What Kind of Text: For Whom and When? Textual Scaffolding for Beginning Readers Author(s): Kathleen J.

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Kathleen

J. Brown

What

kind

of

text

can You use textas a teaching For whom and toolforscaffolding.Theeffective uses of simplepredictable text,when? Textual transitional decodable text, text, for easy readers,and authentic scaffolding are literature highlighted here.

beginning
hich kind of text is best for begin
w numbers of ning readers? Growing teachers are asking this question with increasing urgency. In response, supporters of particular types of text often square off in ac its rimonious debate, with each side touting as most appropriate for beginning readers. text that emphasizes Some advocate predictable choice rhythm, rhyme, and repetition. Others advocate text with its emphasis on common decodable let Still others contend that ter-sound relationships. readers should read primarily authen beginning is framed this tic literature. When the question it sets up a forced choice: If one text is cho way, sen, then the others must be rejected. the robust body However, of research on emergent literacy and beginning clear that this choice is nei reading, it becomes nor helpful. Research ther necessary indicates that learning during which ual, to read is a developmental process students make predictable, grad over time (Adams, qualitative changes if one considers

readers

ture students' new abilities and promote contin ued progress. I suggest that we view text in a similar way. As students make progress as read text that supports ers, teachers should provide and extends that progress. an instruc Viewed this way, text becomes tional tool known social has theoretical ogy and Gavelek, roots as scaffolding. Scaffolding in both cognitive psychol

1986; (Bruner, 1986; Langer, 1984; Palincsar, 1986; Scardamalia, Bereiter, & Steinbach, 1984; Tharp & Gallimore, scaffold 1988). In the classroom, take the form of modeling, ing may thinking and coaching aloud, reminding, (for a review of see Roehler & Duffy, actions, teaching a teacher may think aloud 1991). For example, in front of the class to demonstrate how she (or when she gets new he) revises her predictions these information from a story. Later, she reminds stu to use this strategy as they read indepen some When students dently. experience dents she coaches them in small groups and as needed. Each of these teaching actions is an example of scaffolding because it learners accomplish what they are almost, helps but not quite, able to do independently. Vygotsky difficulty, one-on-one called this working in the "zone of proximal de and believed it to be the "only good velopment" kind of instruction ahead of [because it]marches and leads it" (1962, p. 104). development As students make progress, teachers gradu withdraw until it is no longer ally scaffolding

constuctivism

1990; Biemiller, 1970; Bissex, 1980; Chali, 1967, 1983; Clay, 1987; Ehri, 1991, 1998; Juel,
1991; Mason, 1984; Snow, with Burns, & Griffin,

1998; Sulzby & Teale, 1991). That is, young

readers' interactions move from learning text change as they print, and how it to the labors of learning to decode, and about

works, on to the growing that fluency independence these changes, As young readers make brings. teachers need to change their instruction to nur

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?1999

international Association 292-307) Reading (PP.

needed

& Gallagher, 1983). From new scaffolding there, they develop appropriate zone of development and for the new proximal (Pearson the process is repeated (Gavelek, 1986;

ning readers. I hope they prove helpful to other as they think teachers and teacher educators about these issues in the course of their work.

Greenfield, 1984;Vygotsky, 1978).

Textualscaffolding in the classroom

Barbara and Linda have taught first grade for more than a dozen years at High Meadows School. High Meadows is located Elementary area in the intermountain in a U.S. metropolitan west. Its students come from middle and work ethnic backgrounds ing class families whose may be Caucasian, Hispanic, African American, or Pacific Islander. For the most part, High Meadows students tend to make good progress as readers during their first formal year of some students However, every year schooling. leave first grade without the read experiencing success they, their parents, and their teach ing ers expected.

The use of textas scaffolding

Although instructional scaffolding is usually

verbal, the idea can be extended easily to text. That is, using particular types of text at particu is a material lar times in readers' development way to support their progress. Just as teachers re duce verbal scaffolding when students become more able, textual scaffolding also can be re it is no longer necessary. duced gradually?until texts are well For example, simple predictable awareness suited for helping children develop of how books work. As young readers gain con trol over the English system, other alphabetic of textual scaffolding, such as transitional types and decodable text, become more appropriate. these texts can be Eventually, more challenging, less controlled that support young readers' replaced with "easy readers"

fluency, growing and independence. background knowledge, This idea of textual scaffolding allows us to reframe our original question about text for be readers. Rather than asking "which is ginning best," we can ask, "Which type of text is best suited to achieve what purposes with whom, and whenV the question this way helps Framing teachers address the wide range of student abili ties that are not likely to be met by "one-size different types of text fits-all" text. By matching with students' development, teachers are able to work in young readers' changing zones of prox imal reading development?the bridge between and what they know about the reading process what they still need to learn. The remainder of this article uses a vignette to explore some concrete ways teachers can use in their classrooms with be scaffolding on dozens is based ginning readers. The vignette of conversations with elementary teachers whom I have come to know inmy capacity as a teacher textual and researcher. The content and spirit are represented conversations collec Barbara's and Linda's voices? tively through in the vignette. All characters the two main names used in the article are pseudonyms. These educator of these conversations about have the theory and practice informed my own thinking of teaching begin

Rather than asking "which is best, we can ask, "Whichtype of text is best suited to achieve what purposes with whom, and when?"

"

In ongoing efforts to help all their students as readers, Barbara and Linda have de research-based litera veloped a comprehensive, succeed teachers read aloud to students on a wide variety of text frequently, drawing and genres & Galda, 1994; (Cullinan types Hiebert & Raphael, 1998). They systematically and explicitly teach students how to use their to identify of letters and sounds knowledge cy program. Both words (Adams, 1990). They stress that reading is about constructing meaning and model the kinds of comprehension successful readers strategies use (Pressley et al., 1997). Barbara and Linda also facilitate reading and

writing workshops (Atwell, 1987;Calkins, 1994).

students personally respond to During workshops, in journals, discus the texts they've encountered sions, story writing, and cooperative projects. The in these teachers' adjoining class 6-year-olds rooms are thoroughly involved in reading, listen and writing about books ing to, discussing, of the school day. significant part for a

What kind of text 293

are pleased with their lit like all good teachers, eracy program. However, are not content to rest on their laurels. they are like sharks," Barbara "Teachers laughed, Barbara and Linda "We have most recent to move effort forward, to move or we forward die!" Their involved

ing, I initiated

a discussion classrooms.

on the role of text in Barbara literature and Linda es

primary-grade found two points

about how to best use the texts they thinking Both teach have collected for their classrooms. ers have invested considerable time and expense in making these rooms literacy rich. In addition to out-of-pocket Linda have held Barbara and expenditures, scoured garage fund-raisers, school dumpsters. The re sales, and scavenged assortment sult of these efforts is an impressive

salient. pecially intrigued by that repeated readings of instructional evidence level text help struggling readers improve not but also only in accuracy, speed, and expression, in comprehension & Fielding, (see Pearson in the teachers were interested 1991). Second, the idea that once students begin "breaking the code," their fluency can be enhanced by reading

from the research First, they were

decodable
Schneider, press). As

text (Beck, 1981; Juel & Roper/

1985; Stein, Johnson, & Gutlohn, in

of texts?big books, little books, award-winning picture story books, poetry, fairy tales, alphabet books, nonfiction picture books, chapter books, Barbara old basais, wall charts, and magazines. explained,

they thought about these ideas, Barbara and Linda began to reflect on the texts in their some types of text better suit classrooms. Were ed to meeting the needs than others? What of beginning readers Did made a text decodable? texts mean a return to the "Nan

decodable We've made enormousstrides inthe past 10 years, simply in using can fan Dan" genre they had rejected years be the numberand varietyof books our students have access to fore?What about students who did well with in theclassroom. We've come a long way fromthedayswhen our classrooms were dominatedby basal readersand a few simple predictable books, but struggled with any text they hadn't memorized? Barbara and Linda dog-eareddiscards fromthepublic library. to talked at school and brought their questions is il A brief glimpse into Linda's classroom aWednesday in February, lustrative. On shortly asks her first before afternoon recess, Linda to "Drop And Read" Everything graders texts from shelves, choose Students (DEAR). tubs, and racks and then sprawl comfortably around the room. Linda retrieves a novel from and perches on an empty desk to her backpack sustained read read. "We call it 'not-so-silent' to the steady hum of she quips, referring ing," not so softly?to reading softly?or 6-year-olds themselves. dependent Both teachers reading goals: It builds contributes that daily, in believe to two important to students' motivation in recognizing This belief is (see Pearson other primary-grade teachers echoed and added more. In particular, these questions several were struggling with their classrooms' new literature anthologies. Teachers and students au alike were delighted with the high-interest, but many of those selections thentic selections, for all but advanced begin proved too difficult ners (Hoffman et al., 1998). Teachers responded but then the anthologies aloud, by reading to supplement with texts the students scrambled raised could read on their own. The teachers sense of urgency; these issues with a heightened they were haunted by research that foreshadows a downward and motiva spiral of achievement tion for young readers who do not experience class. The

literacy read and helps them gain fluency words and constructing meaning. supported teachers' by the research

success (Juel, 1988; Stanovich, 1986)

as a springboard for their questions Using & Lytle, action research (Cochran-Smith 1993; I asked the primary-grade Zeichner, 1994), to deter teachers to go back to their classrooms mine what kinds of text were available and to bring samples with Consistent teachers to class the following week. current trends (Baumann then

literature

& Fielding, 1991, for a review) and by the two

Barbara and Linda have experiences. over time, even rambunctious 6 observed that, come to expect and enjoy daily time year-olds to read self-selected books. to date notwithstanding, Success participa master's tion in a university program (where I met them) led the two teachers to see their class libraries as having even greater potential. read class on beginning During a graduate-level room

& Heubach, 1996; Chali & Squires, 1991),most

a published basal series and brought trade books. Thus, most primary grade class rooms had some access to authentic literature,

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Figure 1 Relationship between text accessibility and complexity forbeginning readerswhen reading independently
Simple predictable text Excerpt: "I like to run. So does Joey.
I like to swim. So does Joey..."

(fromMy Best Friend) Transitional text Excerpt: "Can these" bird's nests stay?" said Steve. "Okay, said Dad. "As long as they don't make a mess." *(From Steve's Room) text Decodable Excerpt: Wendell fell off the log. He landed in the pond. (From Wendell's

Pets) Easy readers Excerpt: "Too bad you don't have sneakers," Henry said. And he walked in a circle around Mudge. Squish. Squish. (From Henry and Mudge inPuddle Trouble) Authentic literature Excerpt: These fathers, too, are helping out by guarding eggs protected by a foamy mass that's floating by. (From Chickens Aren't the Only Ones)

Low Complexity * Italicized text is repeated several times

High

text, transitional simple predictable able text, and "easy readers."

text, decod

To begin the discussion, I suggested that

about text for beginning read making decisions ers required an understanding text of different and limita and their respective types strengths comes from tions. The most obvious difference an author uses in word the level of control sentence structure, and even the amount choice, of text on a page (see Figure 1). Authors of sim and, to a transitional, decodable, ple, predictable, reader text, use this control to beginning write accessible they readers. However, that accessibility has an in verse relationship with complexity. That is, the most accessible texts also are those with the least lesser extent, to make what easy complex Sycamore, content. Excerpts from a simple pre Room

in the list at the end of this article. None books can be confused with award to be literature, but each is accessible winning in different ways. Easy readers?albeit ginning found of these

readers like Henry andMudge inPuddle Trouble

and there by Cynthia Rylant are more complex, to young fore more difficult, but still accessible some fluency. readers who have established In contrast, authors of authentic literature and are not bound by accessibility con nonfiction and straints. They are free to craft sentences choose words that meet their literary and artistic goals. This freedom yields texts with rich plots and detailed, complex It also makes information. to beginners reading on those texts less accessible their own. An excerpt from the award-winning Aren't the Only Ones, a case in point (see Heller, provides Figure 1). The word choices, sentence structures, and even the amount of text in this popular in text can be daunting formational for most be by Ruth ginners, but it engages adults and children when read aloud by a mature reader. alike nonfiction text Chickens

dictable text likeMy Best Friend by Deborah

a transitional text like Steve's

byMindy Menschell, and a decodable text like

Wendell's Pets by Anne and Robert O'Brien il lustrate this point (see Figure 1). Publication in formation for all children's books cited can be

What kind of text

295

the poten As the teachers and I discussed of these different tial strengths and limitations text types, it quickly that no became apparent one could be supported as "best" for be single readers. Instead, it seemed more com ginning which meant pelling to treat text as scaffolding, of text at particular points using particular types Of course, in students' reading development. that students should hear plenty everyone agreed read aloud, literature and nonfiction on their of what they can negotiate regardless own. In short, we concluded that primary-grade stand to benefit from informed use of classrooms many different types of text. of authentic Barbara and Linda took these ideas about

said had a "snake at the end and a t in the front." this small corpus, his With any word outside to what was miscues bore little or no relationship on the page. These behaviors resemble written

Ehri's (1998) shift from the prealphabetic phase

to the partial alphabetic phase. That is, beginning readers who have relied on salient, nonletter cues to identify words (e.g., the snake at the end of on their to rely more heavily my name) begin

limited but growing knowledge of letters and

(e.g., the t in the front). Linda worked through a picture book with him, Travis was aware of front-to-back, and left-to-right directionality, top-to-bottom, but unsure about some of the other conventions sounds When of print, such as concept of word. With regard to phonological awareness, Travis could clap out to split onsets beats, but was unable syllable reviewed what she had Linda about Travis as a reader and concluded that he was in the initial phase of reading devel opment: Learning About Print (see Figure 2). Linda was familiar with research suggest ing that students who lack a strong foundation from rimes. learned in book "learn "break need to have a pressing experiences to how about print" before learning the code" (Adams, 1990; Chali, 1983;

textual scaffolding back to High Meadows

and put them to work. Like many Elementary other first graders, their students ranged widely about literacy. For example, in their knowledge every year began first grade with few experiences had relatively having few letter names and sounds. books and knowing It was clear that the needs of these students dif several students from those who had experi fered significantly enced thousands of hours of lap reading at home first grade fluently and had entered reading

books likeAmelia Bedel?a by Peggy Parish.

The Barbara show how profiles to used textual scaffolding three students who began first grade at following and Linda student

Clay, 1987; Sulzby & Teale, 1991). This means

that print carries important mean a working of direc knowledge ing, developing a concept in text, and developing of tionality that the groups of that is, understanding word; to letters bounded space correspond by white understanding

support in their reading develop very different places that the in ment. to remember It is important of these is just one piece described struction teachers' comprehensive program. literacy

individual words

in speech

(Clay,

1987;

AboutPrint Travis:Learning
to Linda's Travis transferred first-grade when his parents in early October classroom to take advantage of employment moved oppor to make fit in tunities. Quick friends, Travis socially moving mediate macabre nosaur?a enjoyed fast right away. He especially im action games at recess. He gained a he introduced when popularity di the purple about Barney song

Henderson, 1980; Morris, 1981). Learning About Print also means learning to manipulate sounds in speech and learning letter names and for their corresponding sounds in preparation to decode and spell (Morris, 1993). learning not least, itmeans Last, but certainly develop of text as a resource for both ing an appreciation pleasure and learning. in As one way to support students working Linda used this phase of reading development, text and nonfiction shared reading of fiction

the first-grade television character with derision. boys indicated initial reading assessment Linda's that Travis enjoyed listening to and talking about stories. He could write and identify the letters in his first name with certainty, but it was hit and viewed with most dad, others. At sight, he could look, and his own name?which read he

(Cunningham, 1995;Holdaway, 1979). In doing

about how readers move so, she was explicit text. She made statements like, "I know through start up here and on this side." that we always She tracked print with her finger as she read along and encouraged reading. Afterwards, students to join in with she asked for volunteers the to

miss mom,

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Figure2 Developmental readingphases and their characteristics

Phase 1 :Learning About Print understands that print is used to construct meaning developing knowledge of print conventions (e.g., concept of word) of letter names and sounds developing knowledge developing basic levels of phonological awareness (e.g., detecting rhymes, syllable awareness) uses prior knowledge to construct meaning strategies (e.g., predicting, inferencing) developing basic comprehension developing knowledge about and appreciation for different types of text literate increasing motivation to become increasing motivation to read for pleasure and information relies heavily on memory, pictures, context, and selected letter cues to read text Phase 2: Breaking the Code understands the alphabetic principle (i.e., letters map to sounds in words) levels of phonological awareness (e.g., blending, segmentation) developing more advanced developing knowledge of simple spelling patterns (e.g., blends, digraphs, phonograms) developing sight word vocabulary (e.g., said, come, was) developing knowledge of decoding strategies (e.g., blending, chunking) uses prior knowledge to construct meaning continuing development of basic comprehension strategies (e.g., predicting, inferencing) establishing coordination of decoding and comprehension strategies literate increasing motivation to become increasing motivation to read for pleasure and information to read text relies heavily on knowledge of letter-sound correspondences may read aloud ina halting manner may produce nonsense words when reading aloud Phase 3: Going for Fluency levels of phonological awareness developing more advanced (e.g., segmentation, deletion) developing knowledge of more complex spelling patterns (e.g., phonograms, prefixes, suffixes) word identification increasing automaticity in increasing fluency and expression when reading aloud using a chunking strategy to identify unfamiliar polysyllabic words using prior knowledge to construct meaning continuing development of comprehension strategies (e.g., predicting, inferencing) strategies (e.g., reading to learn, monitoring understanding, developing more sophisticated comprehension summarizing) increasing coordination of decoding and comprehension strategies
increasing motivation to read for pleasure and information

identify one letter and its sound, two letters, one two words, and little words word, big words, 1995; Holdaway, 1979; Mason, (Cunningham, Peterman, & Kerr, 1989; Slaughter, 1993). connected Linda wanted Travis to spend time reading text that supported this instruction.

with simple, fa 1997). This feature?coupled miliar story lines, illustrations that closely match sentence the text, simple and few structures, lines of print per page?significantly reduces the demands on students' word identification abili ties. Once students hear a predictable text read aloud a few times (sometimes just once), they can rely on memory along with context and il to negotiate lustrations the text independently 1993; Watson, 1997). In contrast, (Slaughter, when beginning readers try to read authentic lit erature on their own, word de identification mands often stymie their efforts (Beck & Juel, texts also offer a range 1995). Simple predictable

When

she asked herself which kind of text is

best suited to helping students develop print awareness and appreciation, she turned to simple text. Its unique characteristics pro predictable vide textual scaffolding for students who are learning about print at a basic level (see Figure text is controlled to em 3). Simple predictable (Watson, phasize rhyme, rhythm, and repetition

What kind of text

297

Figure3 Simple predictable text

Characteristics difficulty increases gradually across levels of text text controlled to emphasize repetition, rhythm, and rhyme often includes polysyllabic and low-frequency words simple sentence structures illustrations support and extend text limited plot/information restricted amount of text per page Examples Have You Seen My Cat? by Eric Carle /Am Frightened by Joy Cowley Breakfast by Virginia King readers rely on to read simple Strategies beginning text predictable using memory tracking print with finger using context clues using illustration clues identifying the first sound and making an educated using sight word knowledge using prior knowledge to construct meaning make sense?) (does it monitoring comprehension

other

students

who

were

To begin, she encouraged view the book and make build and activate She followed this activity

learning about print. to pre the students some predictions to knowledge. by teaching one or two words she told the stu encounter in the text.

their background

important high-frequency dents that they would Linda read the book Then,

aloud while tracking to ask stu the print and stopping occasionally dents what they had learned about their predic tions. Next, she invited students to share in the reading as she read the text aloud a second time.

started reading Finally, Linda got the students their own versions of the text and asked them to

finish it independently while tracking print with

some their fingers. When words polysyllabic them to "get lost," Linda caused taught them to use their knowledge of beginning sounds to reorient themselves. times guess a few days, Linda began to see clear of progress. During DEAR time, she often signs observed Travis with his head bent over simple Within predictable Homes Travis words fiction and nonfiction texts like Can

Most effective instructional uses for enjoyment during shared and independent reading to model the concept that print has meaning to model "how books work" (e.g., directionality, concept of word) to provide independent practice inprint awareness to develop students' oral reading fluency and expression

You Find It? by Amy John Casey and Animal

and Pamela Chanko. by Betsey Chessen was persistent about "not having any

of levels increasing in difficulty, from the sim texts with a line or so of very predictable plest text per page, to those that offer a bit more chal lenge in the form of slightly more text and some variation Conrad, in language (Chali, Bissex, patterns & Harris-Sharpies, 1996; Fountas &

left over" when he finished reading each he often reread the page. This hurdle overcome, book?with and expression? greater fluency with a reading partner looking on appreciative ly. At this point, Linda knew Travis was ready for the next level: simple predictable books with a bit more text and a bit more variation in lan structure. This challenge guage and sentence to use what would give him greater opportunities he was learning about print. Linda commented, Appreciatingbooks andwhat theycan do forus is important forstudents of any age, but Ifeel like it'sjustcritical forkids like Traviswho begin firstgradewith few book experiences. Simple predictablebooks give theman initialtaste of suc cess and provide importantknowledge about how books of work?without the frustration having to decode.

Pinnell, 1996).
text is / One example of simple predictable Am Frightened by Joy Cowley. Readers are sup ported by the simple refrain "I am frightened of the..." on seven of the book's eight pages. They can use the illustrations along with initial con with sounds to identify the words that change each successive page (e.g., spider, bird, cat, with a question The story concludes that dog). to the reader's personal connection anticipates the text: "What are you frightened of?" With Smith these characteristics small-group in mind, Linda and sonant

Shamika:Breakingthe Code
Shamika, a tall, wiry 6-year-old with a win class ning smile, entered Barbara's first-grade room "ready to roll." On the first day, she that she knew every letter in proudly announced the alphabet?upper and lower case?and lost no time proving it. As she explored the class at sounding out the cards that room, she worked

used simple predictable books likeHonk! by Sue

during time with Travis

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labeled common objects like wall, desk, and rug. In addition to action games, Shamika loved to as the teacher herself "play school"?casting arose. the opportunity whenever Barbara's many book initial reading assessment sug

the bridge

between

learning

about print and be students Barbara in

ing fluent with print.

To support Shamika and other this phase of reading development,

gested thatShamika had entered first grade with

under her belt. During experiences storytime, Shamika tried to restrain herself from she knew by giving away the ending to books heart. In addition to having a firm grasp on let ter names and sounds, Shamika had a modest sev recognize

taught them how to bulldoze throughwords by blending sounds together (Calfee, 1998) and
sense to see if their attempts made checking = shut in "Shut the box, Tom"). (e.g., /sh/-/u/-/t/ some facility with Once the students showed blending, Barbara introduced the use of spelling patterns, or chunks to identify unfamiliar words. as decoding This strategy, known by analogy

She could sight word vocabulary. eral high-frequency words like said and the, and like sound out short, phonetically regular words and cup. With more mat, pen, sit, complex she sampled a few letters and used con words, text to guess. When took a turn in the Shamika Poem Corner, she easily tracked print with her finger as she chanted familiar rhymes aloud. All told, it was clear to Barbara that this first grader

(Gaskins, 1998), is used in the following way:

The teacher models, I don't "Let's see. When know a word, I look for chunks I know from oth er words. If I know band, then this must be I need to go back and see if that strand. Now sense." Every week, Barbara introduced common that contained key words chunks and (e.g., -at in bat and -ight infight) showed students exactly how sounds map to let several

makes

hadmastered theLearning About Print phase of

in She knew this meant reading development. on the next phase: struction should focus

Breaking theCode (see Figure 2).

The well term "breaking the code" refers to a in documented and important transition

ters within each chunk (Gaskins, Ehri, Cress, O'Hara, & Donnelly, 1996-1997). Every day, she modeled the chunking strategy with poems or stories and then led brisk, interactive games that encouraged students to "sharpen their chunk knowledge" (Cunningham, 1995; Cunningham

learning to read (Biemiller, 1970; Ehri, 1991, 1998; Gough & Hillinger, 1980; Juel, 1991;
Mason, 1984). This transition tial alphabetic readers move par from using a few to identify words, letter-sound correspondences to using the entire word in their endeavors? Shamika's ability to sound out short, that she indicated regular words to It is interesting in this direction. formal with or without instruction, this phase of development sometimes in a word-by-word, halting manner, "nonsense errors" that Chali phenomenon occurs when

& Hall, 1990).

1994; Gaskins,

1998; Trachtenburg,

to spend time Barbara wanted Shamika text that supported this in reading connected struction. When she asked herself which type

what Ehri (1998) called the "full alphabetic

phase." phonetically was moving note that, readers in read aloud

text is best suited to helping students break the

code she turned to transitional and decodable text. However, finding high-quality examples of these kinds of text was challenging. Years earli er, Barbara and Linda had become exasperated with the strangled that turned many language texts decodable into meaningless tongue eliminated frequent but like said, what, phonetically irregular come, and was, they rendered the text almost in like "Pam and with sentences comprehensible words Dan Linda had jam and ham." In protest, had stocked their classroom Barbara shelves and with twisters. When authors

and sometimes produce they fail to self-correct?a

(1983) described as being "glued to print" (Bissex, 1980; Soderberg, 1977; Sulzby, 1985).
Researchers beginning of spelling patterns that allows deep knowledge more mature readers to recognize most words speculate that this happens because readers have not yet developed the

children's literature, predictable high-quality books, and easy readers. Barbara said, We soon found out, though, thatwe needed something to books and easy readers. noticed We bridgesimple predictable more challengingpredictable when some of the that books be came lesspredictable, didn'tcontroltheir word choice for they the rest of the textcarefullyenough. As a result,our lower

automatically (Ehri, 1998). As beginners gain

this knowledge, they read more smoothly, with and the number of nonsense greater expression, errors decreases 1977-78; Chali, (Biemiller,

1983; Juel, 1991). Thus, Breaking the Code is

What kind of text

299

achievers often hit awall when theycame to partsof the text (see to Figure 4). Both types of text are written where theycouldn'trelyonmemory,pictures,or context. Their balance word control and lan natural-sounding word-attackskillsweren'tdevelopedenough to copewith the both are leveled?they in guage. Moreover, wide varietyofwords theyencountered. needed interest crease in We as they parallel the progress difficulty what our kidswere learn that ing, meaningful textthatsupported readers make (Chali, Bissex, beginning ingabout thealphabeticsystem. & Harris-Sharpies, Conrad, 1996). At the lower levels, transitional texts pro Linda added, amount of predictable vide a considerable sup Ittook perseverance,butwe finallyfoundsome. Somebody must have been payingattentionto theauthorsof Becoming a Nation of Readerswhen theysaid that with all themillions port provide (e.g., memorable decoding also refrains). They support in their nonpredictable familiar vowel using patterns,

portions by and high-frequency words. As one publishing companies spend developing materials, you'd phonograms, thinktheycould hire someone towrite some decent text for moves the levels, these texts make an through Hiebert,Scott, &Wilkinson, beginning readers!(Anderson, same transition transition?the that important 1985, p. 48) readers make as they gain increasing beginning control over the alphabetic system. Specifically, texts Well-written transitional and decodable as transitional texts become more challenging, have some powerful characteristics that scaffold less predictable and increase the they become the efforts of readers learning to break the code extent to which ask readers to use their de they coding abilities. One example of well-written transitional

Figure4 Transitional text

Characteristics difficulty increases gradually across levels of text text controlled to provide diminishing predictable support
(e.g., memorable refrain)

text is Pick Up Nick, by Kate McGovern.

It is

an interesting, 16-page story about a family try to quiet a crying baby. Young readers learn ing ing to break the code are supported by simple sentence structures, illustrations that correspond to the text, a familiar story line, memorable re and the author's frequent use of common frains, spelling patterns and high-frequency words?yet the language sounds quite natural. So she said toGrandpa,"Can while? you rockNick fora little said. "Now Maybe you can get him to stop." "Sure," Grandpa Ican try." my grandpahad no luck. he said tome, "Can But So while? Maybe you can get him you playwith Nick fora little to stop." "Sure,"Isaid. "I pick him up. It's turnto try! will my Nick," Isaid. (pp. 10-14) Trynot to cry, little Well-written decodable text provides similar

text controlled to provide increasing decoding (e.g., familiar spelling patterns) simple sentence structures limited plot/information illustrations support and extend text restricted amount of text per page Examples Ben's Pets by Anne Miranda When We Are Big by Marilyn Minkoff The Everybody Club by Anne O'Brien

support

readers rely on to read transitional text Strategies beginning use of memory and context to identify words diminishing = bat) blending of letter-sounds (/b/-/a/-/t/ a chunking strategy with simple spelling patterns using ("If Iknow bat, then this if flat") using sight word knowledge (e.g., said, come, was) using prior knowledge to construct meaning make sense?) (does it monitoring comprehension Most effective instructional uses for enjoyment during independent reading to develop students' letter-sound and simple spelling pattern knowledge to provide independent practice in using blending and chunking strategies to model decoding strategies while reading aloud to students to develop students' oral reading fluency and expression

support in leveled texts without predictability (see Figure 5). Typically, these texts follow a
word recognition comes increasingly er level decodable and high-frequency story lines and across Gradually, scope and sequence that be low complex. Consequently, texts consist of short-vowel words simple levels, in texts with sentence the texts familiar structures. include more

patterns complex spelling (e.g., long-vowel words with a silent e marker, words with "vowel teams") and more challenging high-frequency words. In addition, story lines and sentence structures become more complex. The following example is from Fun With Zip and Zap, by John

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an engaging collection of simple de Shefelbine, codable stories about a family and their two ram of short vowels bunctious dogs. With knowledge and a few high-frequency words, a student learn ing to Break the Code can have a successful in dependent reading experience the little dog, narrates. with this text. Zip,

Figure5 Decodable text

Characteristics difficulty increases gradually across levels of text text controlled to emphasize letter-sound, spelling patterns, and high-frequency irregular sight words simple sentence structures simple, familiar story line limited plot/information illustrations support and extend text restricted amount of text per page Examples The Snow Game by Patricia Griffith Fun With Zip and Zap by John Shefelbine All About Bats by Jennifer Jacobson text readers rely on to read decodable beginning Strategies of letter-sounds (/b/-/a/-/t/ = bat) blending using a chunking strategy with simple spelling patterns ("If I know bat, then this is flat") using sight word knowledge (e.g., said, come, was) using prior knowledge to construct meaning make sense?) (does it monitoring comprehension Most effective instructional uses for enjoyment during independent reading to develop students' letter-sound and simple spelling pattern knowledge to provide independent practice in using blending and chunking strategies to model decoding strategies while reading aloud to students to develop students' oral reading fluency and expression

Ben and Jen dig. They plant the little plant. Igo and dig itup. I liketodig. Ican'thelp it! Mom tellsJen and Ben to stopme. will not grow if Idig itup. Ben says, She says the little plant will have to stop!"Jen says, "If stop, I give you you you "Zip, a kiss." (p. 10) Transitional and decodable who texts provide are Breaking the sentence struc the

scaffolding Code in several ways. First, tures remain relatively simple and illustrations to support the story line. Second, stu continue dents must use what they know about letter and spelling patterns to sound correspondences many words. As they see these spelling identify patterns patterns ing students again and again in their reading, those become more and more familiar?mov closer to the time when them

for readers

they will 1991, (Ehri, automatically recognize the text lev 1998). Third, when teachers match els to the pace of their word study instruction, students are likely to see value for the instruc tion. This also

that stu increases the likelihood dents will be able to read the texts independently because the spelling patterns and sight words 1981; Juel & (Beck, they see are familiar

Roper/Schneider,

1985; Stein, Johnson, &

text pro transitional in the form of grad across levels of predictability Hiebert, & Juel, 1997;

in press). Finally, Gutlohn, vides additional scaffolding ually diminishing books (Englebertson, readers welcome

to ask students for help as she simulated diffi culty with a particular word. After coming up with a pronunciation, she asked, "Are we done yet?" "No," the students said sternly, "You have to go back and see if it makes sense!" From there, Barbara turned the reading over to the stu to talk them every few pages dents, stopping about story events or challenging words. When she led the students in a dis they were finished, cussion about how the story might relate to their own lives, or to other books they had read. Shamika and her Next, Barbara encouraged to read their copies of the text to a partner peers and to her. If they liked the story, she encouraged a text them to use it in Readers Theatre. Reading to an audience of peers gave students motiva tion to do multiple readings of a favorite text? an activity that improves decoding and oral speed, comprehension, accuracy, expression

Fountas & Pinnell, 1996). This gives beginning

they negotiate amount of decoding. Barbara used both transitional and decod able text with Shamika and other students in the the Code phase of reading develop Breaking ment. For example, when Barbara led a small of students in a guided reading of Steve's group text by Mindy Menschell, Room, a transitional she began by reviewing how students can use the -est and -ell spelling patterns to figure out unfa in the story. After initiating a pre miliar words view and predict discussion, Barbara read the first two pages of the book aloud, stopping once as for fluency opportunities text that asks them to do a fair

(Dowhower, 1987; LaBerge, 1973; Perfetti & What kind of text 301

Shamika in October, n.d.). One week Lesgold, into preparing and her friends threw themselves Dr. Seuss's Green Eggs and Ham for a Readers about Theatre presentation. They made decisions who would read each page, devised some simple props, and read and reread the book a half dozen much attention to what their voices times?with should sound like at certain points. on the them, Barbara commented Watching that charac sense of ownership and motivation terized the entire process (Martinez, Roser, &

doughnuts. Afterwards, that he did not mention

Linda

thought it curious this 6 reading, because

in the door reading like a year-old had walked he waltzed second grader. When through her a primer initial reading assessment?including handed him a book text?Linda level decodable

from the Henry andMudge

Rylant. would do with seen before." words "He was so fluent! an easy chapter

series by Cynthia
how he book he'd never curious

Iwas

While Patrick had obvious difficulty with

like thought and enough, he was able to and with of the first chapter fluently some words like Mudge, expression?including read most

Strecker, 1998-1999):

ReadersTheatre isa great way to get around the "I've already read it" They'llreadsomething lotsof times ifthey complaint. his retelling Moreover, thing, and anybody's. know they'llbe presenting foran audience. And thewhole Linda asked and detailed. When a couple of performances. was complete thing snowballs after theywatch to read, he simply he learned starttowork on theirexpression?which isa great Patrick where They really indicator fluencyand comprehension. of shrugged. At the first instruction, scaffolding, the code. As broke Shamika couragement, drew near, her oral reading was more Christmas time, fluent, and she read with greater an indication that she had moved expression? into the well With and en Patrick's mother

full alphabetic phase (Ehri, 1998). Readers in

have begun to this phase of reading development are spelled and how how words amalgamate that are pronounced inmemory. This means they a growing number of words can recognize they at sight?a far more efficient strategy than rely on letter sampling It also en and context. ing ables them to use chunks to decode by analogy letters because chunks are simply amalgamated en when Shamika and pronunciations. Thus, words she no longer unfamiliar countered she looked for chunks she knew and guessed; checked the word she generated against the con she did miscue a bemused offered stopped frequently sense at all," and then "Wow! That didn't make went back to try again. Perhaps most exciting, Shamika was acutely aware of her progress. She and looked reading with confidence approached out "real chapter books" to checking forward text. Furthermore, when Shamika and from the library.

conference, parent-teacher cleared up the mystery. Using letters on the refrigerator and vinyl let magnetic ters in the bathtub, she taught him not only let ters and sounds, but also how to blend simple, at words. Teachers regular phonetically Montessori finished and kindergarten preschool instruction. The re individualized learned about print and broke the code long before he entered first grade. No won of learning to read! der he had no memory It was clear to Linda that Patrick was an ad to the Going vanced beginner who had moved the job with sult? Patrick

for Fluency (see phase of reading development are no longer fo Advanced beginners Figure 2). cused on learning how books work, or on sound they encounter. They ing out most of the words at sight, and as a result recognize many words resources they are able to spend their cognitive mean where they should be spent?constructing

ing (Perfetti, 1991; Stanovich, 1991).

impressive progress, Linda to do. She wanted Patrick to become strategic at constructing increasingly from what he read and even more au meaning she words. Moreover, tomatic at recognizing Despite Patrick's knew there was more wanted Patrick his ability, to read. Despite chose to read when he had the op rarely socializ portunity. In reflecting on his favorites, her and sports ruled the day. To accomplish ing instruction. She Linda planned to provide goals, also knew that Patrick needed more than just in him struction. and He needed motivation read some more (Gambrell to read, read, & Marinak, to want

Patrick:Going forFluency
her students about Linda interviewed as a prelude to selecting topics for the Patrick quickly year's first writing workshop, car that he loved soccer, basketball, announced When favorites toons, video games, sleepovers, and chocolate

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1997; Guthrie,

Schafer,

Wang,

& Afflerbach,

1995; Schallert & Reed, 1997; Wigfield,

1997)
Characteristics

Figure6 Easy reader text

Thus, in addition to teaching effective decod and comprehension ing strategies, Linda set about

building Patrick's motivation to read by helping

books on his interesting, well-written and instructional levels. In short, she independent he could access hoped when Patrick discovered him find his favorites through books, he would come to see to spend his time reading as a way he wanted

Wilson, & Fielding, 1988). (Anderson,

When without it came the kinds that advanced to choosing text, Linda knew like Patrick could do beginners

difficulty increases gradually across levels of text text less controlled than simple predictable, transitional, or texts in decodable word choice and sentence structures text more controlled than authentic literature or nonfiction in word choice and sentence structures illustrations support and extend text more complex plot/information than simple predictable, tran texts sitional, or decodable more text per page than simple predictable, transitional, or texts decodable Examples (easier) Frog and Toad Are Friends by Arnold Lobel Wagon Wheels by Barbara Brenner (more difficult) Norton Hatches the Egg by Dr. Seuss Arthur's Teacher Trouble by Marc Brown advanced beginners rely on with easy readers Strategies basic word identification automaticity using a chunking strategy with more complex spelling pat terns (e.g., "If Iknow fought, then this must be thought') and with polysyllabic words (e.g., fright-en-ing) using sight word knowledge using prior knowledge to construct meaning make sense?) (does it monitoring comprehension Instructional uses for enjoyment while reading aloud to students and during in dependent reading to develop students' oral reading fluency and expression to model comprehension strategies while reading aloud to students

transitional, level when readers quickly reach frustration on their own. This literature reading authentic means that just as readers who are Learning readers who are Going scaffolding, with for Fluency also benefit from opportunities text that provide know for what support they about the reading process. Linda said, from textual

of support that predictable, text offer. Still, such and decodable

About Print or Breaking the Code can benefit

We feel likesimple predictable,transitional,and decodable books help kidsbuilda reallyimportant foundationintermsof awareness,decodingbasics and overallsuccesses read print ers. From there,they'rereadyforsomethingmore challeng and ing?something thathelps thembuild automaticity gets on themcloser to reading and authenticfiction nonfiction their own.That's come in. where easy readers this challenge and, at Easy readers provide the same time, provide textual scaffolding (see easy Figure 6). An excerpt from the time-tested reader Frog and Toad Are Friends by Arnold Lobel illustrates this point:

need for control in easy readers authors like Arnold Lobel considerable lat we "Andit means that can begin a whole new year together, gives a story line. As a result, easy itude in developing will said Frog. "We skip throughthemead Toad.Thinkof it," are more engaging than texts ows and runthroughthewoods and swim inthe river. Inthe readers typically we will sit righthere on this frontporchand count where control is at a premium. evenings thestars."(p.8) "We always breathe a sigh of relief when a reduced text has far less control than the texts to negotiate easy readers," Linda "We take it as evidence that they're commented, well on their way to independence. From here? child is able

The

This Travis

and Shamika read when they entered first With easy readers, students encounter nu grade. merous polysyllabic words, more difficult high more sentence words, frequency complex a lot more text. structures, and, in general, the challenge. At the same time, this text Hence, some word control in an effort to does exercise be accessible. This is the scaffolding that helps young readers meet the challenge successfully.

if they stay motivated?they

more

just need to get

at what they can already do." sophisticated Linda found easy readers to be effective textual for readers like Patrick. "Besides scaffolding providing easy readers ed, "There's the right mix of challenge and sup

port for kids at this point in their development,

are readily available," Linda relat an ever-increasing supply of these

What kind of text 303

Figure7 and nonfiction Authentic literature

Characteristics word choice and sentence structure not controlled ning reader accessibility illustrations support and extend text complex plot/information more text per page than predictable or decodable Examples Peter Rabbit by Beatrix Potter Smoky Night by Eve Bunting Owl Moon by Jane Yolen literature and readers rely on to read authentic Strategies nonfiction advanced word identification automaticity using a chunking strategy with unfamiliar words of all types using sight word knowledge using prior knowledge to construct meaning make sense?) comprehension monitoring (does it Instructional uses for enjoyment while reading aloud to students to model comprehension strategies while reading aloud to students to motivate students to become better readers

Arthur

Book Club disagreed, citing the school as the main character's most pressing spellathon

for begin

threatened to de the discussion problem. When it is!" "No, it isn't!" Linda re generate into, "Yes, to go back to the text minded the club members and find evidence The week for their positions. Patrick and Christmas, to read nonfiction friends chose before

books

three books mic," "That's

of his

in the American West. about pioneers a tough time of year for anything acade "I was pleased they chose Linda observed.

something they could really get into, because when those boys aren't interested, they're?shall we say?itchy." When the boys finished Barbara a true story about Brenner's Wagon Wheels, African Patrick led the American homesteaders, As she listened from nearby, Linda discussion. was pleased with what she saw and heard. Whoever leads the discussion is responsible forcoming up with twoquestions and Patrick a terrificjob! did When every was onewas finished reading,he asked, "What you think did Muldie boys had todo?"Later,he asked thescariest thingthe was "What your favoritepartof the story?" Then, he readhis with fluency,greatexpression,and con favorite out loud part fidence!He's continuing tomake progressand he's enjoying whatwe want thesead himselfwhen he reads.That'sexactly vanced beginning readersto do!

books been

on all kinds of interesting topics. They've a great resource for our Book Clubs" & Woodman, McMahon, Goatley, (Raphael,

1995; Raphael & Hiebert,

1998; Raphael &

Travis, Shamika, and Patrick:

McMahon, 1994). their students Barbara and Linda encourage to form Book Clubs around topics or themes they a small group of For example, find interesting. or a topic like pioneers students may choose space Every books and then seek out several related books. to read their meet day, club members and

with authentic text all Stretching

along the way
Regardless of where students are in their read reading development, aloud every day authentic literature or nonfiction text is not controlled (see Figure 7). Authentic structure. As a re for word choice or sentence Barbara sult, authors can develop meaty plots and pro in that is unavailable information vide complex and decodable, transitional, simple predictable, text ranges widely in easy reader text. Authentic Witness the proper yet lyrical prose of The style. the Potter, by Beatrix of Peter Rabbit solemn cadence of The Return of the Buffaloes of the mischievous rhymes by Paul Goble, or Where the Sidewalk Ends by Shel Silverstein, of Bearman: the scientific Exploring precision Tale of Black Bears by Laurence Pringle. on this Barbara and Linda draw extensively resource with several goals in mind? textual the World goals that they believe increase students' abilities and Linda

read to what they have respond and art. For the most through writing, discussion, with the clubs proceed quite independently part, a coaching role. the two teachers playing Sometimes, a fishbowl a club's discussions may format

in proceed & Dillon, (Alvermann, 1987; Grattan, in press) with the teacher O'Brien, and other students looking on. In this way, the to effective can quickly draw attention teacher use or clear up confusion. For strategies students as Patrick's Arthur's club discussed example, Teacher Trouble by Marc Brown, Patrick sug was his main that Arthur's problem gested of the teacher, Mr. Ratburn. Ian, another member

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to read. First and foremost, the and motivation are convinced to au two teachers that listening thentic literature and nonfiction helps students the multiple ways books can enrich appreciate our lives. Second, the teachers use literature and to model nonfiction reading aloud with fluency the hope that students will and expression?in to do the same. Finally, the complexity of aspire to talk text provides the opportunity and writing about comprehension strategies. As Barbara noted, authentic

in transitional and decodable books. Still others be in a position to learn about print from the may text. All catchy rhythms of simple predictable of them will profit from listening to authentic lit erature and nonfiction being read aloud. In short, primary-grade classrooms stand to benefit textual books from all kinds of books. The concept of can help teachers use those scaffolding readers

to support beginning effectively their development. throughout

It'stough to talkabout strategies inany depthwith themore in Department ofEducational at teaches the Brown Studies the controlledbooks because there'sjustnotmuch there.That's of East Center Suite Drive, for Grandfather's UniversityUtah,1705 the trade-off thecontrol.But takea book like Campus Allen Say, orMath Curse by Jon Scieszka and 307,SaltLake UT USA. 84112-9256, Journey by City, and LaneSmith. Ican use themto show thekids how readers in and important writersthink aboutelementsof plot infiction formationinnonfiction. also talka lotabout the choices We References on authors make inusingwords,which starts to havea impact Adams, MJ. (1990).Beginning to read: Thinkingand learning students' writing. about MA: MIT Press. Like teachers lection their peers, Travis, Shamika, and se their
print. Cambridge, D.E., Dillon, D.R., & O'Brien, D.G. Alvermann, to promote discussion reading comprehension. International Reading Association. Anderson, (1987). Newark, Using DE:

Patrick thoroughly enjoyed listening to their

read aloud of literature from an ever-changing Like and nonfiction.

peers, when a particular book caught their fan cies, they were eager to explore it on their own. "The kids wait like vultures for whoever has the latest book to finish with it," Barbara noted, "As soon as the book is closed, someone else is lurk ing nearby ready to pounce on it!"

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