reach, he appears unwilling to concede.

1. Nothing is appearing as in: The ghost appeared from behind the piano. APPEARS simply links HE with his state of being, UNWILLING. 2. Liberals became indistinguishable from conservatives on the issue. 1. There is no real action in BECAME. To test this, replace BECAME with the correct form of the verb TO BE: WERE. The sentence meaning is virtually unchanged. 3. He feels certain that any mandatory minimum needs an escape clause. 1. The subject is not engaged in the action of feeling as in: He felt the wall looking for a light switch. FEELS links HE and his state of being: CERTAIN. 4. "We got tough on crime," he said. 1. Once again GOT is not an action as in: He got the kite out of the tree. To test this, replace GOT with WERE. The sentence meaning is unchanged. 5. He grew discouraged with the number of low-level drug offenders doing 15- and 20-year stretches. 1. The subject is not engaged in the action of growing as in: She grew a garden. GREW links HE with his state of being DISCOURAGED. 6. Proactive policing entails rousting people who look suspicious. 1. The subject is not engaged in the action of looking as in: The people looked through the hole in the fence. LOOK links WHO (people) and their state of being: SUSPICIOUS. 7. If an approach proves faulty, laws can be changed. 1. There is no real action in PROVES. To test this, replace PROVES with the correct form of the verb TO BE: IS. The sentence meaning is virtually unchanged. 8. The chairman remains confused about how to vote on these policies. 1. Nothing is happening either physically or intellectually. REMAINS simply links HE with his state of being: CONFUSED. 9. In the current contentious climate, the political system seems locked in place. 1. There is no real action in SEEMS. To test this, replace SEEMS with the correct form of the verb TO BE: IS. The sentence meaning is virtually unchanged. 10. If you leave that spoiled meat on the counter, the room will smell terrible. 1. The subject is not engaged in the action of smelling as in: Allyson smelled the milk. SMELL links ROOM

11.

12.

and a state of being: TERRIBLE. For decades Democrats have sounded more concerned about criminals than victims. 1. The subject is not engaged in the action of sounding as in: The sentry sounded the alarm. To test this, replace SOUNDED with the correct form of the verb TO BE: BEEN. The sentence meaning is virtually unchanged. Shari doesn't like anything that tastes spicy. 1. The subject is not engaged in the action of tasting as in: The child tasted the ice cream. To test this, replace TASTES with the correct form of the verb TO BE: IS. The sentence meaning is virtually unchanged

Many verbs may be linking, transitive or intransitive depending on their function.

1. LINKING: The nation's mood turned sour.

1. The subject is not engaged in an action. TURNED links MOOD and a state of being: SOUR.

2. TRANSITIVE: The judge turned the pages quickly.

1. The subject was engaged in an action (TURNED) and that action transferred to an object (PAGES).

3. INTRANSITIVE: The lawyer turned suddenly toward the back of the courtroom.
1. The subject was engaged in an action (TURNED) and that action was done in a particular way (SUDDENLY) but not to someone or something Auxiliary Verbs An auxiliary (also called helping) verb serves to give additional meaning to the main or lexical verb following it. If you are doing things correctly, every clause you use has a verb. That clause MUST have a lexical verb and it MAY have one or more auxiliary verbs.

1. Seiji enjoys Legos. One lexical verb; no auxiliary verb. 2. Seiji has enjoyed Legos. One lexical verb; one auxiliary verb. 3. Seiji has been enjoying Legos. One lexical verb; two auxiliary verbs.
[In the following examples, the auxiliary verb is underlined and the lexical verb is bold.] Common Auxiliary Verbs TO BE: is, am, are, was, were, been Some verbs, such as TO BE, can act either as auxiliary or lexical verbs,

1. Brett is walking to school. 2. Brett is a student.

In the case of TO BE, it is sometimes hard to determine whether it is auxiliary or not. The cocktail was chilled. This sentence could mean that someone chilled the cocktail, so WAS would be an auxiliary verb to the lexical verb CHILLED. (It is worth noting, that if this is the meaning. then the sentence has been constructed in passive voice, which is in general a weaker construction.

1. This sentence could also mean that the cocktail was cold, in which case WAS is a linking verb. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
The commission is using stocks to purchase development rights. The agencies are restricting logging and road building in the forests. Brill was lagging in the polls behind Richards. The agencies were completing the inventories. Moskowitz has been offered a similar project. 1. Passive voice. Better written as SOMEONE offered Moskowitz...

TO DO: do, did, does

1. Volunteers do spend their weekends mapping the nation's forests. 2. Clinton did agree to ban logging on 40 million acres.

3. Time does run out for these wild lands.

TO HAVE: has, had, have TO HAVE is another one of those verbs that can be auxiliary or lexical.

1. She has played softball for years. 2. She has a softball in her backpack.
Unlike TO BE, it is rarely hard to determine whether it is auxiliary or not.

1. Brent has planned this party down to the last detail. 2. The governor had exhausted all of the options. 3. Someone should have predicted these complications.
SHALL, WILL, MAY, CAN, SHOULD, COULD, WOULD

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

This portion will not be eligible for protection under the 1964 Wilderness Act. The Clinton Administration may try to make the most of public support for preserving open space. Only Congress can formally protect lands under the Wilderness Act. They should limit its real estate holdings. Preservation could become one of Clinton's most significant accomplishments. The legislation would provide guaranteed funding.

Lexical Verbs A lexical verb is the main verb of the sentence. All verbs include a lexical verb. As noted in the discussion of the structure of verbs, we can get into all sorts of discussion about just what a "lexical" verb is, but definitions really don't do writers much good. Rules for use do. So, for our purposes, the lexical verb is the part of the verb that most of us think of as the verb. The action. (Or in the case of a linking verb, the non-action.) Think of the lexical verb as the main action the subject is engaged in. A lexical verb does not require an auxiliary verb, but an auxiliary verb exists only to help a lexical verb. It cannot exist alone. [In the following examples, the auxiliary verb is underlined and the lexical verb is bold.]

1. Susan Raymond rested in the shadow of a canyon oak tree. 2.

1. Susan's action, which occurred in the past, is RESTED. RESTED is the lexical verb and has no auxiliary verb Tim was organizing the award dinner last week. 1. Tim's action, which occurred in the past, is ORGANIZING. ORGANIZING is the lexical verb and WAS acts as its helper.

1. Every Friday this year, Gloria has taken her dog to obedience training.
1. Gloria's action, TAKEN, is the lexical verb and HAS is auxiliary.

1. Taking any chance to avoid work, Carton will pretend to be asleep. 1. Carlton's action, which will occur in the future, is PRETEND. PRETEND is the lexical verb and
WILL is the auxiliary verb. Do not be tricked by TAKING. It is not a verb. It is a participle.

1. Ellen Castro will be attending the movie premiere this evening.

1. ATTENDING is Ellen Castro's main action. The other parts of the verb (WILL BE) simply help out.

1. Alfred should give his jacket to someone who will wear it. 2.
1. Alfred's action, which is conditional, is GIVE. GIVE is the lexical verb and SHOULD helps it and is auxiliary. The barber has been giving that man a haircut every month for 30 years. 1. The barber's action, which has continued to occur over time, is GIVING. GIVING is the lexical verb. HAS

and BEEN help it and are auxiliary. Linking verbs (those indicating a state of being rather than an action) can include lexical and auxiliary verbs.

1. Danny Lee is not a member of the legal team. 1. Danny is not engaged in an action. He is simply BEING. The lexical verb IS has no auxiliary verb. 2. If he pleads guilty, the prosecutors will be surprised. 3.
1. The prosecutors are not engaged in an action. The complete verb WILL BE links them to their state of being. BE is the lexical verb and WILL helps. It is the auxiliary. The actress has felt nervous since she was chosen for the part. 1. The actress is not engaged in an action. The complete verb HAS FELT links her to NERVOUS. FELT is the lexical verb and HAS helps it and is auxiliary.

Conciseness Make your words count. Don't muddy your writing with jargon, unclear construction and repetition. REDUNDANCIES AND WORDINESS

Mutual cooperation Completely destroyed Could care less consensus of opinion refer back

cooperation destroyed couldn't care less consensus refer

INTENSIFIERS

thinking to myself needless to say

thinking then why say it?

at the present now time despite the fact although that

Avoid overused intensifiers such as: Very, Really, Truly, So, Completely, Totally, Positively, Perfectly. Re-write for conciseness and description. For example: very hungry really tired perfectly happy so silly truly angry SENTENCE FRAGMENT: A group of words lacking one or more of the following: a subject, a predicate, a complete thought (e.g, a dependent clause). famished exhausted content ridiculous irate

1. Although he passed the test. 2. "Now his concern is to be a normally functioning human being again. Without the headaches, dizziness, memory
loss and lethargy that have been part of his life for too long." RUN-ON SENTENCE: Lacks proper punctuation e.g, Comma Splice: 1. The professor dismissed the class, the students cheered. Options to fix run-ons: 1) Create two sentences 2) Use a semi-colon 3) Use a coordinating conjunction OVERSUBORDINATED SENTENCE:

Caused by several dependent clauses or one long dependent clause at the start of a sentence. Problem: delays main idea. 1. Even though I felt sick and discouraged at the thought of taking the exam, I passed the LSDT. PASSIVE & ACTIVE VOICE The "VOICE" of a sentence indicates the form of the verb. PASSIVE VOICE: The subject is acted upon by the verb. 1. The test was passed by the student. 2. The meeting was led by the president. 3. The play was canceled. ACTIVE VOICE: The subject is performing an action. Think: Subject-Verb-Object 1. The student passed the test. 2. The president led the meeting. 3. The director canceled the play. NOTE: Use of the verb to be (e.g., is, was) does not necessarily mean the passive voice. 1. She was managing the store. (active) 2. The store was managed by her. (passive) 3. She was tired. (indicative) TIP: Avoid unnecessary introductory phrases and clauses 1. It has been shown by numerous studies that studying improves your chances of passing the LSDT. 2. Numerous studies have shown that studying improves your chances of passing the LSDT. CORRECTING PASSIVE VOICE: 1. Find the verb in the sentence 2. Ask who or what is performing the action. 3. Construct the sentence to that the "actor" (subject) performs the action. Our conclusion was ignored by the committee. 1. Verb: ignored 2. Actor: committee Re-write: The committee ignored our conclusions.

2.

The infant was rescued from the blaze by his mother. 1. Verb: rescued 2. Actor: mother 2. Re-write: The infant's mother rescued him from the blaze. 3. If we write it: His mother rescued the infant from the blaze. "His" is unclear as a pronoun reference. WHEN PASSIVE VOICE IS JUSTIFIED: The recipient of the action is more important (prominent) than the performer of the action. 1. President Clinton was heckled by an unidentified comedian posing as a journalist. The actor or performer of the action is unknown, difficult to identify or irrelevant. 1. The gift was damaged during shipping. 1. NOTE: In this case, the indicative mood (was) is used to state merely a condition or realistic explanation, not an implausible situation. PARALLEL STRUCTURE (PARALLELISM): Don't mix elements in a phrase or series. 1. He enjoys books, movies and driving his car. (NO 2. He enjoys reading books, watching movies and driving his car. (YES) Don't mix verbals (e.g., gerunds and infinitives).

1. He believes in using force and then to resort to diplomacy only if all else fails. (NO) 2. He believes in using force and then resorting to diplomacy only if all else fails. (YES) Don't mix tenses or voice. 1. Workers who were consulted regularly feel more committed to the company and had lower rates of absenteeism. (NO) 2. Workers who are consulted regularly feel more committed to the company and have lower rates of absenteeism. (NO) Don't mix singular and plural subjects. 1. One should study; students should know that. (NO) 2. Students should know that they should study. (YES) Don't use a dependent clause inappropriately. 1. The professor explained the theory of relativity, Newtonian Physics and that critical thinking is at the heart of scientific study. (NO) 2. The professor explained the theory of relativity, Newtonian physics and the importance of critical thinking in scientific study. (YES) Be consistent with grammatical patterns in a sentence (e.g., verb-adjective-noun pattern of three phrases) 1. He vowed to decrease federal taxes, increase social services and strengthen foreign relations. Clarity As writers, our words are our tools. Therefore, with every word, phrase, clause and sentence we write, we should be asking, "Is this the right tool for the job?" Is the way we have written a sentence the clearest, most concise way to express what we are trying to say? There are several danger zones to be mindful of as we are writing for clarity, conciseness and coherence. WORD CHOICE: The words we choose should communicate just what we mean to communicate--nothing more; nothing less. As noted in "When Words Collide," choosing the correct verb is a matter of grammar; but choosing the right verb is a matter of conciseness and clarity. Avoid UP

1. Bob appointed his uncle to head up the committee. 1. Bob appointed his uncle to head the committee. 2. The negligent father finally faced up to his responsibilities. 1. The negligent father finally faced his responsibilities. 3. His incessant questions only served to slow up the meeting. 1. His incessant questions only served to slow the meeting.
Avoid those verbs requiring "up" to complete their meaning. These verbs are not wrong; but they are weak.

1. She suspected the student was making up the excuse. 1. She suspected the student was fabricating the excuse. 2. Business has been picking up since the street opened. 1. Business has improved since the street opened.
"VERBIZING NOUNS" Adding the suffix "-ize" to any noun is usually unnecessary, and it often serves to confuse the reader. Nonetheless, some "ize" words are useful and provide a particular meaning. Before tacking "-ize" onto a noun, subject it to these three tests. 1. Is it listed in the dictionary as an acceptable word? 2. Does it have a unique meaning? (e.g. pasteurize)

3. Does it have a sound that it not displeasing? THAT That serves a range of grammatical functions.

1. 2. 3. 4.

Adjective: That man is going to fall off of his bike. Demonstrative pronoun: That is the last thing he will do. Relative pronoun: Harvard is the university that he wants to attend. Conjunction: My brother admitted that he is always wrong.

As a pronoun & conjunction, that can often be eliminated. 1. My brother admitted he is always wrong. 2. Harvard is the university he wants to attend. Other times removing that requires a sentence be re-written. 1. She treasured the boat that was built by her father. 2. She treasured the boat her father built. To determine if that is necessary, ask these two questions:

1. 1. Can that be eliminated with no change in the meaning of the sentence? 2. 2. Can the clause introduced by that be expressed more concisely?
MISPLACED WORDS A modifier must point directly and clearly to what it modifies. Place the modifier next to or as close as possible to what it is modifying. Problem modifiers: only, nearly, almost, just, scarcely, even, hardly and merely. ONLY 1. Only the coach lead the team to victory. 1. No one else can lead them. 2. The coach can only lead the team to victory. 1. The coach can't do anything more than lead them. 3. The coach can lead only the team to victory. 1. The coach can't lead anyone else. 4. Just the swimmer missed her chance to compete in the race. 1. No one else missed a chance. JUST 1. The swimmer just missed her chance to compete in the race. 1. The swimmer barely or recently missed her chance 2. The swimmer missed her chance just to compete in the race. 1. The swimmer missed her chance simply to compete. 3. The swimmer missed her chance to compete in just the race. 1. The swimmer missed only once chance to compete: the race. Or she missed the chance to limit her competing to one event: the race. MISPLACED MODIFIERS Phrases and clauses should also be placed next to or near what they modify. 1. Several of the children were confused by math in the class. 2. Rising to their feet, the fight song roared from the fans. 3. Joe found a twenty-dollar bill walking home.

DANGLING MODIFIERS A modifier "dangles" when what it is supposed to modify is not part of the sentence. 1. Before going on vacation, the bills need to be paid. 2. After cutting the grass, the garden was weeded. SPLITTING AUXILIARY AND MAIN VERBS AND SPLITTING INFINITIVES Split verbs lead to incoherence. In most cases, it is best to keep auxiliary verbs next to the main verb and to avoid splitting infinitives. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. The students who have been, for more than a week, waiting for tickets were disappointed with the news. The burglar was, as far as the detectives could determine, hiding somewhere in the building. Splitting infinitives, though common practice is grammatically incorrect and makes for sloppy writing. For the information to truly be valuable, he will need to verify the source. Sally intended to fully explain the proposal, but she missed the meeting.

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD A mood of the verb (to be) that expresses a condition or supposition that is contrary to fact or highly improbable (a wish). It is also used to express: DOUBTS, UNCERTAINTIES, REGRETS, DESIRES. With subjunctive mood, use WERE instead of WAS. 1. If I were rich, I would still teach grammar 2. The students looked at me as if I were insane. 3. She wishes she were home in bed instead of in class. BUT: --If the ex-convict was involved in the robbery, he probably has left town. Word Choice affect: (verb) means to influence. The flood will affect the harvest. effect: (almost always a noun) means "result." The effect of the flood was frightening. effect: (as a verb) means to cause. He will effect many changes in the agricultural rules. allude: to make an indirect reference to something. President Clinton alluded to the problems of past Republican administrations when defending his record. (Note: To refer to something means to mention it directly.) elude: to escape or avoid detection. Newt Gingrich eluded the fashion police. among: implies a "distribution" involving three or more persons or object that have no explicit relationship. The lottery money was divided among Oregon's five lucky winners. between: refers to position or action of two persons or objects, and is also used if there is a "definite relation" between persons or objects. Between you and me, this building will never be completed. Negotiations have broken down between architects, builders and the owner. anxious: afraid or worried. Sally was anxious about the championship game. eager: excited. Sally was eager to play in the championship game. accept: to receive. Gail Devers accepted the gold medal. except: to exclude. Every swimmer received an Olympic medal except for Janet Evans. aid: assistance. Students often ask their parents for aid. aide: an assistant. A congressional aide said the senator was unavailable for comment. because of: shows cause and effect. Because of a tuition increase, students were angry. due to: use only with a linking verb. The riot at Johnson Hall was due to a tuition increase. because: gives reason or cause for something. The bridge was closed because the river flooded. since: denotes a period of time. The bridge has been closed since the river flooded. compose: made up of other things, to create or put together (e.g., parts, ingredients). The car is composed of many

mechanical and electrical systems. comprise: takes in, includes or embraces other things, contains. The United States comprises 50 states. Note: The whole comprises the parts -- the whole is never comprised of the parts. compared to: to liken one thing to another type or category of things as in a metaphor. He compared playing goalie to being a drill sergeant. compared with: to examine similarities and differences within the same type or category. We compared Big Macs with Whoppers. convince: to be secure about a decision or principle. Jody Runge is convinced the Ducks will win the game. persuade: to induce someone to do something or embrace an idea. Jody Runge persuaded the referee to call a foul. complement: (noun or verb) denotes completeness or the process of supplementing something. Susan's Doc Marten's complement her leather jacket. compliment: (noun or verb) denotes praise. Sean was proud of the compliments on his writing. continual: a steady repetition. The senator's drinking was the source of continual rumors. continuous: uninterrupted, unbroken. Ahead of them was a continuous stretch of desert. discreet: prudent, circumspect. British royalty seem to have forgotten how to be discreet. discrete: detached, separate. There have been six discrete incidents of plagiarism this year. elicit: (verb) to bring out or draw forth. Her lecture on prison reform elicited a strong reaction. illicit: (adjective) illegal or unlawful. Bob Packwood's illicit actions led to his downfall. enormity: wickedness. The enormity of the crime was revealed in Technicolor. enormousness: very great in size. The enormousness of the national debt boggles the mind. fewer: refers to a number of indivdual items. Lisa made fewer free throws than Cindy. less: refers to bulk, amount, sum, or period of time. Because of her injury, she had less time on the court than the other players farther: physical distance. Sue kicked the soccer ball farther than any of her teammates. further: extension of time or degree. The reporter will look further into the president's death. hanged: (verb; conjugated hang, hanged and hanged) refers to people. The State of Oregon hanged the murderer for his crimes. hung: (same verb; conjugated hang, hung and hung) refers to objects. The University of Oregon athletic department hung photos of women basketball players in the halls of Mac Court. hangar: a building. The remnants of the plane are in the hangar. hanger: something you hung your shirt on. There are never enough hangers in my closet. if: a conjunction meaning "in the event that" or "on the condition that." If the Ducks keep playing well, they may play in post season games. whether: a conjunction meaning "in case," "if it happens that" or "if it is so that." Bob Rodman asked whether the Ducks had won. illusion: an unreal or false impression. The commercial created the illusion that the politician had told the truth about his past. allusion: an indirect reference. Packwood made an allusion to his critics in Oregon. elusive: tending to elude capture, perception or understanding. An informative, intelligent political commercial has proved elusive. like: a preposition used to compare nouns or pronouns. Nicole runs like the wind. as if: a conjunction used to introduce clauses. Nicole runs as if her life depends on it. imply: to suggest or hint. Perot implied that he would run for president. infer: to conclude from evidence. Reporters inferred that Perot would run as a third-party candidate. media: (plural) in the sense of mass communication. The media are pressing for access to more government documents. medium: (singular of media) AM radio may be the medium that has changed the most in the last five years. more than: generally refers to relationships between figures and amounts. Tuition has increased more than 18 percent in the last two years. over: generally refers to spatial relationships. The helicopter flew over the volcano.

notorious: to be widely and unfavorably known. Ted Bundy was a notorious killer. famous: to be widely known. The Miami Dolphins signed the famous coach, Jimmy Johnson. proven: use only as an adjective. This is a proven method to get good grades. proved: past participle for the verb prove, which means to establish the truth of something. The game against Washington proved the Ducks' defense had a lot to learn. regardless: without regard or unmindful. The couple hikes every weekend regardless of the weather. irregardless: a dreaded double negative that has been snubbed by dictionaries nationwide. reluctant: unwilling to act. Susan is reluctant to go to the dentist. reticent: means unwilling to speak. Steven is reticent in public places. to: a preposition meaning (among other things) as compared with. President Clinton compared the nation's debt to a swelling balloon. with: a preposition meaning in the company of or alongside of. Susan went with her sister to the meeting. towards: Don't even think about using this out-of-date word unless you're writing a poem in Olde English. toward: This is the 20th Century word. under way: two words in virtually all uses. Construction on Allen Hall is well under way. underway: Use only as an adjective before a noun in the nautical sense. In other words, forget about it. under: physically underneath. Several people sleep under the bridge at night. less than: a lesser quantity or amount. I can go to the concert if the tickets are less than $5.00.