Different sociologists have classified social groups in different ways.

The chief base of these classifications are functions, scope and stability. Following are the important classifications of social groups. 1. Dwight Sanderson's classification: Dwight Sanderson has classified social group into three types, namely (i) Involuntary group, (ii) Voluntary group and (iii) Delegate group (i) Involuntary groups: - Involuntary groups are those, which are based on blood relationship or kinship. Family is an involuntary group. (ii) Voluntary groups: - Voluntary groups are those groups the membership of which depends upon the sweet will of the individuals. Their membership is not compulsory rather voluntary. Cricket Association is an example of voluntary group. (iii) Delegate groups: - Delegated groups are those in which a man joins as a representative or a number of people elected rather by them or nominated by some authority. The Indian Parliament and the State Legislative Assembly are the bright examples of delegate groups. 2. Ferdinand Tonnies' classification: According to Ferdinand Tonnies, social groups are of two types such as: (i) Gemeinschaft or community and (ii) Gaselischaft or society. (i) Gememschaft or community: - Gemeinschaft is that type of group whose relationship is characterised by close, intimate and personalities, mutual trust and co-operation. Family is an example of Gemeinschaft. (ii) Gesetteschaft or society: - Geselleschaft is that group which is characterized by competition, self-interest, efficiency, progress and specialization of relationship. The bureaucratic corporation is the ideal example of gesellschaft. 3. F.H. Gidding's classification: F.H. Giddings classifies social groups into four types, namely: (i) Genetic group, (ii) Congregate group, (iii) Disjunctive group and (iv) Overlapping group. (i) Genetic group: - Genetic group is the family in which a man is born involuntarily. (ii) Congregate group: - Congregate group is the voluntary group into which an individual moves or in which he joins vountarily. (iii) Disjunctive group: - A disjunctive group is one, which does not allow a person to be a member of other groups at the same time. A college or a nation is the bright example of disjunctive group.

(iv) Overlapping group:- An overlapping group is one whose members may belong to other groups at the same time, The Indian Sociological Association or All Orissa Sociological Association is an example of overlapping. 4. George Hassen's classification: According George Hassen, social groups are classified into four types such as (i) On-social group, (ii) Pseudo-social group, (iii) Anti-social group and (iv), Pro-social group. (i) Un-social group: - Un-social group is one, which does not mix up with other groups and remains aloof from them. (ii) Pseudo-social group: - A pseudo-social group is mat group, which participates, in the larger social life mainly for its own gain not for the gain of society. (Hi) Anti-social group:- An anti-social group which acts against the interest of society. A group, of vagabonds that destroy public properly is an example of anti-social group. Similarly, a political party that plan to overthrow a popular government is an anti-social group. (iv) Pro-social group:- A pro-social group is the opposite of anti-social group. It works for the larger interests of society. It does ail the constructive works for the welfare of society. 5. D. Miller's classification: D. Miller has classified social groups into two types namely (i) Horizontal group and (ii) Vertical group. (i) Horizontal group: - A horizontal group consists mainly all members from one social class. A group of doctors, engineers, teachers, electricians, etc. is some of the examples of horizontal group. (ii) Vertical group: - A vertical group is a larger group consisting of large number of people such as nation, religious organisations, caste groups, political parties and so on. 6. Charles A. Ellwood's classification: Social groups have been classified by Charles A. Elwood into four types such as (i) Voluntary group, (ii) In-voluntary group, (iii) Permanent group and (iv) Temporary group. (i) Voluntary group: - A voluntary group is one in which a person joins according to his own wish. The membership of this group is not compulsory rather voluntary and one can withdraw one's memberships at any time without any reason. The recreational club is an example of voluntary group. (ii) Involuntary group: - An involuntary group is one, which is based on blood relationship such as, family, kinship, tribe, clan etc. The membership of this group is compulsory because man is born in it and also die in it.

(iii) Permanent group: - Permanent group is that type of group in which the relationship among the members continues for a longer period. The family is a permanent group. This group is more stable than the other groups. (iv) Temporary group: - The temporary group is just the opposite of permanent group. In this group, the relationship among the members does not continue for a longer period. A mob or a crowd is a temporary group. 7. Park and Burgess classification: Park and Burgess has classified social groups into two types such as : (i) Territorial group and (ii) Non-territorial group. (i) Territorial group: - A territorial group is one, which has its own definite territory. The village, city-state, nation etc. are the examples of territorial group. (ii) Non-territorial group: - A non-territorial group is one, which does not possess any territory of its own. A Trade Union or a Kissan Union is a non-territorial group. 8. Gillin and Giflin's classification: Lewis Gillin and Philip Gillin have classified social groups in the following types, (i) On the basis of blood relationship. (ii) On the basis of bodily characteristics. (iii) On the basis of physical proximity. (iv) On the basis of culturally derived interests. 9. C.H. Cooley's classification: According to C.H. Cooley, the famous American sociologists, there are two types of social groups. They are, (1) Primary group whose relation is direct, intimate and personal. (ii) Secondary group whose relation is indirect, less intimate, impersonal and formal. 10. W.G. Summer's classification: W.G. Summer, an eminent American sociologist, has classified social groups into two types in his book 'Folkways'. These are: (i) In-group to which individual belongs. (ii) Out-group to which individual does not belong.

Secondary groups are just the opposite of the prima group. These groups are of special significance in modern Industrial societies. Secondary, group is a large group in which a large number of persons come into indirect contact with one another. Physical closeness, intimacy and personal relations are not desired in secondary group. In other words secondary group may be defined as those associations, which are characterized, by indirect and impersonal or secondary relations and specialization of functions. The relations between the members of secondary groups are touch and go type indirect, less intimate, impersonal, formal, short and temporary. Secondary groups are very large in size. Sometimes these groups are called "Special-interest groups". A city, a nation, a political party, a trade union, a corporation and the modem large-Scale organizations are the bright examples of secondary groups. Definitions of Secondary Group: Different sociologists have defined secondary group in many ways. Following are the important definitions of secondary group. C.H. Cooley defines: "Secondary groups are wholly lacking in intimacy of association and usually in most of the other primary and quasi-primary characteristics". . Ogburn and Nimkoff define: "The groups which provide experience lacking in intimacy are called secondary groups". H.T. Mazumdar defines: "When face-to-face contacts are not present in the relations of members we have secondary groups". Characteristics of Secondary Group The important characteristics of secondary groups are as follows: 1. Large size: The first characteristic of secondary group is its large size. The size of secondary group is so large because it is formed by a large number of people. Secondary groups have spread all over the country. For example, a political party which is a secondary group consisted of thousands of members and work through out the country. 2. Indirect relations: Secondary groups are characterized by indirect relations. All members are indirectly related to each other because a secondary group is bigger in size than a primary group and the members contact and stay together. The specialization of functions leads to indirect relations in secondary groups. 3. Formal and impersonal relations: Relation among the members of secondary groups are formal and impersonal. The members do not have face-to-face relation. People do not develop personal relations among themselves.

4. Voluntary membership: The membership of secondary group is not compulsory but always voluntary. People may join secondary groups according to their sweet will. For instance, one may join a political party or may not join it. Similarly, one may or may not join a particular recreational club. 5. Formal rules: Secondary groups are regulated by formal rules and regulations, a secondary group exercises control over its members through formal ways. The secondary relations are directly controlled by police, jail, army, court and various other formal means. 6. Status of Individual depends upon his role: In secondary group, the position or status of every member depends upon his role. Every member in a secondary group plays a role or a number of roles. His status in the group is determined by his role. For example, the status of the president of political party depends upon personal qualities. 7. Individuality in persons: Secondary groups are sometimes called special-interest groups. Individuality develops in the persons in secondary group because; their relations are based on self-interest, when their interests are satisfied they lose interest in the group. Thus, self-interest leads the members to develop their individuality in secondary group. 8. Active and inactive members: A secondary group is very large in size. Physical closeness and intimacy are totally absent among its members. Owing to this reason, some members of the group become active and some others are quite inactive. 9. Self-dependence among the members: The members of secondary group are self-dependent. They want or desire to fulfill their selfinterests. For this purpose, the members of a secondary group depend upon themselves in order to safe-guard their own interests. 10. Goal Orientation: Lastly, the main purpose of a secondary group is to fulfill a specific aim. That means each secondary group is formed to achieve a specific goal.

Social Groups
Social groups and organizations comprise a basic part of virtually every arena of modern life. Thus, in the last 50 years or so, sociologists have taken a special interest in studying these scientific phenomena from a scientific point of view. A social group is a collection of people who interact with each other and share similar characteristics and a sense of unity. A social category is a collection of people who do not interact but who share similar characteristics. For example, women, men, the elderly, and high school students all constitute social categories. A social category can become a social group when the members in the category interact with each other and identify themselves as members of the group. In contrast, a social aggregate is a collection of people who are in the same place, but who do not interact or share characteristics. Psychologists Muzafer and Carolyn Sherif, in a classic experiment in the 1950s, divided a group of 12-year-old white, middle-class boys at a summer camp into the Eagles and the Rattlers. At first, when the boys did not know one another, they formed a common social category as summer campers. But as time passed and they began to consider themselves to be either Eagles or Rattlers, these 12-year-old boys formed two distinct social groups.

In-groups, out-groups, and reference groups

In the Sherifs' experiment, the youngsters also erected artificial boundaries between themselves. They formed in-groups (to which loyalty is expressed) and out-groups (to which antagonism is expressed). To some extent every social group creates boundaries between itself and other groups, but a cohesive in-group typically has three characteristics:

Members use titles, external symbols, and dress to distinguish themselves from the
out-group.

Members tend to clash or compete with members of the out-group. This competition
with the other group can also strengthen the unity within each group.

Members apply positive stereotypes to their in-group and negative stereotypes to the
out-group. In the beginning, the Eagles and Rattlers were friendly, but soon their games evolved into intense competitions. The two groups began to call each other names, and they raided each other's cabins, hazed one another, and started fights. In other words, loyalty to the in-group led to antagonism and aggression toward the out-group, including fierce competitions for the same resources. Later in the same experiment, though, Sherif had the boys work together to

solve mutual problems. When they cooperated with one another, the Eagles and Rattlers became less divided, hostile, and competitive. People may form opinions or judge their own behaviors against those of a reference group (a group used as a standard for self-appraisals). Parishioners at a particular church, for instance, may evaluate themselves by the standards of a denomination, and then feel good about adhering to those standards. Such positive self-evaluation reflects the normative effect that a reference group has on its own members, as well as those who compare themselves to the group. Still, reference groups can have a comparison effect on selfevaluations. If most parishioners shine in their spiritual accomplishments, then the others will probably compare themselves to them. Consequently, the not-so-spiritual parishioners may form a negative self-appraisal for not feeling up to par. Thus, reference groups can exert a powerful influence on behavior and attitudes.

Primary and secondary groups

Groups play a basic role in the development of the social nature and ideals of people. Primary groups are those in which individuals intimately interact and cooperate over a long period of time. Examples of primary groups are families, friends, peers, neighbors, classmates, sororities, fraternities, and church members. These groups are marked by primary relationships in which communication is informal. Members of primary groups have strong emotional ties. They also relate to one another as whole and unique individuals. In contrast, secondary groups are those in which individuals do not interact much. Members of secondary groups are less personal or emotional than those of primary groups. These groups are marked by secondary relationships in which communication is formal. Members of secondary groups may not know each other or have much face-to-face interaction. They tend to relate to others only in particular roles and for practical reasons. An example of a secondary relationship is that of a stockbroker and her clients. The stockbroker likely relates to her clients in terms of business only. She probably will not socialize with her clients or hug them. Primary relationships are most common in small and traditional societies, while secondary relationships are the norm in large and industrial societies. Because secondary relationships often result in loneliness and isolation, some members of society may attempt to create primary relationships through singles' groups, dating services, church groups, and communes, to name a few. This does not mean, however, that secondary relationships are bad. For most Americans, time and other commitments limit the number of possible primary

relationships. Further, acquaintances and friendships can easily spring forth from secondary relationships.

Small groups
A group's size can also determine how its members behave and relate. A small group is small enough to allow all of its members to directly interact. Examples of small groups include families, friends, discussion groups, seminar classes, dinner parties, and athletic teams. People are more likely to experience primary relationships in small group settings than in large settings. The smallest of small groups is a dyad consisting of two people. A dyad is perhaps the most cohesive of all groups because of its potential for very close and intense interactions. It also runs the risk, though, of splitting up. A triad is a group consisting of three persons. A triad does not tend to be as cohesive and personal as a dyad. The more people who join a group, the less personal and intimate that group becomes. In other words, as a group increases in size, its members participate and cooperate less, and are more likely to be dissatisfied. A larger group's members may even be inhibited, for example, from publicly helping out victims in an emergency. In this case, people may feel that because so many others are available to help, responsibility to help is shifted to others. Similarly, as a group increases in size, its members are more likely to engage in social loafing, in which people work less because they expect others to take over their tasks.

Leadership and conformity

Sociologists have been especially interested in two forms of group behavior: conformity andleadership. The pressure to conform within small groups can be quite powerful. Many people go along with the majority regardless of the consequences or their personal opinions. Nothing makes this phenomenon more apparent than Solomon Asch's classic experiments from the 1950s and 1960s. Asch assembled several groups of student volunteers and then asked the subjects which of the three lines on a card was as long as the line on another card. Each of the student groups had only one actual subject; the others were Asch's secret accomplices, whom he had instructed to provide the same, though absurdly wrong, answer. The experimenter found that almost one-third of the subjects changed their minds and accepted the majority's incorrect answer.

The pressure to conform is even stronger among people who are not strangers. During group-think, members of a cohesive group endorse a single explanation or answer, usually at the expense of ignoring reality. The group does not tolerate dissenting opinions, seeing them as signs of disloyalty to the group. So members with doubts and alternate ideas do not speak out or contradict the leader of the group, especially when the leader is strongwilled. Group-think decisions often prove disastrous, as when President Kennedy and his top advisors endorsed the CIA's decision to invade Cuba. In short, collective decisions tend to be more effective when members disagree while considering additional possibilities. Two types of leaders normally emerge from small groups. Expressive leaders are affiliation motivated. That is, they maintain warm, friendly relationships. They show concern for members' feelings and group cohesion and harmony, and they work to ensure that everyone stays satisfied and happy. Expressive leaders tend to prefer a cooperative style of management.Instrumental leaders, on the other hand, are achievement motivated. That is, they are interested in achieving goals. These leaders tend to prefer a directive style of management. Hence, they often make good managers because they get the job done. However, they can annoy and irritate those under their supervision.