Ruairi McAloran HNC Electrical and Electronic Engineering MCA11074203

Task 1: The following terms are commonly used, in process industries, to describe the performance of measurement systems or elements of such systems. Briefly describe, in your own words, the meaning of each: a) Accuracy In the form of measurement, accuracy is the degree to which information matches the actual true value of the measurement. b) Error is defined as the difference between the result of a measurement and the actual true value of the measurement, the amount of deviation from a standard or specification. c) Repeatability- The ability to obtain consistent results when measuring the same part with the same measuring instrument

d) Precision - The degree to which an instrument will repeat the same measurement over a period of time. e) Linearity - The amount of error change throughout an instrument's measurement range. Linearity is also the amount of deviation from an instrument's ideal straight-line performance. f) Reliability - Reliability is the quality and consistency of a measurement. A test is considered reliable if the same results are found repeatedly, if a test is designed to measure a feature , then each time the test is administered to a subject, the results should be approximately the same. it is impossible to calculate reliability exactly, but it can be estimated in a number of different ways Test-Retest Reliability- To gauge test-retest reliability, the test is administered twice at two different points in time. Inter-rater Reliability- This type of reliability is assessed by having two or more independent judges score the test. Parallel-Forms Reliability- Parallel-forms reliability is gauged by comparing two different tests that were created using the same content Internal Consistency Reliability- This form of reliability is used to judge the consistency of results across items on the same test. g) Reproducibility - Reproducibility is the variability of the measurement system caused by differences in operator behaviour h) Sensitivity- Is the smallest change in a measurement that an instrument is capable of detecting

Ruairi McAloran HNC Electrical and Electronic Engineering MCA11074203

i) Resolution - The smallest change in a measured value that the instrument can detect. Resolution is also known as sensitivity. j) Range- The limit of measurement values that an instrument is capable of reading. The dimension being measured must fit inside this range.
k)

Zero drift- a gradual change in the scale zero of a measuring instrument such as a thermometer or a galvanometer. The change in instrument output over a stated time period of non recalibrated, continuous operation, when the initial input concentration is zero; usually expressed as a percentage of the full scale response.

l) Lag- Is the delay between the change of conditions and the indication of the change on an instrument. m) Hysteresis - The delay between the action and reaction of a measuring instrument. Hysteresis is the amount of error that results when this action occurs.

Task 2: Evaluate a range of sensors and transducers with reference to manufacturers terminology: LO1 (1.2) a) Transducers are devices that transform one form of energy in to another form. They can be used as input or outputs, i.e. telephone speaker, converts electrical signal into sound and vise versa. Sensors are products that use a transducer to provide an input signal to a receiving device. In special cases, a sensor and a transducer can be the same. e.g. a bi-metallic spring element can both detect temperature change, and may well be the entire sensor if a pointer is attached to the bi-metallic spring.

Ruairi McAloran HNC Electrical and Electronic Engineering MCA11074203

b) Strain gauge is a sensing device that changes resistance at their output terminals when stretched or compressed. They are typically bonded to the surface of a solid material to measure its minute dimensional changes when put into compression or tension. Strain gauges are often used in devices for measuring acceleration, pressure, tension, and force. Strain is a dimensionless unit, defined as a change in length per unit length. The advantages are that there is no moving part, essentially, and they can be small and inexpensive. The disadvantage is that they are non-linear, usually placed where it is really hard to get to once installed, and need to be calibrated.

Cross Section of a Typical Strain Gauge Pressure Sensor

Inductive Proximity sensor is a sensor able to detect the presence of nearby metallic objects without any physical contact. A proximity sensor often emits an electromagnetic or a beam of electromagnetic radiation (infrared) and looks for changes in the field or return signal. The object being sensed is often referred to as the proximity sensor's target. Advantages are they are very accurate and can work in harm environmental conditions. Disadvantages are it can only detect metallic targets and operation range maybe limited.

Ruairi McAloran HNC Electrical and Electronic Engineering MCA11074203

A TV antenna is a transducer where electromagnetic energy is transformed and reproduced in to electrical energy and vice versa. The antenna is specifically designed for the reception of over the air broadcast television signals, which are transmitted at frequencies from about 41 to 250 MHz in the VHF band, and 470 to 960 MHz in the UHF band. The main advantage of UHF transmission is the physically short wave that is produced by the high frequency. The size of transmission and reception antennas is related to the size of the radio wave. The UHF antenna is stubby and short. Smaller and less conspicuous antennas can be used with higher frequency bands. The major disadvantage of UHF is its limited broadcast range and reception, often called line-of-sight between the TV station's transmission antenna and customer's reception antenna

Hall Effect sensor is a transducer that varies its output voltage in response to a magnetic field. They are used for detecting metal objects that are among or within other metal objects. Advantages compared to other magnetic field sensing devices, Hall elements have the advantage of producing an output voltage that is independent of the rate of the detected field. When packed immune to dust, air, water where as capacitive sensor may get triggered by dust. Non contact operation so there is no wear and friction. Disadvantages are the primary limitation is distance, the Hall Effect sensor does not work well with distances of greater than 10 cm unless a magnet with a strong field is used. Temperature affects the electrical resistance of the element, so if a constant supply voltage is kept and the device heats up; the bias current will decrease with temperature.

Ruairi McAloran HNC Electrical and Electronic Engineering MCA11074203

Task 3: Using appropriate diagrams explain the construction and operation of modern sensors used to measure the following: a) Pressure There are different types of pressure sensors, one type uses a diaphragm and measures the pressure difference between the two sides of the diaphragm or the pressure acting on the diaphragm and gives the user a read out.

Another type is a piezo-resistive sensor; this consists of a micro-machined silicon diaphragm with piezo-resistive strain gauges diffused into it, fused to a silicon or glass back plate.

The resistors have a value of approx. 3.5 k Ohm. Pressure induced strain increases the value of the radial resistors (r), and decreases the value of the resistors (t) transverse to the radius. This resistance change can be high as 30%. The resistors are connected as a Wheatstone Bridge, the output of which is directly proportional to the pressure.

b) Level A level sensor is used to detect the level of substances that flow, including liquids, powders and slurries. Cost of level sensor 91.30 from RS Components

Ruairi McAloran HNC Electrical and Electronic Engineering MCA11074203

Temperature Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTD) are passive components that require an excitation current to produce an output signal. Their resistance varies in direct proportion to changes in temperature. The temperature-sensitive element is made of metal or a metal alloy, which gives them the positive temperature coefficient. A wire-wound RTD uses platinum wire wound around a ceramic or glass bobbin in one of two configurations: birdcage and helix. The birdcage winding construction keeps the platinum wire loose and lets it expand and contract freely with a change in temperature. In a sealed helix-constructed, wire-wound RTD, the bifilar winding is wound around the bobbin and then sealed with molten glass, ceramic cement, or another hightemperature, non-conductive coating. This construction helps protect the wire from vibration, but it is prone to long-term stress induced resistance change when the bobbin and platinum wire have different temperature coefficients of expansion.

The RTD temperature coefficient represents the sensors sensitivity to temperature change. The larger the temperature coefficient (), the larger the resistance change (R) in response to an ambient temperature change (T): R = Ro T, Where: = temperature coefficient, //C Ro = nominal sensor resistance at 0C, T = temperature change from 0C, C (a) Flow - A flow sensor is a device for sensing the rate of fluid flow. Typically a flow sensor is the sensing element used in a flow meter. As is true for all sensors, absolute accuracy of a measurement requires functionality for calibration.

Ruairi McAloran HNC Electrical and Electronic Engineering MCA11074203

There are various kinds of flow sensors, including some that have a vane that is pushed by the fluid, and can drive a rotary potentiometer or others which measure the transfer of heat caused by the moving medium. Flow meters are related to devices called velocimeters that measure velocity of fluids flowing through them. Laser-based interferometry is often used for air flow measurement, but for liquids, it is often easier to measure the flow.

Task 4: With reference to the sensors explained, in Task 3, describe typical practical applications. Use applications within your place of work, if appropriate. Pressure sensor: As a mechanic, I come across pressure sensors a lot. Cars use them for seat occupancy (to know if a person is sitting in the seat to active the airbags in an accident), fuel pressure sensing, to inform the ecu that the pressure is great enough to inject the fuel and in tire monitors to let the driver know if their tire is deflating.

Level: level sensors are placed in the expansion bottle in most vehicles which connects to the radiator, if the water gets low in the car a light and buzzer will sound inside the car to notify the driver that the water is low. There is also a level sensor inside the engine to sense if the oil level gets below an acceptable level.

Ruairi McAloran HNC Electrical and Electronic Engineering MCA11074203

Temperature: All cars have a temperature sensor connected to the cooling system. The temperature sensor sends the signal to the display in the dash and here the signal is converted into analogue and the driver can read the temperature on the gauge. It is also used when the car is cold, if the temperature is low enough the management system will switch the choke on to aid with starting.

Flow: Air flow meters have a flow sensor located in the middle of a plastic tube in the air box; it is used to send signals to the ecu about the quantity of air being taking in by the intake manifold. The ecu interprets the information and injects certain quantities of fuel according to the readings of the flow meter.

Task 5: Explain, in your own words, your understanding of: a) Signal conditioning: Signal conditioning is a device that converts one type of electronic signal into another type of signal. It is mainly use is to convert a signal that may be difficult to

Ruairi McAloran HNC Electrical and Electronic Engineering MCA11074203

read by conventional instrumentation (a raw input signal) into a more easily read format. Many applications require measurements, such as temperature and vibration, from sensors. These sensors, in turn, require signal conditioning before a data device can effectively and accurately measure the signal. Key signal conditioning technologies provide distinct enhancements to both the performance and accuracy of data systems. Signal conditioning provides more accurate sensor measurements. Table 1 provides a summary of common signal conditioning for different types of sensors and measurements.
Amplification Thermocouple Thermistor RTD Strain Gage Load, Pressure, Torque (mV/V) Load, Pressure, Torque (5 V, 10 V, 4-20 mA) Accelerometer Microphone Proximity Probe LVDT/RVDT High Voltage Attenuation Isolation Filtering Excitation Linearization CJC Bridge Completion

Table 1. Signal conditioning is recommended for sensor measurements. b) signal transmission: Is used for conveying the signal from the sensing element over some distance to the display. Signal transmission can be carried in various ways; there is analog transmission which is the transfer of a continuously varying analog signal or digital communication, which is the transfer of discrete messages. The messages are either represented by a sequence of pulses or by a limited set of continuously varying wave forms using a digital modulation method. Signals can also be sent via microwave i.e mobile phones or Radio frequency which is used to transmit video signals i.e television.

Ruairi McAloran HNC Electrical and Electronic Engineering MCA11074203

Ruairi McAloran HNC Electrical and Electronic Engineering MCA11074203

Appendix
http://www.google.co.uk/imgres?q=pressure+sensor&um=1&hl=en&safe=active&sa= N&tbm=isch&tbnid=_8nTMcYkqBlDxM:&imgrefurl=http://www.fwmurphy.co.uk/produ cts/prodtype_sensors_pressure.htm&docid=0tpHUlIeLO3qeM&imgurl=http://www.fw murphy.co.uk/images/76ps_pressure_switch.jpg&w=220&h=222&ei=qKIWT9TWBvP 24QTtwICGBA&zoom=1&biw=1024&bih=571&iact=rc&dur=312&sig=108806297120 220270133&page=1&tbnh=115&tbnw=112&start=0&ndsp=18&ved=1t:429,r:16,s:0&t x=49&ty=87 http://www.sensortips.com/category/zlevel/liquid-level/ http://er.jsc.nasa.gov/seh/l.html http://www.sensorland.com/HowPage004.html http://uk.rs-online.com/web/p/flow-sensors-switches-indicators/3956906/