Chapter 4: The Mechanical Properties of Materials 66 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Chapter 4 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS.

4.1. STATIC MECHANICAL PROPERTIES The choice of a material for any particular application largely depends on its behaviour when acted upon by mechanical forces. Most materials under load undergo elastic and plastic types of deformation. Elastic deformation is recovered when the material is unloaded, while plastic deformation is un-recoverable. The properties of a material are dependent on the rate of load application, temperature, time, direction and magnitude of load etc. Hence we need to device a set of mechanical tests whereby a variety of properties such as strength, stiffness, ductility, toughness, hardness, etc. under specific conditions can be obtained. Mechanical tests can be classified as: (a) Static, such as in tensile, compression, bending and torsion tests, (b) Dynamic, as in impact and fatigue tests, (c) Long term, as in creep and stress relaxation tests and (d) Non-destructive tests The above tests are to be considered with reference to the mechanical properties they are designed to generate. 4.1.1 Tensile properties The aim of the tensile test is to determine the strength, stiffness and ductility of a material. The test gives useful information on the Ultimate tensile strength [u], Yield strength [y], Young's modulus [E], Elongation to fracture [] and Reduction in area []. Let us define a few terms before going into the details of the test. Consider a material with cross section area Ao under a tensile load P. Engineering stress [o] is the ratio of the mechanical force [P] to the original underformed cross section area [Ao] of the body upon which the force is acting.

P Ao

(4.1)

True stress [t] is the actual stress in a material obtained by dividing the load to the instantaneous cross-section area over which it acts.

t =

P A

(4.2)

Engineering strain [e] is a measure of deformation in a stressed material. It is expressed as a percentage of the deformation length (l-lo) to the original length lo.

e=

(l l o ) .100 lo

(4.3)

True strain [] is the instantaneous value of total strain. When a material is stressed, its dimensions i.e. the original length and cross section area change, hence the true strain is the summation of all instantaneous strains.

Chapter 4: The Mechanical Properties of Materials 67 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------i l l l l l l l l = 1 o + 2 1 + 3 2 + ... + i i 1 l l1 l2 l i 1 i =0 o

A dl l = ln = ln o l lo A

(4.4)

It can be shown that

= ln(1 + e)
And

(4.5)

t = o (1 + e)

(4.6)

The tensile test is a static test in which a specimen is pulled until fracture. The testing machine is usually a hydraulic or screw type device consisting of two cross heads in which the test specimen is held. Usually one crosshead is stationary while the other is free to move thus applying a pulling load (tension) to the specimen. The applied load and specimen displacement are recorded in a chart, or can be read directly on the machine's instruments. For displacement (strain) measurements the use of more sensitive instruments is often required. Mechanical or optical extensometers, and sometimes electrical strain gauges are used. The test specimen may be of round or rectangular cross section, the middle part being reduced to form a dog bone uniform shape that is smooth as shown in Fig.4.1.

Ao A lo
Fig. 4.1 The dog bone shaped tensile test specimen For round specimen, the gauge length, lo, is estimated as five or ten times the nominal diameter for short and long specimen respectively. For non-circular specimen, the gauge length is estimated as lo = 5.65(A)1/2 or 11.3 (A)1/2 for short and long specimen respectively. It is not usual to test non-uniform specimen. However, certain materials such as reinforcement steel bars, may be required by standards to be tested in their application state, hence a mean cross section of the bar has to be calculated as,

Am =

m L

(4.7)

where m is the mass of the specimen with length L and is the density of the material.

Chapter 4: The Mechanical Properties of Materials 68 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------True

U'
Engineering

F'

Y Stress (MPa) E P

O Strain (%)

Fig. 4.2. The engineering and true stress-strain curves Consider the stress-strain curves shown in Fig.4.2. In most crystalline materials, the initial part of the curve (O-P) is nearly straight. The point P is called the limit of proportionality. This part of the curve is said to obey Hooke's law, and the gradient of the curve in this part is the Young's modulus of elasticity, [E]. The point E is called the elastic limit. In most ductile materials, a phenomenon called yielding is observed between points E and Y. Yielding arises from displacements within the crystalline structure involving slip between atomic planes when a critical shear stress is reached. The stress then begins to rise till the point U is reached. Between O and U the specimen cross section is decreasing uniformly as the stress is increased. However at the point U, localized reduction in cross section (necking) occurs and suddenly the load (stress) in the material appears to be falling to the point F at which the specimen fractures. In reality the stress in the material is higher than that observed, as a smaller cross-section is actually carrying the load and not the original cross section that is used to calculate the engineering stresses. The actual stress strain behaviour can be established by constructing a true stress-true strain curve. By measuring the actual diameter of the specimen between yielding (Y) and necking (U), and measuring the diameter at the fractured section true stresses and true strains can be calculated hence obtaining the curve Y-U'-F'. The following properties are often reported from a tensile test:-

(a) Yield stress [y]

y =

Fy Ao

(4.8)

where Fy is the yield load and Ao is the original cross section area Some materials do not show the yield point. In such cases, an offset or proof stress [x] has to be obtained by drawing a line parallel to the Hooke's line of stress-strain curve from a strain x, usually 0.2%. This line will intersect the - e curve at a point Q. The stress at this point, is the proof stress [x], which would give a permanent deformation of x%. (b) Ultimate tensile strength [u]

u =

Fmax Ao

(4.9)

where Fmax is the maximum load on the force elongation curve. (c) Elongation at fracture []

l f lo lo

.100

(4.10)

Chapter 4: The Mechanical Properties of Materials 69 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------where lo is the original gauge length and lf is the gauge length after fracture. (d) Reduction in area [].

Ao A f Ao

.100

(4.11)

where Af is the cross section area at the point of fracture. (e) Young's Modulus [E]

E=
in the elastic range.

(4.12)

Sometimes the resilience and toughness of a material may have to be evaluated. Resilience is the ability of a material to absorb energy when deformed elastically and return it when unloaded. This property is required for springs and is measured as the modulus of resilience, which is the strain energy per unit volume required to strain a material from zero stress to the limit of proportionality, i.e. the area under the elastic part of a stress-strain curve. Toughness is simply a measure of ability to absorb energy in the plastic range, hence represented by the area under the plastic part of the stress-strain curve. These are shown in Fig. 4.3

A- High resilience, low toughness

Stress (MPa)

B- Low resilience, high toughness

Strain (%)

Fig. 4.3 The stress-strain curves for resilient and tough materials The shape of the force-elongation or stress-strain curve depends on the properties of the material. For a particular material, it may vary dependent on testing temperature , heat treatment, and previous history of cold work, speed of testing, size of specimen and stress distribution. Fig. 4.4 and 4.5 show the effects of temperature and heat treatment on the stress strain behaviour of carbon steel.
77 K

Stress

300 K 673 K

Strain Fig. 4.4 The effect of temperature on the tensile properties of steel

Chapter 4: The Mechanical Properties of Materials 70 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Hardened Hardened and tempered Annealed

Stress

Strain
Fig. 4.5. The effect of heat treatment of steel on its tensile properties. The shape of the fracture indicates the degree of ductility in a material. Brittle materials in tension fracture in a plane normal to the tensile stress axis without any plastic deformation or necking. A purely ductile material is bound to fracture along the maximum shear stress plane i.e. 45 to the axis of tensile stress. Most materials exhibit a combined mode of fracture. The common types of fracture observed under tensile loading are shown in Fig. 4.6.

Fig. 4.6 Modes of tensile fracture: 1-ductile shear, 2-brittle and 3-mixed mode.

4.1.2 The compression test Brittle materials are often weaker in tension, but strong in compression. That is the reason compression testing is important for civil engineering concrete materials and cast iron, which are inherently brittle. Ductile materials are seldom tested in compression. The test specimen dimensions depend on the type of material being tested. Length to width ratios of 1 and 2.5 - 3 are preferred for brittle and ductile materials respectively. Longer specimen may fail by buckling for ductile materials. The specimen to be tested is fixed between two flat crossheads one of which remains stationary while the other is powered either hydraulically or mechanically as in the tensile test, to give a compressive force, as shown in Fig. 4.7. The force [P]- deflection [h] curve is plotted by a chart recorder, and thereafter used to generate a compression stress-strain curve.

Chapter 4: The Mechanical Properties of Materials 71 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------P

ho

Fig. 4.7. The compression test The compressive stress

comp =

P Ao

(4.13)

The strain in this case is negative, and is given as:

e=

h h ho = ho ho

(4.14)

The compressive load that causes failure is recorded as the maximum compressive load [Pmax]. Hence the compressive strength of the material [comp] is computed as,

comp =

Pmax Ao

(4.15)

Most brittle materials fail by severe cracking after which the specimen crumbles into pieces. Ductile materials undergo plastic flow as they are squashed between the compression plates. The nature of deformation depends on the interfacial coefficient of friction between the material being tested and the compression plates. Brittle materials are stronger in compression than in tension. The compression strength of gray cast iron is about 3-4 times its tensile strength. There is also some relation between the Brinell hardness and compression strength for gray iron ranging from 111 - 386 [MN/m2] tensile strength with hardness from 110 - 269 HBN. The ratio of compression strength to Brinell number is usually between 3.4 and 4.0. The Young's modulus of elasticity in compression for gray cast iron at low stresses is roughly 3-5% higher than in tension. 4.1.3 Bend tests. Bend tests are performed either to assess whether a material meets fabrication requirements or whether it has the desired design strength. Hence they can be classified accordingly as:(a) Ductility and cracking tests, and (b) Transverse tests

Chapter 4: The Mechanical Properties of Materials 72 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Ductility and cracking tests are used to assess the ductility of a material, and often, to verify that the minimum plasticity required of a material is exceeded. A common application involves bending through 180 freely between flat faces or closely round a pre-determined radius, set on some kind of forming tool. Another example is the face and root bend tests on butt welds, whereby the welded seam is made to bend around a former until the first crack occurs. The angle of deformation at which cracking begins is recorded, otherwise the specimen is bent through 180 and then inspected. The transverse test is applied to brittle materials such as cast irons. Brittle materials are very difficult to test in tension as they tend to be highly notch sensitive hence may break in a section away from the gauge length. The use of a simple bend test (3-point. bend) or a four-point bend test enables on to evaluate critical values of tensile stress required to cause rupture. The 3-point bend test is designed for those materials that break at comparatively small deflections whereas the 4 -point bend tests is designed particularly for materials that undergo large deflections during testing. In a 3 point- bend test, the test bar rests between two supports and is loaded at mid-span so as to produce a maximum bending moment at mid-span as shown in Fig.4.8 (a). However, this point has a shear force, which produces a shear stress in the plane parallel to the axis of the test bar, being maximum in the neutral plane. This test is not recommended for specimen with a small span to width ratio. In the 4-point bend test, the bar resting on two supports is loaded at two points, each at equal distance from the adjacent support point and produces a maximum bending moment [Mmax] that is uniformly distributed between the two loading points as shown in Fig 4.8 (b). Unlike the three-point bend test, the section of maximum bending moment has a zero shear force, hence the four-bend test represents a case of pure bending stresses. The bending strength is usually the maximum bending stress (tensile) calculated as,

M max Ze

(4.16)

where Ze is the section modulus. This is called the Flexural Strength or the Modulus of Rupture. For those materials that do not crack, the maximum bending stress is called the Flexural Yield Strength.

Chapter 4: The Mechanical Properties of Materials 73 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------LOAD

L/2

L/2 LOAD

(a)

L Bending moment diagrams. (b)

Fig. 4.8. (a) Three-point bend test and (b) Four- point bend test. It is normal to measure the deflection occurring just before fracture so as to assess the elasticity of the material. In a 3-point bend test, the maximum deflection [max] is given as

max

FL3 = 48EI

(4.17)

where E is the modulus of elasticity and I is the second moment of area. In a 4-point bend test, the maximum deflection is

max =

Fa(3L2 4a 2 ) 24 EI

(4.18)

Using the above equations, the modulus [E] of the material can be calculated. 4.1.4. Torsion test The torsion test is aimed at assessing the mechanical behaviour of a material under shearing stresses. The testing equipment comprises a twisting head with a chuck for gripping one end of the specimen and also measures the twisting moment or torque, and a troptometer for measuring the angle of deformation. Circular cross-section specimen is preferred for simplicity of stress calculations as shown in Fig 4.9. The shear stress increases from zero in the axis to a maximum at the periphery. The maximum shear stress, max is given as

Chapter 4: The Mechanical Properties of Materials 74 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

max =

MtD 2J

(4.19)

where Mt is the torsional moment, D is the diameter and J is the polar moment of inertia of the specimen section.

2a

dA

Fig. 4.9. Torsion in a solid cylindrical specimen For a solid cylindrical specimen,

J=

D 4 32

(4.20)

The troptometer is used to determine the angle of twist usually expressed in radians. If L is the test length of the specimen, then the shear strain at a radius r is given as

r L

(4.21)

During the test, measurements are made of the twisting moment Mt and the angle of twist, . A torque -twist diagram is obtained. This can be easily converted into a shear stress [] - shear strain [] diagram. It is observed that in elastic materials, the shear stress is proportional to the shear strain. The constant of proportionality is the modulus of elasticity in shear, or the Modulus of rigidity [G]. Hence, = G Substituting equations 4.19 and 4.21 into equation 4.22, then (4.22)

G=

MtL J

(4.23)

Torsional failures are different from tensile failures in that there is little localized reduction in area or elongation. A ductile material tends to fracture by shear, along one of the planes of maximum shear stress, which is generally normal to the longitudinal axis. A brittle material fails along a plane perpendicular to the direction of maximum tensile stress. In this case, the direction makes an angle of 45 to the axis, resulting into a helical fracture.

Chapter 4: The Mechanical Properties of Materials 75 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------4.2. DYNAMIC PROPERTIES 4.2.1. The impact strength The capacity of a material to withstand shock loads without fracture is called toughness. Impact tests are used to give an indication of the relative toughness of a material. Materials that are not tough tend to fail in brittle manner, with no plastic deformation. Brittlecleavage type of fracture results from either of the following: (a) a tri-axial state of stress, resulting from high stress concentration around notches, grooves, holes, sharp changes of cross section etc (b) at low temperature, where interatomic forces are higher, fewer point and line defects in the crystalline structure and inter-crystalline bonding (grain boundaries) are strong, thus allowing very little plastic flow. Fracture is often trans-crystalline. (c) a high strain rate or rapid rate of load application prevents the time dependent plastic flow. (d) component size. (e) metallurgical variables such as chemical composition, grain size, impurity distribution and degree of cold work. (f) welding effects, such as slag inclusions, porosity, heat affected zones (HAZ), hot cracks, hydrogen induced cracking etc. (g) fatigue, due to repeated loading giving rise to cumulative micro cracking before final brittle fracture. Notched-bar impact tests are employed to study the simultaneous effect of stress concentration, temperature and high speed of load application on materials. Two types of specimen are widely employed. The Charpy bar specimen (USA) and the Izod specimen (UK). The Charpy specimen has a square cross section and contains a central notch of V or U shape. It is then supported as a beam in a horizontal position, with the load being applied from a swinging pendulum to the midspan of the beam on the side opposite to the notch. The Izod specimen is either circular or square in cross section, and contains a V-notch near one end. The specimen is clamped vertically like a cantilever and the pendulum is made to strike the free end. Fig.4.10 shows these two impact test schematically. Fig. 4.10. Standard methods for impact tests
IMPACT LOAD IMPACT LOAD

(a) Charpy V- notch (b) Izod

Chapter 4: The Mechanical Properties of Materials 76 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

A C Energy absorbed B

TA Temperature

Fig. 4.11. Brittle ductile transition curves The energy required to fracture a specimen is read directly on the calibrated dial of the impact tester. The impact strength [ak] can be determined as the ratio of impact energy required to cause fracture [Ef] to the cross section area [A];

ak =

Ef A

(4.24)

For ferrous metals and some other materials, the tests are normally conducted over a wide range of temperatures so as to establish the ductile to brittle transition temperature. Typical transition curves are shown in Fig 4.11. Material A has a higher transition temperature (TA) than material B (TB). Material C shows no transition. It is always desired that a material should not exhibit brittle to ductile transition within its service temperature range. Criteria for determining the transition temperature is based on the transition energy absorbed, changes in the fracture appearance (measure of the degree of crystallinity) or a transition in ductility, as measured by the contraction of the root of the notch. The transition temperature is therefore selected as:(a) the temperature at which 40% of the energy required to fracture at room temperature is attained, or (b) the temperature where 50% crystallinity is obtained, or (c) the temperature where 1% lateral contraction of the notch is attained. It has been observed that a transition based on fracture appearance always occurs at a higher temperature than if based on a ductility or energy criterion.

4.2.2. Metal Fatigue. Failures occurring under conditions of dynamic loading are called fatigue failures. Fatigue results in a brittle fracture with no gross deformation. A fatigue failure can be recognized by the appearance of the fracture surface, which consists of a smooth region, due to the rubbing action as the crack is propagated, and a rough region, where the cross section would no longer carry the load, hence failure is in a ductile manner. The progress of the fracture is denoted by a series of rings, referred to as beach marks which progress from the point of crack initiation. Fatigue failures are often observed to arise at sections of high stress concentration such as sharp corners or notches. The fatigue life is the number of load cycles, which a material can undergo under some stress loading condition before sustaining fracture. It consists of three distinct periods, namely: (i) initiation, (ii) propagation, and (iii) fast fracture. The initiation period is largely governed by surface condition and mechanisms that tend to damage the surface. Fatigue cracks normally start at the

Chapter 4: The Mechanical Properties of Materials 77 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------surface. A rough surface already is considered to be initially cracked, hence initiation is complete even before application of a stress cycle. The period of crack propagation depends on the material properties such as toughness, and its ability to arrest the crack growth. This is usually the longest and most dominant in fatigue life. There are three basic factors necessary to cause fatigue failure:(1) a maximum tensile stress of sufficiently high magnitude (2) a large enough variation or fluctuation in the applied stress and (3) a sufficiently large number of cycles of the applied stress. Other factors that may alter the conditions for fatigue are stress concentration (geometry), corrosion, temperature, metallurgical structure, residual stress, combined stresses and surface roughness.

Stress amplitude

Ferrous

Endurance limits

Non-ferrous

Log (Number of cycles to failure)

Fig. 4.12. The S-N curves for ferrous and non-ferrous metals Fatigue testing provides to engineers, adequate information on the behaviour of materials under repeated loads. In this type of test, a specimen is subjected to a fluctuating load until it fractures. The number of cycles to fracture is recorded. The test is repeated for progressively lower stress amplitudes until a stress is reached where the material sustains an infinitely large number of cycles without fracture. This stress is called the endurance strength of the material. The data of stress and fatigue life (number of cycles to failure) is used to construct the S-N curve as shown in Fig. 4.12.

d Tensile b

Stress

Compressiv e

Fig. 4.13. Types of stress cycles for fatigue loading. a - completely reversed, zero mean stress; b - Alternating, tensile mean stress ; c - Alternating, compressive mean stress; d - Pulsating tension and e - Pulsating compression.

Chapter 4: The Mechanical Properties of Materials 78 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

u Maximum stress line Mean stress line Minimum stress line

+e Stress amplitude

Mean stress

Fatigue failure e

Fig. 4.14. The Modified Goodmans Diagram Failure due to fatigue is largely dependent on the type of stress cycle. Normally, tensile stresses are more damaging than compressive stresses, because it is the tensile part of the stress cycle that causes crack propagation. Different stress cycles are illustrated in Fig. 4.13. For design purposes, the S-N curve is inadequate when we have to deal with static stresses superimposed on alternating stresses etc. Most fatigue test machine employ the stress cycle (a) or (d). The influence of tensile mean stress can be taken into account by making use of the modified Goodman's diagram shown in Fig.4.14. The construction of the Goodman's diagram can be easily done once the endurance strength [e] and the tensile strength [u] for the material are known. 4.3. LONG TERM (TIME DEPENDENT) MECHANICAL BEHAVIOUR. 4.3.1. Creep. Creep is the slow continuous deformation with time at a constant load. In metals, creep occurs at elevated temperatures T> 0.3 to 0.4 Tm, where Tm is the absolute melting temperature. In polymers, creep is observed at ambient temperatures, and mechanical properties of such materials are sensitive to strain rate and temperature. At low temperatures, the strain is only dependent on the acting stress, i.e. = f () (4.25)

At elevated temperatures, in addition to stress, creep strain depends also on temperature and time, i.e. = f ( ,t,T) (4.26)

Creep tests are performed by loading a specimen in tension or compression at a constant load inside a furnace maintained at a constant temperature. The deformation (extension or contraction) is measured as a function of time. Data thus obtained is used to construct a characteristic creep curve as shown in Fig. 4.15.

Chapter 4: The Mechanical Properties of Materials 79 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------In the first stage of creep, many dislocations climb away from obstacles, slip, and contribute to deformation of the metal. Eventually, the rate at which dislocations climb away from obstacles equals the rate at which dislocations are blocked by other imperfections. This leads to second stage or steady-state, creep. The slope of the steady-state portion of the creep curve is the creep rate.

(4.27)

Eventually, during third-stage creep, necking begins, the stress increases, and the specimen deforms at an accelerated rate until failure occurs. The time required for failure to occur is the rupture time. Either a higher stress or a higher temperature reduces the rupture time and increases the creep rate (Fig.4.16). The creep strength (creep) is the constant nominal stress that will cause a specified creep rate at a constant temperature. It is often described in the format, /t/T = creep (4.28)

where is the creep strain, t is the time in hrs, and T the temperature in Celsius. For example, 1/10000/650 = 300, means that a creep stress of 300 MPa produces a creep strain of 1% in 10000 hrs at 650 oC.

Strain

e t I II Time III

Fig. 4.15. A typical creep curve showing the three stages of creep: I primary, II secondary and III tertiary.
Increased stress Increased temperature

Strain

Constant Temp Constant Stress

Time

Fig. 4.16. The effect of temperature and stress on the creep behaviour

At constant temperature, the strain rate varies with the stress according to a power law,

= B n
where n is called the creep exponent (n = 3......8).

(4.29)

Chapter 4: The Mechanical Properties of Materials 80 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Creep is said to be diffusion controlled and therefore proceeds according to the Arrhenius law,

Q = C exp RT

(4.30)

where R is the universal gas constant, (equal to 8.31 kJ/mol.K), Q is the activation energy for creep (J/mol), T is the absolute temperature, and C is a constant. Combining the above two equations 4.29 and 4.30, the general equation for creep becomes,

Q = A n exp RT

(4.31)

where A is the creep constant, n and Q are constants, which vary with the material and can be determined experimentally. 4.3.2. Stress relaxation. Stress relaxation is a time dependent decrease in stress in a body, which is constrained to a fixed deformation, e.g. bolts in flanged connections. Stress relaxation tests are often used to estimate re-tightening time in high temperature bolted joints. They may also be used to estimate the time required to relieve residual stress by thermal treatments. The relaxation time is defined as the time taken for the stress to relax to half its original value. Fig. 4.17. Stress relaxation curves

T1<T2<T3

Stress

T1 T2 T3 Time

The resulting stress vs time curves (Fig. 4.17) are called stress relaxation curves, and may be used to estimate the relaxation period, i.e. the time required for the stress to reach a critical value (Fig. 4.18). Consider a bolt, which is tightened into a rigid component so that the initial stress in the shank is i. Since the length of the shank is constant, the total strain in it is constant. The total strain tot. is composed of the elastic strain el and the creep strain cr which causes stress relaxation, hence at any time, tot = el + cr But, el = (4.32)

, and at constant temperature, the creep strain rate obeys a power law, E

Chapter 4: The Mechanical Properties of Materials 81 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- cr (4.33) = B n t

Differentiating equation 4.32 with respect to time,

tot el cr = + t t t
Hence,

0=

1 + B n E t

(4.34)

Integrating,

1 i n = BEt 0
hence,

n 1

n 1

= (n 1) BEt

(4.35)

If the bolt has to be retightened when the stress has fallen to time for re-tightening is given by

i , then from equation (4.35), the 2

tr =

2 n 1 1 (n 1) BE n 1

(4.36)

/E i Creep strain Strain

Elastic strain Time

Fig. 4.18. Bolt re-tightening

4.4. HARDNESS TESTING

Chapter 4: The Mechanical Properties of Materials 82 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Hardness is a measure of resistance to deformation or resistance to indentation. There are three basic principles employed in hardness testing: (i) scratch hardness (ii) indentation and (iii) rebound or dynamic hardness. Of these, only indentation hardness is of importance to engineers. Scratch hardness is used by mineralogists, and is measured according to Moh's scale [Talc = 1, annealed copper = 3, Martensite = 7, Diamond = 10]. In dynamic hardness, an elastic ball or hammer is dropped onto the surface to be tested, and hardness is expressed as the energy of the impact. The shore Scleroscope is a typical example of a dynamic hardness tester, which measures hardness in terms of height of rebound of the dropping hammer. The three common techniques available for indentation hardness testing, namely, the Brinell, Rockwell and Vickers methods will be described in more detail. 4.4.1. Brinell hardness

t d

Fig. 4.19. Principle of the Brinnel test The Brinell hardness test consists of a steel ball indentor, applied onto the surface to be tested by a load whose magnitude depends on type and thickness of the metal. The Brinell hardness number (BHN) is expressed as the load divided by the surface area of the indentation

BHN =

D D (D 2 d 2 ) 2

P Dt

[kg/mm2]

(4.37)

where, P = applied load, kg D = diameter of indentor ball, mm d = projected diameter of indentation, mm t = depth of the impression, mm From Fig. 4.19, it can be seen that d=Dsin. Hence,

BHN =

2 D (1 cos ) 2

(4.38)

Chapter 4: The Mechanical Properties of Materials 83 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------In order to obtain the same BHN with a non standard load or loading ball diameter, the angle 2 must remain constant. Hence the load and ball diameter must be varied in the ratio,

P1 D1
2

P2 D2
2

P3 D3
2

= ... =

Pi Di
2

=k

(4.39)

The constant k is 30 for steel and cast iron, 10 for copper alloys and, magnesium alloys, and 2.5 for Aluminium and its alloy. The Brinell hardness value is used to estimate the ultimate tensile strength of some steels. UTS = 3.45 x BHN [N/mm2] (4.40)

4.4.2. Vickers hardness The Vickers test consists of indenting the surface to be tested using a diamond pyramid indenter with an included angle of 136 between opposite faces, into the smooth surface to be tested. This angle approximates the most desirable ratio of indentation diameter to ball diameter in the Brinell test. The Vickers hardness number (VHN) is defined as: VHN = Load/Projected surface area of indentation Practically, this area is calculated from microscopic measurements of the lengths of the diagonals of the nearly square impression. The VHN may be determined from the following equation:-

2 P sin 2 = 1.854 P VHN = 2 d d2

where, P = applied load,. kg d = average length of diagonals, mm = angle between opposite faces of the diamond pyramid, 136

(4.41)

The Vickers method is widely accepted because it covers a wider range of applications, that is, it can be used from very soft materials (VHN=5) to extremely hard materials (VHN=1500). The indenting loads are selected on the basis of specimen size and material hardness from the range of 1 to 120 kgf. The method is also commonly employed in micro-hardness testing where loads as small as 5g are used. The values of hardness in VHN are nearly equal to those in BHN up to about 400.

Fig. 4.20. Types of Vickers indentations: (a) perfect, (b) barreled and (c) pin-cushioned. A perfect indentation is square. However, most practical indentations are barrel-shaped or pin cushioned as illustrated in Fig.4.20. Therefore the diagonal measurements are not so accurate.

Chapter 4: The Mechanical Properties of Materials 84 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------The barrel shaped indentation is found in cold worked metals while annealed metals tend to give the pin cushioned type.

Chapter 4: The Mechanical Properties of Materials 85 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------4.4.3. Rockwell tests This is perhaps the most widely used method for hardness testing. The Rockwell method is widely accepted due to speed, freedom from operator error, high sensitivity, and the small size of indentation. In this test, the depth of the indentation at a constant load is taken as a measure of hardness. The harder the material, the less the penetration or depth of indentation. Calibration is usually carried out using standard blocks of known hardness. The indenter is either a conical shaped diamond cone (brale) with an apex angle of 120 or a hardened steel ball 1/16 inch diameter. The brale is used for testing harder materials.

P= Major Load P Po = Pre-load Po h ho h1

Fig. 4.21. The Rockwell method The test procedure starts by application of a preload of 10kg. A major load is then applied and the depth of indentation is automatically recorded on a dial gage in terms of arbitrary hardness numbers (HR). Major loads of 60, 100 and 150 kg are used. Hardened steel is tested on the C scale using the 150 kg load. The useful hardness range is 20 - 70 HRC. Softer materials are tested on scale B with the 1/16 inch diameter steel ball and a 100 kg major load. The range in this scale is 0 - 100 HRB. The A scale uses the brale, and a 60 kg major load. This scale is applicable to a wider range of materials, from annealed brass to cemented carbides. The Rockwell hardness is calculated from the equation:-

HR =

k (h1 ho ) c

(4.42)

where, as shown in Fig. 4.21, k = 0.2 for brale, 0.26 for the steel ball h1= depth of penetration in mm of indenter after removal of major load ho = depth of penetration in mm of indenter under application of the pre-load c = the value for scale divisions (0.002mm) 4.4.4. The shore scleroscope The scleroscope tests are dynamic, using the rebound energy as a measure of hardness. These tests are applicable to even very thin materials made of very hard materials. The testing instruments are usually portable and simple, hence tests can be made quite rapidly. The shore scleroscope consists of a small diamond pointed hammer, 2.5g, which is allowed to fall freely from a height of about 250 mm down a glass tube graduated into 140 equal parts. The height of the first rebound is taken as an index of hardness. A rebound of 100 is equivalent to the hardness of martensitic high carbon steel.

Chapter 4: The Mechanical Properties of Materials 86 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------REVIEW PROBLEMS 1. A 3-mm diameter beryllium wire with a modulus of elasticity of 250 GPa is 2500 cm long. Calculate the length of the wire when a force of 20 kN acts on the wire. 2. A square 25.4 mm x 25.4 mm tensile bar with a 50.8 mm gage length is pulled to failure. The final distance between the gage marks is 69.8 mm and the final dimensions at the fracture are 20.8 mm x 20.8 mm. Calculate the % elongation and % reduction in area. 3. Discuss the importance of the impact test on steel and other temperature and notch sensitive materials. 4. Describe three indentation hardness measuring techniques. Which of the three is simpler and easier to adapt for mass production? 5. A three point bend test is performed on a block of silicon carbide that is 10 cm long, 1.5 cm wide, and 0.6 cm thick, and is resting on two supports 7.5 cm apart. The sample breaks when a deflection of 0.09 mm is recorded. The flexural modulus for silicon carbide is 480 GPa. Assume that no plastic deformation occurs. Calculate (i) The force that caused the fracture and (ii) The flexural strength. 6. A Brinell hardness measurement, using a 10 mm diameter indenter and a 500 kg load, produces an indentation of 4.5 mm on an aluminium plate. Determine the Brinell hardness number (HB) of the metal. 7. When a 3000 kg load is applied to a 10 mm diameter ball in a Brinell test of a steel, an indentation of 3.1 mm is produced. Estimate the tensile strength of the steel.

8. The activation energy for self diffusion in copper is 49,300 cal/mol. A copper specimen
creeps at 0.002 in./in. h when a stress of 15,000 psi is applied at 600 C. If the creep rate of copper is dependent on self diffusion, determine the creep rate if the temperature is 800 C.

9. FCC metals are often recommended for use at low temperatures, particularly when any
sudden loading of the part is expected. Explain. 10. (i) (ii) (iii) Briefly state the factors that would promote fatigue failure in a metal. Why is it risky to use scrap metal from materials that may have been subjected to cyclic loading during their life time? A steel whose tensile strength is 800 GPa has been tested in fatigue, and found to have an endurance strength of 350 GPa. Sketch the modified Goodmans diagram for this material. What maximum alternating stress is allowable when a mean stress of 100 GPa is applied to this steel?