5 MW Condenser PDF

E
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ORNL/TM=8100
Design and Analysis of a 5-MW 7 Vertical-Fluted-Tube Condenser for Geothermal Applications
G. H. Llewellyn
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DISCLAIMER This report was prepared as an account of work sponsored by an agency of the United States Government. Neither the United States Government nor any agency Thereof, nor any of their employees, makes any warranty, express or implied, or assumes any legal liability or responsibility for the accuracy, completeness, or usefulness of any information, apparatus, product, or process disclosed, or represents that its use would not infringe privately owned rights. Reference herein to any specific commercial product, process, or service by trade name, trademark, manufacturer, or otherwise does not necessarily constitute or imply its endorsement, recommendation, or favoring by the United States Government or any agency thereof. The views and opinions of authors expressed herein do not necessarily state or reflect those of the United States Government or any agency thereof.
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This report was prepared as an account of work sponsored by an agency of the United StatesGovernment. Neither theU nited StatesGovernment nor any agency thereof, nor any of their employees, makes any warranty, express or implied, or assumes any legal liability or responsibility for the accuracy, completeness, or usefulness of any information, apparatus, product, or process disclosed, or represents that its use would not infringe privately owned rights. Reference herein to any specific commercial product, process, or service by trade name, trademark, manufacturer, or otherwise, does not necessarily constitute or imply its endorsement, recommendation, or favoring by the United StatesGovernment or any agency thereof. The views and opinions of authors expressed herein do not necessarily state or reflect those of the United StatesGovernment or any agency thereof.
ORNL/TM--8
'
100
ORNL/TM-8100 Dist. Category UC-66d
DE82 008707
Contract No. W-7405-eng-26 Engineering Division for ORNL Energy Division
DESIGN
AM,
ANALYSIS OF A 5-MW VERTICAL-FLUTED-TUBE CONDENSER FOR GEOTHERMAL APPLICATIONS G. H. Llewellyn
- 1 '
DISCLAIMER
Date Published
- March 1982
NOTICE
PORTIONS OF THIS REPORT ARE ILLEGIBLE. It has been reproduced from the best available copy to permit the broadest posdbte avatia biIity.
OAK
RIDG NAL LABORATORY Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37830 opeiated by ION CARBIDE CORPORATION NUCLEAR DIVISION for the DEPARTMENT OF ENERGY
DlSTRllUTlON OF THIS DOCUMENT IS UlllMlTED n
CONTENTS
Page
LISTOFFIGURES LISTOFTABLES AESTRACT
v
s
Vii
............................. 1. INTRODUCTION . 2.Y. S ........................... 3. HISTORY OF FLUTED TUBES . .

4
5
1
1
5
7
11
INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS FLUTEDTUBEMANUFACTURE
................... EXPERIMENTAL WORK AT O W L . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . HEAT TRANSFER CALCULATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.1 Properties of Liquid and Vapor Streams . . . . . . . . . 7.2 Tubeside Heat Transfer Coefficient . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3 Shellside Heat Transfer Coefficient . . . . . . . . . . 7.4 Fouling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.5 Overall Heat Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 6 Log Mean Temperature Difference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 . PRESSURE DROP CALCULATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 1 Tubeside Pressure Drop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.2 Shellside Pressure Drop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9 10
. 6. 7.
13 19 31 31 32 36 40 42
44
47 47 49
55
. .
DESIGN VARIABLES AND OPTIMIZATION
CONDENSER DESIGN 10.1Design Criteria and Code Requirements 10.2 Design Description 10.3 Vibrational Analysis 1 . Data Acquisition and Instrumentation 04 10.5 Sire Testing RELATED PRESENT AND FUTURE WORK CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
. ......... ........ ................... .................. .............. ........ .. .
..............
61 62 63 71 75 78
81
11
12
............... ACKNOWLEDGMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

iii
85
87 89
Page
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Appendix A. Appendix B. Appendix C . Appendix D.
...
. ....... ...
95 103 105 109 111
bi
CONVERSIONS (METRIC/ENGLISH, ENGLISH/METRIC) PROPERTIES OF ISOBUTANE PROPERTIES OF WATER
............. SHELLSIDE PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION . . . . . .
(rr
iv
LIST O FIGURES F
tsl
Figure Page
.......... Fluted tube showing t h e Gregorig e f f e c t . . . . . . . . . . Production method used by Toshiba Metal Products Division, Tokoyo, Japan showing t y p i c a l f l u t e paterns . . . Tube-rolling machine developed by Grob, Inc., Grafton, Wisconsin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Design s p e c i f i c a t i o n s f o r t h e manufacture of t h e E-tube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Photomicrograph of a cross s e c t i o n of carbon steel E-tube produced by Grob., Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
a
Modifications t o test loop a t t h e Geothermal Cortrponents T e s t F a c i l i t y a t East Mesa, C a l i f o r n i a
3
8
14
16
17 17
Enhancement f a c t o r s f o r condensing R-115 on E- and Ftubes compared with smooth tubes with no drainage s k i r t s as functions of heat f l u x Enhancement f a c t o r s f o r condensing R-113 on E- and F-tubes compared with smooth tubes with no drainage s k i r t s as functions of heat f l u x
.............
21
.............
22
Enhancement f a c t o r s f o r condensing R-11 on E- and F-tubes compared with smooth tubes with no drainage s k i r t s as functions of heat f l u x Enhancement f a c t o r s f o r condensing various refrigerants on E-tubes as functions of'heat flux
..............
.....
22 23
10
1 1
E f f e c t of length on condensation c o e f f i c i n e t s of R-11 on A- and F-tubes at heat f l u x e s from 9,450 t o 28,000 W/m2 (3,000 t o 9,000 Btu/h*ft2) E f f e c t of l e n g t h of F-tube on t h e condensing c o e f f i c i e n t s f o r various vapors a t d i f f e r e n t heat f l u x e s .
................
25
12
13
14
....................... ORNL 40-tube vertical-fluted-tube condenser t e s t e d a t t h e East Mesa Geothermal T e s t S i t e . . . ORNL 104-tube vertical-fluted-tube condenser t e s t e d a t Raft River Geothermal T e s t ............
Site
V
25 26 27
Figure 15 Comparison of tubeside heat transfer correlations in East Mesa condenser for turbulent flow as functions of flow rate at 300 K (8O0F) Inundation correction factor for single smooth tube horizontal condensers as a function of the number of vertical rows
Page
...............
35
16
17
!
18
..................... Effect of air concentration on the .condensing coefficient of steam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Experimental shellside condensing coefficients obtained for E-tubes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
........................
......
37 39 41
19
Overall heat transfer coefficient as a function of the condensing coefficient for the East Mesa condenser at a coolant flow rate of 0.22 m3/s (3500 gpm)
43 46 52 64 67 68 69 70 73 76 82
20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27
-8
Tubeside and shellside temperature distribution as a function of length for the East Mesa condenser Component shellside pressure drops in the East Mesa condenser
29
.................... Cross section of ORNL 5-MW vertical-fluted-tube condenser . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Detail showing condenser gas sample and venttubes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tube bundle of ORNL 5-MW vertical-fluted-tube condenser . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Exterior view of ORNL 5-MW vertical-fluted-tube condenser showing header details . . . . . . . . . . . . . Full-length exterior view of ORNL 5-MW verticalfluted-tube condenser . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tube vibration criteria diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Acoustic resonance diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Relative cost of saline resistant tube materials (March 15, 1981) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
vi
LIST OF TABLES Table

1
Page
2
3
4
5
6 7
.......... Comparison of refrigerant properties at 311 K ( 0 ' ) 10F ....................... Comparison of ORNL condensers tested at geothermal test facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Heat load on East Mesa condenser using direct contact heat exchanger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tube requirements for East Mesa condenser . . . . . . . . . Allocation of downcomers on baffles . Natural frequencies in tube passes for 5-MW ORNL East Mesa condenser . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Characteristics of A-,
E-, and F-tubes
20
20
28' 57 58 65 72
vii
F M DESIGN AND ANALYSIS O A 5 W VERTIW-FLUTED-TE C N E S R FOR GEOTHERMAL APPLICATIONS O D NE

G. H. Llewellyn
ABSTRACT
This r e p o r t covers t h e design and a n a l y s i s done a t the Oak Ridge National Laboratory of an industrial-sized verticalfluted-tube condenser. The condenser i s used to condense superheated isobutane vapor discharged from a power turbine i n a geothermal test f a c i l i t y operated f o r the U.S. Department of Energy. The 5-MW condenser has 1150 coolant tubes i n a four ass c o n f i uration with a t o t a l h e a t t r a n s f e r area of 725 m (7800 f t ). The u n i t i s being t e s t e d a t the Geothermal Components T e s t F a c i l i t y i n the Imperial Valley of East Mesa, California. The condenser design is based on previous experimental research work done a t the Oak Ridge National Laboratory on condensing r e f r i g e r a n t s on a wide v a r i e t y of s i n g l e v e r t i c a l tubes. Condensing f i l m c o e f f i c i e n t s obtained on the high-performance v e r t i c a l f l u t e d tubes i n condensing r e f r i g e r a n t s are as much as seven t i m e s g r e a t e r than those obtained with v e r t i c a l smooth tubes t h a t have the same diameter and length. The o v e r a l l h e a t t r a n s f e r performance expected from t h e f l u t e d tube condedser i s four t o f i v e times t h e heat t r a n s f e r obtained from the i d e n t i c a l u n i t s employing smooth tubes. Fluted tube condensers a l s o have other d i r e c t applicat i o n s i n the Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) program i n condensing ammonia, i n the petroleum industry i n condensing l i g h t hydrocarbons, and i n the a i r conditioning and refrigerat i o n industry i n condensing fluorocarbon vapors.
3 !
1 .
INTRODUCTION
The U.S.
Department of Energy (DOE),
Division of Geothermal Energy, condenser based on previous
asked the Oak Ridge National Laboratory ( O m ) t o design and evalute
a 5 W (17 x M
lo6
Btu/h) vertical-fluted-tube
experimental work on condensing r e f r i g e r a n t s on s i n g l e f l u t e d tubes. To demonstrate the f e a s i b i l i t y of obtaining energy from geothermal b r i n e deposits, test f a c i l i t i e s were developed i n the western states.
A test loop has been b u i l t a t t h e Geothermal Component T e s t F a c i l i t y
(GCTF) a t East Mesa, California, by Barber-Nichols Engineering
Company of Arvada, Colorado.
The work has been under t h e d i r e c t i o n of
Lawrence Berkeley Laboratories (LBL).
The facility loop that normally employs evaporative condensers for tubeside condensation of isobutane is being modified to provide a means of testing the ORNL condenser. The evaporative condensers will be used to provide cooling for the ORNL condenser. The modified test loop, shown in Fig. 1, provides either a system for mixing liquid isobutane with hot brine in the direct-contact heat exchanger (DCHX) or a Supercritical Heat Exchanger Field Test (SHEFT) unit to produce superheated vapor that drives the turbine, thus producing power. The turbine discharges the superheated isobutane into the ORNL condenser, which desuperheats and condenses the isobutane vapor. The condensate is collected in a hot well where water (less than 2% by weight) carried over from the DCHX is separated from the immiscible isobutane. The condensate is ther, returned to the DCHX by a turbopump driven by the brine discharged from the DCHX. When using the SHEFT system, the brine does not come in contact with the working fluid. The . turbogenerator delivers 0 5 MW of utilizable electric power. The objectives of this report are to present the pertinent details of the design, analyses, operation, and anticipated performance of the condenser. Referenced background material is included for both the history and technical basis of the high performance of the fluted tubes. Fluted tube condensers are normally designed to operate at low approach temperatures and low heat fluxes where the performance is the highest. The fluted tubes have a great potential for use in lowtemperature-waste-heat-utilization systems that normally operate under these conditions. In a geothermal power plant, about two-thirds of the total equipment cost is attributed to heat exchange equipment where efficiency of the heat exchangers often determines the economic feasibility of the project. The most economic condenser is the unit that, regardless of its efficiency, will condense the most vapor per dollar of cost over the plant write-off period. Articles by K. J. Bell' and Vehara H u o shed some light on the ev' state of the art of condenser technology, the current knowledge of heat transfer, and related phenomena involved in condensation and applicability of specific condenser types for various condensing conditions. Both of
!
these papers cite the role of fluted tubes in condenser technology.
ISIDIE roll nuIufCTDN M OWUl
Fig. 1 Modifications to test loop at the Geothermal Components . Test Facility at East Mesa, California.
Recent articles by Jerry Taborek of the Heat Transfer Research Institute (HTRI) concerning the state of the art in heat exchanger design3 and in design techniques4 w e r e found to be excellent sources of information. These ideas were used to formulate a design for the ORNL condenser. The main points gleaned from review of these references is that: 1 . Film condensation of multicomponent mixtures containing immiscibles and noncondensables involving vapor shear is a very complex problem. Even with the aid of the computer, it has been impossible to find nonproprietary methods expressing the relationships of all these variables.
4
2 The effect of noncondensables is not fully understood, particularly .
with vapor shear.
3.
Too often, the failure of an exchanger is attributed t o not using
the "right" fouling factor rather than acceptance of the fact that an exchanger was poorly designed.
One objective in the design of this exchanger 'is to obtain the
highest allowable tubeside and shellside velocities using average fouling conditions while transferring the specified heat load. The controlling factor on the thermal desfgn of the condenser is the flow rate and pressure drop for the tubeside and shellside fluids. The mechanical design is controlled by the operating temperature and pressure and the pertinent code requirements.
2.
bJ i
SUMMARY
Over t h e p a s t t h i r t y years, many types of f l u t e d surfaces have b-en developed f o r condensing steam, ammonia, hydrocarbons, and fluorocarbons; these surfaces can be custom designed f o r s p e c i f i c vapors.
ORNL has done extensive t e s t i n g i n condensing r e f r i g e r a n t s
on a wide v a r i e t y of f l u t e d tubes. Based on t h i s t e s t i n g , ORNL has become a c t i v e l y engaged i n t h e design, procurement, and t e s t i n g of vertical-fluted-tube (VFTC) over a wide capacity range. being investigated. condensers Units containing 2, 40, 104, and
1150 tubes have been b u i l t t o date, and a 2500 tube unit i s c u r r e n t l y Carbon steel, aluminum, titanium, admiralty, cupronickels, and s p e c i a l s a l i n e - r e s i s t a n t s t a i n l e s s steel a l l o y s have been used t o f a b r i c a t e t h e f l u t e d tubes.
As a p a r t of t h e DOE Waste Heat Rejection Program (AM Program), ORNL has developed, designed, and b u i l t a 1150-tube VFTC that w i l l be
t e s t e d and evaluated at t h e GCTF a t E a s t Mesa, California. This r e p o r t
is concerned with t h e d e t a i l s of t h e development and design of t h i s . . Navy has r e c e n t l y indicated i n t e r e s t i n VFTC 1150-tube unit. The U S
a p p l i c a t i o n f o r steam t u r b i n e condensers, and t h e power industry i n Japan i s a l s o i n v e s t i g a t i n g p o s s i b l e application. Incentives derived from ORNL experience using f l u t e d tubes f o r s h e l l s i d e condensation can be summarized as follows where enhancements r e f e r t o comparison i n condensing h e a t transfe-r c o e f f i c i e n t s obtained on vertical f l u t e d tubes t o those obtained on v e r t i c a l smooth tubes.
Commercial i n s t a l l a t i o n s have reported enhancements i n Condensing

heat t r a n s f e r c o e f f i c i e n t s as high as 10 when condensing l i g h t hydrocarbons a t high vapor v e l o c i t i e s . The o v e r a l l h e a t t r a n s f e r from a vertical-fluted-tube condenser i s Addi-
expected t o be 4 t o 6 times t h a t f o r a h o r i z o n t a l unit with t h e
same t o t a l length of smooth tubes a t lower vapor v e l o c i t i e s .

a t t h e expense of higher c o s t and s h e l l s i d e pressure drop.
t i o n a l performance can be gained by providing c l o s e r b a f f l e spacing
The
majority of t h i s enhancement i s a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e f l u t e d tubes.

5
Cost per unit length of fluted tubes is 1.25 to 4 times higher than for smooth tubes and depends on the tube material used. With mass production, it is conceivable that fluted tubes could be produced at a cost premium of less than 25%. The cost of a vertical condenser with carbon steel fluted tubes can be as much as 40% higher than a horizontal-smooth-tube unit but would transfer about 6 times the heat. Vertical-fluted-tube condensers can be built at 40 t o 50% of the cost of horizontal-smooth-tube units having the same heat load. Custom-made flutes can be fabricated into standard-sized tubing using most commercially available malleable metal or metal alloys.
3.
The h h &
HISTORY OF FLUTED TUBES
performance of the fluted tubes employed on these exchangers
is primarily due to the Gregorig effect, in which the surface tension forces move the condensate from the crest of the flute into the troughs where it drains by gravity (shown in Fig. 2). In 1957, R Gregorig5 obtained increases in condensing coefficients . of 2 to 8 times in condensing steam on vertical-fluted surfaces compared with vertical-smooth surfaces. Gregorig, however, did not present a formulation for design in this disclosure and left things rather vague as to optimization of the design surface. R L Webb6 of Pennsylvania State University recently developed a . . method of optimizing the Gregoric condensing surface but based his calculations on ideal conditions. Webb concluded from his studies that each condensable has an optimum flute pattern based on the physical properties of the condensate. In 1965, T C Carnavos7 reported obtaining condensing enhancements . . . from 4 5 to 7. Alexander and Hoffman* in 1971 obtained enhancements in the overall heat transfer as high as 7 in condensing steam. . lo In 1968, D. G Thomasg* obtianed condensing enhancement factors as high as 9 using loosely clamped wires and longitudinal fins attached to the tubes. As a result of his experiments, Thomas was convinced that higher enhancements could be obtained with properly designed, closely spaced fins than with sinusodial flutes. Host of the previously mentioned experimental work on single-fluted tubes has been done in condensing steam on the exterior surface of the tube. Recent surveys of data on single-phase heat transfer experiments in condensing ammonia on vertical fluted tubes have been made by A. E. Bergles and M K Jensenll and were directed toward Ocean Thermal . . Energy Conversion (OTEC) application. S. K. Combs of ORNL has done ork in condensing ammonia on the exterior surface of both vertical12 and inclinedl fluted tubes. nd Bell14 have analyzed isothermal flow and gravitycontrolled 'flowon vertical fluted surfaces for Nusselt-type condensation
8
ORNL-DWG 77-5469
VAPOR (SHELLSIDE 1
COOLANT (TUBESIDE1
Fig. 2.
Fluted tube showing the Gregorig effect.
and presented a method of predicting a flooding Reynolds number. This article also relates the pitch and amplitude of the flutes to the Nusselt number and correlates these analytical predictions with experimental data. Optimizations of condensing performance on vertical fluted surfaces have been determined by Y. Mori and K. Hijikati from the Tokyo Institute . of Technology and by Hirasawa and W Nakayamo of Hitachi Ltd.1'5 These researchers used R-113 to check analytical predictions of condensation rates with fin shape, tube length, and pitch. This paper shows a definite preference for the flat-bottom, grooved fin that provides significantly larger drainage area for the condensate. The paper reinforces the author's thoughts and those of D. G. Thomas at ORNL. This type of fin, which resembles a gear shape and has come to be known as the E-tube at
ORNL, has produced superior results on condensing isobutane (R-600a).
It is thought possible that this design might be optimized even
csi
further with additional experimental work. The factors that determine the lineal condensation rate on a verttcal fluted tube at given vapor and coolant conditions are summarized: condensate properties, flute configuration, baffle spacing, vapor contaminants (oil, water, noncondensables) , tubeside fouling, shellside fouling, and tube material. In horizontal condensers, as the number of the tube rows is increased, the condensate is successively dumped on the lower row of tubes causing a thicker condensate film to build up, consequently increasing the thermal resistance. This phenomenon is known as inundation. Carryover called "rain" associated with a vertical tube bundle is present, but it does not exhibit the pronounced reduction in heat transfer observed in horizontal units. The flutes curtail striping of the condensate from the tubes and reduce the amount of rain generated in vertical units. The ratio of shellside condensing heat transfer Coefficients for a single snooth horizontal tube to an equal length ( ) smooth vertical tube L is 0.77 (L/D)lI4, where D is the tube diameter. The ratio of condensing coefficients ranges from 1 5 to 2.5 for commercial-sized condensers. . Inundation can reduce the total condensation rate on horizontal units by factors up to one-third depending on whose correlation is being used, the noncondensible, the velocities involved, and the gas being condensed. The question of the economic feasibility of maintaining short condensation lengths by rolling each tube into each baffle and tube supports with extension rollers still remains to be determined. The cost is about $2 per roll, and the feasibility involves the risk of overexpanding the tube and the cost of having to plug the tube if it is ruptured in the process of expanding it.
10
I f a l l these factors are taken into account and the designs compared,
a vertical-fluted-tube
condenser requiring 18300 m (60K f t ) of 1.0-in.-
V
.
diam tubing could conceivably replace a horizontal smooth tube unit requiring 91,400 m (300K f t ) of l.&in.-diam tubing considering equal fouling on both units.
4.
INDUSTRIAL,APPLICATIONS
Union Carbide Corporation has commercially fabricated hundreds of vertical-fluted-tube condensers through development work by C F Gottzmann and Pd S. O'Neill of the Linde Division, Tonawanda. . . N. Y., and P E Minton of the Plastics Division, South Charleston, . . W Va.16 . The high performance condensers utilize fluted surfaces on the shellside for condensing hydrocarbon vapors and employ a patented Linde porous metallic surface to promote nucleate boiling on the inside of the tubes. These units have been used commercially t o condense ethane and butane on the shellside while boiling propylene on the tubeside surface, which results in enhancement factors in the overall heat transfer as high as five. Linde Division has designed most of their "UC-High Flux" exchangers with an approach temperature of 2.8K (5OF), l7 although approach temperatures as low as 1.1K (2OF) have been used. The UC exchangers also operate with pressure drops as high as 2 MPa (300 psi) with corespondingly high vapor velocities. Actual overall coefficients as high as
3400 W/m2*K (600 Btu/h.ft2*'F)
have been obtained1* in condensing hydrocarbons with estimated condensing film coefficient as high as 5675 W/m2*K ( 0 0 Btu/h.ft2*OF). 10
11
b+
Currently t h e r e
5.
FLUTED TUBE MANUFACTURE
are only a few f a b r i c a t o r s i n t h e world i n t e r e s t e d

There are
i n o r a c t i v e l y engaged i n the production of f l u t e d tubes.
several f a c t o r s t o consider i n s e l e c t i n g a design f o r f l u t e d tubes. Designs are enhanced by employing s h o r t tube lengths that c a l l
f o r s e a l i n g the tube a t each baffle. I f the tubes are t o be r o l l e d i n t o t h e b a f f l e s , s k i p s must be provided i n the f l u t i n g , a procedure t h a t i s p r a c t i c a l l y impossible t o accomplish during a drawing operation. I f glue o r a braze is used t o make t h i s seal, there i s the problem of excess material running down the f l u t e and plugging it. o r more) make one look f o r more expeditious means. c o s t s were considered. Grommets were considered, but the number involved on l a r g e exchangers (1000 tubes Plastic baffles with O-ring seals w e r e s e r i o u s l y considered but dropped when development Another conceivable method of attachment i s t o p a r t i a l l y m e l t o r deform p l a s t i c b a f f l e s t o obtaiu the seal by heating t h e tubes t o the melting point of t h e p l a s t i c . Extruding t h e tubes through a dye requires c o n t r o l l i n g t h e tolerance
to less than 0.025 mm (1 mil) and controlling the length of the draw.
The extrusion a l s o requires the a b i l i t y t o draw certain materials.
Copper, copper-base a l l o y s , and aluminum can r e a d i l y be used f o r t h i s purpose.
A disadvantage of drawing tubes is that the tube has t o be
"defluted" on t h e ends t o r o l l i t i n t o the tubesheet. There are companies i n North America that can f u r n i s h continuously drawn f l u t e d tubing t o s p e c i f i c a t i o n i n lengths up t o 6 m (20 f t ) .
These include the Teledyne Tubular Products Corporation, the Noranda

Tubing Company, and Southwest Alloys. o r s p i r a l configurat Yorkshire Indus tions. Noranda can furnish tubing with f l u t e s on e i t h e r o r both t h e i n s i d e o r outside i n either s t r a i g h t
, Ltd.,
of Leeds, England, can f u r n i s h s k i p s ansfer of no b e t t e r than
but only two pitch-spacing options are a v a i l a b l e f o r f l u t i n g configura-
Maximum enhancements i n o v e r a l l heat
two are expected from these tubes i n condensing steam a t a c o s t of about

20% higher than f o r smooth tubes.
The corrugated tubes are a v a i l a b l e
13
14
i n copper, bronzes, brasses, aluminum brass, and copper-nickel. up t o 18 m (60 f t ) can be obtained.
Lengths
Toshiba Metal Products of Tokyo, Japan, produces f l u t e d tubes i n titanium by r o l l i n g f l a t p l a t e with the desired f l u t i n g configuration, bending the p l a t e around a mandril, and seam welding the tube p a r a l l e l t o the a x i s (Fig. 3). The c o s t of titanium f l u t e d tubing w a s about
$26/m ( $ 8 / f t ) ; change of material t o carbon steel did not s i g n i f i c a n t l y reduce the cost. Toshiba b u i l t and supplied condensers f o r t h e Sunshine
Geothermal Project a t Sapporo, Japan. Grob, Inc., of Grafton, Wisconsin, was the only company t h a t could f l u t e the tubes f o r the East Mesa condenser a t a reasonable c o s t $4.92/m ($1.50/ft) within specification. The work done by Grob using a r o l l i n g operation w a s precise and of excellent quality. spaced on a c y l i n d r i c a l blank.
ORNL-DWO ROLLER WITH THE CONTOURED SURFACE
84-43091
The Grob
method is s u i t a b l e f o r r o l l i n g even or odd numbers of uniform t e e t h
TITANIUU PLATE
TlG WELDING
ROLLINB
ROLL FORMING AND WELDING
HIGH HEAT FLUX TUBE
(A) PITCH: 4.Omm, OEPTH: 0.5mm (39mild (2Omilr)
Fig. 3. Production method used by Toshiba Metal Products Division, Tokoyo, Japan showing t y p i c a l f l u t e paterns.
15
According t o Grob, any d u c t i l e material can be r o l l e d .
The tubes
must be uniform i n d u c t i l i t y and c r o s s s e c t i o n t o produce an accurate
material composition, t h e hardness

d t h e feed rate. Grob r o l l i n g mach rod being f l u t e d , but a t depending on t p e n e t r a t e a tub then leave t blank indexe Some material The f i g u r e shows a o s s i b l e t o form a deep tooth.
shown in Fig. 4.
fabricated i n
e or more p a i
p a r t of t h e i r cycle. o l l e r contact is t n made.
The r o l l e r s
r the rest of t h e cycle, during which time t h e

The blank is conEach f l u t e
tinuously l o n g i t u d i n a l l y advanced. pattern requires a different can be reinforced w i t f l u t i n g operation a t depends on t h e thickness t h a t
The r
lers have t h e exact negative

Tubes having t h i n w a l l s r k input i n t o t h e process
shapes i n t h e contact area as t h e f i n i s h e d blank has.

t of r o l l e r s .
t h a t have t o be extracted a f t e r t h e t i o n a l cost.
unt of metal t h a t is
The minimum tube-wall
recommends is governed by the s t r e n g t h of the tubing
are German comp
16
OFNL-Photo 3340-81
Fig. 4. Wisconsin.
Tube-rolling machine developed by Grob, Inc., Grafton,
17
ORNL-DWG 84(3093
Fig. 5 .
Design specifications f o r the manufacture of the E-tube.
ORNL-DWG 8445255
Fig. 6 . Photomicrograph of a cross section of a carbon steel E-tube produced by Grob, Tnc.
6.
EXPERIMENTAL WORK AT ORNL
R-3
experiments a t ORNL by S. K Combs, G . S. MaLen and . i n condensing r e f r i g e r a n t s on a v a r i e t y of vertical diam f l u t e d tubes have provided enough d a t a t o make They used Wilson p l o t s
R W. Murphy .
25-mm (1.0-in.)
optimizations and predictions of heat transfer. function of t h e heat flux.
t o e s t a b l i s h t h e condensing f i l m c o e f f i c i e n t on t h e tube w a l l as a Combs et a1 made tests on a v a r i e t y of e x t e r n a l surfaces on 2 diam tubes having heat t r a n s f e r areas up t o 32 times (J-tube) . t h e smooth tube of equal length. t o o b t a i n t h e experimental data.
R-11, h
t h e area of
R-21,
R-22, R-113,
E-114,
R-115,
and R-600a (isobutane) r e f r i g e r a n t s w e r e condensed on t h e cubes by them From this d a t a it was concluded t h a t t h e most promising tube was t h e aluminum E-tube, which provided mre condensate per u n i t length than any of t h e o t h e r s for condensing isobutane.
A comparison of t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e standard A-tube,
the
gear-shaped E-tube,
. and t h e flute-shaped F-tube are shown i n Table 1

Table 2 shows t h e p e r t l n e n r
It w i l l be noted t h a t t h e r a t i o of i n t e r n a l t o e x t e r n a l heat t r a n s f e r
area is t h e g r e a t e s t f o r t h e E-tube.
p r o p e r t i e s of each of t h e r e f r i g e r a n t s . The test by Combs e t a1 d i d not include condensfng each of che r e f r i g e r a n t s on a l l of thetubes. Additional d a t a were provided on rhe F-tube i n condensing R-11 on tubes with drainage s k i r t s spaced at 0.15s 0.30, 0.61, 1.22 m (6, 12, 24, and 48 In.). ment f a c t o r s
To try t o c o r r e l a t e t h i s d a t a , enhance-
e calculated comparing condensing film c o e f f i c i e n t s ubes with t h e condensing f i l m c o e f f i c i e n t s f o r a smooth

e comparisons were made f o r various h e a t fluxes.
t h e enhancement f a c t o r s as a function of hear flux t h various s k i r t spacings f o r tbe F-tube compared

w i t h a 1.22-111 E-tube with no skirts.
A t low h e a t f l u x e s [around
6300 W/m2 (2000 Btu/h-ft2), it w i l l be noted t h a t t h e E-tube with s k i r t s spaced 1.22 m a p a r t has about t h e same enhancement as the F-tube
with s k i r t s spaced 0.15 m apart. The maximum erihancement obtained w i t h
is
19
Table 1. Characteristics of A-, Flute diameter Tube type Configuration

CI U
E-, and P-tubes

External area
m2/m
ft2/ft
Inside diameter
Cm
in. 1.000 1.010 1.000
in. 0.870 0.862 0.900
Ratio Ao/Ai
Number of flutes
0 60 48
B F
Smboth Geaw Sine wave
2.540 2.565 2.540
2,261 2.189 2.286
0.0243 0.0391 0.0258
0.2618 0.4208 0.2775
1.1494 1.8647 1.1777
10F Table 2 Comparison of refrigerant properties at 311 K ( 0 ' ) . Property Saturation pressure Thermal conductivity Dynamic viscosity Density Heat of vaporization Heat capacity Surface tension cost Units psia Wa Btu/h*ft.*F w/m*K 1bIft.h Pa-8 x 104 lb/ft3 kstm3 Btullb J/kg x 10-5 Btu/lb*OF J/(kg*K) lblft N/m US $/lb us S/ks R-11 23.46 0.1618 0.049 0.084 0.894 3.700 90.20 1445 .O 75.20 1.749 0.210 895.0 0.00114 0.0167 0.470 1.034 R-21 40.04 0.2761 0.056 0.097 0.690 2.840 83.40 1335.0 95.10 2.211 0.260 1090.0 0.00112 0.0163 0.540 1.188 R-22 210.6 1.452 0.047 0.082 0.440 1.840 71.20 1141.0 72.80 1.693 0.310 1310.0 0.00044 0.0065 0.870 1.914 R-113 10.48 0.073 0.042 0.073 1.380 5.700 95.80 1534.0 64.50 1.498 0.230 971.0 0.00117 0.0171 0.720 1.584 R-114 45.85 0.3161 0.035 0.061 0.710 2.900 88.40 1416.0 52.90 1.230 0.250 1040.0 0.00072 0.0171 0.810 1.782 R-115 182.73 1.260 0.027 0.046. 0.400 1.650 76.00 1217.0 35.60 0.832 0.300 1259.0 0.00026 0.0105 0.750 3.850 R-600a 72.04 0.4967 0.059 0.102 0.350 1.450 33.40 535.0 133.1 3.094 0.630 2623.0 0.00057 0.0084 1.000 2.200 R-917 212.0 1.461 0.261 0.452 0.300 1.230 36.40 583.1 477.8 11.10 1.160 4845.O 0.00120 0.0175 0.250 0.550
820
0.95 0.007 0.363 0.628 1.580 6.530 62.00 993.2 1037.0 24.10 1,000 4175.0 0.00480 0.0699 0.010 0.022
21
. Fig. 7 Enhancement factors for condensing R-115 on E- and F-tubes compared with smooth tubes with no drainage skirts as functions of heat flux.
R-115 is aobut 3.75. The skirt spacing with R-115 seems more effective at low heat fluxes with an increase in enhancement of about 1.6; at high fluxes the increase is reduced to 1.3. Flgure 8 shows the same .relationships when condensing R-113 refrigerant where the maxiiuum enhancement is 6.75 with the 0.15-m skirt spacing on the F-tubes. An E-tube with skirt spaced at 1.22- intervals could achieve about the same enhancement as the F-tubes with 0.15-m spacing. The enhancement in the condensing film coefficient is increased by a factor of 1.5 at l o w fluxes to 2.7 at the high fluxes by reducing the skirt spacing from 1.22 m to 0.15 m. Figure 9 shows the relationships when condensing R-11 vapor, which yields enhancement factors as high as 8 0 by using 0.15-m skirt spacing. . .fie effect of skirt spacing is not quite as sensitive here, with the
Fig. 8 . Enhancement f a c t o r s f o r condensing R-113 on E- and F-tubes compared with smooth tubes with no drainage s k i r t s as functions of heat flux.
Fig. 9. Enhancement f a c t o r s f o r condensing R-11 on E- and F-tubes with smooth tubes with no drainage skirts as functions of heat flux.
23
b,
increase ranging from 1.43 to 2.11 when decreasing the skirt spacing .5 . from 1.22 m to 0 1 m The E-tube with 1.22-m skirt spacing produces about the same enhancement as the F-tube with the same spacing. Figure 10 shows the relative enhancement in condensing various refrigerants on E-tubes with 1.22-m (48-in.) skirt spacings. The fluorocarbon exhibiting the most similar enhancement to isobutane vapor t (R-6OOA) is R-11. I is quite difficult to obtain permission from the ORNL fire marshal1 t o test hydrocarbons in the laboratory testing facility, which is the main reason why so few runs were made with isobutane. Referring to R-11, it would seem that 20% enhancements might be expected at low heat fluxes using skirt spacings of 0 6 m and .1 30% increases with spacings of 0 3 m No allowances for this increase . . have been considered in this design (see Sect. 73. .)
ORNL-Dwo 6042883
HEAT FLUX, Btulhr-ft2 9
Fig. 1 . Enhancement factors for condensing various refrigerants 0 on E-tubes as functions of heat flux.
24
1 Figure 1 shows the condensing heat transfer coefficient as a function of effective tube length for several tube types for high and low heat fluxes as given in Ref. 20. Several trends can be seen from t this figure. I appears that increases in effective tube length reduce the condensing heat transfer coefficient more drastically, particularly
at low fluxes, for the smooth tube than it does for an equal length increase in the fluted tubes. The condensing coefficients in most cases seem
to
be reduced more at high heat fluxes than at low heat
fluxes for fluted tubes. Figure 12 shows the effect of tube length on the condensing coefficients on an F-tube for several selected refrigerants. It can be seen that the length has practically no effect at low heat fluxes 30 of 9500 W/m2 ( 0 0 Btu/h-ft2) when condensing ammonia (R-717) and only a slight effect at high heat fluxes of 28,000 W/m2 (9000 Btu/h-ft2). From review of all of the relationships pertaining to the effect of condensation length on enhancement at low fluxes, it might generally be said that increasing tube length from 0.15 m ( in.) to 1.22 m ( 8 i . 6 4 n) roughly decreases the condensing heat transfer coefficient by as much as 15%. The net result of decreasing the tube length from 1.22 m to 0.3 m (12 i . results in increasing the total heat transfer by 5 to 10%. n) Conversely, increasing the length from 1.22 m ( ft) to 4 8 m ( 6 ft) 4 .8 1 could conceivably decrease the overall heat transfer by a similar amount. Before the design of the 1150-tube unit, a 4.2-m2 (45-ft2) 40-tube condenser was designed and tested by ORNL at the East Mesa facility.21 The 40-tube condenser shown in Fig. 13 contains aluminum F-type fluted tubes. The 25-mm ( . i . F-tube has 48 flutes on the outside that 10 n) 1 i s . The resemble a sine wave having amplitudes of about 0.25 mm ( 0 m l ) field test results of the 40-tube condenser indicated an overall heat transfer of less than one-fourth of the anticipated vlaues for the larger East Mesa condenser currently being investigated. Tests were also made on a 104-vertical-fluted-tube condenser shown in Fig. 14 that was tested at the Geothermal Test Facility located at Raft River, Idaho. A separate report is being prepared on the testing of this condenser, which performed considerably better than the 40-tube unit tested at East Mesa.
I will be noted that the 104-tube unit has t
25
auc2ap .O-.lSH
EFFECTIVE TUBE LENGTH Ill) as to 2.0 4.0
0.15 EFFE
Q6 4.2 LENGTH W
Fig. 11. Effect of length on condensation coefficients of R-11 on F- and A-tubes at heat fluxes from 9450 to 28,000 W/m2 (3000 to 9000 Btu/h*ft2)
a5 4
0.3 0.6 1.2 EFFECTM W E LENGlHh)
Fig. 12. Effect of length of F-tube on the condensing coefficient for various vapors at different heat fluxes.
26
ORNL-P ho to 1479- 78
Fig. 13. ORNL 40-tube vertical-fluted-tube condenser tested at the East Mesa Geothermal Test Site.
the vapor supply located at the base of the condenser.
Table 3 shows
the pertinent design and operating parameters and compares the performance of two ORNL condensers tested to date with the 1150-tube condenser being tested at East Mesa.
27
2 , -
ORNL-DWG 80-fO760R
I
12' COOLING WATER SUPPLY
y" VEWT 1 COOLER CONDENSER 'ps

q 2
TUBESHEET
lRESSURE RELIEF
"
-BAFFLE
/,.On
104 FLUTED TUBES 4 PASS CONFIGURATIOII 0.0. 1 .04$ W U
/TUBE
6776 mm
SUPPORT
/(SCH
40 IIPI)
/ M P I N G E M E N T BAFFLE
a<-/
/OOWNCOMEAS
PUS
Fig. 14. ORNL 104-tube vertical-fluted tube condenser. tested at the Raft River Geothermal Test Site.
Table 3.
Comparison of ORNL condensers tested at geothermal test facilities Units 40-tube condenser East Mesa, Calif.
MWt) Btu/h
104-tube condenser Raft River, Idaho 05 . 1,706,500 52.6 566 9471 3005 4.26 7.66 2205 392 0.019 300 1.98 5.5 1.65 13,000 1.83 6.0 Admiralty E Carbon steel Rolled 6 Yes Yes Np (amount?)
1150-tube condenser East Mesa, Calif. 5.0 17,065,000 688 7400 7269 2306 4.6 8.2 1700-2800 300-500 (predicted) 0.221 3500 2.04 6.70 12.63 100,000 3.05 10.0 Carbon steel E Carbon steel Rolled 38 Yes 1.37 wt X C02 0.16 wt X
Test facility Heat transferred Heat transfer ae' ra Heat flux
LMTD
Overall U Water flow rate Water velocity Vapor flow rate Vapor velocity Tube material Tube type Baffle material Baffle attachment Downcomers Shrouds Water vapor Noncondensibles %iscounts
m2 f t2 W/m2 Btu/h*f t2 K OF W/m2*K Btu/h*ft2*'F

m3/s
0.0586 200,000 4.46 48 13,134 4167 22- 28 40-50 450-600 80-105 0.006 90 1.38 4.54 0.190 1500 0.806 2.65 (maximum) Aluminum F Rubber Glued None Yes Yes (amount?) C02 (amount?)
gpm m/s ftls

kg/s
lb/h
ml S ft/s
plugged tube (2 at Raft River and 12 at East Mesa).
29
The values quoted on the smaller units are thoge involving the highest overall heat transfer coefficients in a direct-contact binary cycle. For complete details on the testing of these units, the reader is referred to forthcoming reports on the individual tests. There are several differences in these condensers that are worth mentioning. The noncondensable gas at East Mesa is carbon dioxide, while at Raft River it is nitrogen. The 1150-tube unit contains the more efficient E-tubes having 60 flutes, about 1.5 times the coolant velocity of the 40-tube unit. The 1150-tube unit maintains a fairly constant vapor velocity on the shellside, which is about twice the maximum velocity as obtained in the 40-tube unit. The baffles in the 40-tube unit were fabricated from 0.38-mm (15-mi.l) resilient rubber, whereas the baffles of the larger unit are fabricated from 9 . 5 - m (3/8-in. )-thick carbon steel plates into which the tubes are rolled. The latter arrangement provides a more stable flow path for the vapor and promotes more predictable uniform velocities.
csd
7.
HEAT TRANSFER CALCULATIONS
6.i
The heat transfer calculations for the condenser involve the physical properties of the liquid and vapor phases of the shellside fluid, the physical properties of the liquid phase of the tubeside fluid, and the thermodynamic properties of the shellside fluid. The total heat transfer is obtained by calculation of the tubeside heat transfer coefficient, and estimation of the tubeside and shellside fouling factors. The design area of the condenser is obtained from a combination of experimental and calculated data (along with some educated guesses). The heat transfer and pressure drop relationships have been correlated and computerized using a Gibbs-type phase rule for selecting the equations and variables for sizing the condenser. 7.1 Properties of Liquid and Vapor Streams
The determination of the heat content of the vapor streams can present problems in evaluating the condenser performance. The actual vapor composition might contain several light hydrocarbons, water, and some noncondensable gases. The Benedict-Webb-Rubin (BWR) , Hans-Starling (HS) , Redlich-Kwong (RK) and Peng-Robinson (PR) equations of state are all popular contenders for accurate means of determining the thermodynamic properties of hydro. . carbon vapors. N A. Samurin and J. R Shields22 of the Elliott Company have compared the BWR, PR, and HS equations with General Electric's Mark V proprietary computer code. The HS correlation was found to predict lower saturation temperatures at pressures below 500 psia, and as much as 5% difference was noted in the saturation temperature at 50 psia. The HS equations were used by the system designers of East Mesa for evaluating the thermodynamic properties of gases for the 500-kW(e) system now operational at the geothermal test site. Thermodynamic properties o Webb-Rubin c ight hydrocarb and gases using the Starling-Benedictelation were compiled and computereized by K. E. Starling.23
Because of its polarity, water was not included.
U
31
32
The desired a n a l y t i c a l scheme i s t o evaluate t h e vapor-liquid equilibrium constants from t h e f u g a c i t i e s and u l t i m a t e l y t o p r e d i c t a bubble point and dew point as a function of pressure (and l o c a t i o n ) i n t h e exchanger. The s i t u a t i o n i s f u r t h e r complicated f o r a mixed hydrocarbon vapor containing both i d s c i b l e s and noncondensables.
D. H. Riemer e t al.24 of t h e University of Utah have a l s o compiled
ui
a program using t h e Starling-Benedict-Webb-Rubin c o r r e l a t i o n t o evaluate

t h e pure component thermodynamic p r o p e r t i e s Qf 12 l i g h t hydrocarbons. Eventually, we would l i k e t o use S t a r l i n g s computerized data t h a t have been expanded t o allow f o r water composition as a subroutine f o r obtaining thermodynamic p r o p e r t i e s of t h e mixtures. Physical and thermodynamic property d a t a f o r isobutane over t h e p e r t i n e n t temperature and pressure range are shown i n Appendix B.
Data Book25.
These
d a t a were obtained from t h e American I n s t i t u t e of Petroleum Engineers (API) Figures B . l through Fig. B.3 show t h e l a t e n t h e a t , vapor Figure B.4 pressure, and s p e c i f i c heat as functions of temperature.
shows t h e enthalpy as a function of both temperature and pressure. Figure B.5 shows t h e s o l u b i l i t y of both propane and isobutane i n water as functions of temperature, and Fig. B.6 shows t h e s o l u b i l i t y of both propane and and isobutane as functions of temperature. Appendix C shows These data t h e physical p r o p e r t i e s of water used i n the tubeside heat t r a n s f e r corr e l a t i o n s tabulated over t h e appropriate temperature range. design. can be used f o r making quick checks on t h e c o r r e l a t i o n s employed i n t h e
7.2
Tubeside Heat Transfer Coefficient
The condenser design i s based on t h e a v a i l a b i l i t y of 0.22 m 3 / s
(3500 gpm) of cooling water supplied a t temperatures ranging from 282 t o 300K (50 t o 80F). A tubeside v e l o c i t y 0.09 m / s (0.3 f t / s ) i n
t h e E-tubes i s s u f f i c i e n t t o produce turbulent flow with a r e s u l t i n g tubeside heat t r a n s f e r c o e f f i c i e n t of about 570 W/m2*K (100 Btu/h*ft**OF), but i t takes a v e l o c i t y of 2.7 m 3 / s ( . f t / s ) t o obtain a heat t r a n s f e r 89 c o e f f i c i e n t of 9080 W/m2*K (1600 Btu/h*ft2*OF) based on t h e D i t t u s Boelter c o r r e l a t i o n .
33 According to Kays and Perkins,26 the most applicable equations for calculating turbulent flow inside smooth tubes are the Dittus-Boelter, Colburn, and the Sieder-Tate correlations. The Dittus-Boelter correlation shown in Eq. (1) defines the Nusselt number, Nu, for heating fluids in circular tubes and is recommended when there is less than a 5.6K (0F 1') Nu = 0.023 Reoo8 Proo4= h*D/k drop across the water film: (1)
Equation (1) is based on extensive experimental data covering ranges in Reynold numbers from 10,000 to 120,000, Prandtl numbers from 0 7 to . 120, and for L/D ratios greater than 60. The Reynolds number in the final condenser design is about 45,000, the Prandtl is about 6.8, and the L/D ratio is over 225. The physical properties used in Eq. (1) are to be evaluated at the mean bulk-fluid temperature. The Colburn correlation defines the Nusselt number for both heating and cooling of fluids in circular tubes as shown in Eq. (2) Nu = 0.023 Reoo8Pr1i3 = St-ProRe = h*D/k
(2)
and extends the correlation to include the j-factor defined in several ways in Eq. (3) :
j = St Pr2i3 = 0.023 R e - O o 2
= f/8
(3)
In the Colburn correlation, it is recommended that the physical properties be evaluated at the mean temperature between the average bulk-fluid temperature and the average tube-wall surface temperature. This correlation also provides a method of evaluating the friction factor used in the determination of the pressure drop. The Sieder-Tate correlation as shown in Eq. (4) allows for radial variations in the viscosity. The viscosity ratio term tends to increase the tubeside heat transfer coefficient when the fluid is being heated and decrease it when the fluid is being cooled. Nu = 0.027 Reoo8Proo4 (u/us)0*14 = h*D/k
(4)
34
An approximate heat transfer coeffi ~ i e n t ~ ~the turbulent flow of for water inside tubes in the temperature range of 5 to 104K ( 0 to 20F 4 2') is shown in Eq. (5) and depends only on the size of the conduit, the velocity, and temperature.
h = C ( + O.Olltb) Vf=8/Do*2 1 1
1 ) where in Eqs. ( through 5
L
/
Nu = dimensionless Nusselt number = h-D/k, Pr = dimensionless Prandtl number = Cpp/k, Re = dimensionless Reynolds number = DG/p, St = dimensionless Staunton number = h/C *G = Nu/Re-Pr, P h = tubside heat transfer coefficient, W/m2-K(Btu/h*f O ) t2* F , (t, D = inside tube diameter, m f ) D1 = inside tube diameter, inches, k = thermal conductivity of fluid evaluated at tb, W/m*K(Btu/h-ft-OF), C = specific heat evaluated at-t J/kg*K(Btu/lbmoF), by P i.l = dynamic viscosity evaluated at tb, Pas(lb/ft*h) ,
ps = dynamic viscosity evaluated at t
tW
Pas(lb/ft*h) f = dimensionless Darcy-Weisbach friction factor, = inside the tube wall temperature, KF () ',
S '
tb = bulk fluid temperature, KF () ', = average film temperature = 0.5 (tw

tS
+ t) , ,
K') (F,
G =
coolant mass velocity
Vp kg/m2s, 3600 Vp lb/ft2h,
V = fluid velocity m/s (ft/h), V1 = fluid velocity, ft/s,

p =
j=
fluid density evaluted at tb, kg/m3 (lb/ft3), dimensionaless Colburn j-factor, 851.25 for metric units, 150 for English units,
Changes in the coolant supply temperature of a5.6K (lOF) will cause a corresponding change from 6 to 9% in calculating the heat transfer coefficients in any of the above equations. In midsummer when the coolant supply is running hot, the tubeside coefficient will be
di
,
35
1
I
1
higher, but so will the condensing pressure and consequently the temperature of the isobutane because it is close to the temperature of the condensing surface. The small increase in overall heat transfer coefficient will result in a slight decrease in the rise in the bulk water temperature and the log mean temperature difference. This results in the condensing temperature being slightly below the temperature that would have resulted if the thermal effect on the coefficient had not been considered. The relationships for the four correlations for the inside heat transfer coefficient are plotted as functions of coolant flow rate at a temperature of 300K (0F 8') in Fig. 15. The relationships indicate variations caused by temperature changes for each correlation. Equation
( ) was used to calculate the tubeside heat transfer coefficient, and it 1 is assumed to be accurate within 1 to 2%.
5Ooo
a 8
a9
0.20 0.24 FLOW RATE, m3/s
022
023
Fig. 15. Comparison of tubeside heat transfer correlations in East Mesa condenser for turbulent flow as functions of flow rate at 300 K (0F. 8')
36
At a constant wall heat flux, the thermal entry length was investigated for a Reynold number of 45,000 and a Prandtl of 6 . 0 ; it takes about 6 tube diameters (0.13 m or 5 i . to obtain fully developed n) thermal flow. To obtain fully developed thermal and hydraulic flows, an entry length of about 30 tube diameters (0.66 m or 26 i . is n) required. These facts considered and knowing that the tube has an (L/D) ratio of 237, no allowance was made for the differences in the regime of developing flow.
7.3
Shellside Heat Transfer Coefficient
Equation ( 6 ) shows the Nusselt correlation for calculating the condensing coefficient on the outside of horizontal rows of smooth tubes:
Equation ( 7 ) shows the basic Nusselt correlation for calculating the condensing coefficient on the outside of a single vertical tube:
(7)
where vapor density, k = liquid thermal conductivity, p = liquid.density, hv = condensing coefficient on vertical tube,
pV =
= condensing coefficient for n rows of horizontal tubes,
X = latent heat of condensation (vaporization), g = acceleration due to gravity, ~ . l= dynamic viscosity,
37
Do = o u t s i d e tube diameter,
tsat
s a t u r a t i o n temperature of vapor,
tw I# = l o s s f a c t o r due t o inundation (Fig. 16), = f (number of rows of tubes), N
--
w a l l temperature,
R = hv/% = 1.30 (D/L)li4 4
Assuming an L/D of 24 f o r a s i n g l e tube, i t would appear t h a t a smooth vertical tube could condense only 60% of t h e vapor t h a t could be condensed on t h e same tube i n a h o r i z o n t a l position. c l o s e t o r e a l i t y for a s i n g l e tube.
This is probably
I f we consider t h e inundation l o s s
incurred with a h o r i z o n t a l exchanger having as many as 100 tubes i n a v e r t i c a l row, t h e vertical u n i t could condense t w i c e as much vapor. Only t e n rows of tubes are needed before equal condensation i s expected from both u n i t s based on I# using t h e Nusselt c o r r e l a t i o n . t r a n s f e r per tube. Increasing t h e number of vertical tubes does not s i g n i f i c a n t l y decrease t h e heat S h e l l s i d e condensation takes on f u r t h e r complexities when noncondensables and o t h e r components are added t o t h e vapor stream.
14 .
ORNL- O W 0 81-9433
I
I I
Ill1
1.2
I .o
0.8
80.6
0.4
0.2
0
I
I
1 I I l l 1
I I I I I KK)
10
N-NUMBER OF TUBES IN A VERTICAL ROW
Fig. 16. Inundation correction f a c t o r for s i n g l e smooth tube h o r i z o n t a l condensers as a function of t h e number of v e r t i c a l rows.
38
There are concentration gradients and temperature gradients as functions of distance through the condenser in the shellside condensation of a multicomponent mixture. The higher boiling components will condense out first and in higher concentrations in the condensate and lower concentration in the vapor/gas mixture. The lower boiling components will come out further down the condenser. Quantitatively, because of the diffusion and nonequilibrium involved, the analysis is extremely complex and seldom are there enough data, either experimental or theoretical, to warrant on exact analysis. The thermodynamics must supply the vapor-liquid equilibrium so that a dewpoint and bubble point can be determined preferably at each row of tubes in the condenser. Computer codes are required for this purpose and usually are of a proprietary nature. Both the Heat Transfer Research Institute (HTRI) at Alhambra, California, and Heat Transfer and Fluid System (HTFS),28 Harwell, England, have computer codes for handling this type of problem. We have tried, without success, several other proprietary codes using ternery mixtures with C02 present as a noncondensable. The case when noncondensables are present in a pure component gas has presented problems since the first boiler went into operation. Othmer29 predicted in 1929 that in condensing steam, the condensing coefficient could be reduced by as much as 50% with as little as 1% noncondensable (air) present in the steam. From his experiments where stagnant steam was being condensed on 0.23-m (9-in.) diameter tubes, this was quite true. When the vapor is moving at high velocities and vaporshear becomes involved, not only would the presence of 1% noncondensable go unnoticed, but there also would be a remarkable increase in the overall heat transfer due to the vapor shear. In a recent article F. C. Standiford30 demonstrated the effects of noncondensables at velocities ranging from 0 2 to 2 m/s ( to 7 ft/s) . 1 are not nearly as severe: more like 10% air at the vent point causing 7 . However, this a 5% reduction in the "air free" coefficient (Fig. 1 ) effect appears to be a function of the condenser design. Other sources of information indicate that the effect of a noncondensable is also
39
L 70 0
s z
W W
a
60
I
I I
proportional to the ratio of the densities or the molecular weights of the noncondensable to the condensable vapor. "he standard treatment for a noncondensable in the presence of a single condensable is the Colburn-Houghton3 method. Collections of subroutines have been gathered by G . R. E. Franks3* that give the designer the capability of performing a row-by-row analysis for shellside condensation. Franks presented a method of calculation of the shellside condensing coefficinet for multicomponent vapor with noncondensables without considering the presence of water and vapor shear. epth treatment of this subject has been covered A more recent by John Prausnitz et a1.,33 that allows the thermodynamic contribution of water to be evaluated realistically while also considering vapor shear that produces much higher condensing heat transfer coefficients. The overall heat transfer is calculated in the same manner regardless of how the shellside condensing coefficient is evaluated, so rather
40
than calculating or even estimating the effect of these variables, it would seem to be wiser to use the experimental results obtained for the 1.22-m (4-ft) E-tube with no skirts. be conservative. This approach is believed to
No credit is taken in the East Mesa condenser design
for vapor shear or the fact that the skirt spacing on the condenser is 0.61 m (2 ft) or less. Allowance was not made in the East Mesa condenser design for the presence of noncondensable in the vapor stream, but previous assumptions should more than compensate for this omission. It is planned eventually to correlate the data from these experiments into basic equations for calculating the shellside heat transfer coefficient. This shellside correlation might ultimately involve consideration of the composition, quality, and velocity of the vapor, the temperature of the condensing surface, and the tube configuration. To develop shellside correlations, some degree of precision must be maintained in the experiments in the evaluation of the LMTD and the inside heat transfer coefficient; the heat flux is easier to evaluate. For the evaluation of the shellside condensing coefficient for the East Mesa condenser, single tube experimental data are used that were gather by Combs et al., in condensing isobutane on a 1.22(4-ft) long aluminium E-tube.19 Similar data were acquired by N. Doming0 of ORNL in condensing R-11 on both 1.22-m (4-ft) long carbon steel and a l u m i n u ~ n ~ ~ E-tube. The data (Fig. 18), obtained from Wilson plots and including the wall resistance, were fitted to polynomial expressions for use in the computer programs. 74 . Fouling
C. H G i l m ~ r e ~ ~ . of Union Carbide has claimed that fouling can be
reduced to practically nothing when tubes are chrome plated internally and externally and the velocities are kept high. The tubeside fouling estimation for the East Mesa condenser was based on several factors. The tube material was low-carbon steel with a carbon content of less than 0.10%, almost like Swedish steel. The coolant is treated, recirculated water-that is to be totally contained within the
41
OWL-DWG 81-22624
64'
6ooo
5000
HEAT FLUX (Btulhr ft' O F ) 2,000 4,000 6,000 8 O ! W 12,000 PO O
o ALUM. E-TUBE (R-6000)

0
A
0
I-
:".
0
CAR. STL. E-TUBE (R-11) ALUM. E-TUBE (R-ll)
1
600
4000
3000
400
2000
1000
200
40,000 20,000 34000 HEAT FLUX (W/rnZ)
Fig. 18. for E-tubes.
Experimental shellside condensing coefficients obtained
pipes and never comes in contact with any geothermal brines. The water velocity is relatively high at about 2.1 m/s (7 ft/s). Maximum anticipated fouling from treated cooling tower water is 0.00018 m2*K/w (0.001 h*ft2*OF/Btu) and for design purposes 2/3_ of this value will be _ This value has to be used, or 0.00012 m2*K/W (0.00066 h*ft2-'F/Btu). multiplied by the ratio of the outside to inside heat transfer area of 1.85.
The maximum shellside fouling for clean hydrocarbons is taken as

0,00009 m2-K/w (0.0005 h-ft2-OF/Btu); 50% of this value or 0.000045 m2-K/w
(0.00025 h*ft2*OF/Btu) will be used for the design value.
42
0017 A total fouling factor of 0.000259 m2*K/W ( . 0 4 h*ft2*'F/Btu)

is then used in calculating the area requirements for the East Mesa condenser. The above mentioned fouling factors are referenced in TEMA36 and Kern37 and are used by most heat exchanger manufacturers.
7.5
Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient
The overall heat transfer coefficient may be calculated by the summation of all the component resistances with corrections for the ratios of the heat transfer area. As in electrical flow, parallel conductances are additive and series resistances are additive as shown by combining the five component resistances in series in Eq. (9)
where
uO
= the overall heat transfer coefficient W/m2-K (Btu/h*ft2*O ) F, = outside area of tube, m2 (ft2),
AO
Ai = inside area of tube, m2 (ft2), f Am = log-mean average tube area, m2 ( t2) , hi = tubeside heat transfer coefficient W/m2*K (Btu/h*ft2*OF), fi = tubeside fouling factor m2*K/W (h*ft2e0F/Btu), h = shellside heat transfer coefficient W/m2*K (Btu/h*ft2.OF),
0
fO
shellside fouling factor m2-K/W (h*ft2*'F/Btu), k = thermal conductivity of tube material W/m*K (Btu/h*ft*OF),
=
L = tube wall thickness m ( t . f) Because the experimental data used to obtain the condensing coefficient was done using the Wilson plot, which includes the wall resistance of the tube, the last term in Eq. (9) will be deleted in the calculation. The ratio of the outside to inside area of the E-tube, (Ao/Ai), is 1.850. In discussing the enhancement of the fluted tube, it should be pointed out that if the tubeside resistance is controlling, improvement
43
in the overall heat transfer is not as apparent with improvement in the shellside coefficient. For the case at hand, the coolant flow rate of 3500 gpm and a fouling factor of 0.0012 m2*K/W, (0,00066 h.ft2.'F/Btu) results in a total tubeside resistance of 0.000296 m2*K/W (0.001681 h*ft2*'F/Btu) When fouling is neglected, the tubeside The resistance is reduced to 0.000233 m2*K/W (0.001324 h*ft2*'F/Btu). total shellside resistance which includes the wall resistance could vary from a minimum of 0.000185 m2*K/W (0.000883 h*ft2*OF/Btu) to a maximum of 0.000230 m2*K/W (0.001303 h*ft2*OF/Btu. A plot of the overall heat transfer coefficient as a function of the condensing coefficient with and without anticipated fouling is shown in Figure 19. It will be noticed that the shellside resistance is controlling up to a shellside coefficient of 3900 W/m2*K (687 Btu/h-ft2.'F) at a constant coolant flow rate of 0.2 m3/s (3500 gpm). Several facts can be deduced from this plot. (1) Fouling is more
devastating to enhanced exchangers than unenhanced exchangers. (2) Enhancement is more apparent when the film on the enhanced surface is not the controlling resistance. (3) To make the shellside resistance
ORNL-WG 81-19668
SHELLSIDE CONDENSING COEFFICIENT Btu/hr ft2 O F
200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1ooo I 0 1200 10
700
600 p
TUBESIDE
t
5008
400 &m!
RESISTANCE CONTROLLING
WE2
4
6 ' : 32
I-G
DESIGN FOULING SHELLSIDE RESISTANCE CONTROLLING
200
100
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
SHELLSIDE CONDENSING COEFFICIENT W/m2 K
Fig. 19. Overall heat transfer coefficient as a function of the condensing coefficient for the East Mesa condenser at a coolant flow rate of 0.22 m3/s (3500 gpm)
44
controlling requires increasing the tubeside velocity, which is quite costly, with the pumping cost being proportional to the cube of coolant flow rate. To achieve a controlling resistance with a maximum anticipated condensing coefficient of 5820 W/m2*K (1025 Btu/h*ft2*'F) a coolant flow rate of 0.322 m3/a (5100 gpm) would be required. Fouling can often be reduced by the proper selection of tube material, addition of inhibitors to the coolant, and periodic cleaning of the tubes. The tubeside resistance can be reduced by increasing the pumping capacity of the tubeside coolant. The shellside resistance can be reduced by limiting the noncondensables in the condenser, but insufficient condensation of the shellside vapor in a given condenser is rarely improved by increasing the flow rate of the vapor. In the case of the East Mesa condenser, a coolant flow rate of 0.322 m3/s would require a 303-hp pump requiring 0.283 M of power, which is 57% of the w total power produced by the turbo generator. 76 . Log Mean Temperature Difference
The log mean temperature difference ( J T ) for a counter-current LID or cocurrent liquid-liquid heat exchanger is calculated in a straight forward manner. Consider cold fluid on the tubeside of a heat exchanger entering the exchanger at a temperature t and leaving at a temperature i Hot fluid is on the shellside entering at a temperature T and i leaving at To. The average temperature of the hot stream is ( + Ti)/2, T0 and the average temperature of the cold stream is (to + t ) 2 i / . The average temperature difference between these two streams is the sums of the two streams (To
+ Ti)/2 -
(ti
+ to)/2
regardless of whether the
flow is cocurrent or counter-current.
The LMTD between these streams
is defined for counter-current flow in Eq. ( 0 : 1)
LMTD
(Ti
to)
(To
- ti)/ln
(Ti
t)/T o-(o
- ti) .
(0 1)
45
bd
If the flow is cocurrent the W D is calculated as shown in Eq. (ll),
Assuming a constant condensing temperature of 307.4K (94OF), a water supply temperature of 299.7K (80F), and a water flow rate of 0.221 m3/s (3500 gpm), the rise in the coolant: temperature is 5.44K With an average temperature difference between the two (.9F 97') streams of about 5K (9OF) both the counter-current and cocurrent LMTD is 4.55K (8.1gF), a difference of lo%, which could mean $3700 in tubing cost. The four-tube-pass configuration for condensation is both counter-current and cocurrent, depending on the pass. Many investigations have been made on calculation of LMTD for multipass liquid-liquid heat exchangers. Because we are dealing with a relatively small approach temperature
2.3K (4.2OF) and a small average temperature difference of 5K (') 9F, it seems unwise to use correction factors correlated for liquid-liquid exchangers where the efficiency is either zero or infinite when a constant temperature is employed because the methods don't allow for heat transfer with a change of phase. Therefore, 4.55K (8.19OF) LMTD w i l l be used for the design. Figure 20 shows the temperature distributions in both streams as a function of the length in the exchanger. Some explanation should be given for this approach3* because some designers still break the condenser into component parts. Desuperheating, condensing, and subcooling sections or regimes are often evaluated with corresponding heat transfer coefficients, W D s , and areas for each section. This approach provides from two to five times the area actually required. In the East Mesa condenser, most of the desuperheating being done is in the first half of the first pass across the tube bank. About 13% of the total heat is superheat. If the
desuperheating is based on a gas film coefficient of about 285 W/m2*K

(50 Btu/h*ft2B0F), 520 m2 (5600 ft2) of heat transfer area is required,
which is 72% of the design area of the East Mesa condenser, thus
46
333
5
a
308 306
E 304
302 300
0
0.5 FRACTION OF LENGTH
LO
Fig. 2 . Tubeside and shellside temperature distribution as a 0 function of length for the East Mesa condenser.
leaving insufficient area for condensing. Using this method of calculation would require a much larger condenser. Instead of the three stages happening separately, they actually occur simultaneously, with desuperheating requiring about the same percentage (13%) of the total surface area or 93 m2 ( 0 0 f * . 1 0 t)
8 PRESSURE DROP CALCULATIONS .
L 4
When the flow rates are increased in a given condenser, there are usually noticeable increases in heat transfer and obviously corresponding increases in pressure drops. Generally the heat transfer is limited by the pumping head or the allowable pressure drops across the tubeside and shellside of the condenser. If the pressure cannot be supplied, it must be compensated for by adding more heat transferarea with a loss of efficiency because velocities must be reduced to avoid exceeding the allowable pressure drops. When in doubt about an untested or new design concept, most heat exchanger manufacturers will usually guarantee the t heat transfer or the pressure drop but not both. I is just as important to obtain reliable pressure drop correlations as it is to obtain reliable heat transfer correlations. The tubeside pressure drops in the analysis of this condenser are relatively easy to calculate because we are dealing with a singlephase fluid in uniform channels. The shellside pressure drops are more difficult to evaluate. Two-phase flow is involved in evaluating the shellside pressure drop involving a constantly changing flow area with the condensate being constantly removed.
8 1 Tubeside Pressure Drop .
I is desirable to have a relationship that can be used to calculate t

the friction factor for any flow regime as functions of the Reynolds number and the relative roughness of the conduit. S W. C h ~ r c h i l l ~ ~ . 1) of the University of Pennsylvania has developed Eq. ( 2 , which accomplishes f = 80 [ 8 R ) 2 . (/e1 where A = 12.457 In 1.0/(7/Re)0*8
+ l.O/(A + B) 3/210.0833
(12)
+ 0.27
E)]16,
B = (37,530/Re)16,
u
47
48
Re = dimensionless Reynolds number,
E
= surface roughness, m ( f t ) , = 1.52 x
m (5 x
f t ) f o r smooth tubing,
D = i n s i d e tube diameter, m ( f t ) ,
f = dimensionless Darcy-Weisbach f r i c t i o n f a c t o r ,
E = dimensionless relative roughness = e/D.

Entrance l o s s f o r t h e tubes w i l l vary from a minimum of zero f o r s p e c i a l l y rounded openings t o
8
maximum of 1/2 v e l o c i t y head, V2/4g.
To
be conservative, t h e maximum entrance l o s s has been assumed f o r design purposes based on t h e coolant v e l o c i t y i n t h e tubes. The e x i t l o s s i s expressed as one v e l o c i t y head multiplied by (l.O-At/As) section. where At is t h e tube area and As is t h e area of t h e discharge The maximum l o s s is incurred as A
S
becomes i n f i n i t e , so t h e This drop i s independent
maximum l o s s is one v e l o c i t y head o r V2/2g. of t h e shape of t h e exit. t o t a l tubeside drop.
There are four s e p a r a t e tube entrances and
four s e p a r a t e tube e x i t s t h a t must be accounted f o r i n c a l c u l a t i n g t h e There is a pressure l o s s each t i m e t h e f l u i d changes d i r e c t i o n . This l o s s can b e evaluated by assuming a loss of one v e l o c i t y head f o r each 9' t u r n i n t h e f l u i d of a constant velocity. 0 i n t o t h e f i r s t tube pass with a flow area A i . (180' pass t o t h e tubes i n t h e second pass.
There i s a t u r n
When t h e coolant d i r e c t i o n i s changed i n going from t h e entrance nozzle
Two t u r n s are encountered
turn) associated with area A2 i n going from t h e tubes i n t h e f i r s t
Two more t u r n s are encountered

Two more t u r n s are
i n t h e header i n t h e c e n t e r s e c t i o n i n going from t h e second t o t h e t h i r d pass associated with an associated area A3. encountered i n going from t h e t h i r d t o t h e f o u r t h pass associated with
area A2.
nozzle.
F i n a l l y , t h e r e i s one t u r n associated with area A1 when t h e
f l u i d moves from t h e tubes in t h e f o u r t h pass t o t h e coolant discharge The t o t a l tubeside pressure drop, Apt, i n t h e condenser i s obtained by summation of t h e component pressure drops as given i n Eq. (13) f o r t h e m i l t i p a s s configuration.
49
where
APt = t o t a l tubeside pressure drop, rn ( f t ) of f l u i d ,
,
AP1 = maximum pressure l o s s a t tube entrance = V2/4g, APp = maximum pressure l o s s a t tube e x i t = V2/2g,
AP3 = pressure l o s s due t o f r i c t i o n = (fL/D) V2/2g, AP4 = maximum entrance l o s s i n header = V 2/4g, P AP5 = maximum e x i t loss i n header = V 2/2g, P AP6 = turning l o s s i n outer channels of header = 2V12/2g,
AP7 = t u r n h g l o s s i n f l o a t i n g head = 4 Vs2/2g, APg = turning loss i n center header channel = 2 V32/2g,
L = length of flow channel, m ( f t ) = PZ/N,
2 = length of tube i n a s i n g l e tube pass, m ( f t ) ,

N = number of tubes, P = number of tube passes,
D = i n s i d e diameter of tube, m ( f t ) ,
V = tubeside f l u i d velocity, m/s ( f t / s ) ,
g = a c c e l e r a t i o n due to gravity m/s2 ( f t / s 2 ) ,

V
= v e l o c i t y i n coolant pipe = W/App, m/s ( f t / s ) , P = v e l o c i t y i n headers = W/An, vn W = coolant mass flow rate, kg/s ( l b / s ) ,
A1 = area of o u t e r header channels, m2 ( f t 2 ) ,

A2
--
area of channel i n f l o a t i n g head, m2 ( f t 2 ) ,
A3 = area of c e n t e r header channel m2 ( f t 2 ) ,
A = area of coolant nozzle rn2 (&Is P
8.2
S h e l l s i d e Pressure Drop
I n t h e design of t h e ORNL VFTC, it was recommended t h a t t h e s h e l l -
s i d e pressure drop be kept below 7 kPa (1.0 p s i ) .
With t h i s criteria, Design changes
t h e condenser is considered t o be pressure-drop limited.
such as increased tube p i t c h , decreased tube length, o r use of multisegmental b a f f l e s can be made t o reduce t h e s h e l l s i d e pressure drop.
50 F i r s t of a l l , i t w a s d e s i r a b l e t o obtain some idea of t h e allowable b a f f l e s assuming 15%b a f f l e cut with tubes i n t h e window and equal b a f f l e spacing. These r e l a t i o n s h i p s were found i n an empirical equation proposed by D. G . Kern,40 which uses one-half of t h e pressure drop calculated f o r t h e t o t a l flow of t h e vapor through t h e enture s h e l l . With a vapor flow rate of 12.63 kg/s (100,000 lb/h) i t was found t h a t s i x equally spaced b a f f l e s would cause a pressure drop of 5.9 kFa
(0.9 p s i ) while seven b a f f l e s r e s u l t e d i n a pressure drop of 8.9 kPa

(1.3 p s i ) , therefore exceeding t h e design requirements. Using s i x b a f f l e s , i t w a s decided t o rearrange t h e spacing s o t h a t an approach t o a uniform vapor v e l o c i t y could be obtained through each s h e l l pass. Appendix D.
The program requires knowledge of t h e number of tubes on each row,
A computer program was w r i t t e n t o make t h e t a s k easier
by providing a row-by-row analysis of t h e pressure drop as shown i n
the b a f f l e spacing a t each pass, t h e area of t h e segmental opening t h a t

i s void of tubes, and t h e m a s s flow rate of t h e vapor.
It i s assumed
t h a t the condensation i s equally d i s t r i b u t e d over t h e t o t a l length of tubes about 8.06 kg/m (5.40 l b / f t ) . This assumption does not appear t o
It i s estimated
be conservative because of t h e superheat involved. f i r s t s h e l l s i d e pass.
t h a t t h e superheat i s probably dissipated i n t h e f i r s t half of t h e This assumption would probably r e s u l t i n s l i g h t l y higher pressure drop i n t h e f i r s t pass, with t h e t o t a l s h e l l s i d e drop remaining about t h e same. The summation of t h e component pressure drops on t h e s h e l l s i d e of t h e condenser, APs, i s given i n Eq. (12)
where APs = t o t a l s h e l l s i d e pressure drop, m ( f t ) of f l u i d , AP1 = maximum pressure l o s s i n concentric expansion from 12-in. pipe, t o 24-in. pipe = K V12/2g,
51
VI = v e l o c i t y i n 12-in. pipe, m/s ( f t / s ) ,
is
B2 = ( d 1 / d 2 ) ~= 0.2784,
(1
- fi2)2
= 0.5207,
Sch 40 pipe, m ( f t ) ,
d l = i n s i d e diameter of 12-in.
Vp = v e l o c i t y
d2 = i n s i d e diameter of 244x1. Sch 40 pipe, m ( f t ) ,
i n 24-in. pipe m/s ( f p s ) ,

t o condenser = 0.5 Vz2/2g, f vapor through j t h row of tubes area Aij
= fij
AP2 = maximum entrance 10s AP3 = pressure l o s s due t o f l
g = a c c e l e r a t i o n due t o gravity m/s2 ( f t / s 2 ) , and i t h pass having a f

A
ij
1 ) (P D), i J = number of tubes on j t h row,
B (N
v2 /2g, ij
P = tube p i t c h , m ( f t ) ,
D = 0.D of tube, m ( f t ) ,
Bi = b a f f l e spacing f o r i t h pass m ( f t ) ,
f Re
ij
= dimensionless Darcy-Weisbach f r i c t i o n f a c t o r =
0.8*Re
iJ
= dimensionless Reynolds numbe
$3
-Oo2
evaluated a t ithpass and j t h row, aluated a t ith pass and jth t h pass and jth
W ij
row = D Wij /uAi
mass flow rate o f vapor a t i
AP4 = pressure drop across b a f f l e windows
13
row = (Wi+l,j Cij)/2, = mass f l o w of condensate condensed a t ith pass and j t h row,
= 1 v e l o c i t y head =
Vk = v e l o c i t y a t kth b a f f l e = Wk/p%,
vi j
= v e l o c i t y a t ith pass and j t h r w = Wij/pAij, o = 0.118 m2 (1.28 f t 2 ) ,
Wk = mass flow rate of vapor through kth b a f f l e ,
% = b a f f l e area
i = pass number,
j = row number,
it = t o t a l number of tube passes = 6 (see Fig. 211,

j t = t o t a l number o f tube rows = 32,
k = t u r n number,
k t = t o t a l number of flow reversals ( t u n s ) = i-1,
p = vapor density, kg/m3 ( l b / f t 3 ) ,
p = vapor v i s c o s i t y , P a * s (lb/ft*h).
ORNL-DWG 81-13094
@-BAFFLE 5-REQ'D. @-TUBE SUPPORT
4-REQ'D.
Fig. 21. condenser.
Component shellside pressure drops in the East Mesa
53
t' .
I n t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of s h e l l s i d e pressure drop, t h e Bell-Delaware4 o r tabor el^^^ methods are normally used. These methods allow f o r streams o r leakages through annual voids between t h e b a f f l e h o l e and t h e tubes. The E a s t Mesa condenser was f a b r i c a t e d with a l l of these holes sealed and with shrouds provided t o o f f e r almost p e r f e c t "crass flow," which gives j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r neglecting t h e perturbations considered in t h e s e classical methods. I n equation 12, t h e entrance loss i n t o t h e condenser, AP2, is calculated from r e l a t i o n s h i p s given i n Ref. 43 and t h e f r i c t i o n f a c t o r , fij; across any tube row i s given in Ref. 44. A t a b u l a t i o n of t h e pressure drop c a l c u l a t e d a t each row f o r each
of t h e six passes of t h e East Mesa condenser i s given i n Appendix D.1 through D. 6.
9. DESIGN VARIABLES AND OPTIMIZATION

In general, the number of degrees of freedom in a unit process equa s the difference between the number of pertinent variables and the number of independent design relationships (equations) .45 The term pertinent variables is used because there are var les in the process that have no direct bearing on the system gperation or are repetitive quantities. These relationships cap be simply stated in Eq. ( 5 . 1)
F = V - R where
(15)
F = degrees of freedom, V = pertinent design variables (unknowns), R = independent design relationships (equations) ,
and is another way of saying for n unknowns you must have n equations. The basic equations involved in the condenser design are:
= WcCc(t2
- tl)
(6 1)
Q = W g [A
+ Cg(tg
- t,)] .
(17)
Q=UAATm.
(18)
ATm = [t (,
- tl)
(tc
- t2)J/ln
[t (,
(191
A - N L Z .
(20)
APt = tubeside pressure drop [see Eq. ( 3 J 1)
APs = shellside pressure drop [see Eq. ( 4 J 1)
55
56
The f l o a t i n g v a r i a b l e s are used i n these equations:
A = t h e t o t a l outside heat t r a n s f e r area of tubes, m2 ( f t 2 ) , U = o v e r a l l heat t r a n s f e r c o e f f i c i e n t = f (N, P) , W/m2*K (Btu/h*ft2*oF),

N = number of tubes, P = number of tube passes.
The following v a r i a b l e s are set e i t h e r by choice o r prevailing operating conditions:
19;
W = mass flow rate of vapor = 12.55 kg/s (99,400 l b / h ) ,

g
wC
= mass f l o w rate of coolant = 220.58 kg/s (1.747 x
lo6
lb/h)
t l = maximum coolant supply temperature = 300
K (80'F),
C = s p e c i f i c heat of t h e vapor = 0.000117 J/kg*K (0.49 Btu/lb*'F), g C = s p e c i f i c heat of t h e coolant = 0.000239 J/kg*K (1.0 Btu/lb*'F),
C
= vapor supply temperature = 333.9 K (140.6'F),
P = vapor supply pressure = 493 kPa (71.5 psia),

g
A P
= allowable s h e l l s i d e pressure drop = 6.9 kPa (1.0 p s i )

= desired condensing temperature = 307
Apt = allowable tubeside pressure drop = 69 kPa (10.0 p s i ) ,
K (94'F),
Q = heat load = 4.917 MW (16.781 x

I)
lo6
Btu/h)
= i n s i d e diameter of tube = 0.0219 m (0.07183 f t ) ,
X = tube p i t c h = 0.0318 m (1.25 i n . ) , Z = outside surface area per u n i t length of tube = 0.1283 m2/m
(0.4208 f t 2 / f t ) ,
L = exposed length of tubing 4.48 m (16 f t ) , fi = tubeside fouling r e s i s t a n c e = 0.00012 m2*K/W = (0.00066 h*f t2/Btu),
f i = s h e l l s i d e fouling r e s i s t a n c e = 0.000044 m2*K/W
= (0.00025 h=ft2*'F/Btu)
The foregoing l i m i t a t i o n s have a c t u a l l y set some other parameters i n t h e system. The coolant discharge temperature t p can be d i r e c t l y calculated from EQ. (14).
57
t2 = ti
+ Q/Cc Wc
305 K ( 9 7 ' ) 8.3F
and then the LMTD can be calculated from Eq. (19) ATm = 4.55 K ( , 9 F 81')
The distribution of the heat load on the condenser is shown in Table 4 The water vapor that is discharged from the turbine in the . DCHX mode arrives at the condenser at a quality of 68%, based on preliminary calculations,
Table 4 .
~~
Heat load on East Mesa condenser using direct contact heat exchanger Flow rate Heat Percentage kg/s lb/h 97,882 97,882
'
Heat load
Mw
0.6827 3.9436 0,3842 0.0061
Btu/h 2,330,000 13,459,000 970,000 20,900 1,500 16,781,400 13.8844 80.2019 5.7802 0.1245 0.0089 100.0000
Super heat in isobutane Latent heat in isobutane Latent heat in water vapor Sensible heat in water
Sensible heat in co2
12,359 12.359 0.117 0.055 0.019 12.551
930 438 155 99,400
0.0004
4.917
Total
Trial calculations for various tube passes are made by assuming values for the overall heat transfer coefficient. Based on this assumption, a heat transfer area and a heat flux are calculated that enables the outside heat transfer coefficient to be evaluated. With the allocated fouling resistance and the resistances offered by both films, the overall heat transfer coefficient is calculated and compared
58
w i t h t h e assumed value, is negligible.
T h i s procedure i s continued u n t i l t h e d i f f e r e n c e
The procedure w a s programmed t o o b t a i n t h e r e s u l t s shown
I .
i n Table 5. 4.48-m-
The output includes t h e tubes required and t h e p e r t i n e n t two-, four-, and eight-tube passes with tubes. Tube requirements f o r East Mesa condenser (Tube length = 16 f t )
v a r i a b l e s obtained using one-, (16-ft)-long Table 5.
Passes
2 1654 6413 1130 3411 601 1044 184 1430 252 0.70 2.33 11.86 1.72
4
1150 5789 1020
8
968 5403 952 15913 2804 1782 314 3320 585 4.78 15.92 721.56 104.65
Tubes Condensing c o e f f i c i e n t W/m2-K Btu/h*f t2*OF Tubeside c o e f f i c i e n t W/m2-K Btu/h-f t2*'F
3987 7326 1291 970 171 431 76 488 86 0.14 0.48 7.10 1.03
7 928 1397
1504 265 2463 434 2.01 6.70 74.54 10.81
Overall c o e f f i c i e n t
W/m2*K Btu/h*f t2* OF
Clean c o e f f i c i e n t W/m2 *K Btu/h*f t2* F O Tubeside v e l o c i t y m/s f t/s Tubeside pressure drop kPa Psi
It can be seen from comparisons made i n Table 5 t h a t using eight-tube passes makes t h e tubeside pressure drop too much while two-tube passes do not provide s u f f i c i e n t v e l o c i t y t o obtain a reasonably good tubeside heat transfer coefficient. coefficient. The four-pass u n i t seemed t o o f f e r a good compromise f o r both the pressure drop and t h e tubeside heat t r a n s f e r Using 968 tubes, the tubeside pressure drop is exceedingly high because we were asked t o keep t h e drop below 69 W a (10 p s i ) .
59
Using 1654 tubes reduced t h e pressure drop t o 12 kPa (2 p s i ) .
It
w a s found t h a t an exchanger with 1150 tubes could be used and s t i l l be
c l o s e t o t h e required pressure drop a t the same t i m e increasing the heat transfer
Therefore, i t was decided t o use 1150 tubes i n a four-pass conf i g u r a t i o n having an e f f e c t i v e tube length of 4.48 m (16 f t ) . The t o t a l tube length is obtained by adding t h e thicknesses of t h e two-tube sheets, t h e b a f f l e s , and t h e tube supports t o the e f f e c t i v e length. The 1150 tubes provide 719 m2 (7743 f t 2 ) of enhanced heat t r a n s f e r surface r e s u l t i n g i n a mean heat f l u x of 6830 W/m2 (2167 Btu/h*ft2). This choice allows f o r a permissible fouling of 0.000117 m2*K/W (0.00067 h*ft2*OF/Btu) on t h e tubeside, which i s close t o t h e assumed value of 0.000116 m2K/W (0.00066 h*ft2*'F/Btu)
It would seem d e s i r a b l e t o have t h e tubeside c o e f f i c i e n t a t least

equal t o t h e condensing c o e f f i c i e n t multiplied by t h e area r a t i o of t h e outside t o i n s i d e tube areas (1.85), which would n e c e s s i t a t e a maximum tubeside c o e f f i c i e n t of 12667 W/m2*K (2232 Btu/h*ft2*OF) requiring a v e l o c i t y of 3.67 m / s (12.03 f p s ) .
A t t h i s v e l o c i t y (and
neglecting entrance, e x i t , and turning l o s s e s ) , a t o t a l length of tubing of 10 m (32 f t ) could be t o l e r a t e d t o keep t h e pressure drop within t h e a l l o c a t e d range. With a four-pass configuration, t h e tube length would be limited t o 2.5 m (8 f t ) .
To keep t h e heat f l u x a t 6300 W/m2
(2000 Btu/h* f t2) where we can u t i l i z e the maximum condensing c o e f f i c i e n t of 5900 W/m2*K (1040 Btu/h*ft2*'F), we need 780 m2 (8390 f t 2 ) of heat t r a n s f e r area requiring 2490 tubes 8 f t long tending toward a "pancake" exchanger increasing t h e s h e l l s i d e pressure drop.
A s o l u t i o n can not be obtained by a r b i t r a r i l y assuming a high heat
flux.
The a r b i t r a r y assumption of a heat f l u x of 31,500 W/m2
(10,000 Btu/h*ft2) would require only 1,216 m (3,988 f t ) of tubes and would r e s u l t i n a calculated o v e r a l l heat t r a n s f e r c o e f f i c i e n t of 6930
W/m2*K (1,221 Btu/h*ft2*'F) obtained by dividing t h e heat f l u x by t h e

LMTD.
The calculated o v e r a l l heat t r a n s f e r c o e f f i c i e n t obtained by
sunrmation of t h e thermal resistances* i s only 965 W/m2*K (170 Btu/h*ft2*OF)
*Based on a 8-tube
pass configuration.
60
requiring 8,730 m (28,643 f t ) of tubing, or about seven times the length
of tubes obtained i n the original assumption.
This length however results
i n one-seventh of the original heat flux assumption.
The pressure drop on the shellside of the exchanger was discussed

i n Sect. 8 . 2 ; tabulated results of the row-by-row analysis I s presented i n Appendix D .
10.
C N E S R DESIGN O D NE
, u
unit.
The conceptual design of t h e condenser evolved from s e v e r a l
parameters t h a t remained unchanged through t h e a c t u a l manufacture of t h e

These parameters were t h e e x t e r n a l tube s u r f a c e area, t h e number There are s e v e r a l items that w e r e of tubes, and t h e b a f f l e spacing.
changed i n t h e f i n a l design of t h e condenser. The b a s i s f o r procurement was t h e condition t h a t t h e manufacturer (Patterson and Kelley Company) would assume the mechanical r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , including adherence t o various codes, and UCC-NI) would assume t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r t h e thermal flow performance. I n t h e conceptual design of t h e East Mesa condenser, s e v e r a l l o c a t i o n s of t h e vapor i n l e t nozzle w e r e considered. Raft River condenser. Originally t h e nozzle l o c a t i o n w a s a t t h e base of t h e condenser, as w a s done with t h e Nitrogen w a s t h e noncondensable gas present a t t h e Raft River test site, and i t was assumed t h a t t h e l i g h t gas would accumulate a t t h e top of t h e condenser where t h e vent l i n e w a s located i n t h e tubesheet of t h e condenser. up t o 0.2% by weight. I n t h e case of t h e E a s t Mesa condenser, carbon dioxide is t h e noncondensable gas expected t o be present i n amounts Carbon dioxide, having a density less than but almost equal t o isobutane, presented a d i f f e r e n t venting s i t u a t i o n from
A proper venting system should provide f o r a continuous vent, a recovery condenser, and a recovery compressor. A t t h e East Mesa f a c i l i t y , i t w a s not possible t o provide an adequate
t h e Raft River condenser. compressor f o r continuous venting because i t takes about 1 hp f o r every 12 kg/h (27 lb/h) of vapor throughput. Therefore, t h e design w a s changed t o a top vapor i n l e t so that t h e vapor stream containing t h e carbon dioxide has maximum contact with t h e condensate t o f a c i l i t a t e d i s s o l u t i o n of t h e noncondensable isobutane. The dissolved carbon dioxide is eventually disposed of i n t h e isobutane recovery system through t h e b r i n e returned to t h e direct-contact heat exchanger. The ORNL VFTC includes design f e a t u r e s t h a t are somewhat unusual and not standard p r a c t i c e i n t h e industry. and f a b r i c a t i o n methods are covered. Condensate downcommers design
The use of shrouds and impingement
61
62 baffles is also covered. A vibrational analysis was performed on the condenser, although with rolling the tubes into each baffle there seemed little need for this to be done leaving unsupported spans of less than 0 6 m (2 f) . t. The vibrational analysis indicated the design to be free of vibrational problems with maximum vapor velocities of 3 m/s ( 0 f / ) 1 ts. idea of how the condenser will be installed at the test site and the plans for testing is covered, and finally the instrumentation and data acquisition system is briefly covered to give some idea of the expected accuracy of the forthcoming experiments.
An
1 . Design Criteria and Code Requirements 01
The design criteria for the East Mesa condenser were actually set by the site requirements at the Geothermal Component Test Facility at East Mesa, California, and by the State of California. The shellside design pressure was specified as 1650 kPa (275 psig) at a temperature of 450 K (350OF). The tubeside design pressure is 690 kPa ( 0 psig) at 311 K (100OF). This was done to protect the 10 condenser in the event of turbine damage, when the vessel could be exposed to higher instantaneous pressures even though there are pressure relief valves in the lines. The normal operating conditions on the shellside of the condenser are 333 K (140.6OF) and 487 kPa (70.6 psia) with the tubeside cooling water supplied at temperatures from 283-300 K (50-80F) at a pressure of 618 kPa (75 p i ) s g . The tube material was .0. specified as low-carbon steel having a carbon content not exceeding 0 1 % The tube sheet and shell material was specified as SA 515- Grade 70. 1 The design was in conformance with the following codes: ( ) Section 8, Division 1 of the ASME Code for Unfired Pressure Vessels, ( ) Tubular 2 Heat Exchangers Manufacturers Association (TEMA) Class B, ( ) Uniform 3 Building Code (UBC) for seismic zone 4, and ( ) CAL/OSHA Standards Section. 4
63 10.2 Design Description
A cutaway diagram of the East Mesa VFTC (Fig. 22) shows the arrangement of the unit in the normal operating position, which i s installed about 1 off vertical to facilitate drainage of the condensate ' in the downcommers and otherwise has no effect on the design of the condenser. This inclination is accomplished by mounting the condenser on a sloping pad. The vapor, at a temperature of 333 K (140.6OF) and a pressure of 487 kPa (70.6 psia), enters the condenser through a 12-in. supply nozzle that i s expanded to 24411. prior to entrance into the condenser. The vapor strikes a perforated impingement baffle fabricated from 6-mm (0.25-in.) steel plate, which protects the tubes from direct exposure to the 4.5 m/s (15 ft/s) inlet velocity of the vapor stream. The vapor condenses on the cold surface of the fluted tubes and flows down the vertical tube until it reaches the top baffle plate, where the condensate flows by gravity to the downcommer tubes located at the site of the baffle plate. The condensate enters the downcommers and i s discharged on the splash plate at the base of the condenser. The downcommers are used to remove the condensate from the process as quickly as possible to minimize subcooling. Subcooling is a disadvantage in recovering heat in a geothermal power system because the heat must be made up at the direct-contact heat exchanger during the vaporization process, thus reducing the overall efficiency. In addition, the downcommers tend to increase the quality of the two-phase flow by removing the condensate from the tube as soon as possible. The design of the baffle spacing (Sect. 8 2 provides for six .) traverse vapor passages with baffle spacings ranging from 1.54 m ( 0 in) 6 to 0.33 m (13 i n ) . The anticipated condensate accumulated at each condenser baffle plate was obtained from Appendix D and sufficient 2.54-cm (1.0-in.) tubes were provided to allow for adequate drainage. The driving head, pL, of the condensate was equated to the frictional resistance in the tube to calculate the number of tubes required at each baffle. The allocation . of the downcommers at each baffle i s shown in Table 6
64
ORNL-DWG 81-12829
ad6II)
(2'-(0.)
!
1 N REO'D)
BAFFLE
0.62In
a47n
VENT PORT
LlOUlD LEVEL INMCA7DR CONNECTION
CONDENSATE
TEYPERATURE YOIliTW
DISCMARGE NOZZLE TO no1 WELL T.307 K . P Q 4 9 MPa
LlOUlD LEVEL
Fig. 22.
Cross section of ORNL 5-MW vertical-fluted-tube condenser.
c
Table 6. Baffle Downcommers Allocation of downcomers (DC) on b a f f l e s Head required
DC length
e
Condensate Velocity Pressure drop
Pa Psi
kg/s
1
2
lb/h 30,986 22,579 17,071 12,605 9,191
m
0.20 0.23 0.32 0.35 0.50
ft 0.64 0.76 1.04 1.15 1.64
m
3.35 2.13 1.22 0.61 0.30
ft
m/s
1.48 1.56 1.52 1.57 1.43
fPS
13
9
1.894 1.380 1.043 0.770 0.962
1 1
4.86 5.12 4.98 5.15 4.69
2482 2069 1517 1379 965
0.36 0.30 0.22 0.20 0.14
7
4 2
1
3
4 5
7
5 4
66 The b a f f l e s have a r i d g e along t h e edge t o provide a holding area f o r t h e condensate and t o keep t h e condensate from s p i l l i n g over t h e b a f f l e s and t o discharge t h e condensate through t h e downcommers as designed. The condenser w a s a l s o provided with 3-mm(0.125-in.-) thick v e r t i c a l shrouds confining t h e vapor passage t o a t r u e c r o s s flow p a t t e r n where t h e cross flow area is uniformly d i s t r i b u t e d a t each tube row i n t h e condenser: t o minimize vapor bypassing t h e tube bundle. discharged t o t h e hot w e l l through a 8-in. 1.65 m / s (5.4 f t / s ) . To l o c a t e areas i n t h e condenser where t h e noncondensables c o l l e c t and t o determine t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e noncondensables throughout t h e condenser, probes w e r e provided a t s i x d i f f e r e n t locations. Fig. 23. Five of t h e probes penetrate t o t h e vertical midplane of t h e condenser as shown i n The probes are equipped with valve s t a t i o n s t h a t permit samples
A continuous
The condensate
is collected i n a funnel-shaped tank a t t h e base of t h e condenser and
Sch 40 pipe a t a v e l o c i t y of
of t h e gas t o be extracted from t h e center of t h e condenser; temperature and pressure monitors are provided a t t h e e x t r a c t i o n point. locations. o r i n t e r m i t t e n t bleed of noncondensables can be made a t any o r a l l of these
All of these p a r t s were fabricated from type 316 s t a i n l e s s

The probes
steel t o avoid contamination problems i n t h e vapor analysis.
are slipped through t h e area t h a t i s incurred by tube separation allowed

f o r t h e flow d i v i d e r s i n t h e header and t h e tube sheet r e s u l t i n g i n a p i t c h of 44 mm (1.75 in.) a t 3 horizontal locations. The probes are m v e r t i c a l l y positioned 5 c (2 in.) below t h e b a f f l e s where t h e noncondensable C02 (MW = 44) is expected t o accumulate because i t is l i g h t e r than t h e isobutane (MW = 58). The tubes were attached t o t h e tubesheets by welding t h e tubes t o t h e tubesheets i n addition t o r o l l i n g t h e tubes i n t o scored holes. f a c t u r e r i n obtaining leak-tight j o i n t s . The w a t e r header is equipped with flow b a f f l e s t o d i v i d e t h e header i n t o an i n l e t section, a mixing U-turn s e c t i o n i n t h e center, and a discharge 'section. two U-turn sections. I n l i k e manner t h e f l o a t i n g head is divided i n t o I n each of t h e sections i n t h e f l o a t i n g head and This method of attachment is t h e most e f f i c i e n t means offered by t h e manu-
67
68 t h e center section t h e r e is a complete flow reversal; i n t h e entrance and e x i t sections t h e r e i s a 90' change i n d i r e c t i o n . The pressure drops F i r s t it
i n a l l of t h e s e sections have been considered.

The f l o a t i n g head design w a s chosen f o r two reasons. with a 2.5-m (8-ft) extension r o l l e r . offered a means of r o l l i n g t h e tubes i n t o t h e b a f f l e s from e i t h e r end
It w a s a l s o found t o be less
c o s t l y than f a b r i c a t i n g a U-tube bundle. welding t h e tubes, and bending costs.
The c o s t of t h e U-tube design
involved added setup c o s t s i n t h e f l u t i n g operation, t h e c o s t of s e c t i o n Figure 24 shows t h e tube bundle of t h e exchanger during t h e f i n a l s t a g e s of construction. The impingement b a f f l e can be used t o o r i e n t The downcomer l o c a t i o n s can be i d e n t i f i e d The shroud t h e bundle with t h e s h e l l .
as t h e 38 plugged holes t o t h e extreme l e f t of t h e tubesheet.
between t h e tubesheet and t h e f i r s t b a f f l e has not yet been attached. ORNL-Photo 0203-81
Fig. 24.
Tube bundle of ORNL 5-MW vertical-fluted-tube
condenser.
69
Figure 25 shows the assembled unit and details of the water header. The six gas sample nozzles can be seen located on the near side of the condenser. The cylinder on top contains dry nitrogen which was used as a cover gas during shipment and storage before erection at the East Mesa test site. The valves shown in the photograph on the top of the water header are air vents on the three water compartments in the header. ORNL-Photo 0205-81
Fig. 25. Exterior view of ORNL 5-MW vertical-fluted-tube condenser showing header details. Figure 26 shows the full length of the condenser and gives a good view of the condensate discharge nozzle. The reinforcing plates on the site of the condenser are for attaching the support legs and the frame on which the condenser is to be mounted. Special care was taken with the design of the frame because the condenser will be operated in a seismic high risk area.
71 10.3 Vibrational Analysis
The six-pass design f o r t h e East Mesa condenser w a s analyzed f o r p o t e n t i a l flow-induced v i b r a t i o n a l problems. Three e x c i t a t i o n mechanisms
were considered:
(1) vortex shedding, (2) turbulent buffeting, and
(3) f l u i d elastic i n s t a b i l i t y .
Conservative design guidelines were used
t o check f o r p o t e n t i a l transverse tube v i b r a t l o n s and resonant vibrations. The b a s i c engineering approach i s t o use conservative design guidelines t o prevent undesirable v i b r a t i o n s from occurring. The design guidelines, i n one way o r another, are r e l a t e d t o t h e avoidance of t h e synchronization of the system's n a t u r a l frequency with t h e e x c i t a t i o n frequencies. Because t h e degree of conservatism i n various guidelines
varies, preoperation flow t e s t i n g i s e s s e n t i a l i n ensuring t h e performance

and r e l i a b i l i t y of a heat exchanger. Both tube v i b r a t i o n and accoustic resonance v i b r a t i o n evaluations
were considered f o r t h e East Mesa condenser, and i t w a s found t o be f r e e

of v i b r a t i o n a l problems, 10.3.1 Tube Vibrational Evaluation
A common approach is t o model each tube span as an individual beam
under zero axial loading and with e i t h e r clamped o r hinged (simply supported) end supports. This approach is conservative and usually The fundamental underpredicts t h e fundamental frequency of t h e tube.
frequency of t h e tube f n expressed i n Hertz is shown i n Eq.
f* = k (E I g,/Me)Oo5/2 ,L2
where k = an empirical constant,
= 9.87 f o r hinged supports used i n t h i s a n a l y s i s ,
E = Young's modulus of e l a s t i c i t y = 6.76 x 108kg/m2 (26 x I = Moment of i n e r t i a f o r tube = 3.5 x
lo6
1b/ino2),
lo'*
m4 (0.084 i n , 4 ) ,
(32.17 f t / s 2 ) ,
gC
= a c c e l e r a t i o n due t o g r a v i t y = 9.81 m / s 2
= e f f e c t i v e mass/unit length = 1.25 kg/m (0.07 l b / i n . ) , Me. L = span length, m ( i n , ) .
i
1
72
Substituting the appropriate span lengths i n t h e above equation, the n a t u r a l frequencies f o r each pass of the East Mesa condenser w e r e calculated and tabulated i n Table 7. Table 7. Natural frequencies i n tube passes f o r 5-MW ORNL E a s t Mesa condenser Pass Tube supports span m (ft.) 0.36 0.57 0.43 0.62 0.47 0.35 (1.71) (1.88) (1.42) (2.04) (1.54) (1.13) Natural frequency
(H4
165 66 116 56 97 185
1 2 3 4 5 6
2 1 1 0
For a given gap flow velocity, t h e corresponding critical tube span length can be ~ a l c u l a t e d ~ ~ Eqs. (22), (23), and (24). using values w i l l not be equal.
The r e s u l t i n g
For t h e East Mesa condenser, t h e vortex The upper and lower values define an
shedding criteria gives t h e least critical length, while turbulent buffeting gives t h e greatest. flow velocity. uncertainty region when t h e c r i t i c a l length is p l o t t e d against t h e gap The design and operation condition should be below the uncertainty region.
.
,
Me
where
V = maximum velocity,
D = tube diameter,
II = longitudinal tube spacing,

t = t r a v e r s e tube spacing,
I
I I
73
K = 0.33,
;
!
c$
R = 0.80,
0 = 3.05(1
- D/t)2 + 0.28,
p = gas density,
I
u0 = 0.0033,
f
S
= vortex shedding frequency, = Strouhl number = fsD/V.
These equations have been used t o construct t h e tube v i b r a t i o n
c r i t e r i a diagram (Fig. 271, which can be used t o p r e d i c t v i b r a t i o n a l

problems i n t h e East Mesa condenser f o r each tube pass based on t h e
I
unsupported tube length and cross flow velocity.
i
I
I
I
4
j
ORNL OW0 81-9598
CROSS-FLOW VELOCITY (f/d 8 12 1 6 2 0 2 4 I I I i I
20c
UNCERTAINTY
i !
ij
= II
z
2o
3
I -
30
D
Fig. 27.
!
Tube v i b r a t i o n criteria diagram.
74
10.3.2 Acoustic Resonance Vibration Evaluation
When the shellside fluid is a gas, the fluctuations caused either by vortex shedding or turbulent buffeting can excite the shellside gas column to a resonating condition. An acoustic resonance will produce a loud noise and increase the shellside pressure loss, thus affecting the performance of the heat exchanger. The frequency of an acoustic standing wave in a cylindrical shell (fa) is given in Eq. ( 5 : 2)
f
nc =- a
where n = a constant depending on the mode excited, c = speed of sound in the shellside gas, a = inside shell diameter. The mode of primary interest is the first, for which n Values of n for the higher modes can be found in Ref. 48. The speed of sound is given in Eq. (26):
=
0.5861.
[~ygRTl/~
where z = compressibility factor, for isobutane at design conditions = 0 8 , .4

y =
specific heat ratio, g = gravitational constant,
R = gas constant for isobutane,
T = absolute shellside gas temperature.

At the design operating temperature of 307K (94F), the speed of sound in isobutane is 203.8 m/s (668.7 ft/s). When the excitation frequency is within k20% of the acoustic standing wave frequency, the phenomena of acoustic resonance is likely to occur. The equations describing the resonant range are:
fS = $ f a
ft =
B fa
75
Equation (27) applies to vortex shedding and (28) to turbulent buffeting. For a given gap flow velocity, the range o f inside shell diameters that could lead to an acoustic reasonance are given by: 0.5861) BDc a = (
sv
for vortex shedding and for turbulent buffeting:
a=( where
0.5861) Bclt M
0.8 < B < 1 2 .
For a given gap flow velocity V, the sma1,zst and largest inside shell diameter as calculated from Eqs. (29) and (30) define the reeonance region. For a safe design, the design operating condition should be outside the resonance region. Figure 28 is a plot of the inside shell diameter against the gap flow velocity; it is observed that the East
Mesa condenser is well below the resonance region for a11 six passes,
10.4 Data Acquisition and Inetrumentation

The condenser is fully equipped with hotrumenration to provide sufficient data t o accurately deterdne the heat transfer in both the vapor and coolant streams, The accuracy of the instrumentation was made commensurate, It is not good logic or economically feasible to have the capability of determining is temperature difference to within * o b 1 % when the flow rate is determined to within &%OX, It would be more logical to have both the temperature d i ing the total within 1% yielding a eyetern accuracy of heat rate. An excellent article has been wvitten by Y. P %itbsck4 .
in selecting instrumentation for geothermal heat recovery tsyetems and was quite helpful In designing the instrumentation for the Eafit Mesa condenser.
76
ORNL-DWG 61-9599
TUBE SPAN BETWEEN SUPPORTS (inch. 1
500
10 0
SO
IO
I I I 50 loo 150 TUBE WAN BETWEEN SUPPORTS
r J
200
(cm)
Fig. 28,
Acoustic resonance diagram.
The most accurate means of determining the total heat transfer in the condenser is in the coolant stream. It is a single-phase fluid, the pertinent physical properties are essentially constant and reliable, and it is convenient to monitor. The location of the temperature monitor in the water supply stream really doesn't matter because the fluid is assumed to be well mixed as it enters the supply line. The location of the temperature monitor on the coolant discharge was intentionally located downstream of the condenser so that adequate mixing can occur. Resistance thermometers were provided to monitor the minimum, maximum, and temperature difference in the coolant stream. The flow rate is monitored by a calibrated orifice meter. The estimated accuracy at the data logger used for the differential temperature is better than 99.8%. The estimated accuracy at the data logger for the flow meter data is 99%. The recorded data takes into account the total accuracy including the
77
errors encountered in the instrument, the transmission, and the recording. The accuracy of all temperature determinations is better than 99.8%. All resistance thermometers (RTDs) are installed in thermowells so that they may be replaced without having to shut down the process. The vapor stream is monitored by a venturi that was installed in the line to the existing system and is probably 98% accurate at the recorder. This isn't too helpful but can be used for making heat balances within
52%.
The vapor stream pressure and temperature is monitored at three
locations in the condenser: the vapor supply line, at the midpoint in shell, and at the condensate discharge. The differential pressure measurement i s also monitored and transmitted to the data logger. The expected accuracy of the differential pressure transmitters i s better than 99.8%. The accuracy of the pressure at the recorder i s better than
99.5%.
A liquid hold up volume is provided in the funnel at the base of the condenser. A differential pressure cell monitors the liquid level in the funnel where the data are transmitted to the data logger. Dial thermometers with errors of less than 0.6K (lF) have been provided at the six sample ports on the condensers whose location can be seen in Fig. 20. These ports are also equipped with pressure gages More with errors of no greater than 1% of the range or 14 kPa (2 p i . s) accurate electronic instrumentation can be added at these ports as warranted. I i s intended that this instrumentation be used by the person t taking the vapor samples to determine any sudden changes in the sampling conditions. The vapor samples are taken in 1-liter metal containers equipped with 6-nrm (0.25-in.) sample nozzles. The samples collected will be analyzed on site using a Varian chromatographic analyzer that can provide quantitative analyses on all of the pertinent hydrocarbons, oxygen, and carbon dioxide. The Karl Fischer method will be used to obtain water content in the vapor and liquid isobutane samples.
78
10.5
Site Testing
The ORNL VFTC was fabricated at Patterson-Kelley's factory at East Stroudsburg, Pennsylvania, and shipped by truck to the geothermal test site at East Mesa, California. The support frame for the condenser was fabricated in Patterson-Kelley's factory at Mineral Wells, Texas. The ORNL VFTC was connected to the existing system at the 6-2 Wellhead at the test site (as was shown in Fig. 1. Testing is planned ) for the winter of 1981. The test site is located in the desert region in the extreme southeastern part of California near Holtville. Holtville is in the Imperial Valley east of El Centro. The present schedule for testing is to run the condenser with the hpercritical Heat Exchanger Field Test (SHEFT) unit for about two weeks and then switch to the Direct Contact Heat Exchanger (DCHX) for two weeks for supply of the working fluid. The advantages of using the SHEFT unit
is that it provides a constant source of relatively pure isobutane gas with a known composition. When the DCHX is used, about 1.5% by weight
of water vapor condenser plus C02 that accumulates in the vapor stream
are carried over into the condenser. The proposed scheme for evaluating the overall heat transfer coefficient of the condenser in both modes of operation is:
1 Obtain the temperature drop across the condenser, (T2 TI) from . the differential transmitter and inlet and outlet water temperatures T1 and T2.
2.
3.
Obtain the coolant water flow rate, Ww. Calculate directly the overall heat transfer as shown in Eq. (31)
where C = constant specific heat of water, P A = total outside heat transfer area of condenser = 687 m2 (7400 ft2),
0
Tc = condensing temperature.
79
A second calculation can be made to check the total heat transfer
by accounting for the heat on the shellside. This involves knowledge of parameters that are not immediately available such as the quality and content of steam in the vapor supply. The scheme presented for evaluating the condenser is in reality an effort to find how good our design predictions were and to substantiate the single-tube experimental data. The design conditions need to be produced which means a vapor supply temperature of 333 K (140.6"F) at a pressure of 487 Wa (70.6 psia) and a coolant supply of 0.221 m3/s (3500 gpm) at a temperature of 300 K (0F. 8') The prime objective in testing the 5-MW condenser is to compare the field test results with results obtained in the laboratory. If these field test results are significantly different, reasonable explanations should be provided to account for the differences. One of the proposed investigations concerns noncondeneables, mainly C02, that accumulate in the working fluid. Complete and accurate solubility data, equilibrium constants, and even composition of the working fluid is often lacking. Solubility data for propane and isobutane in water and water in propane and isobutane can be found in Appendix B 5 . and B . 6 . The plots were obtained using Henry's Law, giving some idea of how solubility is affected by temperature at the operating pressure of the condenser. During normal operating conditions in the DCHX mode, gas samples will be collected at each of the six sample points at various times t o find out where and in what concentrations the noncondensables are collecting. Once this is determined, a permanent vent or vents may be provided, eventually equipped with a cooler condenser to strip the hydrocarbons during the venting process. C ; will be introduced intenO! tionally into the system to bring the concentration to a point where it starts to have a significant effect on the heat transfer and find out if the vents provided on the condenser can remove the noncendensable. The testing procedures will involve independently changing the flow rates of the working fluid and the coolant. Changing the mass flow rate of vapor will cause a proportional increase or decrease in the heat
80
load as well as the temperature difference in the coolant. Changing the

mass flow rate of the coolant should cause a proportional change in both
the condensing temperature and the coolant discharge temperature and pressure, although the heat load would remain constant. I would be desirable to observe the condensing conditions with t various amounts of superheat in the vapor using a constant coolant flow rate at a constant coolant supply temperature. Whether or not all the planned operations can be carried out will depend on the system performance, the brine delivery conditions and the wetbulb temperature during the experimental operation period. After completing each scheduled test with the SHEFT and DCHX units in operation, it is planned to inspect and photograph the inside of the tubes using a borescope. The 1.0-in. vent valves provide sufficient room to introduce the flexible scope into tubes beneath the valves. This procedure will give comparisons of the relative tubeside corrosion incurred in the two processes. The borescope will be used to observe the shellside of the tubes through the vent ports to verify any fouling or oil buildups. Photographs of both the interior and exterior tubes will document such problems that may be encountered. Similar procedures have been used in controlled tests performed on fluted tube condensers5O in condensing ammonia for the OTEC program. Work was also done in testing a vertical-fluted-tube evaporator in conjunction with the OTEC project. 51
1 . RELATED PRESENT AND FUTURE WORK 1

The turbine discharge condenser for the recently built 5-MW(e) Raft River power station in Idaho has carbon steel tubes that were designed based on the'assumption that a source of fresh coolant make-up water would be available. The smooth tube horizontal U-tube condenser has 7900 19-mm (3/4-in.) diam tubes providing about 5950 m2 (64,000 ft2) of heat transfer surface. The heat flux on these tubes is about 6760 W/m2 (2150 Btu/h*ft2). The expected overall coefficient is about As it turns out, geothermal brine must be 695 W/m2*K (122 Btu/h*ft*'F). used as make-up for the cooling water, and replacement condensers are being considered for this unit where salt water resisting alloys must be utilized. An in-depth study was made by UCC-ND for the replacement condenser. First of all, manufacturers of plate and frame, spiral, and evaporative units were contacted. All but the evaporative manufacturers declined interest for reasons of size, cost, or materials. Baltimore Air Coil could offer only stainless steel tubes and estimated the total cost to be about $1.6M (1981); they allowed for the cost of their stainless steel tubed units to be about four times the cost of the units with carbon steel tubes. Using newly developed alloys such as SEACURE (produced by the Trent Tube Division of Colt Industries) or AL29-4C ( competitive alloy developed a by Allegheny-Ludlum), it was found that a horizontal exchanger designed for this application would cost about $1.8M.
A bayonet-type exchanger requiring only 2,000 vertical fluted tubes
providing 2346 m2 (25,000 ft2) of heat transfer surface could do the job . with the cost estimated at less than $700 K A more standard unit similar to the mesa condenser is estimated at $900 K A total of eight . separate designs were investigated and costs estimated using the newly developed saline resistant alloys. The study included two horizontal units for direct comparison one fixed and the other U-tube. U-tube units were found to be more
81
82
expensive because t h e tubes had t o be s e c t i o n welded as w e l l as bent.
It is more economical t o use fixed o r f l o a t i n g heads i n t h e l a r g e s i z e

u n i t s than t o employ t h e U-tube design.
A study has been made on compatible tubing a l l o y s in contact with
Li
s a l t and brackish water. case.
A l l of t h e a l l o y s shown i n Fig. 29 are highly
r e s i s t a n t t o s a l t water and aerated s a l t water, which i s a more severe Grade AS-179 carbon steel i s t h e only material presented ( i n
Fig. 29) t h a t i s severely attacked by salt w a t e r and is included f o r

c o s t comparisons.
ORNL-DWG 81-8323
RELATIVE COSTIFT
0
STEEL
1 . 0
0.57
2.0
3.0
I
4.0
5.0
I
6.0
I I
7.0
I
I
8.0
I
S0 .
E 3
AL. 29-4C 11 .3
28 MIL W A L L TUBING
TITANIUM 1.66 304 STAINLESS STEEL 2.60
I
~~
316 STAINLESS STEEL 3.75

YONEL 400
1
I
3.85
INCONEL 600 5.10 STEEL

0.85
AL. 29-4C 1.37
90-IO CU-NI 1.39

SEACURE 1.41
To-so CU-NI
AL 6X
1.64
1.65
35 MIL W A L L TUBING
TlTINlUM 2.56
Fig. 29. Relative c o s t of s a l i n e r e s i s t a n t tube materials (March 15, 1981).
83
There remains development work t o be done on t h e VFTCs. rubber might b e u t i l i z e d f o r tube supports and b a f f l e s .
Plastic or
Ektrusion methods
ought t o be r e i n v e s t i g a t e d i n an e f f o r t t o reduce t h e c o s t of production
of f l u t e s .
Hore expedient means of attachfng tubes t o t h e b a f f l e s need
t o be investigated. Experimentally, we need t o modify our test r i g t o extend t h e c a p a b i l i t i e s f o r t e s t i n g tubes up t o 9-m (30-ft) long t o f u r t h e r i n v e s t i g a t e t h e e f f e c t s of vertical tube l e n g t h s on condensing performance. The e f f e c t of noncundensables on the o v e r a l l heat t r a n s f e r i n condensers is not f u l l y understood, and i t is hoped t h a t t h e test runs
a t t h e E a s t Mesa test site on t h e ORNL condenser w i l l shed some l i g h t

on t h i s dilemma.
W e intend t o monitor t h e component gas concentrations, through t h e use of a gas chromatography, at six d i f f e r e n t elevations in t h e condenser via snorkel tubes that go t o t h e c e n t e r of t h e condenser t o f i n d exactly where t h e noncondensables accumulate and i n what q u a l i t y .
We w i l l experimentally determine t h e e f f e c t s of superheat coolant and vapor flow rates on t h e condensing pressure, which is a means of
evaluating t h e condenser performance. Resistance thermometers (RTDs) have been i n s t a l l e d on t h e condenser t o monitor t h e temperature rise i n t h e coolant stream i n conjunction with
a o r f i c e meter t o accurately determine t h e t o t a l h e a t load on t h e

condenser. Recent test d a t a from t h e Raft River geothermal test s t a t i o n on t h e
104-tube VF'TC has been y i e l d i n g o v e r a l l heat transfer c o e f f i c i e n t of about

I
2270 W/m2*K (400 Btu/h*ft2*9F) with t h e vapor containing 9K (5F 2')
more
superheat than expected.
W are t r y i n g t o confirm whether increased e
superheat tends t o reiiuce t h e e f f i c i e n c y of t h e condenser. W e would l i k e t o extend t h e s e experiments t o cover condensing
steam.
This creates new problems such as corrosion, f a t i g u e , and more

Tube w a l l thickness might have t o be
v i b r a t i o n a t higher v e l o c i t i e s .
increased with high pressure steams. from isobutane.
New tube configurations may have
t o be developed f o r steam which has physical p r o p e r t i e s q u i t e d i f f e r e n t There i s some consolation in that much higher heat
t r a n s f e r c o e f f i c i e n t s can be obtained which should lead t o more e f f i c i e n t condensers.
12.
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
&J
We firmly believe that a VFTC having an overall heat transfer coefficient of greater than 2840 w/m2*K (500 Btu/h*ft2*'F) can be built for condensing isobutane.
To accomplish this task, both inside and
outside fouling would have to be cut to a minimum, the exchanger operated at the optimum heat flux, max'mum tubeside velocity achieved, and probably most important, the isobotane kept free of oils and non condensables. A recapitulation of the good points of the VFTC includes the fact that the tube count of a horizontal-smooth-tube unit can be reduced by a factor of at least five. An added advantage is that when the number of tubes are decreased, the shell diameter is also decreased, thus saving both shell and structural material. VFTCs can be built by standard heat exchanger manufacturers if one is willing to accept responsibility for the heat transfer performance. The manufacturers will build the unit in conformance with TEMA standards and negotiate any necessary deviations. The major task in thfs effort was the design and procurement of the fluted tubes. The cost of the fluting is a flat "per foot" cost. With inexpensive tube material, the fluting cost is, therefore, relatively high: about 75X of the total cost of the fluted tube; with expensive tube material, it can be relatively low: about 20% of the total cost. The advantage of using vertical-fluted-tube exchangers is obtaining higher overall heat transfer coefficients and condensing more vapor per unit cost than either horizontal- or vertical-smoothtube exchangers requiring the same total tube length. The disadvantages are higher tubing cost, cost of sealing the tubes to the baffles, and having to resort to multipassing the coolant to achieve the desired high coolant velocities. In spite of this, fluted tubes are attractive alternatives to smooth-tube-horizontal heat exchangers for low-temperature wast heat utilization. If some of these disadvantges could be overcome, it would make the fluted tube units even more attractive. One means of accomplishing this objective is employing a bayonet design with the fluted tube as the sheath with a plastic tube as a
W
85
86
bayonet.
Uisng t h i s method, t h e r e would be less than a 0.05 IC (O.lF) This means
temperature increase i n t h e coolant i n t h e p l a s t i c tube. condensation s p l i t evenly between t h e tubes.
t h a t t h e bayonet condenser would be t r u l y counter-current with t h e P l a s t i c b a f f l e s might be used t h a t could be attached t o t h e tubes by a p p l i c a t i o n of heat.
To f a b r i c a t e t h e bayonet, t h e f l u t e d tube would have t o be provided

with a hollow s p h e r i c a l t i p . These and other methods are under c u r r e n t i n v e s t i g a t i o n as are c o s t comparisons on various tubing
materials s u i t a b l e f o r use with geothermal b r i n e s and brackish water.
As manufacturers become more familar with f l u t e d tubes and f l u t e d tube

exchangers, t h e f a b r i c a t i o n c o s t s w i l l be reduced and we should see more of t h e s e u n i t s i n i n d u s t r i a l usage.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This report was done ib cooperation with the Energy Division through J. W. Michel as part of the Waste Heat Rejection Program sponsored by the U.S. Department of Energy, Division of Geothermal Energy, under Contract No. W-7405-end-26 with Union Carbide Corporation' s Nuclear Division (UCC-ND) I wish to acknowledge the help of several members of the UCC-ND
staff who made contributions to this report as well as to the design and development of the East Mesa condenser: Dr. E=. H Luk of the Systems Engineering Department performed the . vibrational analysis and verified the arrangement of the baffles and tube supports. W. D Hoyle did the drafting work and contributed many original .
T Whitus and . D. J. Kincaid did the excellent graphics contained in the report. J. W. Wells and W. P. Huxtable, although not assigned to the project, are thanked for their consultation on condensation theory and excellent references. I also wish to express my appreciation to J. W. Michel of the Energy Division and the Project Manager, who orginally suggested the project, and to Drs. R. W. Murphy and M. Siman-Tov, who reviewed the report and offered technical consultation.
ideas to the conceptual design of the condenser.
87
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LJ
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46.
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K. H Lub, ORNL Engineering Division, private communication, . June 1979.
93
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Appendix A CONVERSIONS (METRIC/ENGLISH, ENGLISH/METRIC) All quantities used in this report have been expressed in Scientific International (SI) units with the corresponding American Common Usage (ACU) units. Table A,1 gives the factors to convert from ACU units to the corresponding SI units. Table A.2 gives the factors to convert from SI units into the corresponding ACU units.
Table A 1 ..
Factors to convert from American Common Usage (ACU) units into Scientific International (SI units) To Multiply by 0.2929 2.152 1.730 5 675
To convert from Btu/h Btu/h*ft2 Btu/h*ft*OF Btu/h*ft2 OF Btu/lb, Btu/lb,* OF ft lb/h

ft2
. .
f t/h2
fPS gpm in
2.324 x lo3 4.184 x lo3 0 3048 1.263 x 0.0929 2.35 x

0 3048
6,309 x 2.54 1.263 x lo4 14 59 16.02
Ib/h lbf/ft
II+Jft 3
lbm/h-ft l b / h *ft2 psia
A(*F)
4.134 x 1.356 x loo3 6.895 x l o 3 A(K) or ("C) T(K) = 5/9 [T(OF) 0.5556
Temperature conversion:
- 321 + 273.15
103
104
Table A.2. Factors to convert from Scientific International (SI) units into American Common Usage (ACU) units
To convert from
To Btu/h Btu/h*ft2 Btu/h*ft*O F Btu/h*ft2*OF Btu/lb, Btu/lbm*OF ft in ft2
Multiply by 3.414 0.31173 0.5780 0.1762 4.303 X 2.390 x 3, 281 0.3937 10.764 4,255 x lo7 3.281
1.585 x
ft/h2 f t/s gPm lbf/ft kg/m3 Pa*s Pa*s/m Pa A(K) or A("C)

l& b 1k/ft3
0 0685
loe4
l&/h*ft lb/h*ft2 psia
7.920 x lo3 0, 0624 3.190 x lo3 7.375 x 102 1.450 x

18 .
A(F T')
Temperature conversions:
T(OF) = j1.8 T(OC)] 4- 32
Appendix B
br
propercteis of isobutane.
PROPERTIES O ISOBUTANE F
Appendix B contains d a t a on pertinent thermodynamic and physical Figure B.l shows t h e l a t e n t heat of isobutane Figure B.2 shows Figure B.3
as a function of temperature at a pressure of 1 a t m .

shows t h e s p e c i f i c h e a t of isabutane gas a t 1 a t m as temperature.
t h e vapor pressure of isobutane as a function of temperature.
Figure B.4 is a diagram showing t h e enthalpy of isobutane Figure B 5 shows t h e s o l u b i l i t y .
as a function of temperature and pressure.
of both propane and isobutane i n water as functions of temperature. Figure B.6 shows the s o l u b i l i t y of water in propane and isobutane as functions of temperature. presented i n Ref. 25. These d a t a have been abstracted from equations
Fig. B.1.
Latent heat of i s cibutane as a function oftemperature
a t a pressure of 1 a t m .
105
106
Fig. B 2 ..
Vapor pressure of isobutane as a function of temperature.

CWL-DWG
ei-mm
50
t
v)
60
I
fo
I
80
I
TEMPERATURE, O F 90 1 0 0 10 120 1
I
130
I
l40
I
150
0.45
1850
i 3
290
300
310 320 TEMPERATURE, K
330
Fig. B 3 ..
Specific heat of isobutane gas at 1 a m .
107
bi
Fig. B.4. and pressure.
Enthalpy of isobutane as a function of temperature
Fig. B.5. Solubility of propane and isobutane in water as functions of temperature,
E
tf
b
ijg s:
Fig. B . 6 . Solubility of water i n propane and isobutane as functions of temperature.
Appendix C PROPERTIES OF WATER Table C.l shows the physical properties of water over the appropriate temperature range of the cooling water. The properties include the density, dynamic viscosity, thermal conductivity and Prandtl Number. The specific heat of water is assumed to be constant over the temperature range considered.
Table C.1. T
Propertles of saturated watera

~~ ~ ~~
F!
k
273 277 283 289 294 300 305 311 316 322 327 333 339
OF
32 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150
tg/m3 1000 1000 999 999 998 996 995 993 991 989 986 983 980
lb/ft3 62.42 62.42 62.38 62.34 62.27 62.17 62.11 61.99 61.84 61.73 61.54 61.39 61.20
Pas 0.00179 0.00155 0.00130 0.00112 0.00098 0.00086 0.00076 0.00068 0.00062 0.00056 0.00051 0.00047 0.00043
lb/ft*h 4.33 3.75 3.17 2.71 2.37 2.08 1.85 1.65 1.49 1.36 1.24 1.14 1.04
W/m K 0.566 0.574 0.585 0.595 0.604 0.614 0.623 0.630 0.637 0.644 0.649 0.654 0.659
k Btu/h*ftF
0.327 0.332 0.338 0.344 0.349 0.355 0.360 0.364 0.368 0.372 0.375 0.378 0.381
NPr 13.37 11.36 9.41 7.88 6.78 5.85 5.13 4.52 4.04 3.65 3.30 3.01 2.72
a T = temperature, Cp = specific heat = 10 Btu/lb.OF or cal/gm*K, . p = density, = dynamic viscosity, k = thermal conductivity, and Npr Prandtl Number (dimensionless).
I =
109
i
Appendix D
SHELLSIDE PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION

Appendix D shows the pressure distribution in the East Mesa condenser. The vapor velocity, the amount of condensate obtained on each row, the total condensate obtained, and the incurred pressure drop are tabulated for each row of each shell pass. Tables D.l through D.6 show the data for the first pass through the sixth pass and indicate the baffle spacing for each pass. The following is the same for all passes: baffles, 6; total tube length, 6, 6168 m (20,239 ft); temperature, 307.57 K ( 4 0 F ; 9.') pressure, 493.68 kPa (71.60 psi); gas flow rate, 12.55 kg/s (99,400 lb/h); entrance loss to be added to total pressure drop, 715.22 Pa (0.1037 psi).
111
Table D l . . Pressure distribution through the first shell pass of the East Mesa condenser with a baffle spacing of 1.52 m (60 in.) Row number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 Number of tubes 30 31 32 34 35 36 37 38 40 40 40 41 41 41 41 41 41 41 41 41 40 40 40 38 37 37 36 34 34 33 31 30 Vapor velocity (m/s) 3.269 3.142 3.021 2.823 2.719 2.620 2.526 2.435 2.291 2.265 2.239 2.160 2.134 2.108 2.082 2.056 2.030 2.004 1.978 1.952 1.973 1.947 1.921 1.993 2.019 1.993 2.020 2.109 2.083 2.118 2.224 2.269
(ft/s)
Condensed/row (liters/s) 0.188 0.194 0.200 0.213 0.219 0.225 0.231 0.238 0.250 0.250 0.250 0.256 0.256 0.256 0.256 0.256 0.256 0.256 0.256 0.256 0.250 0.250 0.250 0.238 0.231 0.231 0.225 0.213 0.213 0.206 0.194 0.188 (gal/min) 2.973 3.072 3.171 3.369 3.468 3.568 3.667 3.766 3.964 3.964 3.964 4.063 4.063 4.063 4.063 4.063 4.063 4.063 4.063 4.063 3.964 3.964 3.964 3.766 3.667 3.667 3.568 3.369 3.369 3.270 3.072 2.973
Total condensed (liters/s) 0.188 0.381 0.581 0.794 1.013 1.238 1.469 1.707 1.957 2.207 2.457 2.713 2.970 3.226 3.482 3.739 3.995 4.251 4.508 4.764 5.014. 5.264 5.514 5.752 5.983 6.215 6.440 6.652 6.865 7.071 7.265 7.453 (gal/min) 2.97 6.05 9.22 12.59 16.05 19.62 23.29 27.05 31.02 34.98 38.95 43.01 47.07 51.13 55.20 59.26 63.32 67.39 71.45 75.51 79.48 83.44 87.40 91.17 94.84 98.50 102.07 105.44 108.81 112.08 115.15 118.13
Pressure drop kPa 0.020 0.039 0.056 0.071 0.085 0,099 0.111 0.123 0.134 0.144 0.154 0.164 0.173 0.182 0.191 0.199 0.208 0.216 0.224 0.232 0.240 0.248 0.256 0.264 0.272 0.280 0,289 0.298 0.307 0.316 0.326 0.336
Psi
10.73 10.31 9.91 9.26 8.92 8.60 8.29 7.99 7.52 7.43 7.35 7.09 7.00 6.92 6.83 6.74 6.66 6.57 6.49 6.40 6.47 6.39 6.30 6.54 6.62 6.54 6.63 6.92 6.83 6.95 7.30 7.45
0.003 0.006 0.008 0.010 0.012 0.014 0.016 0.018 0.019 0.021 0.022 0.024 0.025 0.026 0.028 0.029 0.030 0.031 0.033 0.034 0.035 0.036 0.037 0.038 0.039 0.041 0.042 0.043 0.044 0.046 0.047 0.049
c
Table D 2 . . Pressure distribution through the second shell pass of the East Mesa condenser with a baffle spacing of 1.11 m (44 in.) Row number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 Number of tubes 30 31 32 34 35 36 37 38 40 40 40 41 41 41 41 41 41 41 41 41 40 40 40 38 37 37 36 34 34 33 31 30 Vapor velocity
(m/s)
c
Condensed/row (liters/s) 0.138 0.142 0.147 0.156 0.160 0.165 0.170 0.174 0.183 0.183 0.183 0.188 0.188 0.188 0.188 0.188 0.188 0.188 0.188 0.188 0.183 0.183 0.183 0.174 0.170 0.170 0.165 0.156 0.156 0.151 0.142 0.138 (gal/min) 2.180 2.253 2.326 2.471 2.544 2.616 2.689 2.762 2.907 2.907 2.907 2.980 2.980 2.980 2.980 2.980 2.980 2.980 2,980 2.980 2.907 2.907 2.907 2.762 2.689 2.689 2.616 2.471 2.471 2.398 2.253 2.180 Total condensed (liters/s) 7.590 7.732 7.879 8.035 8.195 8.360 8.530 8.704 8.888 9.071 9.254 9.442 9.630 9.818 10.006 10.194 10.382 10.570 10.758 10.946 11.130 11.313 11.496 11.671 11.840 12.010 12.175 12.331 12.487 12.638 12.780 12.918 (galjmin) 120.31 122.56 124.88 127.35 129.90 132.51 135.20 137.96 140.87 143.78 146.69 149.67 152.64 155.62 158.60 161.58 164.56 167.54 170.52 173.50 176.41 179.32 182.22 184.98 187.67 190.36 192.98 195.45 197.92 200.32 202.57 204.75
'
Pressure drop kPa 1.231 1.248 1.263 1.277 1.289 1.301 1.312 1.323 1.332 1.341 1.350 1.358 1.366 1.374 1.382 1.390 1.397 1.404 1.411 1.418 1.425 1.432 1.438 1.445 1.452 1,459 1.467 1.474 1.482 1.490 1.498 1.507 Psi 0.179 0.181 0.183 0.185 0.187 0.189 0,190 0.192 0.193 0.194 0.196 0.197 0.198 0.199 0.200 0.202 0.203 0.204 0.205 0.206 0.207 0.208 0.209 0.210 0.211 0.212 0.213 0.214 0.215 0.216 0.217 0.219
(ft/s) 10.05 9.66 9.28 8.67 8.34 8.03 7.74 7.45 7.01 6.92 6.84 6.59 6.50 6.42 6.33 6.25 6.16 6.08 5.99 5.91 5.96 5.88 5.79 6.00 6.07 5.99 6.06 6.32 6.24 6.34 6.64 6.77
3.064 2.943 2.828 2.642 2.543 2.448 2.358 2.272 2.136 2.110 2.084 2.009 1.982 1.956 1.930 1.904 1.878 1.852 1.826 1.800 1.818 1.792 1.766 1.830 1.851 1,825 1.848 1.927 1.902 1.931 2.025 2.064
P P
Table D . 3 . Pressure distribution through the third shell pass of the East Mesa condenser with a baffle epacing of 0.86 m (34 in.)
. Row number
Number of tubes
30
Vapor velocity (m/s) (ft/s) 8.93 8.57 8.23 7.67 7.38 7.09 6.82 6.56 6.16 6.07 5.99 5.76 5.68 5.59 5.51 5.42 5.33 5.25 5.16 5.08 5.12 5.03 4.94 5.11 5.16 5.07 5.12 5.33 5.25 5.31 5.56 5.65
Condensed/row (liters/s) 0.103 0.107 0.110 0.117 0.120 0.124 0 I27 . 0.131 0.138 0.138 0.138 0.141 0.141 0.141 0.141 0.141 0.141 0.141 0.141 0.141 0.138 0.138 0.138 0.131 0.127 0.127 0.124 0.117 0.117 0.113 0.107 0.103 (gal/min) 1.635 1.690 1.744 1.853 1.908 1.962 2.017 2.071 2.180 2.180 2.180 2.235 2.235 2.235 2.235 2.235 2.235 2.235 2.235 2.235 2.180 2.180 2.180 2.071 2.017 2.017 1.962 1.853 1.853 1.799 1.690 1.635
Total condensed (liters/s) 12.021 13.127 13.238 13.354 13.475 13.599 13.726 13.856 13.994 14.132 14.269 14.410 14.551 14.692 14.833 14.974 15.115 15.256 15.397 15.538 15.676 15.813 15.951 16.081 16.209 16.336 16.460 16.576 16.693 16.807 16.913 17.017 (gallrnin) 206.39 208.08 209.82 211.67 213.58 215.54 217.56 219.63 221.81 223.99 226.17 228.41 230.64 232.87 235.11 237.34 239.58 241.81 244.05 246.28 248.46 250.64 252.82 254.89 256.91 258.93 260.89 262.74 264.60 266.39 268.08 269.72
Pressure drop kPa 2.398 2.412 2.424 2.435 2.445 2.454 2.463 2.472 2.479 2.486 2.493 2.500 2.506 2.512 2.518 2.524 2.530 2.535 2.541 2.546 2.551 2.556 2.561 2.566 2.572 2.577 2.582 2.588 2.593 2.599 2.605 2.612 Psi 0.348 0.350 0.352 0.353 0.355 0.356 0.357 0.358 0.360 0.361 0.362 0.363 0.363 0.364 0.365 0.366 0.367 0.368 0.368 0.369 0.370 0.371 0.371 0.372 0.373 0.374 0.375 0.375 0.376 0.377 0.378 0.379
1 2
3
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29
30
31 32
31 32 34 35 36 37 38 40 40 40 41 41 41 41 41 41 41 41 41 40 40 40 38 37 37 36 34 34 33 31
30
2.722 2.612 2.507 2.339 2.248 2.162 2.079 2.000 1.877 1.851 1.825 1.756 1.730 1.704 1.678 1.652 1.626 1.600 1.574 1.548 1.559 1.533 1.507 1.558 1.573 1.547 1.562 1.625 1.599 1.619 1.694 1.722
c
Table D 4 . . Pressure distribution through the fourth shell pass of the East Mesa condenser Kith a baffle apacing of 0.61 m (24 in.)
Row
number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32
Number of tubes
Vapor velocity (ds) 2.338 2.239 2.146 1.998 1.917 1.840 1.766 1.695 1.587 1.561 1.535 1.472 1.446 1.420 1.394 1,368 1,342 136 .1 1.290 1,264 1.268 1.242 1,216 1,252 1.259 1.233 1.240 1.284 1.258 1.269 1.321 1.338 (ft/s) 7.67 7.35 7.04 6.56 6.29 6.04 5.79 5.56 5.21 5.12 50 .3 4.83 4.74 4.66 4.57 4.49 4.40 4.32 4.23 41 .5 4.16 4.08 3.99 4.11 4.13 4.04 4.07 42 .1 4.13 41 .6 4.34 4.39
Condensed/row (liters/s) 0.075 0.078 0.080 0.085 0.088 0.090 0.093 0.095. 0.100 0,100 0.100 0.103 0.103 0.103 0.103 0.103 0 103 0.103 0.103 0.103 0.100 0.100 0.100 0,095 0.093 0.093 0,090 0.085 0.085 0.083 0.078 0.075 (gal/min) 1.189 1.229 1.268 1.348 1.387 1.427 1.467 1,506 1.586 1.586 1.586 1.625 I 625 . 1.625 1.625 1.625 1.625 1.625 1.625 1.625 1.586 I 586 . 1,586 1.506 1.467 1.467 1.427 1.348 1.348 1.308 1.229 1 189
Total condensed
Pressure drap
(litersls) 17.092 17.169 17.249 17.334 17.422 17.512 17.604 17.699 17.799 17.899 17.999 18.102 18.205 18.307 18,410 18.512 18.615 18.717 18.820 18.922 19.022 19 , 122 19.222 19.317 19.410 19 .SO2 19.592 19.678 19.763 19 A45 19.923 19.998
(gal/min) 270.91 272.14 273.41 274.75 276.14 277.57 279.03 280.54 282.13 283.71 285.30 286.92 288.55 290.17 291.80 293.42 295.05 296.67 298.30 299.92 301.51 302.10 304.68 306. I9 307.65 309.12 310.55 311.90 313.24 314.55 315.78 316.97
kP8
3.500 3.510 3.519 3.527 3.535 3.542 3.549 3.555 3.560 3.565 3.571 3.575 3.580 3.584 3.589 3.593 3.597 3.601 3.604 3.608 3.612 3.615 3.619 3.622 3.626 3.629 3.633 3.636 3.640 3.644 3.648 3.652
Psi
30 31 32 34 35 36 37 38 40 40 40 41 41 41 41 41 41 41 41 41 40
0.508 0.509 0.510 0.512 0.513 0.514 0.515 0.516 0.516 0.517 0.518 0.519 0,519
0.52Q
40
40 38 37 37 36 34 34 33 31 30
0.520 0.521 0.522 0.522 0.523 0.523 0.524 0.524 0.525 0.525 0.526 0.526 0.527 0.527 0.528 0.528 0.529 0.530
Table D 5 . . Pressure distribution through the fifth shell pass of the East Mesa condenser with a baffle spacing of 0.46 m (18 in.) Row number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 Number of tubes
30 31 32 34 35 36 37 38 40 40 40 41 41 41 41 41 41 41 41 41 40 40 40 38 37 37 36 34 34 33 31 30
Vapor velocity
(m/s)
Condensed/row (liters/s) 0.056 0.058 0,060 0.064 0.066 0.068 0.069 0.071 0.075 0.075 0.075 0.077 0.077 0.077 0.077 0.077 0.077 0.077 0.077 0.077 0.075 0.075 0.075 0.071 0.069 0.069 0.068 0.064 0.064 0.062 0.058 0.056 (gallmin) 0.892 0.922 0.951 1.011 1.041 1.070 1.100 1.130 1.189 1.189 1.189 1.219 1.219 1.219 1.219 1.219 1.219 1.219 1.219 1.219 1.189 1.189 1.189 1.130 1,100 1,100 1.070 1.011 1.011 0.981 0.922 0.892
Total condensed (liters/s) 20.054 20.112 20.172 20.236 20.301 20.369 20.438 20.510 20.585 20.660 20.735 20.812 20.889 20.965 21.042 21.119 21.196 21.273 21.350 21.427 21.502 21.577 21.652 21.723 21.793 21.862 21.930 21.993 22.057 22.119 22.117 22.233 (gallmid 317.86 318.78 319.73 320.75 321.79 322.86 323.96 325.09 326.28 327.46 328.65 329.87 331.09 332.31 333.53 334.75 335.97 337.19 338.40 339.62 340.81 342.00 343.19 344.32 345.42 346.52 347.59 348.60 349.61 350.59 351.52 352.41
Pressure drop kPa 4.535 4.541 4.547 4.551 4.556 4.560 4.564 4.567 4.570 4.573 4.576 4.578 4.581 4.583 4.585 4.588 4.590 4.591 4.593 4.595 4.597 4.598 4.600 4.601 4.603 4.604 4.606 4.607 4,608 4.610 4.611 4.613 Psi 0.658 0.659 0.659 0.660 0.661 0.661 0.662 0.662 0.663 0.663 0.664 0.664 0.664 0.665 0.665 0.665 0.666 0.666 0.666 0.666 0.667 0.667 0.667 0.667 0.668 0.668 0.668 0.668 0.668 0.669 0.669 0.669
(ft/s) 5.75 5.49 5.24 4.86 4.64 4.43 4.23 4.04 3.76 3.76 3.59 3.42 3.33 3.25 3.16 '.7 30 2.99 2.90 2.82 2.73 2.71 2.63 2.54 2.58 2.57 2.48 2.46 2.52 2.43 2.42 2.48 2.47
1.754 1.673 1.597 1.481 1.414 1.350 1.289 1.230 1.145 1.119 1.093 1.041 1.015 0.989 0.963 0.937 0.911 0.885 0.859 0.833 0.827 0.801 0.775 0.788 0.782 0.756 0.750 0.767 0.741 0.736 0.756 0.754
Table D 6 . . Pressure distribution through the sixth shell pass of the East Mesa condenser with a baffle spacing of 0.33 m (13 in.)
Row
number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Number of tubes 30 31 32 34 35 36 37 38 40 40 40 41 41 41 41 41 41 41 41 41 41 40 40 38 37 37 36 34 34 33 31 30
Vapor velocity
(m/s)
Condensedlrow (liters/s) 0.041 0.042 0.043 0.046 0.047 0.049 0.050 0.051 0.054 0.054 0.054 0.056 0.056 0.056 0.056 0.056 0.056 0.056 0.056 0.056 0.054 0.054 0.054 0.051 0,050 0.050 0.049 0.046 0.046 0.045 002 .4 0.041 (gal/min) 0.644 0.666 0.687 0.730 0.751 0.773 0.794 0 . a16 0 . a59 0 . a59 0.859
Total condensed (liters/s) 22.274 22.316 22.359 22.405 22.453 22.502 22.552 22.603 22.657 22.712 22.766 22.821 22.877 22.932 92.988 23.043 23.099 23.155 23.210 23.266 23.320 23.374 23.428 23.480 23.530 23.580 23.629 23.675 23.721 23.765 23. a07 23. a48 (gal/min) 353.05 353.72 354.40 355.13 355. a9 356.66 357.45 358.27 359.13 359.99 360. a5 361.73 362.61 363.49 364.37 365.25 366.13 367.01 367 .a9 368.77 369.63 370.49 371.35 372.16 372.96 373.75 374.52 375.25 375.98 376.69 377.36 378.00
Pressure drop kPa 5.492 5.494 5.496 5.498 5.500 5.501 5.502 5.503 5.504 5.505 5.506 5.506 5.507
5.508
(ft/s) 3.32 3.14 2.96 2.71 2.55 2.39 2.25 2.10 1.92 1.83 1.75 1.62 1.54 1.45 1.37 .1.2a 1.20 1.11 1.02 0.94
0.88
Psi 0.797 0.797 0.797 0.797 0.798 0.798 0.798 0.798 0.798 0.798 0.799 0.799 0.799 0.799 0.799 0.799 0.799 0.799 0.799 0.799 0.799 0.799 0.799 0.799 0.799 0.799 0.799 0.799 0.799 0.799 0.799 0.799
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 ia 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32
1.013 0.956 0.901 0.825 0.776 0.730 0.685 0.642 0.585 0.559 0.533 0.494 0.468 0.442 0.416 0.390 0.364 0.338 0.312 0,286 0.267 0.241 0.215 0.199 0.178 0.152 0.130 0.111 0.085 0.061 0.038 0.013
0 . aao 0 . aao 0 . aao 0 . aao 0 . aao 0. aao 0 . aao
0.880
0 . aao
0.79 0.70 0.65 0.58 0.50 0.43 0.36 0.28 0.20 0.12 0.04
0.859 0.859 0 . a59 0 . a16 0.794 0.794 0.773 0.730 0.730 0.709 0.666 0.644
5.508 5.508 5.509 5.509 5.509 5.510 5.510 5.510 5.510 5.510 5.511 5.511 5.511 5.511 5.511 5.511 5.511 5.511
ORNL/.TM-8100 Distribution Category UC-66d INTERNAL DISTRIBUTION

1 . 2. 3. 4. 5 . 6. 7. 8 . 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38.
H, J. H . D. R . F. J. S. K. L, R . N. D . J . W. W . R. R. G . G . C . V. J. M. L . R. H . R.
L . W . W. L . R . A . D . E . T . B .
G. Arnold P. Belk P. Blanco D Cannon . S Carlsmith . C. Chin H Clinton . K Combs . D Cook . M. Cuddy C Devault . Doming0 M. Eissenberg F Fourman . Fulkerson R Gambill . W. Glass E Goodson (Consultant) . Grossman R. Hadder V. Hardin 0 Haynes . L Heck . V. Helfrich C Hensley . F Hibbs . W. Hoffman M. Holmes N Howell . D Hoyle . P Huxtable . Jung A Just . A. Khan J Kincaid . H Krieg . R LaPorte (Consultant) . Lieberman
39-58. 59. 60, 61. 62. 63. 64-73. 74. 75. 76. 77. 78. 79. 80. 81. 82, 83, 84, 85. 86. 87. 88.' 89-93. 94. 95. 96. 97. 98. 99. 100. 101. 102. 103. 104. 105-107. 108. 109-1 1
G H Llewellyn . . R H Lyon (Consultant) . . K H. Luk . R E MacPherson . . H A, McClain . V. C. Mei J. W. Mchel S. L Milora . L. I. Moss R W Murphy . . B Neimann . G K Oppegard . . J. A. Parsons F S. Patton . F. J. Peretz T. W. Pickel A. W. Reed W. R Reed . R C. Robertson . M. W. Rosenthal T. H. Row J A. Seneker . M. Siman-Tov C B. Smith . D G. Thomas . D B. Trauger . H E, Trammel1 . E, A. Vinyard G C. Wei . J. T. Weir J. W. Wells T Whitus . L. V Wilson . ORNL Patent Office Central Research Library Document Reference Section Laboratory Records Department Laboratory Records (RC)
119
EXTERNAL DISTRIBUTION
112. 113. 114. 115.
116.
117.
118.
119. 120. 121. 122. 123. 124. 125. 126. 127. 128. 129. 130. 131. 132. 133. 134. 135.
A A Adduci, DOE, San Francisco Operations Office, 133 Broadway, . . Oakland, CA 94612 J. H Anderson, Sea Solar Power, Inc., 2422 South Queen Street, . York, PA, 17403 W Aung, Division of Engineering, National Science Foundation, . Washington, DC 20550 K J. Bell, School of Chemical Engineering, Oklahoma State . University, Sttllwater, OK 74074 A E Bergles, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Iowa State . . University, Ames, IA 50010 C H Bloomster, Battelle-Pacific Northwest Laboratory, Richland, . . WA 99352 . G E Brandvold, Sandia Laboratories, P. 0 Box 5800, Albuquer. . que, NM 87115 E S Burcher, Division of Ocean Energy Technology, DOE, . . Forrestal Building, 1000 Independence Avenue SW, Washington, DC 20585 T Carnavos, Noranda Metal Industries, Prospect Drive, Newton, . CT 06470 N R Clevinger, Wolverine Division, 2100 Market St. SE, P. E . . . Box 2202, Decatur, AL 35601 R L bit, Electric Power Research Institute, P. 0 Box 10412, . . . Palo A l t o , CA 94303 N. M. F Conover, Radian Corporation, P. 0 Box 9948, Austin, . . TX 78766 R. B. Coryell, Geothermal Program, National Science Foundation, Washington, DC 20550 R H Dart, Idaho National Engineering Laboratory, Idaho Falls, . . ID 83415 0 J. Demuth, Idaho National Engineering Laboratory, Idaho Falls, . ID 83415 R L Fulton, Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, University of . . California, Berkeley, CA 94720 . C G Gottsman, Union Carbide, Linde Division, P. 0 Box 44, . . Tonawanda, NY 14150 T C Hinrichs, Magma Power Company, 5143 Sunset Blvd., LO8 . . Angeles, CA 92112 B Hwang, Mail Code 2722, David Taylor Naval Ship RSID Center, . Annapolis, MD 21402 I J. Ingvarsson, Aerojet Nuclear Company, 550 Second Street, . Idaho Falls, ID 83401 B A Johnson, Battelle-Pacific Northwest Laboratory, . . P 0 Box 999, Richland, WA 99352 . . E G Keshock, Aerospace and Mechanical Engineering Department, . . University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN 37916 J Kestin, Division of Engineering, Brown University, Box D, . Providence, RI 02912 G A Kolstad, Office of Energy Research, DOE, Washington, DC . . 20545
121 136. 137. 138. 139. R. Kornbau, David Taylor Naval Ship Research and Development Center, Annapolis, MD 21402 J. T. Kuwada, Rogers Engineering Company, Inc., 111 Pine Street, Sixth Floor, San Francisco, CA 94111 A D K Laird, Mechanical Engineering Department, University . . . of California, Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, Berkeley, CA 94720 R. J. LaSala, Geothermal and Hydro Power Division, Department of Energy, 1000 Independence Avenue SW, Washington, DC 20585 A. Lavi, Department of Chemical Engineering, Carnegie-Mellon University, Schenley Park, Pittsburgh, PA 15213 G W. Leonard, ATDD (P&E) HPDD, Department of the Navy, China . Lake, CA 93555 R. Letan, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Department of Mechanical Engineering, P 0 Box 653, Beer Sheva, Israel . . A. Lundberg, L-505, University of California, Lawrence Livermore Laboratory, P. 0 Box 808, Livermore, CA 94550 . W W. Madsgn, Idaho National Engineering Laboratory, Idaho Falls, . ID 83415 P H McCabe, Route 1, Bedo, ID 83323 . . C McFarland, Solar Research and Technology, Department of . Energy, 1000 Independence Avenue SW, Washington, DC 20585 G Mines, Idaho National Engineering Laboratory, Idaho Falls, ID . 83415 P. E Minton, Union Carbide, P 0 Box 8361, Bldg. 2000, . . . S Charleston, W. VA 25303 . K. Mirk, Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720 W. C. Moore, York Division, Borg Warner Corporation, York, PA 17403 D T. Neil, Idaho National Engineering Laboratory, Idaho Falls, . ID 83415 K Nichols, Barber-Nichols Engineering, 6325 West 55th Avenue, . Arvada, CO 80002 F. Notaro, Union Caltbide, Linde Division, P. 0 Box 44, . Tonawanda, NY 14150 J Nugent, Geothermal Energy, San Diego Gas and Electric Company, . P 0 Box 1831, San Diego, CA 92112 . . R H Nunn, Naval Postgraduate School, Monterey, CA 93940 . . R Olander, Barber-Nichols Engineering, 6325 West 55th Avenue, . Arvada, CO 80002 P. 0. O'Neil, Union Carbide, Linde Division, P. 0 Box 44, . Tonawanda, NY 14150 W L Owens, Lockheed Missiles and Space Company, Inc., P. 0 . . . Box 504, Sunnyvale, CA 95088 R. W. Perkins, Spiral Tubing Corporation, 533 John Downey Drive, New Britain, CT 06051 J. J. Perona, Chemical and Metallurgical Engineering Department, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN 37916 G Phillips, Barber-Nichols Engineering, 6325 West 55th Avenue, . Arvada, CO 80002 W. L Pope, Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, University of . California, Berkeley, CA 94720
140.
141. 142. 143. 144. 145. 146. 147.
148.
149. 150
151. 152. 153.

154
155. 156. 157 158. 159. 160. 161.
162.
163. 164. 165. 166. 167. 168. 169. 170. 171. 172. 173. 174. 175. 176.
i
177. 178. 179. 180. 181. 182. 183-612.
T Rabas, Steam-Turbine Generator Technical Operations Division, . Westinghouse Electric Corporation, Lester Branch, P. 0 , Box 9175 N2, Philadelphia, PA 19113 R. F. Read, 448 Ferry Point Road, Annapolis, Mn 21403 W Rohsenow, Mechanical Engineering Department, Massachusetts . Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, MA 02139 R R Rothfus, Chemical Engineering Department, Carnegie-Mellon . . University, Schenley Park, Pittsburgh, PA 15213 J. D Ryan, Technology Consumer Products Branch, DOE, Forestal . Building, MS 6H-068, Washington, DC 20585 L. L Simpson, Union Carbide, P. 0 Box 8361, Bldg. 2000, . . S Charleston, W VA 25303 . . R C Somes, Westec Services, Inc., P, 0 Box 791, Holtville, CA . . . 92250 K. E Starlings, School of Chemical Engineering; and Materials . Science, University of Oklahoma, 202 West Boyd, Norman, OK 53201 D F. Sucui, Idaho National Engineering Laboratory, Idaho Falls, . ID 83415 G Schwartz, Union Carbide, P. 0 Box 8361, Bldg. 2000, . . S Charleston, W. VA 25303 . J. W. Tester, Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory, P. 0 Box 1663, . L o s Alamos, NM 87544 S. E Turner, Idaho National Engineering Laboratory, Idaho Falls, . ID 83415 W H Thielbahr, DOE, Idaho Operations Office, 550 Second Street, . . Idaho Falls, ID 83401 R Webb, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Pennsylvania . State University, 208 Mechanical Engineering Building, University Park, PA 16802 D. K Werner, Barber-Nichols Engineering, 6325 West 55th Avenue, . Arvada, CO 80002 J. F Whitbeck, Idaho National Engineering Laboratory, Idaho . Falls, ID 83415 G Wildsmith, Research and Development, Yorkshire Imperial . Metals, Ltd., P 0 Box 166, Leeds LS1 1 RD, England . . W. Urbanek, DSS Engineers, Inc., 1850 NW 69th Avenue, Fort Lauderdale, FL 33313 J. S. Yampolsky, General Electric Company, P. 0 Box 81608, . San Diego, CA 92138 Office of Assistant Manager for Energy Research and Development, Department of Energy, ORO, Oak Ridge, TN 37830 Given distribution as shown in DOE/TIC-4500 under category UCC-66d (GE-Ut ilization Technology )
b
W.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1981-646.067/391
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E

Design and Analysis of a 5-MW 7 Vertical-Fluted-Tube Condenser for Geothermal Applications

ORNL/TM-8100 Dist. Category UC-66d

Contract No. W-7405-eng-26 Engineering Division for ORNL Energy Division

ANALYSIS OF A 5-MW VERTICAL-FLUTED-TUBE CONDENSER FOR GEOTHERMAL APPLICATIONS G. H. Llewellyn

DlSTRllUTlON OF THIS DOCUMENT IS UlllMlTED n

LISTOFFIGURES LISTOFTABLES AESTRACT

............................. 1. INTRODUCTION . 2.Y. S ........................... 3. HISTORY OF FLUTED TUBES . .

INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS FLUTEDTUBEMANUFACTURE

DESIGN VARIABLES AND OPTIMIZATION

. ......... ........ ................... .................. .............. ........ .. .

............... ACKNOWLEDGMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

BIBLIOGRAPHY. Appendix A. Appendix B. Appendix C . Appendix D.

95 103 105 109 111

CONVERSIONS (METRIC/ENGLISH, ENGLISH/METRIC) PROPERTIES OF ISOBUTANE PROPERTIES OF WATER

............. SHELLSIDE PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION . . . . . .

Modifications t o test loop a t t h e Geothermal Cortrponents T e s t F a c i l i t y a t East Mesa, C a l i f o r n i a

LIST OF TABLES Table

E-, and F-tubes

F M DESIGN AND ANALYSIS O A 5 W VERTIW-FLUTED-TE C N E S R FOR GEOTHERMAL APPLICATIONS O D NE

Department of Energy (DOE),

Division of Geothermal Energy, condenser based on previous

asked the Oak Ridge National Laboratory ( O m ) t o design and evalute

(GCTF) a t East Mesa, California, by Barber-Nichols Engineering

Company of Arvada, Colorado.

The work has been under t h e d i r e c t i o n of

Lawrence Berkeley Laboratories (LBL).

these papers cite the role of fluted tubes in condenser technology.

ISIDIE roll nuIufCTDN M OWUl

Commercial i n s t a l l a t i o n s have reported enhancements i n Condensing

expected t o be 4 t o 6 times t h a t f o r a h o r i z o n t a l unit with t h e

same t o t a l length of smooth tubes a t lower vapor v e l o c i t i e s .

t i o n a l performance can be gained by providing c l o s e r b a f f l e spacing

majority of t h i s enhancement i s a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e f l u t e d tubes.

HISTORY OF FLUTED TUBES

performance of the fluted tubes employed on these exchangers

Fluted tube showing the Gregorig effect.

ORNL, has produced superior results on condensing isobutane (R-600a).

It is thought possible that this design might be optimized even

condenser requiring 18300 m (60K f t ) of 1.0-in.-

FLUTED TUBE MANUFACTURE

are only a few f a b r i c a t o r s i n t h e world i n t e r e s t e d

i n o r a c t i v e l y engaged i n the production of f l u t e d tubes.

These include the Teledyne Tubular Products Corporation, the Noranda

of Leeds, England, can f u r n i s h s k i p s ansfer of no b e t t e r than

but only two pitch-spacing options are a v a i l a b l e f o r f l u t i n g configura-

Maximum enhancements i n o v e r a l l heat

two are expected from these tubes i n condensing steam a t a c o s t of about

The corrugated tubes are a v a i l a b l e

method is s u i t a b l e f o r r o l l i n g even or odd numbers of uniform t e e t h

ROLL FORMING AND WELDING

HIGH HEAT FLUX TUBE

(A) PITCH: 4.Omm, OEPTH: 0.5mm (39mild (2Omilr)

According t o Grob, any d u c t i l e material can be r o l l e d .

must be uniform i n d u c t i l i t y and c r o s s s e c t i o n t o produce an accurate

material composition, t h e hardness

p a r t of t h e i r cycle. o l l e r contact is t n made.

r the rest of t h e cycle, during which time t h e

lers have t h e exact negative

shapes i n t h e contact area as t h e f i n i s h e d blank has.

t h a t have t o be extracted a f t e r t h e t i o n a l cost.

The minimum tube-wall

m2 f t2 W/m2 Btu/hf t2 K OF W/m2K Btu/hft2'F

(0.00025 hft2OF/Btu) will be used for the design value.

0017 A total fouling factor of 0.000259 m2K/W ( . 0 4 hft2*'F/Btu)