EUROPEAN HORNET

CLASS
Insecta
ORDER
Hymenoptera
"'" CARD 41
Vespidae Vespa crabro
The hornet is the largest European social wasp. Each spring a
queen builds a nest and lays the first eggs. She tends the larvae
until workers hatch to share her parental duties.
CHARACTERISTICS
Length: Female, 1-1 ~ in. Workers
and males smaller.
Coloration: Brown thorax. Yellow
facial marks and abdominal bands.
BREEDING
Breeding season: May to October.
No. of eggs: 4-400, depending on
time of year.
Hatching time: 5 days.
Egg to flying insect: 4 weeks.
LIFESTYLE
Habit: Sociable and predatory. In
spring the queen starts colony,
which increases through the year.
Diet: Adult eats tree sap, nectar,
and fruit. Larva is fed insects.
lifespan: Workers and males die be-
fore winter. Females hibernate and
start colonies the next year.
RELATED SPECIES
The hornet is a member of the wasp
family Vespidae, which includes
yellow jackets.
Original range of the European hornet.
DISTRIBUTION
Found in Europe, the U.S.S.R., and as far east as western Mon-
golia. Introduced in North America and elsewhere.
CONSERVATION
Extermination and habitat loss caused populations to decline
earlier in this century. Numbers are rising with better manage-
I ment of old woodland and more awareness of the hornet's
~ d s . It is protected in Finland and Sweden.
FEATURES OF THE EUROPEAN HORNET
Wings: 2 sets. At rest, they are folded
lengthwise, with forewings concealing
hind wings. Both sets of wings are
connected, which makes flight
smooth. The female can move flight
muscles without moving wings. This
creates body heat that can be used to
warm the nest.
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EUROPEAN
HORNET
YelLOW
JACKET
The European hornet is 1 ~ times
the size of a yellow jacket, and its
markings tend to be brown rather
than black.
Eyes: Indentation in front edge
of compound eye gives it
kidney shape characteristic
of the family Vespidae.
Mandibles: Used to chew insects into
semiliquid food for larvae. Also used to
make wood into pulp mixed with saliva
-the material for building nests.
0160200511 PACKET 51
The European hornet needs a habitat of old woodland
that contains both healthy and dead or dying trees.
The queen usually makes her nest in a hollow tree, but
she sometimes uses a rock crevice or an abandoned
mouse nest instead. Throughout the summer the nest
becomes larger to accommodate hundreds of chambers,
or cells. Each chamber holds a single larva or egg.
~ lIFECYClE
The European hornet lives in a
society dominated by a single
female, or queen. In April the
queen chooses a nest site in an
enclosed space, usually in a hol-
low tree. She creates wood pulp
by mixing rotten wood and tree
bark with her saliva. Then she
fixes a layer of this pulp to the
ceiling of the space and forms
a stem from which the nest will
hang. A long chamber, or cell, is
attached to the stem, and other
cells are added to its sides. The
first eggs are glued to the cell
walls, with one egg in each cell.
A larva hatches from each
egg, anchored in its cell by a
strand of mucus. It molts three
times before becoming a pupa.
After a month, the first workers
emerge. The queen remains in
the nest from that point on,
while the workers find food for
themselves and the others in
the nest. By summer, the work-
ers have enlarged the nest to
house up to 400 larvae and eggs.
Toward the end of the season,
the workers produce larger cells,
where young queens and males
are reared. Whenever a young
queen leaves the nest, she is
seized by a male and mates.
As the weather gets colder,
both workers and larvae die.
Only queens survive the winter.
They remain dormant until the
warm weather returns, and the
cycle starts again.
~ DEFENSES
A hornet seldom stings any
animal unless its nest is dis-
turbed. Although many peo-
ple fear hornets, there have
been only 70 human deaths
from hornet stings over the
past 40 years. The sting is usu-
ally dangerous only to people
who are allergic to the ven-
om or who are stung on the
tongue or a major blood vessel.
Left: The hornet eats liquid food
only, but it kills other insects to feed
its larvae.
DID YOU KNOW?
The first worker hornets are
smaller than those that devel-
op later, because they are fed
and reared by the queen
without help.
A hornet that lacks a good
nest site may use a birdhouse.
In Germany and Great Britain
special hornet nest boxes are
now put up.
Hornet venom affects the
heart and blood vessels of
mammals. It reduces blood
pressure and prevents blood
from clotting. As a result, the
poison spreads rapidly.
Medical researchers have
recently become interested
in the venom and are trying
to find out if it can be used to
lower adrenaline levels.
Right: The queen scrapes wood
audibly when making pulp for
her nest.
A hornet nest can be 10 to
25 F hotter than the air out-
side. To warm the nest, hor-
nets place their heads in the
cell entrances increasing the
temperature with their body
heat. If the nest gets too hot,
they fan their wings at the
entrance to create a flow of
cool air.
[ "& NATUREWATCH
The best time to see the Euro-
pean hornet is from July to
September. The queen usually
finds a nest site by May, but it
takes a while before the addi-
tion of the hatched workers
makes the nest site obvious.
L You may find a nest in a hol-
~ FOOD &: FEEDING
The adult hornet eats only liq-
uid food, especially nectar and
tree sap. But it is also a preda-
tor, hunting insects like flies and
caterpillars to feed its larvae.
The hornet has excellent eye-
sight. It flies over an area of veg-
etation until it spots a suitable
insect such as a fly. It pounces
on its victim, carries it off, and
often removes its head, legs,
and wings, which have little
food value. It then chews the
abdomen and thorax (middle
body part) to a pulp that can
be eaten by the hornet larvae.
The hornet hunts all through
Left: The nest has few cells at the
start of the breeding season, but it
graws steadily.
low tree in mature woods. But
the hornets are likely to attack
if you disturb their nest or stand
in their flight path. If you find
a hornet nest under your roof,
ask a local wildlife society to
remove the nest and find an- I
other place for it.
the night, preying on slower-
moving moths as well as on
quick-moving insects that are
active during the day.
When the worker returns to
the nest with food, hungry
larvae attract its attention by
making rasping noises on their
cells. A larva stops calling for
food when its hunger is satis-
fied, and other larvae can then
be fed. In return for being fed,
the larvae produce droplets of
a carbohydrate-rich sweet liq-
uid that the adult hornet sucks
up. The hornet also obtains
energy from the sap of trees,
such as ash and maple, and
from a variety of flowers that
are sources of nectar.
'" CARD 42
MORPHO BUTTERFLY
" ~ _________________________ G_RO __ U_P_5:_I_N_S_EC_T_S_& __ SP_I_D_ER_S __ ~
CLASS
Insecta
ORDER
Lepidoptera
FAMILY
Nymphalidae
GENUS
Morpho
Morpho butterflies are among the largest butterflies in the world.
Their iridescent wings create flashes of bright color as they flit
through the trees of their rainforest habitat.
KEY FACTS
SIZE
Wingspan: 2-8 in.
BREEDING
Breeding season: Throughout
the year.
Eggs: Laid singly. Dome-shaped,
sometimes striped.
Egg to adult butterfly: 3-4
months.
LIFESTYLE
Habit: Males fly among treetops.
Females stay closer to the floor of
the forest.
Diet: Adults feed on rotting fruit
and sap. Larvae feed on plant
matter.
RELATED SPECIES
The subfamily Morphinae includes
three genera: Antirrhea, (aerois,
and Morpho. All are found in
Central and South America, but
the Amazon basin holds the great-
est number of species.
Range of morpho butterflies.
DISTRIBUTION
Morpho butterflies are found mainly in rainforest areas
throughout Central and South America.
CONSERVATION
Morpho butterflies are greatly threatened by the loss of their
habitat. They can be saved only through conservation of the
rainforest. There is some regulation of the commercial collect-
ing of butterflies. '
FEATURES OF MORPHO BUTTERFLIES
The males of nearly all the species
have brightly colored upper wings
with a metallic sheen. The colors
are produced by pigments and by
the scattering of sunlight by tiny
ridges on the scales.
MORPHO HECUBA
Found in the Amazon basin. With
a wingspan of up to 8 inches, it is
the largest morpho butterfly. Un-
like most other morphids, the
male has yellowish brown wings.
Morpho cypris: Found in
Colombia. The male is a
brilliant blue, and the female
is yellowish brown.
Scales: Wings are
covered 'with thousands
of tiny, overlapping scales.
There are more than 32,000 scales
per square inch of wing surface.
MCMXCI! IMP BV/ IMP INC WILDLIFE FACT FILET ... PRINTED IN U.S.A. 0160200531 PACKET 53
Female morpho butterflies are very dull in comparison
to the male butterflies, whose brilliantly colored wings
range from silvery white to vibrant blue. The wings'
shimmering iridescence is produced when rays of
"white" sunlight fall on the tiny, prismlike wing
scales. These rays of sunlight are split into
colored light in a process called refraction.
~ H A B I T A T
Morpho butterflies are found
mainly in the tropical forests of
South and Central America, at
elevations below 6,000 feet.
They are most abundant in the
Amazon basin, but among the
50 morpho species there are
exceptions. Some species oc-
cur in the high Andes Moun-
tains, while others live on the
lower western slopes or in arid
parts of Mexico.
The males and females are
active at different times of the
day and live in different parts of
the forest. Females stay in the
undergrowth in denser parts of
the forest. Males usually fly at a
higher level among the tree-
tops, descending only to drink
from rivers. Because of these
different habits and the male's
brighter coloring, male mor-
pho butterflies are seen more
often than females.
Right: The plump, hairy larvae of
morpho butterflies feed voraciously
on forest plants.
~ DEFENSES
The undersides of a morpho
butterfly's wings are usually
dull brown, often with patterns
that look like dead leaves. A
feeding butterfly holds its wings
upright and blends into its sur-
roundings. But when a male
flies off, he reveals the brightly
colored upper sides of his wings.
This contrast may be a defense
-the flash of color surprises
the predator, allowing the but-
terfly to escape.
Morpho species have differ-
ent flight patterns. With a wing-
span of nearly eight inches and
left: Usually bright blue, the upper
sides of the male's wings may also
be brown, red, or yellow.
DID YOU KNOW?
Male morpho butterflies are
prized by collectors. Some vil-
lage populations once sup-
ported themselves by hunting
and selling these butterflies.
The larvae of one morpho
species are attacked by tachi-
nid flies. The flies lay eggs on
leaves that are eaten by the
morpho larvae. The fly larvae
a small body, the largest mor-
pho species glides on air cur-
rents. Species with smaller
wings and larger bodies fly by
beating their wings up and
down. All species can change
instantly from a slow, steady
flight to wild, swooping move-
ments, allowing a quick, unex-
pected means of escape.
The larvae of some species se-
crete a fluid and comb it through
the hairs on the body. The exact
function of this fluid is unknown,
but it may make the larvae taste
bad to predators.
Right: The pattern and color of the
undersides of the morpho's wings
blend in with the forest's leaves.
hatch inside a morpho larva
and feed on its tissues. When
ready to pupate, the fly larvae
bore through the body wall
of the morpho larva.
Male morpho butterflies of-
ten chase each other, so col-
lectors take advantage of this
behavior by waving bright
blue scarves to lure specimens.
~ FOOD & FEEDING
Unlike other butterflies, morpho
butterflies do not feed on flower
nectar. Instead they suck the
juice from overripe or rotting
fruit. They also eat the sap from
damaged trees and vines. Most
species are solitary feeders, but
clouds of butterflies are some-
times seen feeding together.
The butterflies drink from riv-
~ lIFECYClE
Most female morpho butterflies
lay their dome-shaped eggs one
at a time. An emerging larva, or
caterpillar, is usually bright red
and yellow with a triangular
head covered with stiff hairs.
On the last segment of the
body is a two-pronged tail.
As a caterpillar grows, it
sheds its skin regularly. The
new skin stays soft for a few
hours to allow the caterpillar to
expand. Some morpho cater-
pillars molt up to seven times.
ers and streams in the forests.
Morpho larvae feed on a vari-
ety of plant material, depending
on location. Mimosa is popular
with a number of species. Some
of the food plants are toxic to
humans, but they do not seem
to harm the larvae or make
them unpalatable to birds that
prey on them.
In its final stage the caterpillar
spins silk to make a tough outer
covering. It enters the pupal, or
chrysalis, stage and hangs from
a branch by a silk thread.
Within the chrysalis the cater-
pillar's tissues are broken down
and reassembled into the tis-
sues of an adult butterfly. The
pupal case finally splits open,
and the butterfly emerges. It
hangs from the empty shell to
let its wings dry and expand.
Then it flies off to seek a mate.
LEAFCUTTER BEE
CLASS
Insecta
ORDER
Hymenoptera
FAMILY
Megachilidae
The female leaf cutter bee constructs an intricate nest that has a
separate cell for each of her offspring. Each cell is built from tiny
pieces of leaves that are glued together with saliva.
KEY FACTS
CHARACTERISTICS
Length: Female, 1 in. Male, slightly
smaller.
Coloration & form: Both male and
female are dark and sturdy. Similar
to the honeybee but darker and
with a more rounded abdomen.
Mouthparts: Sharp, scissorlike
action slices through leaves.
LIFESTYLE
Habit: Solitary.
Diet: Nectar and pollen.
Lifespan: Adult female, 2 months.
Adult male, 1 month.
RELATED SPECIES
There are over 1,000 species of leaf-
cutting bees worldwide. More than
100 of them occur in the United
States. Most of the known species
are found in the temperate zone,
but there must be thousands more
awaiting discovery in the tropical
rainforests of the world.
Range of the leafcutter bee.
~ ~ = = ~ ~ ~ ~ - - -
DISTRIBUTION
The leafcutter bee is found throughout the United States,
southern Canada, and northern Mexico. It is also found in
most of Europe and western Asia.
CONSERVATION
The leafcutter bee is in no danger at present, but modern farm-
ing methods have probably reduced its numbers.
FEATURES OF THE lEAFCUTTER BEE
Ja.ws: Powerful
and scissorlike
Eyes: Large and
compound, pro
viding good
hairier than the honeybee.
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Nest building: The leafcutter bee may cut
and discard many pieces of leaves while
building its nest. Nests consist of a col-
lection of individual cells, each built
from 15 to 20 oval pieces of leaves.
0160200631 PACKET 63
The leafcutter bee belongs to a group of bees known
as the "solitary bees." The leafcutter bee dies before its
young have hatched, but it leaves them well provided
for. The female lays each egg in a tiny cell that she fills
with a mixture of nectar and pollen. This food lasts until
the following spring, when the young bee emerges.
~ H A B I T S
The female leafcutter bee con-
structs a cigar-shaped nest in a
tiny hole in wood or sometimes
in the ground. The nest consists
of a line of thimble-shaped cells
-one cell for each offspring.
Each cell is made up of 15 to
20 pieces of leaves. Oval pieces
are used for the walls of the cells,
and round pieces are used for
the partitions. The bee glues the
leaves' edges together with sali-
va, which forms a cementlike
substance when it dries. The
leaves are so well glued togeth-
er that the entire nest can be
removed without falling apart.
The bee prefers soft, pliable
leaves and may discard several
leaves before finding a suitable
one. Groups of nests are often
found near rosebushes, since
rose leaves and petals are pop-
ular building materials.
~ lIFECYClE
The female leafcutter bee fills
each cell with pollen and with
nectar that she disgorges from
her "honey stomach" -an ex-
tension of her gut. She then lays
an egg, seals the cell, and has
nothing more to do with her
offspring. The food in the cell
lasts until the young adult bee
emerges the next spring.
The female determines the
sex of her young by withhold-
ing or releasing collected sperm,
which is stored after mating. Fe-
males are produced from fertil-
ized eggs laid in the cells on the
inside of the nest. Males are pro-
Left: The female leaf cutter bee
begins the process of nest build-
ing by gathering leaves.
Right: Each egg is laid in a sepa-
rate cell filled with a food supply
of pollen and nectar.
1010 YOU KNOW?
I -: Megachile rotundata, a leaf-
cutting bee found in Africa, is
a valuable pollinator of alfal-
fa, a crop grown as protein-
rich food for cattle.
The leafcutter bee's great-
est enemy is the cuckoo bee,
which tries to lay its eggs in
duced from unfertilized eggs
laid on the outside. In spring
t he males emerge first and
compete to mate with the
females who follow them.
The male dies soon after mat-
ing. The female lives a few weeks
longer to build the, nest. She
spends several hours building
each cell and filling it with food.
Right: The female uses a mixture of
chewed leaves and saliva to glue
her nest inside a hole.
t he leafcutter's nest. To pro-
tect its nest entrance, the
leafcutter covers it with hun-
dreds of pieces of leaves.
The mason bee, a relative
of the leafcutter, makes a
clay nest and decorates the
outside with pebbles.
~ NATUREWATCH
A leafcutter bee's nest is hard
to spot because it is covered
with pieces of leaves and has a
small opening. The nests are
easiest to find in spring, when
they are being built. They are
usually found near rosebushes.
~ FOOD &: FEEDING
The leafcutter bee feeds on the
pollen and nectar from various
flowers such as clover and rose.
The bee can see ultraviolet light
as a range of colors invisible to
the human eye. A flower that
looks white to humans contains
a wealth of patterns to a bee.
These patterns direct the bee to
Left: The leafcutter bee often trav-
els as far as one mile when search-
ing for food.
the nectar insidethe flower.
The leafcutter bee feeds at
great speed, often visiting up
to 25 flowers per minute. As it
eats, the pollen trapped on its
body pollinates the flower. The
female collects pollen on the
long, bristlelike hairs on her ab-
domen, and she stores nectar
in her honey stomach. She uses
the accumulated pollen and
nectar to fill the cells in her nest.
TSETSE FLY
CLASS
Insecta
ORDER
Diptera
GROUP 5: INSECTS & SPIDERS
FAMILY
Muscidae
GENUS
Glossina
Tsetse flies feed only on blood, and they carry deadly diseases as
a result. Despite many attempts to wipe them out, tsetse
flies thrive throughout tropical Africa.
______________________________
CHARACTERISTICS
Length: About y,; in.
Mouthparts: Piercing.
Wings: 1 pair of wings and 1 pair
of halteres, or "balancers."
BREEDING
Breeding season: Throughout
the year.
No. of young: 1 reared at a time,
with an average total of 12 pro-
duced during the 6-month lifespan
of each female.
LIFESTYLE
Habit: Solitary; parasitic.
Diet: Exclusively fresh blood ob-
tained from mammals, birds, and
reptiles.
RELATED SPECIES
There are 20 species of tsetse flies,
5 of which transmit sleeping sick-
ness. Close relatives include the
bloodsucking European stable fly
and the housefly.
FEATURES OF TSETSE FLIES
Wings: 1 pair of functioning wings
and 1 pair of halteres (balancers) . Fly
rests with wings folded on its back.
Range of tsetse flies.
DISTRIBUTION
Found throughout tropical Africa, south of the Sahara Desert
and north of the Kalahari Desert.
CONSERVATION
Numerous attempts to eradicate tsetse flies have been unsuc-
cessful. But new advances in control methods show promise of
limiting populations in the near future.
Larva: Female
gives birth to a
full-grown
larva. Larva
immediately
pupates in
soft sandy soil
and emerges as
an adult fly 30
days later.
Mouthparts: Slender, needlelike tube,
tipped wi th crown of microscopic
razor-sharp teeth. Can pierce thick
skin to reach a blood vessel.
,g' MCMXCl1 IMP BV/ IMP INC WILDLIFE FACT FILETM PRINTED IN U.S.A. 0160200561 PACKET 56
Tsetse flies have a highly sophisticated feeding technique
and an advanced breeding system. As a result, nearly all
of their offspring survive. Tsetse flies have resisted
every attempt to eradicate them, and they remain
one of the most dangerous insect pests.
HABITAT
Central Africa is infested by 20
species of tsetse flies, each of
which has its own habitat. One
disease-carrying species, Glos-
sina palpatis, lives in forests
along rivers and lakes. It feeds
mainly on the blood of croc-
odiles and swamp-dwelling
antelope, as well as the blood
of humans. When the forests
are cleared for farming, the fly
retreats into the remaining
trees and continues to plague
local people.
Glossina mortisans, another
disease carrier, occurs on the
savannas of eastern Africa. It
feeds on the blood of wilde-
beests, zebras, buffalo, and
other grazing herds. These
animals have become im-
mune to the disease the fly
carries, but they still act as
hosts to the disease organism.
SPECIAL ADAPTATIONS
Blood lacks several important
vitamins. But this is not a prob-
lem for tsetse flies because they
cultivate microscopic plants
within their bodies to supple-
ment the nutrients in their diet.
I Nourished by the blood tak-
a tsetse fly's gut, the
plants manufacture the miss-
ing vitamins and provide the
fly with a steady supply. Both
the plants and the fly benefit
from this arrangement, which
is also common among blood-
sucking parasites such as bed-
bugs and lice.
FOOD & FEEDING
Tsetse flies feed only on the
fresh blood of mammals, birds,
and reptiles. Their mouthparts
form a "drill" that can bore
through the thick skin of ani-
mals such as the crocodile. The
"drill" is basically a slender
tube tipped with microscopic
teeth. Powerful muscles make
the tube vibrate to rasp away
skin tissue. The tube is so deli-
Left: After feeding, tsetse flies clean
their delicate and highly efficient
mouthparts.
[ DID YOU KNOW?
The Europeans who ex-
plored tropical Africa in the
19th century had to travel on
foot because their horses and
mules died from sleeping
sickness carried by tsetse flies.
cate that a bite from a tsetse
fly is seldom felt.
A tsetse fly appears flat and
shriveled when it lands on its
host, but by the time it leaves
its abdomen is swollen with
blood. The fly rests after feed-
ing and excretes excess water
in order to reduce its weight.
One meal may be enough to
last the fly for several days.
Right: A tsetse fly's needle-sharp
bite is rarely felt unless it hits a
nerve in its victim.
Some farmers in areas that
are infested by tsetse flies
have stopped raising cattle.
Instead they raise native ani-
mals like the eland that are
immune to sleeping sickness.
TSETSE FLY & MAN
Tsetse flies are deadly because
they carry sleeping sickness.
This disease is caused by a
single-celled organism that
breeds in a tsetse fly's gut. The
fly injects the organisms into its
victim when it takes blood.
The cells multiply in the vic-
tim's bloodstream. Then they
invade the central nervous sys-
tem and cause drowsiness. If
the sufferer is bitten by another
tsetse fly, the disease is passed
on from one person to another.
The disease organisms may stay
in the bloodstream for years
before killing the host, or they
can prove fatal in a few months.

Most flies lay several hundred
eggs at a time and abandon
them to their fate. Usually most
of the offspring die before they
reach maturity.
Tsetse flies have evolved a
completely different breeding
system. Instead of producing
hundreds of offspring so that
a few will survive, the female
produces one at a time and
guards it with her life. Instead
of laying the egg, she hatches
it inside her body, and the leg-
less larva then grows inside her.
It breathes through two black
openings that protrude from
the female's birth canal. The
Left: The female gives birth to a
fully developed larva, which bur-
rows into the earth.
larva is nourished by a secre-
tion made from the blood that
its mother eats. It drinks this
"milk" from a nipplelike gland
inside the mother's abdomen.
The demands of the hungry
larva force the female to feed
more frequently than usual.
Birth is delayed until the lar-
va is fully grown. As soon as it
emerges, it burrows into the
earth, where it pupates and
is transformed into an adult.
Because it never feeds inde-
pendently as a larva, it is not
exposed to predators.
In her lifespan of about six
months, the female tsetse fly
produces only 12 young. But
their high survival rate makes
this process successful.
Left: A tsetse
fly's bite is
deadly to
humans and
wildlife. The
flies carry sleep-
ing sickness,
which kills
both humans
and livestock.
CARD 45
DOR BEETLE
GROUP S: INSECTS & SPIDERS
FAMILY GENUS &: SPECIES
,,'--------
CLASS ORDER
Insecta Coleoptera Geotrupidae Geotrupes stercorarius
The dor beetle is one of thousands of species of dung beetle.
These creatures do the world a service by burying and
recycling the dung of grazing animals.
KEY FACTS
CHARACTERISTICS
Length: ~ - l in.
Wings: 1 pair, plus 1 pair of elytra
(wing covers).
Legs: 6.
Mouthparts: Biting.
Coloration: Glossy black.
LIFESTYLE
Habit: Lives alone or in pairs.
Diet: Animal dung and other rot-
ting organic matter.
Lifespan: Average, 18 months.
BREEDING
Sexual maturity: 1 year.
Breeding season: Early summer.
No. of eggs: 3-6 per burrow.
Larval development: 9 months.
RELATED SPECIES
Other dor beetles of the genus
Geotrupes are found throughout
North America, Eurasia, and Africa.
The family Geotrupidae is closely
related to the scarab beetles of the
family Scarabaeidae.
Range of the dor beetle.
DISTRIBUTION
The dor beetle is found in northern and central Europe, east
into central Asia.
CONSERVATION
The insecticides injected into cattle to kill parasites can make
cattle droppings poisonous to dor and dung beetles. In gen-
eral, however, the beetles are flourishing wherever grazing ani-
mals are numerous.
FEATURES OF THE DOR BEETLE
Mouthparts: Biting.
Front legs:
Rakelike. Used
for digging and
burying dung.
MCMXCVI IMP BV/ IMP INC. WILDLIFE FACT FILETM
Antennae: Each ends in a club
made up of several flaps that
can be opened like a fan to
increase the sensitive area.
HOW THE DOR BEETLE
The dor beetle rolls a ball of dung
over the ground by walking back-
ward on its forelegs and push-
ing the ball with its hind legs,
like a tiny living wheelbarrow.
Coloration: Glossy black edged with irides-
cent blue and green at the edges. Metallic
blue or green underneath.
PRINTED IN U.S.A. US P 6001 12 073 PACKET 73
Dor and other dung beetles have developed the ability to
exploit the waste products of a variety of animals. As a
result these beetles have an abundant food supply that
is always available. This makes them some of the most
successful and widespread insects in the world.
~ HABITS
The dor beetle is a common
but rarely seen inhabitant of
grasslands and open wood-
lands. It lives wherever there
are enough grazing animals
such as cattle and deer to gen-
erate a good supply of dung,
its favorite food.
The dor beetle is one of sev-
eral species of dung beetle.
Each species concentrates on
the dung of a particular type of
grazing animal. Rabbits, sheep,
cattle, and horses all have their
attendant dung beetle to bury
and reprocess their dung as fast
as it accumulates.
The beetles tend to collect
and bury far more dung than
they use. In doing so, they per-
form a valuable service, return-
ing nitrates and various other
nutrients to the soil, where
they can then be absorbed
by the roots of plants.
Right: A dung beetle uses its hind
legs in order to push a ball of dung
over the ground.
~ ENEMIES
Slow and shiny, dor beetles are
easily caught by insect-eating
birds and mammals. The bee-
tles are preyed upon by crows,
hedgehogs, moles, and foxes.
A more insidious enemy of the
~ LlFECYClE
The lifecycle of the dor beetle
involves four stages: egg, larva
(or grub), pupa (the transitional
stage between larva and adult),
and adult.
The female digs a burrow un-
der a heap of dung. The burrow
is up to two feet deep and has
three or four chambers for eggs.
The male drags pieces of dung
to his mate, which she rolls into
balls. She places one ball in each
Left: Dor beetles can be identified
by their glossy shells and their me-
tallic sheen.
DID YOU KNOW?
Australian dung beetles can
only deal with the dung of
native mammals. African
dung beetles were imported
to clear the dung of intro-
duced African cattle.
dung beetle is a tiny mite. It
slips its needlelike mouthparts
between the plates of the bee-
tle's armor and sucks its blood.
One beetle may be infested by
several mites.
chamber, then lays an egg on
top of the ball and covers it
with dung, leaving an air hole.
The larva hatches in summer
and feeds on the dung until it
hibernates. In spring it wakes up
and eats the dung until it be-
comes a pupa. In early summer
it emerges from the burrow as a
beetle. When winter arrives it
hibernates again, this time as an
adult beetle.
Right: Although the larvae have
three pairs of well-developed legs,
they move as little as possible.
The European dor beetle is
related to the sacred scarab
beetle depicted in the jewelry
of ancient Egypt. The scarab
beetle is found throughout
the Mediterranean region.
[--21 NATUREWATCH
Although species of dor and
dung beetles vary, most are
black on top and metallic
green or blue underneath.
A dor beetle can be found
~ FOOD & FEEDING
Decomposing carcasses and
rotting fungi are all food for the
dor beetle. But this insect feeds
primarily on the dung of graz-
ing mammals.
Since dung is basically mate-
rial that has been rejected by
another animal's digestive sys-
tem, it might seem to be a poor
source of nutrition. But a grass-
eating animal makes poor use
of its food, and large amounts
of what it eats passes through
its body almost undigested. In
Left: Dung bee-
tles cut chunks
of fresh dung
with their ser-
rated front legs.
Then they roll
the dung into
small balls.
by using a stick to break open
cow dung in a pasture. Since
dor beetles prefer well-aged
dung, they are rarely found in
fresh droppings.
the process, the food is ground
up and mixed with digestive
juices, plus large quantities of
bacteria that live in the animal's
intestine and help break down
tough plant matter. As a result,
dung is actually rich in nutrients
that have been partially pro-
cessed. It is an easy source of
food for any creature that does
not mind the taste. The dor
beetle is attracted to the smell
of dung and other rotting sub-
stances that make up its diet.
LARGE WHITE BUTTERFL V
CLASS
Insecta
ORDER
Lepidoptera
GROUP 5: INSECTS &: SPIDERS
FAMILY
Pieridae
GENUS & SPECIES
Pieris brassicae
The large white butterfly is one of Europe ~ most common
butterflies. This species is considered a pest by farmers because
the caterpillars feed on the leaves of cabbage plants.
KEY FACTS
SIZES
Adult wingspan: 2-2%; in.
Larva: Up to 2 in. long.
BREEDING
Mating: Usually 2 generations pro-
duced each year. More in southern
parts of range.
Eggs: 50-100.
Hatching time: 1 0- 1 5 days.
Larva to pupa: About 20 days.
Pupa to butterfly: About 20 days
or over winter.
LIFESTYLE
Habit: Day-active; often migratory.
Diet: Larva eats leaves of the cab-
bage and nasturtium families. Adult
feeds on nectar.
Adult lifespan: Usually 2-3 months.
RELATED SPECIES
The closest relative is the small white
butterfly, Pieris rapae, which is native
to Europe, Asia, and North Africa.
LlFECYCLE OF THE LARGE
Adult butterfly: The female has dark wing-
tips and spots. The male is slightly small -
er and does not have spots. Butterf lies
from the second brood of the year
have darker markings.

Range of the large white butterfly.
DISTRIBUTION
Found in Great Britain and southern Scandinavia, across Europe
to North Africa and Asia, as far as the southern Himalayas.
CONSERVATION
The large white butterfly is very common. Considered a pest to
crops, its population has declined during the past 50 years due
to increasing use of insecticides.
Egg: Yel low and bullet-shaped. Laid
in clusters of 50 to 100 on the under-
sides of leaves of the cabbage or nas-
turtium families. The eggs become
darker yellow as they f!1ature.
SMALL WHITE BUTTERFLY
Female's forewings have black
tips. Males have one black
spot , while females have two.
, I
. .
,., .,' J' : ; :
Larva: Pale yellowish green, mottled
with black. Found on leaves of
the cabbage and nasturtium
families, where it feeds until it
is ready to pupate.
Bright green larva conceals
itself in the center leaves of
plants. Lacks the unpleasant
smell of the large white
butterfly's larva.
..,.1,
. ' .. '
.. ", ..
" .
~ t t'
<tv MCMXCII IMP BV/IMP INC WILDLIFE FACT FILETM PRINTED IN U.S.A.
Chrysalis: Pale green or brown silk cas-
ing with black markings. Usually attached
by a fine silken thread in a sheltered posi-
tion on a twig or fence or in a dry shed.
0160200661 PACKET 66
The female large white butterfly poses a serious problem for
farmers because she lays her eggs on plants of the cabbage
and nasturtium families. When the caterpillar hatches from
the egg, it chews the leaves of these plants for about 20
days. At that point it is ready to change into a pupa and
begin its transformation into an adult butterfly. By then,
however, the damage to the plants has already been done.
lIFECYCLE
The larva, or caterpillar, of the
large white butterfly hatches
from its egg by eating the shell.
It then feeds on the leaves of
plants in the cabbage and nas-
turtium families. After about 20
days, when the caterpillar is fully
grown, it crawls onto a twig or
fence post and changes into a
pupa. The pupa is yellowish
green with dark blotches--col-
oration that provides camou-
NATUREWATCH
The large white butterfly has
black markings on its white
wings. It is most often found
in cabbage fields, where the
flage. Encased in a silken cover-
ing, or chrysalis, it is attached to
its support by a fine thread. In-
side the pupa, the tissues of the
body break down and reform as
an adult butterfly.
The adult emerges from the
chrysalis in about 20 days and
lives for two to three months.
Right: The female large white but-
terfly lays her eggs on the under-
side of a cabbage leaf.
females lay their eggs. The
caterpillars can be found on
the outer leaves of cabbages
and related plants.
FOOD &: FEEDING
The caterpillar of the large white
butterfly feeds on the leaves of
plants in the cabbage and nas-
turtium families. From the mo-
ment it hatches until it becomes
a pupa, it eats constantly. Usu-
ally a group of caterpillars feed
together, stripping leaves down
to the stalk with their strong
jaws. The caterpillar's unpleas-
ant smell and bold pattern tend
Left: The large white drums on a
flower with its legs, "tasting" with
its receptors before feeding.
I DID YOU KNOW?
Migrating large white but-
terflies have been seen in the
Himalayas as high as 12,000
feet above sea level.
When it is threatened by a
predator, the caterpillar of the
large white butterfly may drop
to the ground and then curl
the ends of its body inward in
order to protect itself.
to keep predators away, so it
often feeds on exposed leaves,
where it is easily seen.
The adult butterfly feeds on
the nectar of flowers, using re-
ceptors on its feet to locate a
suitable flower. The insect un-
coils its long, tubelike mouth-
part, or proboscis, and inserts it
into the flower's center, using it
like a straw to suck up nectar.
Right: The adult large white but-
terfly feeds on nectar from a wide
variety of flowers.
One of the main enemies
of the caterpillar is a parasitic
wasp that pierces the caterpil-
lar's body and lays its eggs
inside. Tiny grubs hatch from
these eggs and feed on the
caterpillar's body until they
are fully grown. Then they
gnaw their way out, leaving
the dead caterpillar behind.

The large white butterfly is so
numerous that the male does
not have to travel far to find a
mate. He can usually just spot a
female, but she also secretes a
scent called a pheromone that
he can sense over 300 feet away.
After her eggs are fertilized, the
female searches for a leaf of the
cabbage or nasturtium families
on which to lay her eggs. To de-
termine if a leaf is suitable, she

In midsummer, swarms of large
white butterflies fly south from
the Baltic over Germany, Austria,
and Switzerland. Some turn west
to summer in Great Britain; oth-
ers fly to Malta. In September,
Left: After hatch-
ing, the larvae of
the large white
feed on cabbage
leaves. The very
strong flavor of
the leaves gives
the larvae an
unpleasant odor,
which helps them
stay together
and also deters
predators.
drums on it with her forelegs to
bring out its smell . The plants
that the female seeks are rich in
mustard oil, which attracts the
large white but repels many oth-
er insects. The leaves' green col-
or also attracts the butterfly.
The female then lays a cluster
of 50 to 100 tiny yellow, bullet-
shaped eggs on the underside
of her chosen leaf. The eggs
hatch in 10 to 15 days.
some swarms reach Israel, where
they breed for a few generations.
In India, large whites leave the
Ganges Valley in hot weather
and fly into the Himalayas, re-
turning south when it is cooler.
LEAFHOPPER
CLASS
Insecta
ORDER
Heteroptera
GROUP 5: INSECTS & SPIDERS
SUBORDER
Homoptera
FAMILY
Cicadellidae
Leafhoppers are small, often brightly colored insects. They damage
plants by drinking the sap and laying their eggs in the shoots.
They also carry diseases from one plant to another.
KEY FACTS
~ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ~
CHARACTERISTICS
Length: Usually under ~ in., but
some up to % in.
Wings: 2 pairs.
Eyes: Compound, small.
Color: Often green to provide
camouflage on leaves. Some
species are brightly colored.
BREEDING
Breeding season: Late summer.
Eggs: Inserted into plant tissues
in small batches.
Hatching time: Varies depending
on temperature; in some cases
over winter.
LIFESTYLE
Habit: Lives in large groups.
Diet: Sap of various plants.
Lifespan: Less than 1 year.
RELATED SPECIES
The family Cicadellidae contains
more than 15,000 species of leaf-
hopper. At least 2,500 species are
found in North America.
FEATURES OF LEAFHOPPERS
The illustration shows the species Graphocepha/a
coccinea, found in the eastern United States.
Wings: 2 pairs. Forewings are mem-
branous at the tips and thickened at
the base. Hind wings are very thin.
Range of leafhoppers.
DISTRIBUTION
Leafhoppers are found throughout the world in both tropical
and temperate regions, wherever there is enough vegetation
on which to feed.
CONSERVATION
In the tropics, many species are considered agricultural pests
because they weaken plants and spread disease. Despite con-
trol measures, all species remain common.
Coloring: Varies greatly between
different species and between the
sexes of each species.
Mouthparts: 2 pairs
of thin threads, or
sty/ets. Outer sty-
lets are tipped with
sharp teeth for pierc-
ing plants. Inner
stylets form food
and salivary
ducts.
MCMXCII IMP BV/IMP INC WILDLIFE FACT FILET" PRINTED IN U.S.A. 0160200721 PACKET 72
With over 15, 000 species, leafhoppers are among the
most numerous and successful insects in the world. They
are found in temperate and tropical regions throughout
the world, gathering in large numbers wherever there are
suitable plants for them to feed on. Some leafhoppers in
the tropics badly damage agricultural crops. But in other
areas these insects tend to feed mainly on wild plants.
~ LlFECYClE
Leafhoppers are closely related
to cicadas, insects known for
their loud "song." About 50
years ago experts realized that
leafhoppers also "sing." But the
sound is too low and soft to
travel through the air. Instead,
it travels through the tissues of
the plants on which leafhoppers
feed. Like the cicada's song, its
function is to attract a mate.
In some species, the female
attracts a male by generating a
series of pulses. The male replies
in a more elaborate fashion, and
if all goes well, they mate. The
fertilized female then lays her
eggs inside a food plant, inject-
ing them into the tissues with
her ovipositor-a bladelike ap-
pendage on her abdomen. The
eggs are left to develop during
the winter.
A leafhopper has a simple life-
cycle. It hatches as a wingless
miniature form of its parents
and almost immediately begins
feeding. There is no larval stage.
A leafhopper simply gets bigger
as it feeds. It sheds its hard out-
er cuticle several times before
reaching winged maturity and
mating. A leafhopper lives less
than a year. The adults die off
with the onset of winter, leav-
ing the dormant eggs, which
will produce a new generation
the following spring.
~ CHARACTERISTICS
With well over 15,000 species
found throughout the world,
leafhoppers form one of the
largest families of insects.
These agile insects are able to
run sideways and to leap great
distances. They also fly well, on
long wings that are usually held
arched over the body. Many
species are small, slender, and
brightly colored. The rhododen-
dron leafhopper, for example,
Left: This multicolored species of
leafhopper is found in certain parts
of Australia.
DID YOU KNOW?
The leafhoppers that carry
potato viruses are less com-
mon in northern locations.
For this reason, most "seed"
potatoes for planting come
from areas like Scotland.
Leafhoppers are attracted
to light. In India large swarms
of green rice leafhoppers die
under street lamps, are swept
is a mixture of turquoise-green
and bright orange-red.
Leafhoppers do not look like
their relatives, the aphids. But
they share the aphids' habit of
gathering in huge numbers to
drink the juices of plants.
Each leafhopper species has a
favorite food plant. As a result,
each species can be identified
with the particular plant around
which it is almost always found.
Right: Ants tend young leafhop-
pers and feed on the honeydew
that they produce.
up, and sold as bird food.
The mating call of leafhop-
pers is a series of clicks gener-
ated by special muscles that
buckle the insect's hard out-
er skeleton.
Some North American leaf-
hopper species migrate hun-
dreds of miles in order to find
food during summer. ----.-J
I ",J NATUREWATCH
Leafhoppers are most numer-
ous in summer, and they infest
most plant species. Brushing
the foliage may dislodge the
insects, and they fall to the
ground, fly off, or leap away.
Plant sap is rich in sugar but
poor in other vital nutrients, so
~ FOOD & FEEDING
Leafhoppers feed exclusively on
the sap of plants, such as apple
trees, rosebushes, sugar beets,
and potato plants.
The mouthparts of a leafhop-
per consist of four stylets that fit
together to form a hollow nee-
dle with two internal channels.
The insect slips the sharp point
into the plant and injects a little
saliva into one of the channels.
The fluid pressure within the
plant forces sap to rise up the
other channel and into the in-
sect's stomach.
The saliva keeps the sap fluid
Left: Because sap oozes naturally
from a pierced plant a leafhopper
does not need to suck actively.
a leafhopper may have to in-
gest large quantities of sap in
order to get enough protein
and vitamins. The insect then
excretes the surplus sugar and
water, or "honeydew." This is
the sticky substance that is of-
ten on plant leaves and stems.
and initiates the digestive pro-
cess. The saliva can also harbor
disease organisms. Several leaf-
hopper species carry plant vi-
ruses, which they take in with
the sap and then transfer to oth-
er plants. One species, the Asian
green rice leafhopper, can dev-
astate entire paddy fields with
a rice virus.
Even when there is no disease
involved, a flourishing popula-
tion of leafhoppers can destroy
crops by draining sap from the
foliage. The leaves become cov-
ered with speckles. In addition,
pale blotches mark each feed-
ing site. A badly infested plant
will wither and eventually die.
"'CARD 48
PURPLE EMPEROR
, , - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ~
CLASS
Insecta
ORDER
Lepidoptera Nympha/idae Apatura iris
The purple emperor is an elusive forest butterfly that is extremely
difficult to spot. It flits high among the tops of oak trees,
swooping down occasionally to drink at ground level.
KEY FACTS
CHARACTERISTICS
Wings: 2 pairs.
Wingspan: About 2 in.
Mouthparts: Caterpillar has a pair
of chewing jaws. Adult has a long,
coiled, sucking proboscis.
BREEDING
Eggs: Laid singly, usually on sal-
low leaves.
Hatching to pupation: 8 months
(including winter dormancy).
Pupa to adult: 2-3 weeks.
LIFESTYLE
Habit: Flies by day, usually high up
in the tree canopy.
Diet: Caterpillar eats sallow, wil-
low, or aspen foliage. Adult drinks
nectar or rotting matter.
Lifespan: Adult, 2-3 months.
RELATED SPECIES
This species' closest relatives are
the lesser purple emperor, Apatura
ilia, and Freyer's purple emperor,
A. metis.
Range of the purple emperor.
DISTRIBUTION
The purple emperor is found in southern Great Britain, central
Europe, and throughout much of temperate Asia as far east as
China and Korea.
CONSERVATION
Destruction of its broad-leaved forest habitat has made the
purple emperor rare in many parts of its range. However, it
is not considered an endangered species.
FEATURES OF THE PURPLE EMPEROR
Wings: 2 pairs, covered in scales. Held
tightly together and vertically to the body
when at rest.
MCMXCIV IMP BV/IMP INC WILDLIFE FACT FILpM
Antennae: Tipped
with highly sensitive
nerve receptors
that are used to
"smell" the air.
Body: A dense cov-
ering of tiny, bristle-
, like hairs gives the
butterfly a velvety
appearance, and
this makes it less
attractive to po-
tential predators.
Coloration: The blue-violet iridescent sheen of the
male does not come from pigments. It is created
by the scattering of light from finely ridged scales
on the wings. This iridescence is visible only from
certain angles and appears to flash on and off. It
is used to attract females and repel rival males.
Beneath this iridescence is a blackish brown pig-
ment. The female's wings lack the purple sheen,
so she is much less conspicuous than the male.
PRINTED IN U.S.A. US P 6001 12068 PACKET 68
The male purple emperor is one of the most beautiful
butterflies in the world. As a result, it has been hunted
extensively by collectors. Unlike many brightly colored
butterflies, this species is not toxic and is eaten by birds.
Moreover., its forest habitat is rapidly dwindling. All of
these factors have made the purple emperor butterfly
increasingly rare throughout much of its range.
~ HABITS
The purple emperor butterfly is
an elusive and uncommon crea-
ture. It spends almost all of its
time high above the ground,
among the upper branches of
large forest oak trees.
The male is highly territorial.
He stakes a claim on an oak
branch and tries to defend up
to 1,000 square feet of air space
against neighboring rival males.
The females are attracted to the
most successful of these rivals,
so they also spend a great deal
of their time in the treetops.
To maintain such an active
lifestyle, the butterfly requires
energy-rich food. The adult re-
lies on liquid foods such as nec-
tar, which it gets by descending
into woodland meadows in the
morning to raid the flowers. By
midday it is back up in the tree
canopy. But occasionally an in-
dividual is seen swooping across
a clearing during the day, alter-
nating long glides with rapid
flapping to regain height.
Right: The caterpillar's green color-
ing camouflages it on a leaf.
~ FOOD &: FEEDING
When feeding, the purple em-
peror caterpillar uses its power-
ful jaws to chew through the
foliage of sallow and willow
trees. By contrast, the adult but-
terfly uncoils its proboscis (long,
coiled tongue) and uses it like a
drinking straw to suck up liquid.
The butterfly needs energy-
rich food as "fuel" for its treetop
flights. It gets this high-energy
food in the form of flower nec-
tar, which is basically a solution
of sugars and fragrant oils in
water. But the butterfly also
obtains food from other places.
Left: Scales on the wings of the
male purple emperor produce a
scent that excites the female.
DID YOU KNOW?
Some early collectors tried
to catch purple emperors in
trees by using nets on poles
up to 30 feet long. Others
tried to lure the butterflies
down with rotting corpses.
The smell of gasoline may
attract the purple emperor, as
may the smell of tar, manure,
and human sweat.
Rotting fruit, a decomposing
carcass, or even a pile of excre-
ment provides the purple em-
peror with rich nutrients that
may not all be available from
flower nectar.
The natural processes of de-
cay reduce such organic matter
to a nourishing liquid that the
butterfly can suck up. A highly
decomposed corpse may attract
several purple emperors, caus-
ing them to descend from the
treetops. This fact was known to
early collectors, who waited to
capture the butterflies.
Right: When not in use, the pro-
boscis is coiled and tucked under
the purple emperor's head.
Like all butterflies in its fami-
ly, the purple emperor walks
on only four of its six legs. The
front, unused pair is held tight
under its body.
The caterpillar hibernates on
bark, where it changes from
green to brown. It changes
back to green when it returns
to the leaves to feed.
I NATUREWATCH
The destruction of large areas appear as just a purple flash in
of woodland is one reason why the flowers in a clearing.
the purple emperor is so rare. The purple emperor can oc-
In some parts of its range, this casionally be seen drinking at
butterfly is found only in small muddy puddles. Or it may be
patches of forest and may be found feeding on animal drop-
spotted only in early mornings pings beside prominent land-
during July and August. It may marks, such as tree stumps.
~ LlFECYCLE
The female purple emperor lays
her eggs in late summer. She
attaches each one to a sallow,
willow, or aspen leaf. The newly
hatched caterpillars are green
with round black heads. But in a
few days each caterpillar sheds
its skin and emerges with two
"horns" on its head. It spends
the winter clinging to a silken
pad spun on the fork of a twig
and hibernates until spring.
It then starts to feed again,
molting twice more before turn-
ing into a pupa-the stage be-
tween caterpillar and butterfly.
The transformation takes two to
three weeks, and the buttertly
emerges in early summer. By
mid-September it has laid its
eggs and died.
Left: Eggs are laid singly on food
plant leaves, usually in September.
GREAT GREEN
BUSH CRICKET
CLASS
Insecta
ORDER
Orthoptera
CARD 49
GROUP 5: INSECTS & SPIDERS
FAMILY
Tettigoniidae
GENUS & SPECIES
Tettigonia viridissimo
The great green bush cricket lives up to its name by being quite
large and bright green. It is unpopular with farmers because it
gathers in large numbers and causes extensive damage to crops.
KEY FACTS
CHARACTERISTICS
Body length: 1 ~ - 2 in. Male slight-
ly larger than female.
Wing length: About 1 ~ in.
Coloration: Bright green.
BREEDING
Breeding season: From July to
September.
No. of eggs: About 100, laid indi-
vidually in the ground. ~ in. long;
dark gray.
Lifecycle: Nymphs hatch in early
spring. Adults mate in summer and
die in November.
LIFESTYLE
Habit: Active by day and night.
Diet: Grasses, buds, leaves, fruit,
and insects.
Lifespan: About 6 months.
RELATED SPECIES
Close relatives include the upland
green bush cricket, Tettigonia can-
tons, and the eastern green bush
cricket, T. candata.
Range of the great green bush cricket.
DISTRIBUTION
Found throughout the southern part of Great Britain, most of
Europe, and North Africa.
CONSERVATION
Although the great green bush cricket has suffered from the
loss of its wild habitats, its numbers are still stable in most of its
range. It has adapted well and can frequently be found living
in heavily farmed areas.
FEATURES OF THE GREAT GREEN BUSH CRICKET
Structure: Body is divided into 3 main
segments: head, thorax, and abdomen.
The cricket has no backbone. It relies in-
stead on a hard external skeleton. The
large forewings form a protective case
for the delicate hind wings when the in-
sect is not flying.
Ovipositor:
Present only on
the female. This
hard abdominal
organ enables her
to deposit the fer-
tilized eggs deep
in the ground.
along the ab-
domen are for
breathing.
MCMXCVI IMP BV/IMP INC. WILDLIFE FACT FILETM
Male: Has a tiny
pair of cerci
(claspers) that
are used to grip
the female when
mating.
PRINTED IN U.S.A.
Antennae: Principal
sensory organs, which
may be longer than the
body. The greater length
helps to distinguish this
and other crickets from
true grasshoppers.
US P 6001 12 075 PACKET 75
The great green bush cricket is also known as the great
green grasshopper-even though it is not a grasshopper
at all. Unlike many of its smaller relatives, this cricket does
not jump or hop. Instead, it runs or flies from one plant to
another when it is searching for food. During the summer
months, the undergrowth comes alive with the male's loud
and distinctive song, which he uses to attract a mate.
~ H A B I T A T
Because the great green bush
cricket is easily disturbed, it gen-
erally lives in areas of untouched
vegetation. Such habitats usual-
ly contain coarse plants like this-
tles. The ground cover provides
the cricket with food and pro-
tects it from birds of prey.
The cricket is also found on
unused land around cities, rail-
way embankments, and river
valleys, as well as on the warm
slopes of chalk and limestone
hills. It prefers a warm, temper-
ate climate, but it can cope with
rough weather conditions in the
wilder parts of its habitat, such
as coastal cliff tops.
[ ~ SPECIAL ADAPTATIONS
The male great green bush
cricket produces his loud song
by rubbing his forewings over
each other.
There is a tooth-bearing rib
on the underside of the left
forewing and a small depres-
sion, called the mirror, on the
inside edge of the right fore-
wing. The mirror is covered
with a membrane (thin skin).
By rubbing the membrane
and rib together, the cricket
amplifies the sound.
~ FOOD &: FEEDING
The great green bush cricket is
most active in the late afternoon
and evening, when it searches
for food. Its diet is broad and
varies according to what is avail-
able. It feeds on buds, grasses,
. fruit, shrubs, and leaves, as well
as many small insects.
Using sensory organs on its
long antennae, the cricket iden-
tifies edible material. Then, with
Left: A male great green bush crick-
et has claspers at the tip of his ab-
domen, which are used in mating.
its simple two-piece mouth-
parts, it tears the food into di-
gestible pieces before swallow-
ing it.
Because of its huge, adaptable
appetite, the great green bush
cricket is considered a pest by
farmers. This creature tends to
gather in large swarms, which
can destroy grain crops in short
periods of time.
Right: Some crickets feed only on
other insects, but this species also
eats many plants.
Left: During
the summer,
the female
great green
bush cricket
lays her eggs.
Inserting her
ovipositor deep
in the ground.
she deposits the
eggs in a crev-
ice. The eggs
remain buried
all winter.
DID YOU KNOW?
When a great green bush
cricket is caught by a preda-
tor, it may shed the limb that
the attacker is holding. This
practice is very similar to the
tail-shedding escape tactics
employed by lizards.
According to Italian legend,
if a mother catches a great
~ LlFECYClE
The great green bush cricket
mates between July and Sep-
tember. The male engages in
frenzied activity as he sings to
attract a mate. When he finds a
partner, the pair then moves in-
to position for mating. The male
grips the female tightly with his
legs as he transfers a tiny pack-
age of sperm directly into her
genital opening.
After a few days, the female
begins to lay her fertilized eggs.
They are transferred from her
abdomen by way of the oviposi-
tor-a sword-shaped organ that
she inserts deep into a crevice in
Left: The juvenile great green bush
cricket looks like a small version of
its parents.
green bush cricket in the bed-
room of her child and ties the
cricket by a thread to the bed,
it will bring fame and wealth
to the child in the future.
Each time it molts (sheds its
hard outer layer), the nymph
cricket devours its own dis-
carded casing.
the ground. She then lays the
eggs one at a time.
The eggs spend the winter
buried, well protected from the
elements and predators. After
they have hatched, the devel-
oping nymphs (young) live off
nutrients in the egg until they
emerge in Mayor June.
The nymph is a perfect minia-
ture of the adult. But before it
becomes fully grown, it passes
through several stages known
as instars. It molts (sheds its hard
outer layer) at each stage, emerg-
ing slightly larger and more de-
veloped each time. By the time
the nymph reaches maturity, it
may have molted seven or even
eight times.
APOLLO BUTTERFL V
CLASS
Insecta
ORDER
Lepidoptera
GROUP 5: INSECTS &: SPIDERS
FAMILY
Papilionidae
GENUS & SPECIES
Parnassius apollo
With its shimmering wings, the Apollo butterfly appears as a flash
of bold color as it flits from flower to flower across mountain
slopes, hills, and fields in much of Europe and parts of Asia.
CHARACTERISTICS
Coloration: Creamy wings with
black and red or yellow patches.
Furry gray thorax and abdomen.
Wings: 2 overlapping pairs.
Wingspan: 2-4 in. Male smaller
than female.
BREEDING
Breeding season: July to August.
Eggs: White. Several hundred, laid
singly or in groups.
Egg to pupa: 1 month.
Pupa to adult: 2 months.
LIFESTYLE
Diet: Caterpillar eats leaves of her-
baceous plants. Butterfly sucks dew
and wildflower nectar.
Lifespan: A few weeks as an adult
butterfly.
RELATED SPECIES
There are 30 species in the
genus Parnassius in the famil y
Papilionidae, which also contains
the vividly colored swallowtails.
Range of the Apollo butterfly.
DISTRIBUTION
Found 1,500 to 6,500 feet above sea level in Europe and parts
of Asia, from Spain in the west across to Mongolia in the east.
CONSERVATION
Many butterflies are threatened by destruction of their habi-
tats by humans. This is particularly true of the Apollo butterfly,
which is now protected by conservation laws in many Euro-
pean countries.
FEATURES OF THE APOLLO BUTIERFLY
Wings: Creamy white and patterned with
black or gray flecks. Conspicuous red eye-
spots sometimes have yellow centers.
Transparent areas at edges.
Legs: 3 pairs.
Relatively short
and extremely
thin. Attached
to thorax.
Abdo'men: Covered with thick hair.
Divided into 11 segments that contain
digestive and reproductive organs.
Eggs: Smooth, round, white. Several
hundred are laid on leaves, either
singly or in groups.
MCMXCII IMP BV/IMP INC WILDLIFE FACT FILETM PRINTED IN U.S.A.
Head: Small , with 2 large compound
eyes. The 2 long antennae have
swollen tips and are used for
smelling and touching.
Thorax: Middle
section of the
b0dy, to which
wings and legs
are attached.
Covered with
laser of thick
gray or cream-
colored hair.
0160200581 PACKET 58
The dramatic coloring of the Apollo butterfly
makes it one of the best-loved butterflies in Europe.
But this beautiful creature is becoming increasingly
rare throughout its range because changes in
land use are destroying its habitat. The Apollo
butterfly is now classified as endangered and
is protected by law in many countries.
~ H A B I T A T
The adult Apollo butterfly can
be seen during July and August
on sunny hills and mountains
1,500 to 6,500 feet above sea
level. Its range stretches from
Spain in the west, through
much of central Europe and
southern Scandinavia, into
Asia. It is found as far east as
Mongolia's Atlai Mountains.
The Apollo butterfly likes
undisturbed, chalky slopes,
where the plants on which
it feeds grow. But there are
Right: The color on the wings
of the Apollo butterfly can vary
considerably.
fewer and fewer quiet areas of
appropriate habitat, so con-
centrations of Apollo butter-
flies now tend to be widely
scattered within its range.
Right: Adult Apollo butterflies
mate during July or August and
die soon afterward.
~ FOOD & FEEDING
Because the Apollo caterpillar
feeds on the leaves of herba-
ceous Sedum plants known as
stonecrops, the adult female
butterfly lays her eggs on these
plants. After eating its way out
of its shell, the caterpillar de-
vours the plant leaves using its
powerful jaws. The caterpillar
must consume many leaves to
get the nutrition it needs to
grow rapidly in its larval stages
and to sustain it during the pu-
pal stage, while it changes into
Left: The Apollo's wings are covered
in thousands of tiny, colored scales,
giving them a shimmering quality.
an adult. It stops eating when
it is ready to pupate and does
not eat again until it emerges
as an adult.
The adult Apollo butterfly has
a long, thin sucking tube called
a proboscis, which functions as
a drinking straw. The butterfly
uses this mouthpart to probe
delicately into flowers and suck
the energy-rich nectar from the
base of the petals. It shows a
strong preference for the flow-
ers of thistles.
Right: The long antennae on the
Apollo's head are used for smelling
and touching. '
Left: During
feeding, the
Apollo butter-
fly extends its
tubular tongue,
or proboscis,
forward to act
as a flexible
drinking straw.
When at rest,
it rolls its pro-
boscis under-
neath its head.
DID YOU KNOW?
There are many varieties
of Apollo butterfly, including
an unusual dark form that is
found in the Alps.
The swallowtails are close
relatives of the Apollo. These
mostly tropical butterflies are
among the most beautiful in
the world.
The bright red and yellow
~ lIFECYClE
The female butterfly lays several
hundred tiny, smooth, round
white eggs, either singly or in
groups. They usually hatch in
August or September, and a
caterpillar emerges.
The caterpillar has a tough
skin, or exoskeleton, which can
expand only to a certain size. To
continue to grow, the caterpillar
must molt-discarding its old
skin for a new, soft skin, which
hardens in the sun. The caterpil-
lar eats until it fills this skin, then
molts again. It may molt five
times before it is fully grown.
It then crawls down the plant
eyes pots on the wings help
protect the Apollo from at-
tack, especially by birds. By
making the wing look like
the big head of some other
animal, the eyespots may
scare the bird away. In any
case they direct attacks away
from the Apollo's vulnerable
and easily damaged body.
and buries itself in the ground,
where its body becomes short
and squat. A final molt leaves it
with a waxy skin inside a loose,
silken cocoon, or pupal case.
In the pupal stage, the body
completely dissolves and is re-
built as a butterfly. After two
months, the chrysalis bursts
open and the adult emerges.
It climbs up the nearest vegeta-
tion and expands its wings by
pumping blood through the
veins. When the wings have
expanded and its skin is hard,
the adult flies off to find its first
meal and a mate.