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MB463: Organisational Behaviour

Motivation theories

MB463: Organisational Behaviour

Objectives
After this session you will be able to:
• define ‘motivation’
• distinguish between content and process theories
• understand theories such as Maslow’s hierarchy of
needs, Herzberg’s motivation theory and Vroom’s
expectancy model
• apply these theories in the workplace.

MB463: Organisational Behaviour

Definitions
• Motivation is typified as an individual phenomenon
• Motivation is described, usually, as intentional
• Motivation is multifaceted
• The purpose of motivational theories is to predict
behaviour.
Mitchell defines motivation as, ‘the degree to which
an individual wants and chooses to engage in certain
specified behaviours’.
(Mullins 2005:471)

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MB463: Organisational Behaviour

Concept
The underlying concept of motivation is some driving
force within individuals by which they attempt to achieve
some goal in order to fulfil some need or expectation.
(Mullins 2005:471)

MB463: Organisational Behaviour

Caution!
The complexity of the interacting variables this
describes needs to be recognised.

In practice this is represented in a simple model of


needs and expectations at work.
- intrinsic satisfaction
- economic rewards
- social relationships

MB463: Organisational Behaviour

Content theories
• Attempt to explain those specific things which actually
motivate the individual at work.
• These theories are concerned with identifying people’s
needs and their relative strengths, and the goals they
pursue in order to satisfy these needs.
• Place emphasis on the nature of needs and what
motivates.
(Mullins 2005:480)

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MB463: Organisational Behaviour

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs


Represented as a pyramid:
1. Self actualisation
2. Self esteem
3. Social
4. Safety
5. Physiological

MB463: Organisational Behaviour

Herzberg’s motivation-hygiene theory


• Motivation and job satisfaction
• Hygiene or maintenance factors:
– Salary
– Job security
– Working conditions
– Level and quality of supervision
– Company policy and administration
• Motivators or growth factors:
– Sense of achievement
– Recognition
– Responsibility
– Nature of the work
– Personal growth and achievement

MB463: Organisational Behaviour

Process theories
• Attempt to identify the relationship among the
dynamic variables which make up motivation.
• These theories are concerned with how behaviour is
initiated, directed and sustained.
• Place emphasis on the actual process of motivation.
(Mullins 2005:480)

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MB463: Organisational Behaviour

Vroom’s expectancy model of motivation


(1964)
• Expectancy theories assume that motivation is a
calculative process that is, people are influenced to
contribute or withhold effort depending upon the
expected outcomes of their actions.
• Keywords:
– effort expended
– effective level of performance
– availability of desired outcomes
– desired outcomes related to performance

MB463: Organisational Behaviour

Implications for managers


• Managers should use rewards appropriately in terms of
individual performance
• Attempts to establish clear relationships between effort-
performance and rewards, as perceived by the individual
• Establish clear procedures for the evaluation of
individual levels of performance
• Pay attention to intervening variables such as abilities
and traits, role perceptions, and organisational
procedures.

MB463: Organisational Behaviour

Adams’ equity theory of motivation


(1965)
• Equity theory focuses on people’s feelings of how fairly
they have been treated in comparison by others.
• If they perceive that they have been treated inequitably
they will take steps to remedy the inequity.
• Like expectancy theories, equity is seen as a deliberately
calculative process.

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MB463: Organisational Behaviour

Equity theory of motivation


• Adams identifies six behaviour which may result from
the tensions associated with inequity:
- changes to inputs
- changes to outcomes
- cognitive distortion
- leaving the field
- acting on others
- changing the object of comparison

MB463: Organisational Behaviour

Locke’s Goal Theory of motivation (1968)


Motivational technique rather than theory

• Goal theory assumes people to be calculative in their


work behaviour.
• Locke, however, stresses the intrinsic nature of
people’s goals, suggesting that they are trying
principally to satisfy their emotions and desires.
• Goals direct work behaviour in order to achieve
particular consequences or feedback.
• Goal difficulty
• Level of commitment

MB463: Organisational Behaviour

Practical implications for managers


• Specific performance goals should be systematically be
identified and set in order to direct behaviour and
maintain motivation.
• Goals should be set at a challenging but realistic level.
• Complete, accurate and timely feedback and knowledge
of results is usually associated with high performance.
• Goals can be determined either by superiors (top-down
management) or by individuals themselves (bottom-up)
• Goal theory is reflected in MBO (Management by
Objectives)

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MB463: Organisational Behaviour

Motivation of ‘knowledge workers’


(Tampoe 1994)
• Knowledge workers are those who apply their theoretical
and practical understanding of an area of knowledge to
produce outcomes that have commercial, social or
personal value.
• Could be doctors, scientists, computer and personnel
professionals, accountants, managers etc.

MB463: Organisational Behaviour

Motivation of knowledge workers


• In addition to the individual’s own motivation, the
performance of knowledge workers is dependent
upon a mixture of the following:
• Personal growth, especially self-developments
rather than developing managerial or professional
skills.
• Autonomy, freedom to work within the rules.
• Creative achievement,where work is of commercial
value. Financial rewards, where salary plus bonus
or personal effort is recognised.

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