Introduction Mechatronics

MECHATRONICS
GOVT. OF KARNATAKA DEPARTMENT OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION Diploma 5th Sem Mechanical Engineering-2012
Sl.No
Major Topics PART-A
Hrs Marks
1 2 3
Introduction to Mechatronics Sensors and Transducers Signal Conditioning and DAQ systems PART-B
4 6 8
10 16 24
4 5 6
Digital Logic Microprocessors Input / Output systems PART-C
7 6 6
20 15 15
Programmable Logic Controllers Communication Systems Design of Mechatronics Systems Environmental concerns and Industry Innovations Tests and Revision Total
6 7 4 6 4 64
17 18 10 145
Vivekanand.M.Bonal
8
(M.Tech)
Department of Mechanical Engineering Government Polytechnic - Surpur
9 10
Contents
1.1 1.2 1.3 INTRODUCTION TO MECHATRONICS Introduction Systems Measurement Systems 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 SENSORS AND TRANSDUCERS Sensors and Transducers Performance Terminology Displacement, position and proximity Velocity and motion Force Fluid power Liquid flow, Liquid level Temperature Light sensors 3.7 3.8 3.9 3.10 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 SIGNAL CONDITIONING Signal conditioning The operational amplifier Protection Filtering Wheatstone Bridge Digital Signals Multiplexers Data Acquisition Digital signal processing Pulse-modulation DIGITAL LOGIC Digital Logic Number Systems Logic Gates Boolean Algebra Karnaugh Maps Application of Logic Gates Sequential Logic
i 02
1.4 control systems 1.5 Mechatronics approach to problems
2.10 Selection of sensors 2.11 Inputting data by switches
Vivekanand.M.Bonal (M.Tech)
5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4
MICROPROCESSORS Control Microcomputer Structure Microcontrollers Applications
7.7 7.8 7.9 7.10 7.11
Shift Registers Master and jump controls Data Handling Analogue input/output Selection of a PLC
6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6
INPUT/OUTPUT SYSTEMS Interfacing Input/output ports Interface requirements Peripheral Interface Adapters Serial communication interface examples of interfacing PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLERS Programmable Logic controllers Basic Structure Input Output Processing Programming Mnemonics Timers, internal relays and counters
8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.6
COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS Digital Communication Systems Centralized, Hierarchical & Distributed Control Networks Protocols Open Systems Interconnection communication model Communication Interfaces
9.1 9.2
DESIGN OF MECHATRONICS SYSTEMS Designing Possible Design Solutions-case studies
ii 02
01 INTRODUCTION MECHATRONICS
1. Introduction
1. Importance of Mechatronics 2. Block Diagram of Mechatronics 3. Applications
TO
01 INTRODUCTION TO MECHATRONICS
The term Mechatronics was invented by a Japanese Engineer in 1969. Mechatronics was coined by Tetsuro Mori is the senior engineer of the Japanese company Yaskawa Mechatronics is the combination of Mechanical engineering, Electronic engineering, Computer engineering, Software engineering, Control engineering, and Systems Design engineering in order to
2. Systems
1. Types of System a. b. Modelling System Connected System
design and manufacture useful products. DEFINITION: Mechatronics is a combination between Mechanics and Electronics, hence the word Mecha from Mechanics and Tronic from Electronic. Mechatronics products have Mechanical functions replaced with Electronics once. IMPORTANCE OF MECHATRONICS
3. Measurement Systems
1. Basic Elements
a. Sensor b. Signal Conditioner c. Display
4. control systems
Much greater Flexibility
Easy Redesign Reprogramming More Reliable Mechatronics Cheaper Vivekanand.M.Bonal (M.Tech)
Automation and Robotics Cars & Bikes Microcontrollers / PLC's Mobile apps 01 Machine vision Servo-mechanics Introduction to Mechatronics
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF MECHATRONICS
Digital Actuators
Mechanical System
Digital Sensors
Sensing and control systems Washing Machine Water level Controller
Analogue Actuators
Analogue Sensors
2 SYSTEM
02
Microprocessor for Control
A System is a set of connected things/ parts an organized body of things A set of functioning Devices into single unit to carry out certain well defined functions.
Fig: Block Diagram of a Mechatronics
APPLICATIONS
A system its a combination of both input & Output.
02
Examples: a. Spring
Input as Force Output as
Ext ensi on
Spring
Extension
2.1 TYPES OF SYSTEM There are Two Types of System
A Spring can be considered as a system to have an input of force F and Output of an Extension x. The equation used to model the relationship between the input & output is F=kx. Where - k= Constant b. Motor Motor which as electrical Power as input & Rotation of shaft as output
Input as Electrical Power Mechatronics Output as
1. Modelling System 2. Connected System 2.1.1 MODELLING SYSTEM The response of any system to an input is not instantaneous. Example: System of Spring and Motor as shown in the pervious. 2.1.2 CONNECTED SYSTEM
Motor
Rotation of Shaft
Its a series of interconnected block each such block having specific functions. Example: A CD player
Electrical Signal Introduction to Mechatronics Bigger Electrical Signal
c. Thermometer Thermometer has an input of temperature & output of number of scale

Input as Spring Temperature Vivekanand.M.Bonal(M.Tech) Output as Number on Scale i/p CD
O/p as
CD Disk
Extension
Amplifier
Loudspeak er
Sound
03
3.2 SIGNAL CONDITIONER 3. MEASURMENT SYSTEM

Vivekanand.M.Bonal (M.Tech) 03
It takes the signal from the sensor & manipulates it into condition which is suitable either for Display or Control System. Example: Small audio Signal is fed through an amplifier to obtain a bigger sound or signal.
A group of elements forming a system to carry out the act of Measurement is called Measurement System Example Thermometer as shown in c.
BASIC ELEMENTS OF MEASUREMENT SYSTEM Mechatronics
Introduction to Mechatronics
There are 3 Basic Elements they are

1. Sensor 2. Signal Conditioner 3. Display System
3.3 DISPLAY SYSTEM The output from the signal conditioner is displayed. Example: A pointer moving across a scale or Digital readout. Example: A CD player as show in connected system.
O/p a i/p
3.1 SENSOR Sensor Its a element which converts quantity being measured into some other form.
Signal Conditioner
Display
Fig: Elements of Measurement System Its an element which produces a signal relating to the quantity being measured. Example: Thermometer it sense the Temperature
04 CONTROL SYSTEMS
In a system when the output quantity is controlled by varying the input quantity then the system is called Control Systems. A control system can be defined as a system which can be used to control some variable to some particular value or To control the sequence of events & Control the wheatear the event occur or not.
Input as Reference Variable Input as Force
Output as
Open System
Controlled Variable Output as
Spring/ Motor Spring
Extension
4.1.2 CLOSED LOOP SYSTEM Example: Washing machine, Heating System, water level. The input is dependent on the output of the system.
4.1 TYPES OF CONTROL SYSTEM

1. Open loop Control System 2. Closed loop Control System
The output quantity has an effect upon the input quantity. It has feedback system
Output as
Input
Closed System
Error
4..1
OPEN LOOP CONTROL SYSTEM The output quantity has no effect upon the input quantity. A Control System in which the output is independent of input. Example as show in fig about Spring & Motor.
Feedback
Mechatronics
Introduction to Mechatronics 1 COMPARISON ELEMENT: Reference Input
COMPRESSION BETWEEN OPEN & CLOSED SYSTEM

OPEN LOOP SYSTEM CLOSED LOOP SYSTEM
It compares the required or Reference value of the variable

Error
1. Simple to construct 2. No Feedback Loop 3. More Stable 4. Optimization is not possible 5. Less Accuracy 6. Low Cost
1. Complex to Construct 2. It has a Feedback loop 3. Less Stable 4. Optimization is possible
condition being controlled with the measured value of what is being achieved & produces an error signal. Error Signal = Reference Value Measured Value
05 Output
Controller 5. More Accuracy 6. More Costly
Correction Unit
Process
4.2 BASIC ELEMENTS OF A CLOSED LOOP SYSTEM There are Five Basic Elements of Closed loop 1. Comparison Element 2. Control Unit 3. Correction Element 4. Process Unit 5. Measurement Unit/ Feedback Unit
4. PROCESS UNIT
Feedback/ Measurement Unit

Fig for Basic Elements of Closed System 2. CONTROL UNIT:
It analysis the error signal or decides what action is to be taken.

3. CORRECTION ELEMENT
It produces a change in the Process to correct or change the controlled conditions.
The process is what being controlled. Example: Room Temperature.

5. MEASUREMENT UNIT/ FEEDBACK UNIT
Output
Controller
Error
Correction Unit
Process
Signal related to the variable condition of the process that being controlled. Example: Speed of the Fan or Motor. Example Mechatronics : AC Room Temperature
Vivekanand.M.Bonal (M.Tech) 05 MECHATRONICS APPROCH TO PROBLEMS
Feedback/ Measurement Unit
Fig: Closed Control System
Introduction to Mechatronics 06
The figure Show the Automatic control of water level.
AUTOMATIC CONTROL OF WATER LEVEL
The reference value is will be intial seting made during Water input arrangements of the water to cut off the flow at requried level. When the water is down from the tank the float moves downwards with the water level. Output This causes the level arrangment to rotate and so allows water to
Fig: Automatic Control System
Lever Floating Ball
enter the tank. This flows continues unitl the ball has risen to such height that it
Reference Input
has moved the level arrangment to cut off the water supply.
Its a closed loop control system with following elements
Electric Circuits with Sets of Relays CAM with Operated Switches
Controlled Variable Reference Value Compression Element Error Signal Control Unit Correction Unit Process Measuring Device -
Water level in the Tank
Hard wire with Microprocessor As shown in the below diagram for simple working of
Intial Setting of the Float The Level The Diffrence b/w RV & MV The Pivoted Level
Washing Machine
SIMPLE WORKING OF WASHING MACHINE SYSTEM
Correction units CLK Pgm Control Unit Valve Heater Pump
Process
Outputs
Water Level
Flap opening or Closing supply The water level in the Tank The floating ball & Lever
Washing Machine Drum
Water Temp
Drum
Motor
Mechatronics Introduction to Mechatronics Door Closed
06 SEQUENTIAL CONTROLLERS Vivekanand.M.Bonal (M.Tech) The term sequential Control is used when control is such that actions are strictly ordered in a Time or Event Driven sequence. Examples:
07
-----------------------------------------------------------REVIEW QUESTIONS 1. Define Mechatronics & Explain its Applications. 2. Define System & Explain its Types. 3. Define Control System & Explain its Types. 4. Comparison between Closed & Open loop System. 5. Define Measurement System & Mention its Basic Elements. 6. Write a note on Basic Elements of Closed loop System. 7. Explain in details about How Mechatronics solves the Problems 8. Explain in details about Sequential Controllers -------------------------------------------------------------
COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
Introduction
08 COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
7. 8. 9.
DEFINITION: The Communication is the exchange of thoughts,

messages, or information, as by speech, visuals, signals, writing, or behavior.
Digital Communication Systems Centralized, Hierarchical & Distributed Control
Derived from the Latin word "communis", meaning to Share Communication requires a sender, a message, and a recipient,
although the receiver need not be present or aware of the sender's intent to communicate at the time of communication. Communication can occur across vast distances in time and space. Communication requires that the communicating parties share an area of communicative commonality. The communication process is complete once the receiver has understood the message of the sender 1. DIGITAL COMMUNICATION Presently most of the communication is Digital. For example Cellular (Mobile Phone), Satellite, Radar, data transmission over Internet etc
WHY DIGITAL COMMUNICATION IS SO POPULAR?
10. Data Transmission 1. 2. Serial Transmission Parallel Transmission
11. Communication Modes 1. Simplex Mode. 2. Half- Duplex Mode. 3. Full-Duplex Mode. 12. Networks 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Network transmission medium Network Topology Network Types by Scope Network Access Control Broadband and Baseband
1. Due to advancement in VLSI Technology, it is possible to manufacture very high speed embedded circuits. 2. High speed computers and powerful software design tools are available.
3. The compatibility of digital communication system with internet has

Mechatronics
opened new area of applications.

01
Communication System
Vivekanand.M.Bonal (M.Tech) ADVANTAGES OF DIGITAL COMMUNICATION
Digital communications are simpler and Cheaper compared to analog systems. Using multiplexing, the speech, video and other data can be merged and transmitted over common channel. Since channel coding is used, the errors can be detected and corrected in the receivers. Regenerative repeating capability Increased noise immunity Reliable communication; less sensitivity to changes in
DISADVANTAGES OF DIGITAL COMMUNICATION
Analog to Digital conversion the data rate becomes high. It requires more band width It requires synchronization in case of synchronous modulation. Higher complexity
environmental conditions (temperature, etc.) Easy system performance monitoring 2. CENTRALIZED, HIERARCHICAL AND DISTRIBUTED CONTROL Integration of transmission and switching 2.1 CENTRALIZED Signal regeneration, operation at low SNR, superior performance It uses one central computer to control an entire plant.
As show in the below figure A system one in which most communication routed through one or more central Hubs. Free from peripheral units. In the event failure of one or overloading of particular computer Easy of maintaining accuracy updated data. It similar to file sharing or Network. Disadv: Central Failure all the other Computers are affected. 2.2 HIERARCHICAL/TREE Its top- down approach As show in above figure Sub divided into many levels. Each computer will function different task The computers handling the more routine tasks are supervised by computers which have a greater decision making role. The work is divided between the computers according to the function involved. The specialization is there like receiver & transmission Its often used for distance between nodes of more than 100m As show in below figure. 3. DATA TRANSMISSION There are two types of Data Transmission are as follows
Mechatronics
2.3 DISTRIBUTED SYSTEM Each system carrier out essentially similar task.
work can be transferred to other computers. Work is spread across all the computers There is no specialization of computer. Each computer thus needs access to all the information in the system.
1. 2.
Parallel Data Transmission Serial Data Transmission
Cheaper due too few conductors are required. For Long Distance Transmission
Communication System 03
3.1 PARALLEL DATA TRANSMISSION Mechatronics

Vivekanand.M.Bonal (M.Tech) Data transmission is usually by parallel data paths.
No need of handshaking lines. 4. COMMUNICATION MODES
Parallel data bus Transmit in 8,16,32 or 64 bit Simultaneously Data Transfer Rate is High Its Expensive due to more conductors are required. For Short Distance Transmission
Its only in the Serial Data Transmission There are THREE Types of Modes
1. Simplex Mode. 2. Half- Duplex Mode. 3. Full-Duplex Mode. 4.1 SIMPLEX MODE. Transmission is only possible in one direction, from Device A to Device B.
Handshaking lines are needed 3.2 SERIAL DATA TRANSMISSION Data transmission is usually by Serial data paths. The bits of words are transmitted sequentially and Not in Simultaneously. Data Transfer Rate is considerably less then parallel data Transmission.
Where B is not capable of Transmitting back to device A Its like a One way Road. Example: Printers which never Transmit Information.
4.2 HALF- DUPLEX MODE A half-duplex (HDX) system provides communication in both directions, but only one direction at a time (not simultaneously). Typically, once a party begins receiving a signal, it must wait for the transmitter to stop transmitting, before replying.
Examples: Two Way Road, Telephone, Mobile Phone, etc 5. NETWORKS The term Network is used for system which allows two or more computers/Microprocessors to be linked for the interchange of data. The logical form of the links is known as the network Topology The term NODE is used for a point in a network where one or more communication lines Connected
Example : walkie-talkie, where in one must use "Over 4.3. FULL - DUPLEX MODE
Mechatronics Communication System
A full-duplex (FDX), or sometimes double-duplex system, allows

communication in both directions in simultaneously.
5.1 NETWORK TRANSMISSION MEDIUM Open air Radio, microwaves, satellites, infrared Noise signals, Collision
04
Land-line telephone networks are full-duplex, since they allow both callers to speak and be heard at the same time. A good analogy for a full-duplex system would be a two-lane road with one lane for each direction.
Optical Clear signals, low power and high rate (Gbps) Copper wire Lower cost interfaces Bi-directional
In the event failure of one or overloading of particular computer work can be transferred to other computers. Work is spread across all the computers. There is no specialization of computer.
05
5.2
NETWORK TOPOLOGIES
1. Data Bus Topology 2. Star Topology 3. Hierarchy Topology 4. Ring Topology 5. Mesh Topology 5.2.1 DATA BUS NETWORK TOPOLOGY Every nodes tap into a common medium. Its only for only distance more than 100m. Each system carrier out essentially similar task.
Each computer thus needs access to all the information in
the system. As show in below figure. Example: (old, 10BASE2, 10BASE5) Ethernet.
DISADVANTAGES
Signals may collide with each other. Need to arbitrate who will get the bus.
5.2.2 STAR NETWORK TOPOLOGY One node at the center as the master node.
Other nodes linked to the master as slaves.
Ring network is a Network topology in which each node connects to exactly two other nodes, forming a single continuous pathway for signals through each node - a ring. As shown in below figure
As show in above figure

Mechatronics communicate via master. Slaves Communication System
Easy to arbitrate among slaves (master decides. Not scalable (the master is the bottleneck). Normally for small networks or that requires predictable performance. Disadv: Master failure shutdowns the whole net. 5.2.3 RING NETWORK TOPOLOGY
Communication delay is directly proportional to number of nodes in the network Data travels from node to node, with each node along the way handling every packet. Because a ring topology provides only one pathway between any two nodes, ring networks may be disrupted by the failure of a single link.
Mechatronics ADVANTAGES Very orderly network where every device has access to the token
Bandwidth is shared on all links between devices More difficult to configure than a Star: node adjunction Ring shutdown and reconfiguration 5.2.4 HIERARCHICAL/TREE NETWORK TOPOLOGY Its top- down approach As show in above figure Sub divided into many levels. Each computer have different function task.
06 Communication System
and the opportunity to transmit

Performs better than a bus topology under heavy network load Vivekanand.M.Bonal (M.Tech) Does not require a central node to manage the connectivity
between the computers

DISADVANTAGES
The computers handling the more routine tasks are supervised by computers which have a greater decision making role.
The work is divided between the computers according to the function involved. The specialization is there like receiver & transmission. Its often used for distance between nodes of more than 100m.
One malfunctioning workstation can create problems for the entire network Moves, adds and changes of devices can affect the network
5.2.5 MESH NETWORK TOPOLOGY Nodes are arranged in grids. Each node can talk to its neighbors directly. Non-neighbor nodes need store-and-forward for communication.
5.3 NETWORK TYPES BY SCOPE There are THREE different Network are there are as follows. 1. Wide Area Network. (WAN) 2. Metro Area Network. (MAN)
No restrictions on how to link the nodes Topology can adapt to individual organization needs As show in below figure a, b. Fig b is a combination both Star & Ring 3. Local Area Network. (LAN) 1. WAN (Wide Area network) Wide Area Network Cross large span of space (continental) Typically heterogeneous and low speed Example: Internet 2. MAN ( METRO AREA NETWORK) Metro-Area Network Regional scope (city-wide) 3. LAN (LOCAL AREA NETWORK)
Local Area Network Limited scope (a couple of buildings) Typically homogeneous & high speed Example: Ethernet & Token ring
Where a signal called a token is passed between nodes that authorize the node to communicate. Devices in a network are arranged in a Ring Topology. The Token circulates across the network.
Each station must wait for the token to arrive at its location before it can send data on the network. Its used in Time- Sensitive Applications.
ADVANTAGE
Collisions are eliminated.

Mechatronics Vivekanand.M.Bonal (M.Tech)
Channel bandwidth can be fully utilized without idle time when demand is heavy.
5.4 NETWORK ACCESS CONTROL Access control methods are necessary with a network to ensure that only one user of the network is able to transmit at any one time.
Access of the network is guaranteed
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DISADVANTAGE
Higher component costs. 5.4.2. SLOT PASSING This Method Involves Empty slots being circulated. that comes along with bus or Tree Network Method 5.4.3 CARRIER SENSE MULTIPLE ACCESS WITH COLLISION DETECTION (CSMA/CD)
08
The following methods are used. 1. Token Passing 2. Slot Passing 3. Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection ( CSMA/CD) 5.4.1 TOKEN PASSING
When Station wish to Transmit data it deposits it in first empty sot
CARRIER SENSE MULTIPLE ACCESS (CSMA) is a probabilistic Media

Access Control (MAC) protocol in which a node verifies the
absence of other traffic before transmitting on a shared transmission medium, such as an electrical bus, or LAN Bus.
Broadband refers to a communication bandwidth of at least 256

Kbps. The term Broadband Transmission is used for a Network in which information is modulated onto Radio Frequency carrier which passes through the transmission medium such as a coaxial Cable. Typically the topology of broadband local area networks is a bus with branches. Data can be transmitted simultaneously. Its for analog Transmission. It offers a Multichannel Capability. Its uses Frequency Division Multiplexing.(FDM)
BASEBAND
"CARRIER SENSE" describes the fact that a transmitter uses

feedback from a receiver that detects a carrier wave before trying to send.
That is, it tries to detect the presence of an encoded signal from

another station before attempting to transmit. If a carrier is sensed, the station waits for the transmission in progress to finish before initiating its own transmission.
In other words, CSMA is based on the principle "Sense before

Transmit" or "Listen before Talk".
"MULTIPLE ACCESSES" describes the fact that multiple stations

send and receive on the medium.
The term BASEBAND is used when digital information is passed

directly through the transmission medium. It uses Time Division Multiplexing.(TDM) Its supports only one information signal at a time. Its for digital Transmission over single line.
Transmissions by one node are generally received by all other

stations using the medium. CSMA/CD is used to improve CSMA performance by terminating transmission as soon as a collision is detected, thus shortening
Mechatronics required before a retry can be attempted. the time
Example: LAN may be Baseband or Broadband.
5.5 BROADBAND AND BASEBAND

BROADBAND
The term BROADBAND refers to a telecommunications signal or 6. PROTOCOLS

Vivekanand.M.Bonal (M.Tech) device of greater bandwidth.
A protocol is a system of digital message formats and rules for

exchanging messages between two computing systems.
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The wider (or broader) the bandwidth of a channel, the greater

the information-carrying capacity, given the same channel quality.
A protocol may have a formal description, its contents 3 elements

are as follows.
1. Syntax 2. Semantic 3. Timing
- Data Format, Coding & Signal Levels. - Synchronization, control & Error Handling. - Sequencing of data & Data Transfer Rate.
Its established in 1947, the International Standards Organization

(ISO) is a multinational body dedicated to worldwide agreement on international standards. An ISO standard that covers all aspects of network communications is the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model. It was first introduced in the late 1970s.
PROTOCOLS SIMPLEX COMMUNICATION
The Data can be just sent from sender to Receiver.
PROTOCOLS HALF-DUPLEX
It has Seven Layers in it. They are as follows

7. Application Layer 6. Presentation Layer 5. Session Layer 4. Transport Layer 3. Network Layer 2. Data Link Layer 1. Physical Layer 7.1. PYSICAL LAYER - All - People - Seem - To - Need - Data - Processing - Bottom Layer -Top Layer
Each block of transmitted data; if valid must be acknowledged

(ACK) by receiver before the next block of data can be sent. If NCK a negative acknowledgement signal is sent. Thus continuous stream of data cannot be transmitted.
The CRC bits, Cyclic Redundancy Check bits. Are a mean of error
detection and are transmitted immediately after a block of data. The data is transmitted as a binary number and at the transmitter the data is divided by a number and the remainder is used as the cyclic check code. At the receiver the incoming data, including the CRC, is dived by the same number and will give zero remainder if the signal is errorfree.
The physical layer defines electrical and physical specifications for

devices.
In particular, it defines the relationship between a device and a

transmission medium, such as a copper or fiber optical cable. Physical Layer is responsible for transmitting row bit stream over the physical cable.
Mechatronics FULL-DUPLEX PROTOCOLS

Data can be continuously sent and received. 7. OPEN SYSTEMS INTERCONNECTION COMMUNICATION MODEL (OSI) MODEL
The physical layer deals with hardware issues such as cables,

cards, voltages etc.
10
Mechatronics
Converts bits into electronic signals for outgoing messages Converts electronic signals into bits for incoming messages Its a bottom layer of the OSI model Its function is media, signal & Binary Transmission. 7.2 DATA LINK LAYER
This layer also handles packet switching and network congestion control. To move packets from source to destination to provide internet working. Its normally called IP address 7.4 TRANSPORT LAYER
Data link layer is responsible for controlling the error between adjacent nodes and transfer the frames to other computer via physical layer. Data link layer is used by hubs and switches for their operation. Handles special data frames (packets) between the Network layer and the Physical layer Its concerned with packaging data into packets and placing them on the cable & then taking off the cable at the receiving end. At the sending end this layer handles conversion of data into raw formats that can be handled by the Physical Layer The data link layer is responsible for moving frames from one hop (node) to the next. 7.3 NETWORK LAYER This deals with communication paths and the addressing, Routing and control of messages on the network. The network layer is responsible for the delivery of individual packets from the source host to the destination. This layer also handles the decisions needed to get data from one point to the next point along a network path This layer is Responsible for initiating, maintaining and terminating sessions. The transport layer is responsible for the delivery of a message from one process to another. Manages the transmission of data across a network Manages the flow of data between parties by segmenting long data streams into smaller data chunks (based on allowed packet size for a given transmission medium) Provides acknowledgements of successful transmissions and requests resends for packets which arrive with errors Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) layer is used for Transmission of Data. 7.5 SESSION LAYER Enables two networked resources to hold ongoing
communications (called a session) across a network. Applications on either end of the session are able to exchange data for the duration of the session.
Responsible for security and access control to session information (via session participant identification). Responsible for synchronization services, and for checkpoint services. The session layer is responsible for dialog
The application layer is responsible for providing services to the user.

11
The application layer is the OSI layer closest to the end user, which means that both the OSI application layer and the user
control and synchronization. 7.6 PRESENTATION LAYER For outgoing messages, it converts data into a generic format for network transmission; for incoming messages, it converts data Mechatronics from the generic network format to a format that the receiving application can understand This layer is also responsible for certain protocol conversions, data encryption/decryption, or data compression / decompression.
interact directly with the software application. Example: File transfer, Electronic messaging e-mail, virtual terminal access and Network management
8. COMMUNICATION INTERFACE. There are Two Types of Communication Interface. 1. Serial Communication Interface.
The presentation layer is responsible for translation, compression, and encryption.
i. ii.
RS-232. I2C Bus - Inter IC Communication Bus. CAN Bus Controller Area Network. USB Firewire - Universal Serial Bus.
7.7 APPLICATION LAYER
iii. iv.
Its the Top layer of the OSI model
v.
2. Parallel Communication Interface.
i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. 8.1
General Purpose Instrument Bus- (GPIB) Field Bus. NuBus. VXI Bus. Prohi Bus. Other Buses.
signals connecting between a DTE (Data Terminal Equipment) and a DCE (Data Circuit-terminating Equipment). It is commonly used in computer serial ports for connections to modems, printers, mice, data storage, un-interruptible power supplies, and other peripheral devices.. The standard defines the electrical characteristics and timing of signals, the meaning of signals, and the physical size and pin out of connectors. RS-232 signals is grouped into THREE categories: 1. DATA RS-232 provides two independent serial data channels, termed primary & secondary. Both these channels are used for full-Duplex operation. 2. HANDSHAKING CONTROL Handshaking signals are used to control the flow of serial data over the communication path. 3. TIMING For synchronous operation it is necessary to pass clock
SERIAL COMMUNICATION INTERFACE.
Serial Interfacing can involve synchronous or Asynchronous protocols. Commonly used asynchronous are RS-232, I2C, and CAN & USB. 8.1.1 RS-232 RS-232 was first introduced in 1962 by the Radio Sector of the EIA (American Electronic Industries Association). Today it's widely interpreted as Recommended Standard 232. RS-232 is a popular communications interface for connecting modems and data acquisition devices (i.e. GPS receivers, electronic balances, data loggers ...) to computers.
Vivekanand.M.Bonal (M.Tech) In telecommunications, RS-232 is the traditional name for a
signals between transmitter and receivers.

12
series of standards for serial binary single-ended data and control
Mechatronics
Table gives the RS-232 Connector pin Numbers and Signals for which each is used for the D-25pin As show in above figure
The Following Fig show the DB-9 pin and its pin configuration
No.pi n 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
D escri pci n L abel P rotective grou n d (s h ield) GND Tran s mitted data TD R eceived data RD R equ es t to s en d R TS C lear to s en d C TS D ata s et ready (D C E R eady) D SR S ign al grou n d/ C ommon retu rn SG P rimary carrier detect CD P os itive D C Tes t Voltage N egative D C Tes t Voltage U n as s ign ed S econ dary carrier detec S econ dary clear to s en d S econ dary tran s mitted data D C E tran s mis s ion s ign al timin g S econ dary received data R eceiver s ign al timin g (Local Loop Back) S econ dary requ es t to s en d D ata termin al ready (D TE R eady) D TR S ign al qu ality detector (R emote lookback) C G R in g in dicator RI D ata s ign al rate s elector CH/ C1 D TE tran s mit s ign al timin g Bu s y
DB-9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Descripcin Carrier Detect Receive Data Transmitted Data Data Terminal Ready Signal Ground Data Set Ready Request To Send Clear To Send Ring Indicator
DB-25 8 3 2 20 7 6 4 5 22
The below figure show the pin connections between its & PC.
FIG: CONNECTION BETWEEN DB- PIN Vivekanand.M.Bonal (M.Tech) 13
Mechatronics
8.1.2 I2C BUS (INTER- IC COMMUNICATION) BUS Its serial data bus developed by Philips Semiconductors in early 1980 for providing a simple way to talk between ICs by using a minimum number of pins. Its an Inter - Integrated Circuit Bus. Its a simple bi-directional 2-wire bus for efficient inter-IC control. Only two bus lines are required: a Serial Data Line (SDA) and a Serial Clock line (SCL). The bus allows data and instruction to be exchanged between devices by means of just two wires. Both the lines are connected to the positive power supply via resister. As show in the below figure about the connection.
The following is the protocol used 1. When both Data and Clock lines are high the bus is not busy. 2. A change in the state of data line from high to low while the clock is high is used to define the start of data transfer. 3. A change in the state of the data line from low to high while the clock is high defines the stop of data transfer. 4. Data is transferred between Start and Stop Conditions.
5. After a start of data transfer, the data line is stable for the duration of the high periods of the clock signal, being able to change during the low periods of the clock signal. 6. There is one clock pulse per data bit transferred with no limit on the number of data bytes that can be transferred between the start and stop conditions after each byte of data the receiver acknowledges with ninth bit. 7. The acknowledge bit is a high level put on the bus by the transmitter
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a low level by a receiver.
8.1.3 CAN BUS (CONTROLLER AREA NETWORK) BUS
14
CAN bus (for controller area network) is a vehicle bus standard

The device that controls the bus operation is the Master & the devices which are controlled by the master are the slaves. designed to allow microcontrollers and devices to communicate with each other within a vehicle without a host computer.
CAN bus is a message-based protocol, designed specifically for automotive applications but now also used in other areas such as industrial automation and medical equipment.
Heating control Air Conditioning, Security, Access & Light Control
Development of CAN bus started originally in 1983 at Robert Bosch

GmbH.
Domestic & Food distribution appliances Washing machines, dishes cleaner, Self-service bottle distributors
CAN provide two communication services: the sending of a

message (data frame transmission) and the requesting of a message (remote transmission request, RTR). Asynchronous Serial Bus Simple 2-wire differential bus CAN ADVANTAGES Is capable of providing real-time communication. Uses error correction and confinement, greatly helpful in noisecritical environments. Uses a lossless, bitwise arbitration scheme. High Speeds at Low-Cost. Suitability for small networks. The protocol is designed to increase integrity of the system. It is designed for control not transmission of large blocks of data APPLICATIONS OF CAN Building Automation:
Automotive & Transportation Dash Board, Power Train & Car Body Train, Bus and Truck Equipment
Robotic Production Automation: Control & link of production machines
Medical Agriculture Harvester, seeding, sewing machines, tractor
control...
WRITE LONG NOTE ON FOLLOWING:
USB
- Universal Serial Bus & Firewire
15
Mechatronics
8.1.4 UNIVERSAL SERIAL BUS-USB The Universal Serial Bus (USB) was born out of the frustration of
low Cost & Low Power Consumption 8.2 PARALLEL COMMUNICATION INTERFACE The Parallel Communication Interface is classified in to as follows 1. General Purpose Instrument Bus- (GPIB) 2. Field Bus. 3. NuBus. 4. VXI Bus. 5. Prohi Bus.
16
PC users experience trying to connect an incredibly wide range of peripherals to their computers. USB gives fast and flexible interface for connecting all kinds of peripherals. USB playing a key role in fast growing consumer areas like digital imaging, PC telephony, and multimedia games, etc. The presence of USB in most new PCs and its Plug-n-Play, capability. It automatically configures and works together with high degree of reliability in exciting new applications areas. USB FEATURES Simple Connectivity & Cables One interface for many Devices Automatic Configuration No User Setting Frees hardware Resources for other devices Hot Pluggable
8.2.1 GENERAL PURPOSE INSTRUMENT BUS (GPIB) GPIB is a short-range digital communications bus specification. It was created for use with automated test equipment in the late 1960s, and is still in use for that purpose. GPIB was created as HP-IB (Hewlett-Packard Interface Bus), and is commonly called IEEE-488. It has been the subject of several standards. It links the computer & Instruments.
Each of the Devices connected to the bus is termed a listener, talker or Controller. Listeners are devices that accept data from the bus.
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Each device on the bus has its own adders. Commands form the controller is signaled by taking the Attention line (ATN) low. Commands are then directed to individual devices by placing addresses on the data lines.
17 Communication System
Talkers place data on request on the Bus. Vivekanand.M.Bonal (M.Tech) flow of data on the bus by sending A controller manages the commands to talkers and listeners & Carries out polls to see which device are active. As show in below figure. The 8-bit parallel data bus can transmit data as on 8-bit byte at a time.
8-Bit Data Line
Addresses are sent via the data lines as a parallel 7-bit word with the lowest 5 bits providing the device address and the other 2 bit control information. If both bits are low then commands are sent to all addresses. If 6 bit is Low & 7 bit is high then device is switched to listener. If 6 bit is High & 7 bit is Low then device is Talker. Handshaking uses the lines DAV, NRFD & NDAC the three lines
Controller
DAV NDAC NRFD ATN EQI IFC REH SRQ
Talker
Listener
ensuring that the talker will only talk when it is being listened to by listeners. Handshake Lines When a listener is ready to accept data NRFD is made high.
Management When data has been placed on the line DAV is made low to notify Lines devices that data is available. When device accepts a data word it sets NDAC high to indicate that it has accepted the data & NRFD low to indicate that it is now not ready to accept data. When all the listeners have set.
Fig: General Purpose Instrument Bus
Each time a byte is transferred the bus goes through a handshake cycle.
NDVC high then the talker cancels the data valid signal DAV going high. This then results in NDVC being set low. Then entire process can then be repeated for another word being
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8.2.2 FIELD BUS Felid Bus is the name of family of industrial computer network protocols used for real-time distributed control.
put on the data bus.
Its a way to connect instruments in a manufacturing plant. ADVANTAGES Simple hardware interface Ease of connecting multiple device to a single host Its look like LAN type connections which require only one Allows mixing of slow and fast devices Well-established and mature, widely supported Rugged connectors, held in place by screws, means cables can't easily be accidentally removed as they can with Firewire and USB DISADVANTAGES Mechanically bulky connectors and cables Lack of command protocol standards (before SCPI) Implementation options (e.g. end of transmission handling) can complicate interoperability in pre-IEEE-488.2 devices No mandatory galvanic isolation between bus and devices High cost (compared to RS-232/USB/Firewire/Ethernet) Limited availability Compared to other interfaces. Its used in Apples Machintosh Computer. NuBus card could be plugged into any NuBus machine as long as there was an appropriate deceive driver. Its the 1st Example for Plug and Play architecture. NuBus is 32-bit parallel computer bus. Originally developed at MIT as a part of the NuMachine workstation project. communication point at controller level and allows multiple of analog & digital points to be connected at the same point. This reduces the both length of the cable required and the number of cables required. 8.2.3 NUBUS
Field bus works on a network structure which typically allows 18 daisy-chain, star, ring, branch & tree network topologies.
Its flexibility made NuBus much simpler for the user. NuBus was agnostic about the processor itself.
Its also provides better synchronization and triggering. As show in below diagram. Monitor
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NuBus as an ID scheme that allowed the cards to identify themselves to the host computer during startup. DISADVANTAGES It increases the cost while connecting NuBus controller chip between the bus and I/O chip on the card. 1980s NuBus Considered as complex and Expensive. For device driver authors it made things more difficult for the designers of the cards themselves. On every time Plugged in cards had to conform to the signaling and data standards of the machine.
Keyboard
VXI Channels
8.2.5 PROFI-BUS Profi-Bus is smart & field bus technology. Devices on the system connect to a central line.
19
Once connected these devices can communicate information in an efficient manner. This device can also participate in self-diagnosis and connection diagnosis. This busses benefits from superior design of its OSI layers & basic topology. It supports cyclic and acyclic data exchange, diagnosis, alarmhandling, and isochronous messaging. Profi-Bus also includes Token Passing, a system a Token signal is passed between nodes.
8.2.4 VXI BUS The VXI Bus (VME Extensions for Instrumentation) is an extension of the specification of the VME Bus. Which is designed for the instrumentation applications such as automatic test equipment where higher speed communication. Its designed by Motorola for use with its 32-bit 68000microprocessor based system.
Profi-Bus defines a physical layer through it leaves room for flexibility. Profi-Bus system can now operate using fiber-optic transmission in case where that is more appropriate. There are TWO types Profi-Bus: 1. Profi-Bus DP ( Decentralized Peripherals)
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PA uses the same protocol as DP and can be linked to a DP network using a coupler device. The much faster DP acts as a backbone network for transmitting process signals to the controller. This means that PA & DP can work tightly together, especially in hybrid applications where process and factory automation networks operate side by side.
2. Profi-Bus PA ( Process Automation) PROFI-BUS( DECENTRALIZED PERIPHERALS)
8.2.5.1
Vivekanand.M.Bonal (M.Tech) Its used to operate Sensors and Actuators via a centralized controller in production (Factory) automation applications. Its used less as its application specific. They manly for diagnostic options. 8.2.5.2 PROFI-BUS (PROCESS AUTOMATION) REVIEW QUESTIONS
20
1. Define Communication System? And Write the Advantages of Digital Communication System. 2. Explain the following: a. Centralized. b. Hierarchical. c. Distributed Control System
Its used to monitor measuring equipment via process control system in process automation application. This Variant is designed for use in explosion/Hazardous areas. It has transfer rate of 31.25kbits/s. The number of devices attached to a PA segment is limited.
3. Mention the types of Data Transmission. Explain it in detail. 4. Define Network and Explain different Types of Topologies. 5. Define Broadband and Baseband.
6. List the layers of OSI Model and Explain in detail. 7. Explain the Network Access Control in detail. 8. Explain the Types of Communication Interface? 9. Write Short note on Serial Communication Interface. 10. Write Short note on Parallel Communication Interface.
*************** ***************
04. DIGITAL LOGIC

1. Number System 1. Decimal Number System 2. Binary Number System 3. Hexadecimal Number System 4. Octal Number System 2. Binary Arithmetic 1. Binary Addition 2. Binary Subtraction 3. Binary Multiplication 4. Binary Division 3. Conversion To and From other Number System. 1. Binary to Decimal Conversion 2. Decimal to Binary Conversion 4. Logic Gates 5. Boolean Algebra 6. Demorgans Theorems 7. Karnaugh Maps 1. NUMBER SYSTEMS
04 DIGITAL LOGIC
A number system defines how a number can be represented using distinct symbols. A number can be represented differently in different systems. For example, the two numbers (2A)16 and (52)8 both refer to the same quantity, (42)10, but their representations are different. So The Numbers are represented in following FOUR ways. 1. Decimal Number System 2. Binary Number System 3. Hexadecimal Number System 4. Octal Number System 1.1 DECIMAL NUMBER SYSTEM The word decimal is derived from the Latin root Decem (ten). In this system the base b = 10 We use ten symbols they are S = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9} The symbols in this system are often referred to as Decimal digits or just digits
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Each digit corresponds to a power of 10 based on its position in the number
1100 1001 = 1 * 27 + 1 * 26 + 1 * 23 + 1 * 20 = 128 + 64 + 8 + 1Digital Logic = 201 1.3 OCTAL NUMBER SYSTEM The word octal is derived from the Latin root octo (eight).
The powers of 10 increment from 0, 1, 2, etc. as you move right to

Vivekanand.M.Bonal (M.Tech) left 01
EXAMPLE 1,479 = 1 * 103 + 4 * 102 + 7 * 101 + 9 * 100 1.2 BINARY NUMBER SYSTEM
R to L In this system the base b = 8 and we use eight symbols to represent a number. The set of symbols is
02
The word binary is derived from the Latin root Bini (or two by two)
In this system the base b = 2 and we use only two symbols, S = {0, 1, 2} The symbols in this system are often referred to as binary digits or bits (binary digit). Shorter & easier to read than binary It is also called "base-2" based on the fact that the column values are the powers of 2. (i.e. 20 21 22 23 24 25 etc. ) To make the binary numbers more readable, the digits are often put in groups of 4 EXAMPLES 1010 = 1 * 23 + 0 * 22 + 1 * 21 + 0 * 20 =8+2 = 10 F} A stands for the number 10 B stands for the number 11 C stands for the number 12 D stands for the number 13 A hexadecimal number is a number where each digit may be one of sixteen possible values. The possible values for a hexadecimal digit are: S = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, S = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}
1.4 HEXADECIMAL NUMBER SYSTEM
E stands for the number 14 F stands for the number 15 EXAMPLES 0xABC = A * 162 + B * 161 + C * 160 = 10 * 256 + 11 * 16 + 12 * 1 = 2560 + 176 + 12 = 2748 0x123 = 1 * 162 + 2 * 161 + 3 * 160 = 1 * 256 + 2 * 16 + 3 * 1 Mechatronics = 256 + 32 + 3 = 291
2.1 BINARY ADDITION The simplest arithmetic operation in binary is addition. Adding two single-digit binary numbers is relatively simple, using a form of carrying: 0+00 0+11 1+01 1 + 1 10, 10) carry 1 (since 1 + 1 = 0 + 1 binary
Digital Logic
03 Adding two "1" digits produces a digit "0", while 1 will have to be
Table shows a summary of the FOUR positional number systems. System Decimal Binary Octal Hexadecimal Base 10 2 8 16 Symbols 0, 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9 0, 1 0, 1, 2,3,4,5,6, 7 0, 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9, A, B,C,D,E, F Example 234463.897 (101011.011)2 (156.23)8 (A2CD.F1)16
added to the next column. ADDITION EXAMPLE: 011012 (1310) and 101112 (2310). 111110 01101 + 10111
------------------------------------------
(carried digits)
= 1 0 0 1 0 0 = 36 In this example, two numerals are being added together: 011012 (1310) and 101112 (2310).
2. BINARY ARITHMETICS Arithmetic in binary is much like arithmetic in other numeral systems. Addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division can be performed on binary numerals.
The top row shows the carry bits used. Starting in the rightmost column, 1 + 1 = 102. The 1 is carried to the left, and the 0 is written at the bottom of the rightmost column.
The second column from the right is added: 1 + 0 + 1 = 102 again; the 1 is carried, and 0 is written at the bottom. The third column: 1 + 1 + 1 = 112. This time, a 1 is carried, and a 1 is written in the bottom row. Proceeding like this gives the final answer 1001002 (36 decimal). Work on this Example: 1. To find Addition of 1110 + 710 in binary (1011)2 + (111)2 2. To find Addition of 5310 + 1310 in binary (110101)2 + ( 1101)2 3. To find Addition of 1510 + 610 in binary (1111)2 + (110)2 4. To find Addition of 5210 + 1210 in binary (110100)2 + ( 1100)2
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The principle is the same as for carrying. When the result of a subtraction is less than 0, the least possible value of a digit, the procedure is to "borrow" the deficit divided by the radix (that is, 10/10) from the left, subtracting it from the next positional value. EXAMPLE * *** borrowed from) 1101110 10111 ------------------=1010111 2.3 BINARY MULTIPLICATION Multiplication in binary is similar to its decimal counterpart. 0X00 0X10 1X00 1X11 EXAMPLES FOR BINARY MULTIPLICATION, The binary numbers 1011 and 1010 are multiplied as follows: 1 0 1 1 (A) 1 0 1 0 (B) -----------------0 0 0 0 Corresponds to a zero in B + 1011 Corresponds to a one in B + 0000
04 Digital Logic
(starred columns are
2.2 BINARY SUBTRACTION Subtraction works in much the same way:

000
0 1 1, borrow 1 101 110 Subtracting a "1" digit from a "0" digit produces the digit "1", while 1 will have to be subtracted from the next column. This is known as borrowing.
+1011 --------------=1101110 Binary numbers can also be multiplied with bits after a binary point: 5.625 X 6.25 = 101.101X 110.01 is given by 1 0 1.1 0 1 (A) (5.625 in decimal)
The procedure is the same as that of decimal long division; here, the divisor 1012 goes into the first three digits 1102 of the dividend one time, so a "1" is written on the top line. This result is multiplied by the divisor, and subtracted from the first three digits of the dividend; the next digit (a "1") is included to obtain a new three-digit sequence: The procedure is then repeated with the new sequence, continuing until the digits in the dividend have been exhausted: 101 . 101 )11011 101 ---------011 000 -------------111 101 ------10
Digital Logic
1 1 0.0 1 (B) (6.25 in decimal) -----------------------1.0 1 1 0 1 Corresponds to a one in B + + + 0 0.0 0 0 0 0 0 0.0 0 0 1 0 1 1.0 1 Corresponds to a zero in B
+ 1 0 1 1 0.1 ----------------------= 1 0 0 0 1 1.0 0 1 0 1 (35.15625 in decimal) Work on this Example: 1. To find product 1110X 710 in binary (1011)2 X (111)2
Mechatronics Product 5310 X 1310 in binary (110101)2 X ( 1101)2 2. To find
Thus, the quotient of 110112 divided by 1012 is 1012, as shown on the top line, while the remainder, shown on the bottom line, is 102. In decimal, 27 divided by 5 is 5, with a remainder of 2.
2.4 BINARY DIVISION Binary division is again similar to its decimal counterpart: Here, the divisor is 1012, or 5 decimal, while the dividend is 110112, or 27 decimal.
3. CONVERSION TO AND FROM OTHER NUMERAL SYSTEM
05
3.1 BINARY TO DECIMAL CONVERSION The bits of the binary number are used one by one, starting with the
Mechatronics most significant (leftmost) bit. Beginning with the value 0,
Accumulate the integer part (0 or 1). If the integer part is 1, chop it off.
Digital Logic
Arrange the integer parts in the order they are obtained.

EXAMPLE1: 23910= (011101111)2 EX2: 0.634= (.10100___)
2
repeatedly double the prior value and add the next bit to produce the next value. As shown in below Examples. 1. 101011 1X25 + 0X24 + 1X23 + 0X22 + 1X21 + 1X20 = 43 (101011)2 = (43)10 2. .0101 0X2-1 + 1X2-2 + 0X2-3 + 1X2-4 = .3125 (.0101)2 = (.3125)10 3. 101.11 1X22 + 0X21 + 1X20 + 1X2-1 + 1X2-2
=
239 DECIMAL 2 BINARY 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 0 1 10 11 100 101 110 111 1000 1001 1010 1011 1100 1101 1110 1111 10000 10001 10010 10011 10100 10101 10110 10111 11000 11001 11010
OCTAL
HEXA
0.634X 2 =BINARY --- 1 DECIMAL 1.268 OCTAL 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 11011 11100 11101 11110 11111 100000 100001 100010 100011 100100 100101 100110 100111 101000 101001 101010 101011 101100 101101 101110 101111 110000 110001 110010 110011 110100 110101 33 34 35 36 37 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 60 61 62 63 64 65
HEXA
5.75
(101.11)2 = (5.75)10 3.2 DECIMAL TO BINARY CONVERSION Consider the integer and fractional parts separately.
FOR THE INTEGER PART,
Repeatedly divide the given number by 2, and go on accumulating the remainders, until the number becomes zero. Arrange the remainders in reverse order.
FOR THE FRACTIONAL PART,
Repeatedly multiply the given fraction by 2.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 30 31 32
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 1A
1B 1C 1D 1E 1F 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 2A 2B 2C 2D 2E 2F 30 31 32 33 34 35
2 2 2
119 59 29
--- 1 --- 1 --- 1 --- 1
0.268 X 2 = 0.536 --- 0 0.536 X 2 = 1.072 --- 1 0.072 X 2 = 0.144 --- 0 0.144 X 2 = 0.288 --- 0 Table gives you the idea of the DIFFERENT NUMBER SYSTEM Digital Logic 4. LOGIC GATES
EX4: 64.634 = 06
2 14
Vivekanand.M.Bonal (M.Tech) Mechatronics--- 0 2 7
--- 1 --- 1 --- 1

(1000000.10100)2 just simple do
2 1 2 0
Logic gates are pieces of hardware that have one or more inputs and one output. Gates can be combined in such a way to obtain a desired output out of a combination of possible inputs. Output must always be either a 1 or a 0. Formal logic is a branch of mathematics that deals with true and false values instead of numbers. True or 1 can be defined as voltage on a wire while False or 0 can be defined as no voltage. Analog values can be anything while digital only has discrete values, 0 or 1 Electrical devices called gates can implement the logical
as shown above by separately for 64 & 0.634 then add result...

EXAMPLE 3: 6410 = (1000000)2
2 2 2 2 2
64 32 16 8 4 2 1
--- 0 --- 0 --- 0 --- 0 --- 0 --- 0 Work on this Example: 1110 / 710 in binary (1011)2 / (111)2 5310 / 1310 in binary (110101)2 / (1101)2 1510 / 610 in binary (1111)2 / (110)2 5210 + 1210 in binary (110100)2 / (1100)2
2 2
TYPES OF LOGIC GATES

AND logic Symbol
There are SEVEN basic gates are as follows 1. AND Gate 2. OR Gate 3. NOT Gate 4. NAND Gate 5. NOR Gate 6. EX-OR Gate 7. EX-NOR Gate 4.1 AND GATE The output of an AND gate is TRUE if ALL inputs are TRUE, otherwise the output is FALSE. An AND Gate is sometimes called All or Nothing. An AND gate have two or more inputs and only one output. It Produces High out only when all the inputs are high. It can be written as: Y=A AND B, or Y=A.B, or Y=A^B Logical Symbol & Truth Table as shown in below
Mechatronics Vivekanand.M.Bonal (M.Tech) A
Fig: AND Operation Truth Table
An AND gate corresponds to the Action of Series of Switches for the input. As figure shows the A 0 0 1 1 B 0 1 0 1 Y 0 0 0 1
represented by switches
AND symbol
Y=A.B
Digital Logic
Y B
4.2 OR GATE
07
The output of an OR gate is TRUE if ANY one input is TRUE, otherwise the output is FALSE. An OR Gate is sometimes called Any or All gate. An OR gate have two or more inputs and only one output. It Produces High out only when any one input is high. It can be written as: Y=A OR B, or Y=A + B, or Y= A | B Logical Symbol & Truth Table as shown in below A A 0 0 1 1 Y B 0 1 0 1 Y 0 1 1 1
An OR gate corresponds to the Action of Parallel of Switches for the input. As figure shows the represented by switches
A OR symbol
Y=A + B B 4.3 NOT GATE A 0 1 Y 1 0
NOT gates can have only one input and one output. A NOT gate is also known as an inverter.
It can be written as Y=NOT A, or Y= A, or Y=A B

OR logic Symbol
It gives High output for Low input It gives Low output for High input A Y=A
Fig: OR Operation Truth Table
Logical Symbol & Truth Table as shown in below

NOT logic Symbol
A NAND gate can be consider as a combination of an
AND gate followed by a NOT gate. As show in below figure: Combinational circuit and logical
symbol of NAND Gate. A

Fig: OR Operation Truth Table
Y= A.B
Thus when both inputs are HIGH it gives LOW output. When Any One input is LOW it gives HIGH output. The NAND Gate is just the AND gate Truth Table with
A Bar over a symbol is used to indicate that the inverse or complement is being taken. Bar over A indicates that the output Y is the inverse value of A
NOTE: NAND & NOR Gates are Called as Universal Gates cos any logic gate can be design by this Two.
inverted outputs. It can be written as: : Y=A NAND B, or Y=A.B, or Y=A^B Truth Table of NAND Gate is given by:
A
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B 0 1 0 1
Y 1 1 1 0 4.4 NAND GATE

Digital Logic 08
1 1
4.5 NOR GATE
09
A NOR gate can be consider as a combination of an OR

Digital Logic
Mechatronics
gate followed by a NOT gate. As show in below figure: Combinational circuit and logical 4.6 EXCLUSIVE OR GATE (XOR GATE) A B Y= A.B A XOR gate can be consider as a combination of anti-
symbol of NOR Gate.
coincidence with OR gate. As show in below figure: logical symbol of XOR Gate is
Thus when both inputs are LOW it gives HIGH output. When Any One input is HIGH it gives LOW output. The NOR Gate is just the OR gate Truth Table with
given by. A Symbol of XOR B Y= A + B
inverted outputs. Thus when both inputs are EQUAL it gives LOW output. A Truth Table of NOR Gate is given by: 0 0 1 1 B 0 1 0 1 Y 1 0 0 0 When are Both not B It can be written as: : Y=A NOR B, or Y= A + B, or Y=A |
inputs
Equal it gives HIGH output.
It can be written as: : Y=A XOR B, or Y= A + B.
Its also equal to Y = A.B + A.B Truth Table of XOR Gate is given by:
A XOR gate can be consider as a combination of anti-
coincidence with OR gate followed by NOT Gate. As show in below figure: logical symbol of XNOR Gate is
given by. A Symbol of XNOR B Y= A + B
Thus when both inputs are EQUAL it gives HIGH output. When Both inputs are not Equal it gives LOW output. It can be written as: : Y=A XNOR B, or Y= A + B. Its also equal to Y = A.B + A.B The XNOR Gate is just the XOR gate Truth Table with
A 0 0 1 1 B 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 Y Fig: Truth Table of XOR GATE
inverted outputs. A Truth Table of XNOR 0 0 1 1 B 0 1 0 1 Y 1 0 0 1

10
Gate is given by:
4. 7 EXCLUSIVE NOR GATE (XNOR GATE)
Fig: Truth Table of XOR GATE
02
02. SENSORS AND TRANSDUCERS

1. INTRODUCTION 1. Introduction 2. Performance Terminology 3. Classifications of Sensors & Transducers 4. Displacement, position and proximity 5. Velocity and motion 6. Force 7. Fluid power 8. Liquid flow, Liquid level 9. Temperature 10.Light sensors 11.Selection of sensors 12.Inputting data by switches a. De-Bouncing
SENSORS AND TRANSDUCERS
SENSOR: Is a device that detects a change in a physical stimulus and turns it into a signal which can be measured or recorded. The term sensor is used for an element which produces a signal relating to the quantity being measured. TRANSDUCER is a device that transfers power from one system to another in the same form or in the different form. 2. PERFORMANCE TERMINOLOGY
2.1 RANGE AND SPAN
RANGE: The range of Transducer defines the limits between which the input can vary. SPAN: The span is the maximum difference between minimum and maximum limit. Example: Range = 0 to 50kN and Span =50kN.
2.2 ERROR
Error is the difference between the Measured Value and True Value or Reference value. Error = Measured Value True Value.
Mechatronics
Sensors and Transducers
2.3 ACCURACY
2.8 STABILITY
It is the closeness of measured value with the true or Actual Value. Accuracy is the extent to which the measured value might be wrong. Its expressed in percentage of the full range output or full scale deflection.
2.4 SENSITIVITY
Is the ability to give the same output for a constant input over a period of time? Its expressed as % of the full range output. The change in output that occurs overtime is described as Drift. When transducer gives some output for zero input is called DRIFT.
2.9 DEAD BAND/TIME
Its the ratio of output to input. It indicates how much output there is per unit input.
2.5 HYSTERESIS ERROR
Is the range of input values for which there is No output The minimum output for some interval of time is called Dead Band.
2.10 RESOLUTION
Error is the difference between the values obtained when reached by a continuously increasing and a continuously decreasing change.
2.6 NON-LINEARITY ERRORS
Its defined as the smallest change in the input value that produces observable or notable change in the output, in the input varying continuously over a change.
2.11 OUTPUT IMPEDANCE
Is the error given by assuming a linear relationship?

2.7 REPEATABILITY/ REPRODUCIBILITY
Its necessary to know the output impedance since the impedance is being connected in either series or parallel with the circuit.
This describes its ability to give the same output for repeated application of the same input value. Max. Value Min. Value Repeatability = __________________________ X 100 Full Range
2.12 PRECISION
Its the reproducibility or repeatability of a measuring instrument.
02
Mechatronics
3. CLASSIFICATIONS OF SENSORS Sensors sometimes called as Transducers there are classified according to the Nature, Type of Input & Applications are as follows 1. Displacement, Position and Proximity a. Potentiometer Sensor b. Strain-Gauged Element c. Capacitive Element d. Differential Transformers e. Eddy Current Proximity Sensors f. Inductive Proximity Switch g. Optical Encoders h. Pneumatic Sensors i. j. Proximity Switches Hall Effect Sensors
4. Fluid Pressure a. Piezoelectric Sensors b. Tactile Sensors 5. Liquid Flow, Liquid level 6. Temperature a. Bimetallic Strips b. Resistance Temperature Detectors(RTDs) c. Thermistors d. Thermo diodes and Transistors e. Thermocouples 7. Light sensors
4. DISPLACEMENT, POSITION AND PROXIMITY SENSORS
DISPLACEMENT SENSORS:
are
concerned
with
the
measurement of the amount by which some object has been moved.

POSITION SENSORS:
2. Velocity and Motion a. Incremental Encoder b. Tachogenerator c. Pyroelectric Sensors 3. Force a. Strain gauge load Cell
are
concerned
with
the
determination of position of some object in relation to some reference point.
03
PROXIMITY SENSORS: Is a form of position sensor and are
4.1 POTENTIOMETER SENSORS A Potentiometer consists of a resistance element which a
used to determine when an object has moved to within some particular critical distance of the sensor.
Mechatronics
sliding contact which can be moved over the length of the element. Such elements
They are essentially devices which give on/off outputs.
CLASSIFICATIONS OF DISPLACEMENT, POSITION & PROXIMITY SENSORS
can be
used
for
linear
or
rotary
1. Potentiometer Sensor 2. Strain-Gauged Element 3. Capacitive Element 4. Differential Transformers 5. Eddy Current Proximity Sensors
displacements. The displacement being converted into a potential
difference. Potentiometer is used as sensors with electronic system
in cars for accelerate the pedal position & Throttle Position. The rotary Potentiometer consists of a circular wire- wound track or
Vivekanand.M.Bonal (M.Tech) 6. Inductive Proximity Switch 04 a film of conductive plastic over which a routable sliding contact
can be routed. 7. Optical Encoders The track may be a single turn or helical. 8. Pneumatic Sensors 9. Proximity Switches 10.Hall Effect Sensors The output is proportional to the angle through which the slider has routed. 4.2 STRAIN- GAUGED ELEMENT
Mechatronics
The electrical resistance strain gauge is metal wire, metal foil strip. A strip of semiconductor material which is wafer- like. Can be struck onto surfaces like a postage stamp. When subject to strain its resistance R changes the fractional change in resistance R/R being proportional to the Strain. The Strain is given by G = ____ Where G= Gauge factor its Constant Proportionality R R
4.3 CAPACITIVE ELEMENT CAPACITIVE

DISPLACEMENT SENSORS
are non-contact devices
capable of high-resolution measurement of the position and/or change of position of any conductive target. They are also able to measure the thickness or density of nonconductive materials. Capacitive displacement sensors are used in a wide variety of applications including semiconductor processing, assembly of precision equipment such as disk drives, precision thickness measurements, machine line testing. These types of sensors can be found in machining and tool metrology and assembly
manufacturing facilities around the world.

BASIC CAPACITIVE THEORY
As show in the below figure about Strain Gauges Wire

Semiconductor
Capacitance is an electrical property which is created by applying an electrical charge to two conductive objects with a gap between them. This property is most commonly illustrated using the example of two parallel conductive plates with a gap between them and a charge applied to them. In this situation, the Capacitance can be expressed by
Connection Leads a. Metal Wire b. Semi-Conductor
the equation:
r0A
d
C= _____ Where C - Capacitance, 0- The permittivity of free space constant,

Vivekanand.M.Bonal (M.Tech) K - The dielectric constant of the material in the gap, A - The area of the plates. plates. dThe distance between the
It consists of THREE coils symmetrically spaced along an insulated tube. As show in below figure.
Secondary1 Primary Secondary2 Constant A.C Voltage input to Primary Displacement moves rod from central position Output Voltages as differential between the two secondary voltages
05
Forms of capacitive sensing element as shown below figures.
Ferrous Rod
Mechatronics
overlap Area
The central coil is the primary coil & other two are identical
Plate moves Moves A Changes Dielectric
secondary coils which are connected in series in such a way that their outputs oppose each other.
As the object approaches so the plate separation of the capacitor changes, becoming significant and detectable when the object is close to the probe. A magnetic core is moved through the central tube as a result of the displacement being monitored. When there is an alternating voltage input to the primary coil, alternating e.m.f.s are induced in the secondary coils. The linear variable differential transformers generally referred to by the abbreviation LVDT. With the magnetic core central the amount of magnetic material in each of the secondary coils is the same.
4.4 DIFFERENTIAL TRANSFORMERS
Thus the e.m.f.s induced in each coil are the same. Since they are so connected that their outputs oppose each other, the net results is zero output.
The Eddy Current themselves produces a magnetic field. This distorts the magnetic field responsible for their production. As result the impedance of the coil changes and so the amplitude
The difference between the two e.m.f.s increases the greater the displacement being monitored.
of the alternating current. As show in the figure about Eddy Current Sensors
The e.m.f. induced in a secondary coil by a changing current i in the primary coil is given by di dt e=M Reference Coil Sensor Coil ADVANTAGES OF EDDY CURRENT SENSORS Its used for the detection of Non-Magnetic but Conductive
06 Conducting Object
Where: M- Mutual Inductance, its value depends on the number of turns on the coils & the ferromagnetic core.
4.5 EDDY CURRENT PROXIMITY SENSORS If a coil is supplied with an alternating current, an alternating magnetic field is produced. If there is a metal object in close proximity to this alternating magnetic field the Eddy Current are induced in it. Small in Size with higher reliability. Relatively Inexpensive.
materials.
Mechatronics High sensitivity to small displacements.
These sensors used in Sensors and Transducers CD drive, Printers, plotters, tape, tables, automatic handlers, robotics, factory,
positioning 4.6 INDUCTIVE PROXIMITY SWITCH This consists of a coil wound round a core. When the end of the coil is close to a metal object its inductance changes. This change can be monitored by its effect on a resonant circuit.
medical equipments & high quality instrumentation. A shown in figure the basic form of an incremental
encoder for the measurement of angular displacement. LED ==

light Sensors
Disc The change is used to trigger a switch. It can only used for the detection of metal objects. 4.7 OPTICAL ENCODERS An Encoder is device that provides a digital output as a Vivekanand.M.Bonal (M.Tech) result of a linear or angular displacement. Position encoders can be grouped in to TWO types.
INCREMENTAL ENCODERS
==
Disc with Slots
A beam of light passes through slots in a disc and is detected by suitable light sensor. When the disc is rotated a pulsed output is produced by the sensor which the disc routes. The angular position of the disc can determined by the number of pulses produced. 4.8 PNEUMATIC SENSORS which give the actual angular Pneumatic Sensors involve the use of compressed air or displacement. with the number of pulses being proportional to the angle through
07
that detect changes in rotation
from some datum position.

ABSOLUTE ENCODERS
position.
The proximity of an object being transformed into a change in air pressure. As show in below figure.
There are a number of forms of switch which can be
activated by the presence of an object in order to give a proximity sensor with an output which is either on or off. The Below figure shows a Micro Switch which small
Escaping air
electrical switch operated in many ways.
Button to operate Switch

Low Pressure Air inlet Escaping air
Low Pressure air is allowed to escape through a port in the front of the sensor. This escaping air in the absence of any closed-by object, escapes and in doing so also reduces the pressure in the nearby sensor output port. The output pressure from the sensor thus depends on the proximity of objects. These sensors are used for the measurement of displacements of fractions of millimeters in range which is typically 3 to 12mm.
a. Level operated
b. Roller operated
c. Cam Operated Switch
It required a small physical contact & small operating

Mechatronics
force to close the contacts.
4.9 PROXIMITY SWITCHES
ADVANTAGES OF PROXIMITY SENSORS
Simple in construction. Easy in Operation When magnetic field applied at right angles to the plane of the Lesser space occupied.
electrons moving in the conductive plate As a consequence of the magnetic field the electrons are deflected to one side of the plate.
Sensors and Transducers 08
Good accuracy over the Range. Mechatronics 4.10 HALL EFFECT SENSORS This Effect is discovered by E.R. Hall in 1879 and called Hall Effect. When a beam of charged particle passes through a magnetic field, force acts on the particles. The beam is deflected from the straight line path. A current following in a conductor is like a beam of moving charges and thus can be deflected by the magnetic field. As show in below figure:
-Vely +Vely Charged Magnetic Filed
Thus that side becomes negatively charged & other side
becomes positively charged. The charge separation produces an electric field in the material. The Charge separation continues until the forces on the charged
from the electric field just balance the forces produced by the magnetic field. The result is a transverse Potential Difference V is given by: BI Potential Difference V = KH t
Where: B - Magnetic Flux density at the right angles to the plate. I Current in the device t- Thickness of the Plate
Current Potential difference produced by Deflection of electrons
Current
KH Hall Effect Constant
ADVANTAGES OF HALL EFFECT SENSORS
The number of pulse produced per second being determined. 5.2 TACHOGENERATOR The Tachogenerator is used to measure angular velocity.
The switches which can operate up to 100 kHz repetition rate Cost is less than the electromechanical switches. There is NO Bouncing problem with these switches. It immunes the environmental contaminates. It can be used under server service conditions. Mechatronics 5. VELOCITY AND MOTION SENSORS
Vivekanand.M.Bonal (M.Tech)used to Detect Monitor linear, angular These sensors are
The Tachogenerator is a device which is used for measuring the speed of a shaft and converting voltage into a voltage so that it can be measured. The variable reluctance Tachogenerator consists of a toothed wheel of ferromagnetic material which is attached to the routing shaft. The DC Tachogenerator is a speed transducer which develops DC Sensors and Transducers voltage proportional to speed of the motor connected to it. Permanent excitation. It offers extremely reliable & stable outputs. The accuracy of the Tachogenerator decides the maximum accuracy of speed of the controlled machine. By measuring the voltage produced by a Tachogenerator you can easily determine the rotational speed of whatever its mechanically attached to it. Tachogenerator can also indicate the direction of rotation by the polarity of the output voltage. In measurement & control systems where directional indication is needed. Its used in to measure the speed of electric motors, Engines & The equipment they power like conveyor belt, machine tools, mixers, fans, etc. magnetic field eliminates the need of external 09
velocities & Motion. These sensors specially used in security systems, Interactive
EXAMPLE:
Toys & Appliances. Cash Machine Screen which becomes active when you get near to it.
TYPES OF VELOCITY AND MOTION SENSORS
1. Incremental Encoder 2. Tachogenerator 3. Pyroelectric Sensors 5.1 INCREMENTAL ENCODER Its used for the measurement of angular velocity.
5.3 PYROELECTRIC SENSORS Pyroelectric Materials Ex: lithium tantalite, are crystalline
When force are applied to the cylinder to compress it, then the strain gauge give a resistance change which is measure of the strain & hence the applied forces. A load cell is a transducer that is used to convert a force into electrical signal. This conversion take place in two steps Through mechanical arrangement, the force being sensed deforms a strain gauge. The strain gauge measures the deformation as electrical signal, because the strain changes the effective electrical resistance of the wire. A load cell usually consists of four strain gauges in a Wheatstone Sensors and Transducers bridge configuration. The electrical signal output is typically in the order of a few mill by the measurement of volts and requires amplification by an instrumentation amplifier before it can be used. As show in the below figure a Strain gauge Load cell
10
materials which generate change in response to heat flow. A Pyroelectric sensor consists of a polarized pyroelectric crystal with thin metal film electrodes on opposite faces. The crystal is polarized with charged surfaces; ions are drawn from the surrounding air. Electrons from any measurement circuit connected to the sensor to balance the surface charge.
Mechatronics
6. FORCE SENSORS
Its mainly used to measure a force. Force is commonly measured displacement. Example: A Spring balance.
6.1 STRAIN GAUGE OR LOAD CELL SENSOR
An electrical resistance strain gauges generally used to monitor strain produced in some member when stretched compressed or bent by application of force. This is also called as a Load cell. This is a cylindrical tube to which strain gauge are attached.
Strain Gauges Force

APPLICATIONS OF STRAIN GAUGE SENSORS
Force Measurement & Gauge. Portable Weigh scale. Platform Scale Electronic Weighbridge or Truck Weighing. Electronic Crane Scales Hopper/Tank/Silo weighing Onboard weighing Railcar weighing In-Motion dynamic weighing check. Feedback Control Impact Measurement
Mechatronics
For a diaphragm when there is a difference in pressure between the 2 sides then the center of the diaphragm becomes displaced and corrugations in the diaphragm results in a greater sensitivity.
TYPES OF FLUID PRESSURE SENSORS
1. Piezoelectric Sensors 2. Tactile Sensor 7.1 PIEZOELECTRIC SENSORS These sensors use piezoelectric effect to measure pressure, acceleration, strain or force by converting them to an electrical signal.
Sensors and Transducers It converts one type of energy into another by taking advantage of
Batch weighing Monitor Inventory To monitor the fluid pressure involves the monitoring of the elastic deformation of diaphragms, bellows and tubes as shown in below diagram Pressure Pressure Strain gauge Diaphragm
7. FLUID PRESSURE SENSORS
the piezoelectric properties of certain crystals or other materials.

11 It can be used as both as sensors and Actuators, so theyre
referred to as transducer. When a piezoelectric material is subjected to stress or force, it generates an electrical potential or voltage proportional to the magnitude of the force. In this one face of the material becoming +vely charged and It converts mechanical energy or force into electrical potential. 7.2 TACTILE SENSOR A tactile sensor is a particular form of pressure sensor. Such a sensor is used on the fingertips of robotic hands. other is -vely charged.
Pressure a. flat b. Corrugated c. Diaphragm The type of pressure measurement includes absolute pressure, vacuum pressure, and differential pressure & gauge pressure.
Its used to determine when a hand has come into contact with Its also used for Touch Display screens where a physical
8.2 LIQUID LEVEL FLOAT SYSTEMS A direct method of monitoring the level of liquid in a vessel is by As show in below figure: Floating Ball Input Voltage Output Voltage DC monitoring the movement of the float.
an object. contact has to be sensed. 8. LIQUID FLOW AND LIQUID LEVEL The traditional method of measuring the flow rate of liquids involves devices based on the measurement of the pressure drop occurring when the fluid flows through a constriction. Measurement of the pressure difference can thus be used to Example: Orifice Plate and Turbine Meter The level of liquid in a vessel can be measured directly by
give a measure of the rate of flow.
The displacement of the float causes a lever arm to rotate and The result is an output of a voltage related to the height of The change in height is given by: W= Agh. Where: A- Cross sectional Area ofSensors and Transducers the vessel. - Density. h- Height of the liquid 9. TEMPERATURE SENSORS g- Acceleration due to gravity
12
so move a slides across a potentiometer. liquid.
monitoring the position of the liquid surface or indirectly by measuring some variable related to the height. Mechatronics Example: Floats, Vessel, perhaps, load cell 8.1 TURBINE METER FLOW METER The turbine flow meter consists of a multi bladed rotor that is
supported centrally in the pipe along which the flow occurs. The fluid flow results in the rotation of the rotor. The angular velocity being approximately proportional to the The rate of revaluation of the rotor can be determined using a The pulse is counted & also the number of revolution of the
A sensor is device that measures a physical quantity and converts into a signal which can be read by an observer or by an instrument. Example: Thermometer. The temperature sensors are classified into following ways
CLASSIFICATION OF TEMPERATURE SENSORS
flow rate. magnetic pick up. rotor can be determined.
1. Bimetallic Strips
2. Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTDs) 3. Thermistors 4. Thermo-Diodes and Transistors 5. Thermocouples 9.1 BIMETALLIC STRIPS This device consists of two different metal strips bounded The metals have different coefficient of expansion. When the temperature changes the composite strip bends into The Higher coefficient metal on the outside of the curve This deformation may be used as a temperature controlled switch. The simple thermostat which is commonly used with domestic heating system as shown in figure: The small magnet enables the sensor to exhibit hysteresis. together.
Small Magnet 9.2 RESISTANCE TEMPERATURE DETECTORS (RTDS) Resistive temperature devices are capitalized on the fact that the electrical resistance of a material changes as its temperature changes. As the name indicate RTDs rely on resistance change in a metal with the resistance rising more or less linearly with temperature 9.3 rises. Thermistors are small pieces of material made from mixtures of metal oxides; such as chromium, cobalt, iron, manganese & nickel these are semiconductors. The material is formed into various forms of Transducers Sensors and element such as a beads, disc & rods. THERMISTORS Thermistors are based on resistance change in a ceramic
a curved strip.
semiconductor; the resistance drops nonlinearly with temperature
Mechatronics The switch contacts close at a different temperature from that at which they open.
.High expensive Material
Electrical Connection
Thermistors are used with the electronic systems for car13 to monitor such variables as air temperature & coolant air temperature.
ADVANTAGES OF THERMISTORS
Low Expensive Material Bimetallic Strip Soft ion set temp adjustment
They are small in size they respond very rapidly to changes in They give very large changes in resistance per degree change They are very rugged; so enabling temperatures to be
temperature. in temperature. monitored at virtually a point.
DISADVANTAGES OF THERMISTORS
Photodiode are semiconductor junction diodes which are It gives a very high resistance when light falls on the junction. When the light falls on the junction extra hole-electrons pairs There is an increase in the reverse current & drops the diode
They are Non-Linearity in nature
connected into a circuit in reverse bias.
9.5 THERMOCOUPLES Thermocouples consist essentially of two strips or wires made Change in the temperature at the critical point induces a As temperature goes up this output e.m,f of the thermocouple Thermocouples are generally mounted in sheath to give them A Thermocouple circuit can have other metals in the circuit & Thermocouples can be used with reference junction at of different metals and joined at one end. change in e.m.f. between the other ends. rises. mechanical & chemical protection. they will have no effect on the e.m.f. temperature other than 0OC. 10. LIGHT SENSORS
are produced. resistance.

PHOTO TRANSISTORS
The photo transistors have a light sensitive collector. When light incident on it, current is directly proportional to the
intensity of the light. This leads to the production of a collector current which measures the intensity of light.
PHOTO RESISTORS
A Photo resistor has a resistance which depends on the intensity of light falling on it. Decreasing linearity as the intensity increases.
Mechatronics Vivekanand.M.Bonal (M.Tech)
14
Sensors which sense the presence of light are called Light 11. SELECTION OF SENSORS In selecting a sensor for particular applications the following factor has to be considered. 1. Nature of the measurement required. 2. Nature of Output required from the sensor. The sensors are called Photo Electric Transducer because when
sensors or Photo Sensors. light falls on these sensors exhibits a change in their electrical property.
Ex: Light signal is converted into Electrical Signal.

PHOTO DIODE
3. The identification of sensor based on Range, Accuracy, Linearity, Speed of response, Reliability, life, Power, availability, Cost 12. INPUTTING DATA BY SWITCHES Mechanical switches consists of one or more pairs of contacts which can be mechanically closed or opened and in doing so make or break electrical circuits. Thus low or high signals can be transmitted by the act of opening or closing a switch. Mechanical switches are specified in terms of their number of poles and Throws. POLES: Poles are the number of separate circuits that can be completed by the same switching action. The output from the flip-flop only changes when the clock signals THROWS: Is the number of individual contacts for each pole. changes. By choosing a period which is greater than the time for which the bounces lost, the bounce signals will be ignored.
Sensors and Transducers 15
a. SPST 12 A: DE-BOUNCING
b. SPDT
c. DPDT
A problem that occurs with mechanical switches is switch bounce. To overcome from the switch bouncing De-Bouncing is used either in hardware or in software. With software the microprocessor is programmed to detect; if the switch is closed and then wait for 20ms. After checking that bouncing has ceased and the switch is in the same closed position, the next part of the program can be taken. With hardware bouncing is solved by using Flip-Flops in circuits.
Mechatronics
Vivekanand.M.Bonal (M.Tech) SWITCHES TYPES OF MECHANICAL a. Single Pole Single Throw (SPST). b. Single Pole Double Throw (SPDT). c. Double Pole Double Throw (DPTP).
Alternative method for De-Bouncing using hardware is to use a Schmitt Trigger. As show in the below Diagrams; Switch bounce on closing switch.

Introduction Mechatronics

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Introduction Mechatronics

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MECHATRONICS

Major Topics PART-A

Digital Logic Microprocessors Input / Output systems PART-C

Department of Mechanical Engineering Government Polytechnic - Surpur

1.4 control systems 1.5 Mechatronics approach to problems

2.10 Selection of sensors 2.11 Inputting data by switches

5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4

MICROPROCESSORS Control Microcomputer Structure Microcontrollers Applications

7.7 7.8 7.9 7.10 7.11

8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.6

DESIGN OF MECHATRONICS SYSTEMS Designing Possible Design Solutions-case studies

a. Sensor b. Signal Conditioner c. Display

Much greater Flexibility

Easy Redesign Reprogramming More Reliable Mechatronics Cheaper Vivekanand.M.Bonal (M.Tech)

BLOCK DIAGRAM OF MECHATRONICS

Sensing and control systems Washing Machine Water level Controller

Microprocessor for Control

Fig: Block Diagram of a Mechatronics

A system its a combination of both input & Output.

2.1 TYPES OF SYSTEM There are Two Types of System

c. Thermometer Thermometer has an input of temperature & output of number of scale

3.2 SIGNAL CONDITIONER 3. MEASURMENT SYSTEM

BASIC ELEMENTS OF MEASUREMENT SYSTEM Mechatronics

There are 3 Basic Elements they are

Input as Reference Variable Input as Force

Controlled Variable Output as

Spring/ Motor Spring

4.1 TYPES OF CONTROL SYSTEM

Introduction to Mechatronics 1 COMPARISON ELEMENT: Reference Input

COMPRESSION BETWEEN OPEN & CLOSED SYSTEM

It compares the required or Reference value of the variable

1. Complex to Construct 2. It has a Feedback loop 3. Less Stable 4. Optimization is possible

Controller 5. More Accuracy 6. More Costly

Feedback/ Measurement Unit

It analysis the error signal or decides what action is to be taken.

It produces a change in the Process to correct or change the controlled conditions.

The process is what being controlled. Example: Room Temperature.

Feedback/ Measurement Unit

Fig: Closed Control System

The figure Show the Automatic control of water level.

AUTOMATIC CONTROL OF WATER LEVEL

Lever Floating Ball

Its a closed loop control system with following elements

Electric Circuits with Sets of Relays CAM with Operated Switches

Water level in the Tank

Correction units CLK Pgm Control Unit Valve Heater Pump

Washing Machine Drum

DEFINITION: The Communication is the exchange of thoughts,

Digital Communication Systems Centralized, Hierarchical & Distributed Control

10. Data Transmission 1. 2. Serial Transmission Parallel Transmission

3. The compatibility of digital communication system with internet has

opened new area of applications.

Vivekanand.M.Bonal (M.Tech) ADVANTAGES OF DIGITAL COMMUNICATION

Parallel Data Transmission Serial Data Transmission

3.1 PARALLEL DATA TRANSMISSION Mechatronics

No need of handshaking lines. 4. COMMUNICATION MODES

A full-duplex (FDX), or sometimes double-duplex system, allows

communication in both directions in simultaneously.

Each computer thus needs access to all the information in

Other nodes linked to the master as slaves.

As show in above figure

and the opportunity to transmit

between the computers