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A numerical approach on dynamic behaviour induced by tunnel blast loads

In-Mo Lee Dept. of Civil Engineering, Korea University Sang-Gyun Kim Soktop Engineering Co., Ltd. ABSTRACT: The drilling and blasting method is widely used in tunnel excavation and, blasting work should be designed and performed so that planned excavation area is well excavated with minimal overbreak or underbreak and so that stability of the remaining rock mass is secured. In this study, rock mass behavior around a blast hole induced by tunnel blast loads is analyzed by numerical approach. It was found that reliable numerical results can be obtained from properly derived blast loads applied to each blast hole and properly established boundary conditions as well as spatial and temporal discretisations of finite element meshes . Excavated pattern in the designated perimeter and stability of the remaining rock were evaluated on contour and stoping blastings based on rate-dependant strength and damage criteria. The propriety of tunnel blasting pattern was quantitatively assessed on the extent of damage zone on condition that the tunnel section can be effectively excavated up to designated excavation perimeter. 1 INTRODUCTION In tunnel construction by blasting method, dynamic behavior of rock mass can be assessed from stress waves which propagate from the blast holes. Therefore, if the propagation mechanism of the stress waves were known, blast -induced dynamic behavior could be estimated at an arbitrary point within rock mass. Numerical method is mainly adopted for evaluating dynamic behavior induced by tunnel blasting because it is not easy to find rigorous solution of three-dimensional wave equation with complex boundary conditions. The behavior induced by tunnel blasting is divided into two categories: one is near field behavior such as overbreak and damage; and the other is far field behavior such as ground vibration and noise. The distance from the blast hole is an essential factor in numerical simulation since applied blast load; analysis range and choice of dimension are significantly dependent on that factor. Valliappan et al. (1998) performed a finite element analysis to predict the dynamic behavior of an existing tunnel due to adjacent blasting. They applied dynamic pseudo-plane strain analysis to consider three-dimensional effect on the tunnel blasting with two dimensional analysis and equivalent blast load. Liu et al. (1997) performed three-dimensional finite element analysis to estimate damage and fragmentation due to superpos ition of stress waves propagating from each blast hole. They used relatively small analysis range and element size compared to Valliappan et al. (1998). Instead of equivalent blast load, separated blast loads are applied for each blast hole. Therefore, in the numerical modeling on dynamic behavior, it is important to determine analysis range and purpose of numerical analysis in advance. Some blast holes are initiated at the same time and others with delay in one round and characteristics of each blast loads are different according to charge condition and explosives used in tunnel blasting. Therefore, assessment of blast loads, which are dependent on charge condition and explosives, is essential to estimate rock mass behavior close to blast holes. In this paper, numerical approaches were undertaken to quantitatively estimate the rock mass behavior around blast holes. Firstly, blast loads are determined a c c o r d i n g t o t h e p h y s i c a l a n d mechanical properties of explosives and rock medium. Secondly, factors that i nfluence on the results of numerical analysis are identified and calibrated so that numerical errors are minimized. And lastly, example problems are conducted to show a procedure evaluating a tunnel blast design based on dynamic strength and damage criteria that can consider rate-dependency of blast loads . 2. CHARACTERISTICS OF BLAST WAVE 2.1 Stress wave pattern with distance from blast hole In order to comprehend thoroughly the mechanism of stress waves, the general characteristics of the

medium, which are represented by the stress -strain relationship should be known first. This relationship has the general form shown in Fig. 1 (a) for liquids and gases and (b) for solids. The velocity of stress wave can be determined from the stress-strain curve since it is equal to the value of (S/)1/2 at a shown in Fig. 1. Where, S is the modulus of deformation, i.e. the slope of stress-volumetric strain curve and is density of medium.
stress() stress()

2.2 Peak pressure and rise time of blast wave In dynamic analysis such as blasting simulation, proper choice of input loads is one of the key factors to obtain reasonable outputs according to various conditions. Kim (2001) proposed a procedure to quantitatively obtain the blast load based on stress wave mechanism according to charge conditions and explosives used. By the proposed method, the rise time of stress waves which is significantly related to the failure and damage mechanism on blasted rock as well as the stress amplitude could be obtained. At the detonation wave front, explosion parameters obtained by the following equations from the hydrodynamics (Marsh, 1980):
pD = uD 1 +1 1 = D, +1 0D , D =
2

c zD

0 = D +1

1+

(1)

volumetric strain( )

volumetric strain( )

(a) Liquids and gases (b) Solids Fig. 1 Relationship Between Stress and Volumetric Strain After detonation of most of the industrial explosives, the state of material in blast hole consists of gases and liquids, but that of rock medium is solids except thin annulus which is formed around the blast hole due to very high pressure and temperature of explosion products. Generally, an initial shock wave, which has no rise time, is generated at the blast hole wall, it will propagate radially, and the pressure attenuates fast with distance. Therefore, four types of stress wave profiles are generated depending on the distance from the blast hole such as shown in
C 0
(a) In blast hole (b) Blast hole wall

where, pD, D, u D and c zD are pressure, explosive density, particle velocity and sound velocity at the detonation wave front, respectively. D, 0 and are detonation velocity, initial explosives density, and adiabatic exponent, respectively. From the mean detonation pressure, pm (1/2p D) and the compatib ility at the interface of the explosive and rock medium for the fully coupled charge condition, initial shock pressure p x at the blast hole wall can be obtained by trial and error method using Equation (2), Equation (3) and Equation (4).
D 2 p ux = [1+ [1 ( x ) 2 ] ] +1 1 pm
1

(2) (3)

p x = r 0 u x c sh

stabl shock wave

unstabl shock wave plastic wave plastic wave

elastic wave

(c) Plastic region

(d) Elastic region

Fig. 2 Variation of the Profile of an Explosive Wave with Distance Fig. 2. Under these conditions an elastic wave propagates through the medium, and this is followed by a plastic wave which travels with a lower velocity.

c sh = cs + Ku x

(4)

where, u x, ro, csh , cs and K indicate particle velocity at the interface, density at initial state, shock wave velocity, sound velocity of rock material and a parameter depending on the rock material respectively. Maximum explosion gas pressure, which plays dominant role in case of the decoupled charge condition, can be determined from state equation of Abel-Novel as follows:
pg = f L f 1 .5 (5) = , = 2 V L ( D I ) (1 / 0 ) 1 .26 + 1 .33 0

where, p r, r0 and n are pressure amplitude at distance r, diameter of explosive, and attenuation factor of rock material, respectively. Rise time of the stress wave at a certain distance can be obtained from the gap of rise time between elastic wave and plastic wave. If we consider a point in the plastic region, the rise time t R can be obtained from:
[( tR = r c plas c elas )] - r c elas

( 7)

where, celas a n d c plas are velocity of elastic and plastic wave propagation, respectively. For the decoupled charge condition, rise time of stress wave at the blast hole wall is required according to the geometric condition between blast hole and explosive. After explosion in the decoup led charge condition, the wall of the blast hole will experience shock pressure and gas expansion pressure with some time delay. Shock pressure is impinged on the wall of the blast hole with detonation velocity, and this is followed by gas expansion pressure, which flows with particle velocity of explosive products. The time delay of the two pressures which can be obtained from the difference of the two velocities, and distance (d) between explosive and the wall of the blast hole is obtained as follows:
t R1 = d d uD D

where, p g, f, L, V, DI and are explosion gas pressure, specific energy, explosive weight, volume of blast hole, decoupling index and covolume respectively. F o r t h e fully coupled charge condition, initial pressure at the blast hole wall has no rise time because the profile of stress wave is represented as shock wave. But according to propagation of stress waves rise time is to be existed to the stress wave such as shown in Fig. 2. To simplify the problem, if the stress-strain curve on the rock medium can be considered bilinear such as shown in Fig. 3, constant velocities of elastic and plastic wave are obtained.
stress()

(8)

S plas

py

S elas
1

volumetric strain( )

Fig. 3. Approximation of relationship between stress and volumetric strain Defining the stress at intersection between elastic range and plastic range as dynamic yield stress py , the distance from the blast hole center to the nearest place where only elastic wave is propagatin g can be determined from the following equation.
r pr = px ( ) n , r0 r = r0 ( py px
1

In the cylindrically loaded explosive, the direction of detonation is the same with the blast hole axis, and the pressure exerted in the blast hole is applied normal to the surface of the wall. Therefore, another rise time is required to obtain full gas expansion pressure at an arbitrary point along the wall. For example, Fig. 4 is a schematic representation of explosion process in the blast hole, and at point C, maximum expansion pressure is obtained when explosion gas front arrives at point A. The distance between A and C depends on the geometric condition of explosive and blast hole, and commonly has 2 3 times of the blast hole diameter in the decoupled charge condition. If the distance between A and C is known, the rise time t R2 required to exert maximum gas expansion pressure on the blast hole wall can be determined from the particle velocity of explosion products as follows:
t R2 = d AC uD

)n

(6)

(9)

explosive

bore hole wall explosion direction A C explosion gas products

Fig. 4. Cylindrical explosion process in case of decoupled charge condition. Therefore, after impingement of detonation pressure total rise time at the blast hole wall approximately becomes t R1 +t R2 for the decoupled charge condition. 3. CONSIDERATIONS FOR NUMERICAL ANALYSIS If rigorous solution could not be obtained due to complex boundary condition, numerical analysis should be adopted to obtain an approximate solution on physical problems represented by differential equations. In most of numerical analysis, even though physical problems are three dimensional in nature, due to large computational efforts involved in three-dimensional dynamic analysis, one or twodimensional analysis has usually been adapted according to geometric conditions. Numerical modeling to analyze the wave propagation due to blasting is dependent on the choice of analysis range and dimension as well as spatial and temporal discretisations of finite element meshes. In general, tunnel-blasting sequence is as follow: the cut holes are firstly blasted, then stoping holes are initiated toward the cut, and lastly perimeter holes are blasted. Therefore, perimeter holes and stoping holes close to the perimeter holes have important effects on the feasibility of overbreak and the stability of remaining rock. Multiple perimeter holes should be included in analysis since some perimeter holes are initiated at the same time to make use of stress wave superposition. Since damage due to blasting usually occurs within 2 meters from the excavation boundary, it would be reasonable to choose numerical analysis range to be 2 meters from the excavation perimeter. In the selection of dimension in analysis, the extent of boundary from the blast hole and the charged length are very important. As mentioned earlier, numerical analysis on the far field behavior should be performed with three-dimensional tool. But near field behavior can b e e s t i m a t e d f r o m t w o -dimensional analysis assuming plain strain condition because blast hole has a diameter far smaller than its length and it can be assumed that the explosive is detonated

simultaneously along the entire length of the blast hole. Improper spatial and temporal discretisation in numerical analysis will not only result in considerable error but also lead to physically unreasonable results in some cases. Therefore, the study of constraints involved in the transient dynamic finite element method is quite important in order to obtain reliable and meaningful results. The basis on which the errors are assessed in dynamic finite element analysis can be divided into amplitude dissipation, velocity dispersion and spurious
Element Type Linear Elements Element size (h)
a 0 (5 + 11) f
0. 3 > 0 .3

Time step magnitude ( t )

1 a0 = 0 .7 +

T = 1 .45 t h

Qua dratic Elements


h

a0 0 h h
0 = 4. 2 f +4
0. 3 > 0. 3

T t

= 5. 8

+ 4 . 34(

0 h

1 a0 = 0 .7 +

+ 0 . 915 (

0 h

)2

oscillation. Valliappan et al. (1994) suggested a unified criterion for selecting element size and time step such as shown in Table 1 based on the characterization method of frequency spectra of applied loads. In this paper, their suggestions shown in Table 1 were adopted and where , f and T are wavelength, average frequency, deviation and period of blast load respectively. Table 1 Criterion for s electing element size and time step 4. STRENGTH AND DAMAGE CRITERIA Once rock mass behavior induced by blast loading is estimated from numerical analysis, the possibility of rock excavation by blasting work can be evaluated from dynamic strength criteria and the stiffness degradation of remaining rock can be evaluated from damage criteria on the blasted rock mass. The mechanism of dynamic behavior of rock mass is very complicated since macro cracks and micro cracks with different shapes and orientations in rock mass significantly influence on the behavior.

Anyway constitutive relation, strength and damage characteristics on the rock mass could be modeled by continuum mechanics based on statistical fracture mechanics. The possibility of rock failure or of blasting induced excavation can be evaluated by comparing blast-induced stress amplitude with dynamic strength of the rock mass. For the remaining rock, stiffness degradation which influences on the long term stability can be evaluated from strain and strain rate of the blasted rock mass, which occurred during blasting work. There are many test results on the loading rate dependant strength characteristics of rocks. Zhao (2000) conducted tension and shear tests on the Bukit Timah granite under various loading rates . It was found that dynamic strength increases with increasing loading rate shown in Fig. 5.

as follows. The represents micro crack nucleation rate and it can be estimated from fracture stress and strain rate of considered rock. Liu et al. (1997) suggested an equation that can calculate the value. Critical volumetric strain, c is a strain value when stress equals the static strength, S c and is calculated as: 1 2 S . (11) c E Damage occurs only when a material point is under tension and volumetric strain, induced by blast load is greater than or equal to its critical value. The rate dependence factor represents rate-dependence of fracture stress on a certain rock. Based on many studies can be taken to be equal to 2 so that the fracture stress is cube root dependent on the strain rate unless there is dynamic fracture data. =
c

Equation (10) can be written in differential form: dC d = ( - c ) 1 td + ( - c ) dt (12) Integrating equation (12), the crack density is given as: & Cd = ( - c ) 1 tdt + ( - c ) dt (13)
& where, is the volumetric strain rate expressed by definition as d/dt. Equation (13) explicitly shows that the crack density consists of two parts. The first part expresses the contribution of the volumetric & strain rate, at a given strain level; and second part represents the contribution of the strain value itself over a differential time dt.

Fig. 5 Results of uniaxial tension and shear tests on the Bukit Timah granite Damage is defined as nucleation and evolution of pre-existing cracks until material loses strength and stiffness when subjected to dynamic loading. Damage variable, Dv can be estimated from the number of cracks in a certain volume. In recent years, a number of micro cracks based constitutive blasting models or their modifications , have been proposed since the work by Grady and Kipp (1980). In some early continuum models, it was assumed that micro cracks initiate and grow immediately when the strain become tensile. However, experimental observation revealed that rock materials do not fail at tensile stresses below their static tens ile strength. Liu et al. (1997) suggested following equation on the crack density: C d = ( - c ) t (10)

Once crack density has been obtained, damage Dv is directly defined as the probability of fracture:
D v = pf = 1- e
-C d V0

(14)

where, p f and V0 are the probability of fracture and unit volume, respectively. The degraded Youngs modulus Ed and shear modulus Gd for a material point are calculated as:
E d = E(1 - D v ), G d = G(1 - D v )

(15)

where, E and G are initial Youngs modulus and shear modulus, respectively. From the definition of damage variable, damage zone is determined by comparing degraded stiffness induced by blast load to required stiffness to guarantee long-term stability of a tunnel.

where, Cd is defined as the total number of cracks per unit volume and , c and are material constants whose physical meanings are interpreted

5. NUMERICAL EXAMPLE In order to suggest a methodology for estimating the behavior of rock mass around the blast holes by numerical analysis, an example problem on a typical road tunnel is shown in detail. Fig. 6 shows the blasting pattern of typical two -lanes road tunnel generally used in Korea. It is not needed to simulate all blast holes shown in Fig. 6 for assessing the feasibility of well-performed excavation in perimeter and for assessing the damage zone around blast holes. So, the area to be analyzed is chosen to contain three contour holes and two stopping holes. The diameter of all blast holes is 45mm. Explosives used in contour holes are Gurit with diameter of 17 mm; and in stoping holes, Emulsion is used with diameter of 32mm. Fully coupled charge with stemming is used for stoping holes; and for contour holes decoupled charge is used.

Density( ro) Young's modulus(E) Poisson ratio() Uniaxial compressive stress Yield stress(py ) Elastic wave velocity(celas ) Plastic wave velocity(c plas) Hugoniot parameter(K) Blast hole diameter

2.5 g/cm3 30 GPa 0.25 60 MPa 40 MPa 2000 m/sec 1000 m/sec 1.6 45 mm

Table 3. Properties of explosives used Emulsion Density( o) 1.2 g/cm3 explosive Detonation velocity(D) 5000 m/sec 32 mm Charged diameter Gurit Density( o) Detonation velocity(D) Charged diameter Specific energy(f) 1.0 g/cm3 4000 m/sec 17 mm 981 kJ/kg

Fig. 6 Blasting pattern in generally-used road tunnel 5.1 Input blast load The properties of rock mass and explosives used to obtain the blast load are shown in Table 2 and Table 3. The pressure applied at the blast hole wall is calculated to be 6.25 GPa by Equation (2). Table 2 . Mechanical and physical properties of tested specimen As shown in Fig. 2(a), the shape of pressure applied on the blast hole wall with fully coupled charge has no rise time; it reaches peak pressure instantly and then, decreases as a shock wave. However, it is almost impossible to use such pressure wave as input data in numerical analysis due to limitation of time step and element size. In fact, thin crushed annulus is developed close to the blast hole wall due to high pressure and high temperature created by detonation products. The behavior in the crushed annulus is very complicated and the shape of stress wave is shown as Fig.2 (b). Therefore, it is reasonable and does not lose generality to assume the load is acted at the location where rock mass only experiences either plastic or elastic behavior

beyond the crushed annulus. At that location, the stress wave has both of the rise time and the peak stress shown in Fig. 2(c). In case of fully couple charge, crushed annulus being about 30mm, the peak stress and rise time of stress waves passing through the location 30mm apart from the blast hole wall (46mm apart from the center of the blast hole) can be calculated from the method suggested by Kim (2001). From the method, the shape of the stress wave used as input data at the location 30mm apart from the blast hole wall is shown in Fig. 7 and where, attenuation coefficient of the peak stress attenuation, n, is assumed to 1.5. The peak pressure applied at the blast hole wall due to contour blasting is usually gas expansion pressure and it is estimated to be 151.6 MPa from Equation (5). Crushed annulus is usually not developed, in decoupled charge, and the pressure has rise time until it reaches the peak pressure. It was found from the field tests that the gas pressure is applied for a relatively long time called quasi-static state. However, if the stress wave goes beyond the blast hole wall, the shape of stress wave becomes compressive and tensile i n t u r n . I n c a s e o f decoupling charge, it is assumed that the stress wave is applied at the location 46cm apart from the center of blast hole likewise the case of fully coupled charge. The input data at the location 30cm apart from the blast hole wall is shown in Fig. 8
1800 1500

Fig. 7 Blast load for stoping hole Fig. 8 Blast load for contour hole 5.2 Numerical modeling The finite element analysis code used in this study is the PENTAGON commercially used in Korea. Newmarks average acceleration method is used in the program as a time integration scheme. The element size and time step should be chosen from higher frequency of the blast load applied either to contour holes or stoping holes. In case of stoping holes, frequency of the blast load is high near the region of blast holes but the frequency decreases as the wave propagates because the peak stress of stoping blasting is very high . In the region where damage of rock mass is estimated, only elastic wave propagates and the frequency is lower than that of contour blasting. As a result, the element size, h, which is calculated using the suggested equation was shown in Fig. 7, was adjusted to be 100 sec. In case of decoupling charge, the shape of stress wave shown Table 1 along with characteristics of the blast load applied to contour blasting should be smaller than 9.5cm. So, in this study, the element size and time step was determined to be 5cm and 9 m, respectively. Fig. 9 shows total area of numerical analysis and spatial discretisation that contains 2 stoping holes and 3 contour holes. The distance between contour holes is 600mm, that between stoping holes is 940mm, and that between stoping hole and contour hole is 750mm. Fig. 9 Finite element mesh Plane strain element with 4 nodes is used for every element. Damping boundary is used on the upper, right, and left boundaries in order to prevent reflection of stress waves. Lower boundary of the

1200

pressure(MPa)

900

600

300

-300 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70

60

time(microsec)

50

40

pressure(MPa)

30

20

10

-10

analysis range is free surface since the area lower than this surface has already been excavated by either cut blasting or stoping blasting. If we were to consider the change of stress waves shown in Fig. 2, the non-linear analysis has to be performed; however, because of complexity on application of nonlinear analysis dependent upon the magnitude of stress and element size, linear-elastic analysis is adopted in this study. Even though the rise time changes with distance as a wave propagates following Equation (6) and Equation (7), it becomes almost constant when the wave arrives at a location where only elastic wave propagates. The rise time was constant to be 100sec beyond the location 40cm apart from the blast hole wall. So, the rise time which shown in Fig. 8 is adopted without any modification because the peak stress of the wave is very small and, as a result, the shape of the stress wave does not suffer any change. 6. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The possibility of excavation up to the designated perimeter was evaluated by comparing the magnitude of superposed stress waves induced by simultaneous detonation in contour holes with dynamic strength of the rock mass. The degree of damage of the remaining rock mass was assessed by comparing the strain which occurred during contour blasting with that which during stoping blasting near contour holes. First, the numerical result to evaluate the possibility of tunnel excavation by blasting work is shown in Fig. 10. The positive stresses indicate tension. Fig. 10(a) shows tangential and radial stresses at a middle point between two contour holes (point A in Fig. 11) along the excavation perimeter, and Fig. 10 (b) shows those at a location 20cm apart from the center contour hole.
12 9 6 3 0 -3 -6 -9 -12 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450
t angent ial radial

(a) At middle point between two contour holes


9
t ange nti al

radi al

stress (MPa)

-3

-6

-9 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450

time(mic rosec)

(b) 20cm apart from the center blast hole Fig. 10 Radial and tangential stresses induced by Contour Blasting In spite of attenuation with distance followed by stress wave propagation, it can be observed that both of the peak radial stress (compressive stress) and tangential stress (tensile stress) appear to be larger in the middle point than those at a location 20cm apart from the center contour hole. Consider the possibility of excavation using contour blasting. The peak tensile stress shown in Fig. 10 was 10MPa and it is larger than the static tensile strength of rock mass. Moreover, the peak value is found to be larger than the dynamic tensile strength considering loading rate of stress wave (cf. Fig. 5). So, it can be concluded that the drilling and charging pattern of contour holes used in this example problem is relatively reasonable. The degree of damage of remaining rock mass can also be assessed which is induced by either contour blasting or stoping blasting. The damage variable, Dv should be estimated from the field condition and deformation characteristics of rock mass. In this study, rock mass zones where the damage variable is beyond 0.3, that is, the deformation modulus is decreased over 30 % from the initial value, are considered to be damaged zones. The material constants are assumed as follows. The micro crack nucleation rate was assumed to be 7 1010 and the rate dependence factor to be 2. Critical strain rate, c where crack starts to initiate is estimated to be 0.0001 from the static tension strength. Fig. 11 shows strain with distance. Fig. 12 (a) shows strains induced by contour blasting and (b) shows those induced by stoping blasting. The strain rate,

stress (MPa)

time(microsec )

0.0004

40 cm 80 cm

which affects the degree of damage, was different at every point because of wave attenuation as wave propagates even though the rise time to peak stress is the same. In case of stoping blasting, the strain rate was 3.3 /sec at the point 10cm apart from the excavation perimeter and, in case of contour blasting, the strain rate was 2.5/sec at the point 120cm apart from the excavation perimeter. The region in which the damage variable calculated using Fig. 11 and Equation (14) exceeds 0.3 is extending up to 15cm apart from the excavation perimeter in case of contour blasting such as shown in Fig. 12. Damage zone in case of stoping blasting is extended up to 105cm such as shown in Fig. 13. It can be seen that the damage zone induced by stoping blasting is larger than that induced by contour blasting, which means that, in case of stoping blasting, the blasting pattern applied to the rock mass is not appropriate. So, it is required that the blasting pattern should be changed in order to decrease the damage zone caused by stoping blasting. This can be attained either by increasing the distance between excavation perimeter and99 stoping holes or by using explosives that cause smaller blast loads, or by decreasing diameter of the explosives.
0.0004
10 cm

0.0003 0.0002

120 cm

strain

0.0001 0.0000 -0.0001 -0.0002 -0.0003 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000

time(microsec)

7. REFERENCES Grady, D.E. & Kipp, M.E. 1980. Continuum modelling of explosive fracture in oil shale. Int. J. Rock. Mech. Min. Sci. & Geomech. :147-157. Henrych, J. 1979. The dynamics of explosion and its use. Elsevier Scientific Company. Kim, S.G. 2001. Quantitative assessment of blast waves and numerical approach for tun-

200

150

Dist ance fro m ex cavat io n perime ter( cm)

100

0.0003

20 cm 30 cm

50

0.0002

strain

0.0001

0.0000

-50

-0.0001

-100 0 50 100 150 200 250

-0.0002

-0.0003 0 100 200 300 400 500 600

time(microsec)

(a) Strains induced by contour blasting (b) Strains Induced by stoping blasting Fig. 11 Strains induced by blast wave propagation Fig. 12 Damage zone induced by contour blasting

Fig. 13 Damage Zone Induced by Stoping Blasting

nel blasting optimization. PhD Thesis, Korea Univ. Liu, L. & Katsabanis , P. D. 1997. Development of a continuum damage model for blasting analysis. Int. J. Rock. Min. Sci. 34(2). 217-231. Liu, L. & Katsabanis , P.D. 1997. A numerical study of the effects of accurate timing on rock fragmentation. Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci, 34(5); 817-835. Marsh, S.R. 1980. Last shock Hugoniot data. Univ. of California Press.

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Stagg, M.S. & Rholl, S.A. 1987. Effects on accurate delays on fragmentation for singlerow blasting in a 6.7-m bench. Proc. 2nd Int. Symp. Rock fragmentation and blasting: 210-223. Valliappan, S. & Wang, Y.C. 1994 Advances in computational mechanics applied to wave propagation problems. Computer Method and Advances in Geomechanics : 347~360. Valliappan, S. & Ang K.K. 1998. Finite element analysis of vibration induced by propitiating waves generated by tunnel blasting. Int. J. Rock Mech. Rock Eng.: 53-78. Zhao, J . 2 0 0 0. Applicability of MohrCoulomb and Hoek-Brown strength criteria

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00

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00 0 50 100 150 200 250

to the dynamic strength of brittle rock. Int. J. Rock. Min. Sci. 37(7): 1115-1121.

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