TRAINING REPORT

OF SIX WEEKS INDUSTRIAL TRAINING, UNDERTAKEN AT 220 KV SUB STATION PSTCL ABLOWAL (PATIALA) IN ELECTRICAL DEPARTMENT SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE DEGREE OF BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING Under the guidance of ER. GIAN CHAND Asst. Executive Engineer 220 KV Substation, Ablowal Submitted By ANAND KUMAR SINHA College Roll No.: E103006 Univ. Roll No.: 100180520830

CHITKARA INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

CHANDIGARH-PATIALA NATIONAL HIGHWAY, VILL. JHANSLA, TEHSIL RAJPURA, DISTT. PATIALA 140401

OBJECTIVE OF THE TRAINING

The training entitled STUDY ABOUT THE TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION OF HIGH VOLTAGE ELECTRICITY IN 220 KV GRID was carried out to have a deep knowledge of the various devices installed in the grid. After this training I have gained the knowledge about the various components used in the grid, how are the various components installed, what are the use and the requirement of the various components, how do these components work and about their their maintenance. To observe the working and the functioning of the power transformers was a part of my learning. It gave the knowledge of the protecting devices such as relay, wave trap, isolator, circuit breakers, etc. It gave knowledge of safety measures that should be kept in mind while working with high voltage devices like power transformers. During the training I came to know about the concepts of transmission of power in a grid and how it is distributed to others.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT
I am greatly thankful to Training cell 220Kv substation, Ablowal, Patiala for conducting summer training (2nd may, 2012 to 11th June, 2012). I would also like to thank Mr. Tejinder Singh Saggu, training coordinator(SIX WEEKS- EE),CIET (Punjab) for their able guidance without which I cannot complete the training. I would appreciate the efforts of Er. Gian Chand, asst. Executive Engineer, 220Kv substation, Ablowal for providing me valuable knowledge and making the subject interesting for me.

INDEX
Sr. No. 01 Subject ELECTRICITY TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION- AN OVERVIEW Page No. 4-6

02 03 04 05 06 07

TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION IN PUNJAB 220 KV SUBSTATION, ABLOWAL LINE DIAGRAM OF 220KV SUBSTATION, ABLOWAL ELEMENTS OF THE SUBSTATION(LAYOUT AND DESIGN) THE COMPONENTS INSTALLED AT 220 KV SUB STATION CONCLUSION

7-8 9 10 11-13 14-25 26

Electricity Transmission and Distribution- An Overview

Electric power transmission is the process in the transfer of electrical power to consumers and refers to the 'bulk' transfer of electrical power from one location to another. Transfer of electrical power from Generating Stations to the industrial, commercial or residential consumers is as important as power generation. Typically power transmission is between the power plant and a substation in the vicinity of a populated area. To satisfy various instantaneous demands from consumers requires an uninterrupted flow of electricity. In the energy delivery industry, the transmission system functions in much the same way as the interstate highway system, serving as its major transport arteries. A power transmission system is sometimes referred to as a "grid", which is a fully connected network of transmission lines. The Regional Power Grids are established for optimal utilization of the power generated from the unevenly distributed power generating stations, by having intra-regional and inter-regional power exchanges depending upon day-to-day power availability and load conditions. The surplus power is transferred to the power deficit regions. Due to the large amount of electric power involved, transmission normally takes place at high voltage (110 kV or above). Electric power is usually sent over long distances through overhead power transmission lines. Power is transmitted underground in densely populated areas, such as large cities, but is typically avoided due to the high capacitive and resistive losses incurred. Redundant paths and lines are provided so that power can be routed from any power plant to any load center, through a variety of routes, based on the economics of the transmission path and the cost of power. The grid consists of two infrastructures: the highvoltage transmission systems, which carry electricity from the power plants and transmit it hundreds of miles away, and the lower-voltage distribution systems, which draw electricity from the transmission lines and distribute it to individual customers. High voltage is used for transmission lines to minimize electrical losses; however, high voltage is impractical for distribution lines. Electricity distribution is the penultimate process in the delivery of electric power, i.e. the part between transmission and user purchase from an electricity retailer. It is generally considered to include medium-voltage (less than 50kV) power lines, low-voltage electrical substations and pole-mounted transformers, low-voltage (less than 1000V) distribution wiring and sometimes electricity meters. This interface features transformers that "step down" the transmission voltages to lower voltages for the distribution systems. Transformers located along the distribution lines further step down the voltage for household use. Substations also include electrical switchgear and circuit breakers to protect the transformers and the transmission system from electrical failures on the distribution lines. Circuit breakers are also located along the distribution lines to locally isolate electrical problems (such as short circuits caused by downed power lines). According to World Resources Institute (WRI), Indias electricity grid has the highest transmission and distribution losses in the world a whopping 27%. Numbers published by various Indian government agencies put that number at 30%, 40% and greater than 40%. This is attributed to technical losses (grids inefficiencies) and theft.

Transmission of power
The huge amount of power generated in a power station (hundreds of MW) is to be transported over a long distance (hundreds of kilometers) to load centers to cater power to consumers with the help of transmission line and transmission towers as shown.

Disc insulators. R
Y

R Transmission line (bare conductor) Y

B

Transmission tower steel structure Ground Transmission tower. To give an idea, let us consider a generating station producing 120 MW power and we want to transmit it over a large distance. Let the voltage generated (line to line) at the alternator be 10 kV. Then to transmit 120 MW of power at 10 kV, current in the transmission line can be easily calculated by using power formula circuit for 3-phases follows: P I = = I
3 V cos where
L

cos is the power factor

120106 310103 0.8

= 8660 A

Instead of choosing 10 kV transmission voltage, if transmission voltage were chosen to be 400 kV, current value in the line would have been only 261.5 A. So sectional area of the transmission line (copper conductor) will now be much smaller compared to 10 kV transmission voltage. In other words the cost of conductor will be greatly reduced if power is transmitted at higher and higher transmission voltage. The use of higher voltage (hence lower current in the line) reduces voltage drop in the line resistance and reactance. Also transmission losses is reduced. Standard transmission voltages used are 132 kV or 220 kV or 400 kV or 765 kV depending upon how long the transmission lines are. Therefore, after the generator we must have a step up transformer to change the generated voltage (say 10 kV) to desired transmission voltage (say 400 kV) before transmitting it over a
6

long distance with the help of transmission lines supported at regular intervals by transmission towers. It should be noted that while magnitude of current decides the cost of copper, level of voltage decides the cost of insulators. The idea is, in a spree to reduce the cost of copper one can not indefinitely increase the level of transmission voltage as cost of insulators will offset the reduction copper cost. At the load centers voltage level should be brought down at suitable values for supplying different types of consumers. Consumers may be (1) big industries, such as steel plants, (2) medium and small industries and (3) offices and domestic consumers. Electricity is purchased by different consumers at different voltage level. For example big industries may purchase power at 132 kV, medium and big industries purchase power at 33 kV or 11 kV and domestic consumers at rather low voltage of 230V, single phase. Thus we see that 400 kV transmission voltage is to be brought down to different voltage levels before finally delivering power to different consumers. To do this we require obviously step down transformers. Substations Substations are the places where the level of voltage undergoes change with the help of transformers. Apart from transformers a substation will house switches (called circuit breakers), meters, relays for protection and other control equipment. Broadly speaking, a big substation will receive power through incoming lines at some voltage (say 400 kV) changes level of voltage (say to 132 kV) using a transformer and then directs it out wards through outgoing lines. Pictorially such a typical power system is shown in figure 2.6 in a short of block diagram. At the lowest voltage level of 400 V, generally 3-phase, 4-wire system is adopted for domestic connections. The fourth wire is called the neutral wire (N) which is taken out from the common point of the star connected secondary of the 6 kV/400 V distribution transformer.
To Big industries To Medium industries To Small industries

Step down transformer11 kV/6 kV Power Station step up transformer Step down transformer 400 kV/33 kV Step down transformer33 kV/11 kV R Y B N 3-phase, 4 wire 400 V, power Domestic consumers

Step down transformer6 kV/ 400 V

TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION IN PUNJAB

RECORDS
PSEB has a fairly well laid out Transmission and distribution network with 3766 ckt km of 220 kV, 2981 ckt km 132 kV, 4648 ckt km 66 kV, 1643 ckt km 33 kV, 95019 ckt km of 11 kV and 157158 ckt km of LT. The HT - LT ratio is about 1:1.5 which is not ideal and require augmentation of the system to bring it to 1:1. The technical losses of the system are stated to be 17.0% (2001-02), but it is only an estimate as there are no means of measuring the losses. Meters have not been provided on all the feeders from generating stations down to distribution transformers.

TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION (T&D) LOSSES

Till 1999-2000 PSEB had been presenting T&D losses at about 17-18% purely on the basis of their own assumption. Considerable percentages (about 14-15%) of losses were being shown as agricultural consumption. In 1999-2000 PSEB computed the agricultural consumption as 8233 MU but later intimated to the Commission that agriculture consumption is 4888 MU based on sample metering. The difference of 3345 MU is stated to represent non technical (commercial) losses. The T&D losses (technical and non technical) by this work out to be about 30.80% during 1999-2000 against 17.76% presented officially which actually pertained to technical losses only. The level of losses is high for a small system with high load density. The losses are said to have been reduced to 26.5% during 2000-01. During 2001-02 the losses were contemplated to be 25.5% representing (17.0% technical losses and 8.5% non technical losses), which is again only an estimation. In the current state of affairs, consumption by Agricultural pump sets and T&D losses are two sides of the coin. If we notionally reduce one, the other will increase.

220 KV SUB STATION, ABLOWAL

10

ABOUT THE GRID

The 220 kv substation is installed at ablowal, patiala. It receives the 220KV incoming supply from Gobindgarh and Fakun Mazra and it is step down to 66 Kv, which is further step down to 11 kv to fed the nearby housing colonies, workshops , small industries and villages. A substation is a part of an electrical generation, transmission, and distribution system. Substations transform voltage from high to low, or the reverse, or perform any of several other important functions. Electric power may flow through several substations between generating plant and consumer, and its voltage may change in several steps. A substation that has a step-up transformer increases the voltage while decreasing the current, while a step-down transformer decreases the voltage while increasing the current for domestic and commercial distribution. The word substation comes from the days before the distribution system became a grid. The first substations were connected to only one power station, where the generators were housed, and were subsidiaries of that power station.

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Line diagram of 220kv Substation, Ablowal

12

Single Line Diagrams

Power systems are extremely complicated electrical networks that are geographically spread over very large areas. For most part, they are also three phase networks each power circuit consists of three conductors and all devices such as generators, transformers, breakers, disconnects etc. are installed in all three phases. In fact, the power systems are so complex that a complete conventional diagram showing all the connections is impractical. Yet, it is desirable, that there is some concise way of communicating the basic arrangement of power system components. This is done by using Single Line Diagrams (SLD). SLDs are also called One Line Diagrams.

Single Line Diagrams do not show the exact electrical connections of the circuits. As the name suggests, SLDs use a single line to represent all three phases. They show the relative electrical interconnections of generators, transformers, transmission and distribution lines, loads, circuit breakers, etc., used in assembling the power system. The amount of information included in an SLD depends on the purpose for which the diagram is used. For example, if the SLD is used in initial stages of designing a substation, then all major equipment will be included in the diagram major equipment being transformers, breakers, disconnects and buses. There is no need to include instrument transformers or protection and metering devices. However, if the purpose is to design a protection scheme for the equipment in the substation, then instrument transformers and relays are also included.

There is no universally accepted set of symbols used for single line diagrams. Often used symbols are shown in Fig. The variations in symbols are usually minor and are not difficult to understand.

13

Concept of Bus
Concept of bus in single line diagrams is essentially the same as the concept of a node in an electrical circuit. Just keep in mind that there is one bus for each phase. Buses are shown in SLDs as short straight lines perpendicular to transmission lines and to lines connecting equipment to the buses. In actual substations, the buses are made of aluminum or copper bars or pipes and can be several meters long. The impedance of buses is very low, practically zero, so electrically the whole bus is at the same potential. Of course, there is line voltage between the buses of the individual phases.

Figure - Graphical Symbols for Single Line Diagrams

14

Figure Single Line Diagram showing bus arrangement of a substation

Single line diagrams like in the above figure are used to illustrate the layout of buses in a substation. The arrangement of figure two is called a breaker and a half. There are three breakers for every two connections of lines or transformers to the bus, i.e. 1 breakers per termination.

15

Figure Single line diagram of an electric power system.

Figure shows a small power system. Any information that is required is added to the SLD. In this case connections of generator and transformer windings, as well as the method of grounding the neutral are indicated. This type of SLD has often also specified the size of the equipment in MVAs, voltage levels, and any other relevant information.

Figure Single Line Diagram of a 69 kV/12 kV/4.16 kV Substation

16

load
500A 5A

load
500A 5A

3 fault B1 B2 If = 8000 A

51

51

Figure - Single Line Diagram of Over current Protection of a Radial System

Above Figure shows a radial system of two lines. The buses represent two distribution stations. The outgoing lines have breakers only on the supply end. There are current transformers on the supply end of each breaker. The current transformers are connected to over current relays. Dashed lines between the relays and the breakers indicate a functional relationship; in this case operation of over current relays causes the associated breaker to trip. This type of SLD is used for calculation of fault current and setting and coordination of the relays.

17

ELEMENTS OF THE SUBSTATION

Substations generally have switching, protection and control equipment, and transformers. In a large substation, circuit breakers are used to interrupt any short circuits or overload currents that may occur on the network. Smaller distribution stations may use closer circuit breakers or fuses for protection of distribution circuits. Substations themselves do not usually have generators, although a power plant may have a substation nearby. Other devices such as capacitors and voltage regulators may also be located at a substation.

DESIGN OF THE SUBSTATION

The main issues facing a power engineer are reliability and cost. A good design attempts to strike a balance between these two, to achieve sufficient reliability without excessive cost. The design should also allow easy expansion of the station, if required. Selection of the location of a substation must consider many factors. Sufficient land area is required for installation of equipment with necessary clearances for electrical safety, and for access to maintain large apparatus such as transformers. Where land is costly, such as in urban areas, gas insulated switchgear may save money overall. The site must have room for expansion due to load growth or planned transmission additions. Environmental effects of the substation must be considered, such as drainage, noise and road traffic effects. Grounding (earthing) and ground potential rise must be calculated to protect passers-by during a short-circuit in the transmission system. Of course, the substation site must be reasonably central to the distribution area to be served.

LAYOUT OF THE SUB STATION

The first step in planning a substation layout is the preparation of a one-line diagram which shows in simplified form the switching and protection arrangement required, as well as the incoming supply lines and outgoing feeders or transmission lines. It is a usual practice by many electrical utilities to prepare one-line diagrams with principal elements (lines, switches, circuit breakers and transformers) arranged on the page similarly to the way the apparatus would be laid out in the actual station. In a common design, incoming lines have a disconnect switch and a circuit breaker. In some cases, the lines will not have both, with either a switch or a circuit breaker being all that is considered necessary. A disconnect switch is used to provide isolation, since it cannot interrupt load current. A circuit breaker is used as a protection device to interrupt fault currents automatically, and may be used to switch loads on and off, or to cut off a line when power is flowing in the 'wrong' direction. When a large fault current flows through the circuit breaker, this is detected through the use of current transformers. The magnitude of the current transformer
18

outputs may be used to trip the circuit breaker resulting in a disconnection of the load supplied by the circuit break from the feeding point. This seeks to isolate the fault point from the rest of the system, and allow the rest of the system to continue operating with minimal impact. Both switches and circuit breakers may be operated locally (within the substation) or remotely from a supervisory control center. Once past the switching components, the lines of a given voltage connect to one or more buses. These are sets of bus bars, usually in multiples of three, since three-phase electrical power distribution is largely universal around the world. The arrangement of switches, circuit breakers and buses used affects the cost and reliability of the substation. For important substations a ring bus, double bus, or so-called "breaker and a half" setup can be used, so that the failure of any one circuit breaker does not interrupt power to other circuits, and so that parts of the substation may be de-energized for maintenance and repairs. Substations feeding only a single industrial load may have minimal switching provisions, especially for small installations. Once having established buses for the various voltage levels, transformers may be connected between the voltage levels. These will again have a circuit breaker, much like transmission lines, in case a transformer has a fault (Commonly called a short circuit). Along with this, a substation always has control circuitry needed to command the various breakers to open in case of the failure of some component.

SWITCHING FUNCTION
An important function performed by a substation is switching, which is the connecting and disconnecting of transmission lines or other components to and from the system. Switching events may be "planned" or "unplanned". A transmission line or other component may need to be de-energized for maintenance or for new construction, for example, adding or removing a transmission line or a transformer. To maintain reliability of supply, no company ever brings down its whole system for maintenance. All work to be performed, from routine testing to adding entirely new substations, must be done while keeping the whole system running. Perhaps more important, a fault may develop in a transmission line or any other component. Some examples of this: a line is hit by lightning and develops an arc, or a tower is blown down by high wind. The function of the substation is to isolate the faulted portion of the system in the shortest possible time.
19

There are two main reasons: a fault tends to cause equipment damage; and it tends to destabilize the whole system. For example, a transmission line left in a faulted condition will eventually burn down; similarly, a transformer left in a faulted condition will eventually blow up.While these are happening, the power drain makes the system more unstable. Disconnecting the faulted component, quickly, tends to minimize both of these problems.

AUTOMATION
Early electrical substations required manual switching or adjustment of equipment, and manual collection of data for load, energy consumption, and abnormal events. As the complexity of distribution networks grew, it became economically necessary to automate supervision and control of substations from a centrally attended point, to allow overall coordination in case of emergencies and to reduce operating costs. Early efforts to remote control substations used dedicated communication wires, often run alongside power circuits. Power-line carrier, microwave radio, fiber optic cables as well as dedicated wired remote control circuits have all been applied to Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) for substations. The development of the microprocessor made for an exponential increase in the number of points that could be economically controlled and monitored. Today, standardized communication protocols such as DNP3, IEC 61850 and Modbus, to list a few, are used to allow multiple intelligent electronic devices to communicate with each other and supervisory control centers. Distributed automatic control at substations is one element of the so-called smart grid.

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THE EQUIPMENTS INSTALLED AT 220 KV SUB STATION

1. ISOLAOTRS
There are 54 sets of isolators are installed at the substation. Each set contains 3 isolators. In electrical engineering, a disconnector or isolator switch is used to make sure that an electrical circuit can be completely de-energized for service or maintenance. Such switches are often found in electrical distribution and industrial applications where machinery must have its source of driving power removed for adjustment or repair. High-voltage isolation switches are used in electrical substations to allow isolation of apparatus such as circuit breakers and transformers, and transmission lines, for maintenance. Often the isolation switch is not intended for normal control of the circuit and is only used for isolation.

21

Isolator switches have provisions for a padlock so that inadvertent operation is not possible . In high voltage or complex systems, these padlocks may be part of a trapped-key interlock system to ensure proper sequence of operation. In some designs the isolator switch has the additional ability to earth the isolated circuit thereby providing additional safety. Such an arrangement would apply to circuits which inter-connect power distribution systems where both end of the circuit need to be isolated. The major difference between an isolator and a circuit breaker is that an isolator is an off-load device intended to be opened only after current has been interrupted by some other control device. Safety regulations of the utility must prevent any attempt to open the disconnector while it supplies a circuit.

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2. CIRCUIT BREAKERS
There are 7 sets of 220 kv and 17 sets of 66 kv breakers installed at the substation. The breakers are also known as switchgears. One of the basic functions of switchgear is protection, which is interruption of short-circuit and overload fault currents while maintaining service to unaffected circuits. Switchgear also provides isolation of circuits from power supplies. Switchgear is also used to enhance system availability by allowing more than one source to feed a load.

A piece of switchgear may be a simple open-air isolator switch or it may be insulated by some other substance. An effective although more costly form of switchgear is gas insulated switchgear (GIS), where the conductors and contacts are insulated by pressurized sulfur hexafluoride gas (SF6). Other common types are oil or vacuum insulated switchgear.

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3. CURRENT TRANSFORMERS (CT)

There are 26 sets of the current transformers installed at the sub -station. Each set have three current transformers. Like any other transformer, a current transformer has a primary winding, a magnetic core, and a secondary winding. The alternating current flowing in the primary produces a magnetic field in the core, which then induces a current in the secondary winding circuit. A primary objective of current transformer design is to ensure that the primary and secondary circuits are efficiently coupled, so that the secondary current bears an accurate relationship to the primary current. The most common design of CT consists of a length of wire wrapped many times around a silicon steel ring passed over the circuit being measured. The CT's primary circuit therefore consists of a single 'turn' of conductor, with a secondary of many hundreds of turns. The primary winding may be a permanent part of the current transformer, with a heavy copper bar to carry current through the magnetic core. Window-type current transformers are also common, which can have circuit cables run through the middle of an opening in the core to provide a single-turn primary winding. When conductors passing through a CT are not centered in the circular (or oval) opening, slight inaccuracies may occur

. Current transformers are used extensively for measuring current and monitoring the operation of the power grid. Along with voltage leads, revenue-grade CTs drive the electrical utility's watthour meter on virtually every building with three-phase service and single-phase services greater than 200 amp. The CT is typically described by its current ratio from primary to secondary. Often, multiple CTs are installed as a "stack" for various uses. For example, protection devices and revenue metering
24

may use separate CTs to provide isolation between metering and protection circuits, and allows current transformers with different characteristics (accuracy, overload performance) to be used for the devices. Care must be taken that the secondary of a current transformer is not disconnected from its load while current is flowing in the primary, as the transformer secondary will attempt to continue driving current across the effectively infinite impedance. This will produce a high voltage across the open secondary (into the range of several kilovolts in some cases), which may cause arcing. The high voltage produced will compromise operator and equipment safety and permanently affect the accuracy of the transformer.

25

4. POWER TRANSFORMERS
The substation has the two 220/66 kv power transformers (100 MVA) installed made by BHEL and ABB and two 66/11 kv power transformer (20 MVA) made by ECE and TA. The power transformers are used to step down the220 KV incoming to 66 kv and further step down 66 kv to 11 kv.

FIG. - A 66/11 KV POWER TRANSFORMER

26

FIG. - A 220/66 KV POWER TRANSFORMER

The power transformer serves as step down transformer. It consists of transformer tank in which the windings are placed mounted on the core which is further attached to the sets of bushes. There is a oil tank which is filled with transformer oil the tank serves for the cooling purpose. The buchholz relay is provided for the protection. The oil-filled tank often has radiators through which the oil circulates by natural convection; some large transformers employ forced circulation of the oil by electric pumps, aided by external fans or water-cooled heat exchangers. Oil-filled transformers undergo prolonged drying processes to ensure that the transformer is completely free of water vapor before the cooling oil is introduced. This helps prevent electrical breakdown under load. Oil-filled transformers may be equipped with Buchholz relays, which detect gas evolved during internal arcing and rapidly de-energize the transformer to avert catastrophic failure. Oil-filled transformers may fail, rupture, and burn, causing power outages and losses. An installation of oil-filled transformers usually includes fire protection measures such as walls, oil containment, and fire-suppression sprinkler systems.

27

A transformer is a device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to another through inductively coupled conductorsthe transformer's coils. A varying current in the first or primary winding creates a varying magnetic flux in the transformer's core and thus a varying magnetic field through the secondary winding. This varying magnetic field induces a varying electromotive force (EMF), or "voltage", in the secondary winding. This effect is called mutual induction. If a load is connected to the secondary, an electric current will flow in the secondary winding and electrical energy will be transferred from the primary circuit through the transformer to the load. In an ideal transformer, the induced voltage in the secondary winding (Vs) is in proportion to the primary voltage (Vp), and is given by the ratio of the number of turns in the secondary (Ns) to the number of turns in the primary (Np) as follows: By appropriate selection of the ratio of turns, a transformer thus allows an alternating current (AC) voltage to be "stepped up" by making Ns greater than Np, or "stepped down" by making Ns less than Np.

28

5. INCOMING BREAKERS

A breaker is sed to break the circuit in case of any faults or for maintenance purposes. Incoming breaker is one which is given before the transformer side and the outgoing. There are four sets of incoming breaker s are installed at the substation. They receive the output of the power transformers. One of the basic functions of switchgear is protection, which is interruption of short-circuit and overload fault currents while maintaining service to unaffected circuits. Switchgear also provides isolation of circuits from power supplies. Switchgear is also used to enhance system availability by allowing more than one source to feed a load.
29

6. OUTGOING BREAKERS
There are 7 outgoing breakers installed at the substation of 11 kv each. These are installed between the Bus Bar and the Distribution Transformer.

A piece of switchgear may be a simple open-air isolator switch or it may be insulated by some other substance. An effective although more costly form of switchgear is gas insulated switchgear (GIS), where the conductors and contacts are insulated by pressurized sulfur hexafluoride gas (SF6). Other common types are oil or vacuum insulated switchgear. The combination of equipment within the switchgear enclosure allows them to interrupt fault currents of thousands of amps. A circuit breaker (within a switchgear enclosure) is the primary component that interrupts fault currents. The quenching of the arc when the circuit breaker pulls apart the contacts open (disconnects the circuit) requires careful design. Circuit breakers fall into these four types: Oil circuit breakers rely upon vaporization of some of the oil to blast a jet of oil through the arc. Gas (SF6) circuit breakers sometimes stretch the arc using a magnetic field, and then rely upon the dielectric strength of the SF6 to quench the stretched arc. Vacuum circuit breakers have minimal arcing (as there is nothing to ionize other than the contact material), so the arc quenches when it is stretched a very small amount (<23 mm). Vacuum circuit breakers are frequently used in modern medium-voltage switchgear to 35,000 volts.
30

Air circuit breakers may use compressed air (puff) to blow out the arc, or alternatively, the contacts are rapidly swung into a small sealed chamber, the escaping of the displaced air thus blowing out the arc.

Circuit breakers are usually able to terminate all current flow very quickly: typically between 30 ms and 150 ms depending upon the age and construction of the device. The term switchgear, used in association with the electric power system, or grid, refers to the combination of electrical disconnects, fuses and/or circuit breakers used to isolate electrical equipment. Switchgear is used both to de-energize equipment to allow work to be done and to clear faults downstream. This type of equipment is important because it is directly linked to the reliability of the electricity supply. The very earliest central power stations used simple open knife switches, mounted on insulating panels of marble or asbestos. Power levels and voltages rapidly escalated, making open manually-operated switches too dangerous to use for anything other than isolation of a deenergized circuit. Oil-filled equipment allowed arc energy to be contained and safely controlled. By the early 20th century, a switchgear line-up would be a metal-enclosed structure with electrically-operated switching elements, using oil circuit breakers. Today, oil-filled equipment has largely been replaced by air-blast, vacuum, or SF6 equipment, allowing large currents and power levels to be safely controlled b automatic equipment incorporating digital controls, protection, metering and communications.

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7. BUS BARS
In electrical power distribution, a busbar is a strip of copper or aluminium that conducts electricity within a switchboard, distribution board, substation or other electrical apparatus. The size of the busbar determines the maximum amount of current that can be safely carried. Busbars can have a cross-sectional area of as little as 10 mm but electrical substations may use metal tubes of 50 mm in diameter (1,963 mm) or more as busbars, and an aluminum smelter will have very large busbars used to carry tens of thousands of amperes to the electrochemical cells that produce aluminum from molten salts.

There is one set of bus bar of 11 kv installed at the substation. Busbars may be connected to each other and to electrical apparatus by bolted or clamp connections. Often joints between highcurrent bus sections have matching surfaces that are silver-plated to reduce the contact resistance.

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8. POTENTIAL TRANSFORMERS(PT)
There 4 sets of the PT of 220 kv/110v and 17 sets of 66kv/110 v is installed at the substation. Potential transformers are instrument transformers. They have a large number of primary turns and a few number of secondary turns. It is used to control the large value of voltage. These are used for the metering purposes.

The potential transformer works along the same principle of other transformers. It converts voltages from high to low. It will take the thousands of volts behind power transmission systems and step the voltage down to something that meters can handle. These transformers work for single and three phase systems, and are attached at a point where it is convenient to measure the voltage. Potential Transformer is designed for monitoring single-phase and three-phase power line voltages in power metering applications. The primary terminals can be connected either in line-to-line or in line-to-neutral configuration. Fused transformer models are designated by a suffix of "F" for one fuse or "FF" for two fuses. A Potential Transformer is a special type of transformer that allows meters to take readings from electrical service connections with higher voltage (potential) than the meter is normally capable of handling without at potential transformer.

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9. LIGHTNING ARRESTERS
A lightning arrester is a device used on electrical power systems to protect the insulation on the system from the damaging effect of lightning. Metal oxide varistors (MOVs) have been used for power system protection since the mid 1970s. The typical lightning arrester also known as surge arrester has a high voltage terminal and a ground terminal. When a lightning surge or switching surge travels down the power system to the arrester, the current from the surge is diverted around the protected insulation in most cases to earth.

There are four sets of lightning arresters installed for the 220/66 kv transformers 2 sets of lightning arresters installed for the 220/66 kv transformers, two sets are installed for the220 kv bus bar and two sets are installed for the 66 kv bus bar.

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10. CAPACITOR BANK

A capacitor bank is a grouping of several identical capacitors interconnected in parallel or in series with one another. These groups of capacitors are typically used to correct or counteract undesirable characteristics, such as power factor lag or phase shifts inherent in alternating current (AC) electrical power supplies. Capacitor banks may also be used in direct current (DC) power supplies to increase stored energy and improve the ripple current capacity of the power supply.

Shunt capacitor banks are used to improve the quality of the electrical supply and the efficient operation of the power system. Studies show that a flat voltage profile on the system can significantly reduce line losses. Shunt capacitor banks are relatively inexpensive and can be easily installed anywhere on the network.

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11. CONTROL BATTERIES

There are 110 batteries of 2v each are connected in series. They provide the 220v DC to the control panels.

When connecting your batteries in Series you are doubling the voltage while maintaining the same capacity rating (amp hours). This might be used in a scooter, Power Wheels kids vehicle, or other applications. Just use a jumper wire between the negative of the first battery and the positive of the second battery. Run your negative wire off of the open connector from the first battery and your positive off of the open connector on your second battery.

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12. RELAYS
A relay is an electrically operated switch. Many relays use an electromagnet to operate a switching mechanism mechanically, but other operating principles are also used. Relays are used where it is necessary to control a circuit by a low-power signal (with complete electrical isolation between control and controlled circuits), or where several circuits must be controlled by one signal.

There are the following types of relays: 1) UNDERCURRENT RELAY: A relay designed to operate when its coil current falls below a predetermined value. 2) OVERCURRET RELAY A relay designed to operate when its coil current reaches over a predetermined value. 3) EARTH FAULT RELAY A relay designed to operate when its coil fails to earth the current a predetermined value.
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CONCLUSION
I think that my training was successful and 220 kv substation at ablowal is an excellent training centre for inquisitive emerging electrical engineers to learn about the high voltage electricity transmission and distribution with the the functioning of all other protective devices. In the training session we came to know about the fundamentals of power system which may be quite useful for our fore coming studies.

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