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CERTIFICATE PAGE
A PROJECT REPORT ON INVESTIGATIVE STUDY OF ANGIOSPERMS MORPHOLOGY
PROJECT SUBMITTED FOR FULFILLING THE REQUIREMENTS OF INDIVIDUAL PROJECT FOR THE CCCA EVALUATION, ISC YEAR I (2013- 14)
INTRODUCTION
The leaf is a flattened, lateral outgrowth of the stem in the branch, developing from a node and having a bud in its axil. It is normally green in colour and manufactures food for the whole plant. The leaves take up water and carbon dioxide and convert them into carbohydrates in the presence of sunlight and chlorophyll. Leaves always follow an acropetal development and are exogenous in origin. Parts of a leaf: A typical leaf of Ficus religiosa (pipal) has a broad, thin, flat structure called the lamina. The thin stalk below the lamina is the petiole. The lamina possesses a network of veins. The veins have both xylem and phloem elements which are continuous with similar tissues of the stem through those of the petiole. A strong vein as the midrib, runs centrally through the leaf blade from its base to the apex; this produces thinner lateral veins which in their turn give rise to still thinner veins or veinlets. The lamina is the most important part of the leaf since this is the seat of food manufacture for the whole plant.
Types of a leaf: 1) Radical: Proceeding from or near the root, e.g., onion, radish, etc. 2) Cauline: Pertaining to the stem, e.g., palms. 3) Cauline and ramal: Pertaining to the main stem as well as its branches, e.g., mango.
TIME: 4.25 PM DATE: 30th January 2013 LOCATION: Farm near Raiya Road COMMON NAME: Wheat SCIENTIFIC NAME: Triticum araraticum FAMILY: Poaceae
Leaves Node
Internode
Stem
TIME: 7.00 PM DATE: 30th January 2013 LOCATION: Home COMMON NAME: China rose SCIENTIFIC NAME: Hibiscus rosasinesis FAMILY: Malvaceae
CHARACTERISTICS OF A LEAF
1) Leaf shapes: Determination of leaf shape defaults to the base of the leaf, rather than the tip. Cordate (heart shaped);
(Eurybia macrophylla & E. divaricata)
(Solidago flexicaulis)
(Symphyotrichum novae-angliae)
(Ionactis linariifolius)
(Eurybia spectabilis)
There are two other common leaf shapes which are opposites of ovate and lanceolate, i.e. obovate and oblanceolate. Obovate Oblanceolate
(Solidago puberula)
(Oclemena acuminata)
2) Leaf margins (edges): This topic applies to phyllaries and bracts as well as stem and branch leaves. The basic characteristic of leaf margins include:
3) Leaf tips: The tips of leaves may also help in identifying a species. The following characteristics apply to leaves: Bracts and phyllaries: Bract: (A) A small leaflet at the base of a flower or
attached to the peduncle.
Bracteal: (A) Pertaining to bracts. Phyllary: (B) The small bracteal leaflets comprising the
involucre of a composite flower head.
Symphyotrichum racemosum
(Symphyotrichum lanceolatum)
(Solidago puberula)
(Solidago flexicaulis)
(Solidago caesia)
(Symphyotrichum ericoides)
4) Attachment of leaves to stems: There are numerous ways in which leaves can attach to stem or branch. A leaf may have a petiole or leaf stalk or it may not. If so, the leaf is said to be petiolate. If not, the leaf is said to be sessile. Petiolate Sessile
A leaf stalk may be simple, or it may be winged. In the example of a petiolate leaf above, the petiolate is said to be simple. In the examples below, the petioles are said to be winged. The leaf blade may taper abruptly to a short, winged petiole (down left) or gradually to a long, winged petiole (down right).
Leaves may attach to a stem by clasping the stem; that is partially surrounding the stem. Clasping may be auriculate, as in the left example, or cordate, as in the middle example, or sheathing, as in right example.
TYPES OF LEAF
A leaf can be either simple or compound. This concept is determined by determining the position of the bud.
Types:
Description:
Simple Leaf:
Not compound, not divided into secondary units.
Compound Leaf:
The leaf is divided into multiple leaflets.
Diagram:
Snapshot:
Description:
Diagram:
Image:
Snapshot:
Dicot Leaf
Monocot Leaf
TYPES OF VENATION
The arrangement of veins and veinlets in the leaf blade is known as venation. There are two types of venation. They are Reticulate venation and Parallel venation. 1) Reticulate Venation: When the veins of a leaf show numerous irregular inter-connections giving the appearance of a network, it is called reticulate venation. This is characteristic of dicotyledons. It is of the following types: a) Pinnate or Unicostate Type: If a leaf shows one vein more prominently than the others, it is described as unicostate condition. This prominent vein runs from the base of the leaf blade to its apex in a median longitudinal position. Hence it is the midrib of the leaf. The midrib produces veins which proceed towards the margin or apex of the leaf. These are then connected by veinlets forming a network. E.g., Mango, Peepal, Guava.
2)
a) Pinnate or Unicostate Type: In this type, the leaf has a central prominent midrib. The midrib gives off lateral veins which proceed parallel to each other towards the margin or apex of the leaf, e.g. Banana.
b) Palmate or Multicostate Type: If more than one prominent vein arises from the base of the leaf blade, it is described as multicostate condition. A multicostate parallel convergent condition is seen in Bambusa arundinacea, whereas a multicostate parallel divergent condition is seen in Borassus.
Palmately veined
Pinnately veined
Net veined
Parallel veined
PHYLLOTAXY OF LEAVES
1) Alternate: A single leaf arising at each node, e.g., Hibiscus rosasinensis. 2) Opposite: On different sides of the axis with the bases at the same level. 3) Opposite decussate: In pairs at right angles to one another, e.g., Calotropis. 4) Opposite superposed: A pair of leaves that stands directly over the lower pair in the same plane, e.g., guava. 5) Whorled: More than two leaves arranged in a circle round an axis, e.g., Spergulia Alstonia. 6) Petiole: Petiolate: Leaf blade situated on the petiole, e.g., Hibiscus, Ficus, etc Sessile: Without a petiole or stalk, e.g., Ixora Sub-sessile: Having a short stalk, e.g., Polygonum. 7) Stipules: Stipulate: The leaf with stipules, e.g., rose, Ixora. Exstipulate: The leaves having no stipules, e.g., Ipomoea
Opposite
Alternate
MODIFICATIONS OF LEAF:
A normal leaf is thin, flat and green and performs the function of photosynthesis. In some plants certain special functions are performed by leaves, which become modified.
1) Leaf Tendrils: Tendrils are slender, spirally coiled springlike structures. They are
highly sensitive to contact and when they come in contact with any support, tendrils coil around the support like the stem twiners. In glory lily (Gloriosa superba) the leaf apex is modified into a tendril. In pea (Pisum sativum) the terminal leaflets of an unipinnately compound leaf are modified into tendrils. In Lathyrus or wild pea, the entire leaf is modified into a tendril. In Clematis and Smilax, the petiole and stipules respectively, are modified into tendrils.
2) Phyllodes: A phyllode is the petiole or rachis of a leaf which is modified into a green
flat structure for the purpose of photosynthesis. In such a leaf the lamina is poorly developed. In Acacia melanoxylon, the petiole is flattened, green and becomes a phyllode. The leaflets and secondary rachii drop off. In Parkinsonia aculeata, the secondary rachii are modified into phylodes which are photosynthetic. The primary rachis is modified into a spine.
3) Leaf Spines: In some plants, leaves or parts of leaves may be modified into spines.In
Opuntia (prickly pear) leaves are poorly developed and fall of very early, but the minute leaves of the axillary bud are modified into spines. In Argemone (prickly poppy), the leaf margin is modified into small spines. In Zizyphus the stipules are modified into spines. The spines act as defensive structures.
4) Scale Leaves: In many desert plants, the leaves are highly reduced and appear as
scales. The scale leaves are thin, membranous, dry, stalkless and brownish or colourless. In plants where the leaves are reduced to scales in order to minimise transpiration, the function of photosynthesis is relegated to the stems (cladodes).
5) Bladder: In bladderwort (Utricularia) the leaves are very much segmented and they stimulate root excepting that they are green in colour. Some of these segments become modified into bladders. Each bladder is about 3mm in diameter and is provided with a trapdoor entrance. The trap door acts as a short valve which can be pushed open inside from outside. This trap door entrance allows aquatic animalcules to pass in, but never to come out. The inner surface of the bladder is dotted all over with numerous digestive glands. These glands secrete the digestive agent and absorb the digestive products.
6) Pitcher: In the pitcher plant (Nepenthes) the leaf becomes modified into a pitcher. The morphology of the leaf of pitcher plant is that the pitcher itself is the modification of leaf blade, the tendrillar stalk supporting the pitcher is the modification of the petiole, and the laminated structure that of the leaf base. The inner surface of the pitcher corresponds to the upper surface of the leaf and the lid of the pitcher arises as an outgrowth of leaf apex. The function of the pitcher is to capture and digest insect. When young the mouth of the pitcher remains closed by its lid which later on opens and stands erect. The inner side of the pitcher remains covered with numerous, smooth and sharp hairs, all pointing downwards. Lower down the inner surface numerous digestive glands are found. The digestive agent, secreted by glands, is trypsin which helps in digesting proteins. In the sundew (Drosera) the upper surface of the leaf is covered with glandular hairs which are sensitive to touch and capture insects.
7) Floral leaves (bracts): Poinsettias and dogwoods have relatively inconspicuous, small, greenish-yellow flowers. However, both plants produce large modified leaves, called bracts (mostly coloured red in poinsettias and white or pink in dogwoods). These bracts surround the true flowers and perform the same function as showy petals. It should be noted, however, that bracts can also be quite small and not as conspicuous as those of the examples mentioned.