i~!!~ii:!:~!!? ..... ........ !

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to evaluate and
in

food lipids
E.N. Frankel
The use of natural antioxidants to improve the oxidative stability of food lipids has received special attention because of the worldwide trend to avoid the use of synthetic food additives. The efficacy of natural antioxidants and the oxidative stability of edible oils and food emulsions have been difficult to evaluate in view of questionable conditions and methodology used to follow oxidation. The methodology used to evaluate natural antioxidants must be carefully interpreted depending on the conditions of oxidation and the analytical method used to determine the extent and endpoint of oxidation. The purpose of this review is to re-evaluate current methods of determining the oxidative stability of food lipids and the effectiveness of natural antioxidants.

facial phenomena in oils and food emulsions 4''~ has further compounded the analytical problems. Although many pitfalls in methodology were recognized by Ragnarsson and Labuza*, unfortunately they have been overlooked recently. The conclusions reached in many oxidation studies may not be valid because of the choice of inappropriate methods for evaluating oxidative stability. Thus, interpretation of data pertaining to lipid oxidations should take into account the limitations of the methodology used6-8. Given the current interest in the use of natural antioxidants in foods and the development of new vegetable oils and blends, it is appropriate to re-evaluate the methods currently being used to determine the oxidative stability of food lipids and edible oils, and to assess the effectiveness of antioxidants.

Accelerated stability tests

To estimate the stability or susceptibility of a fat to oxidation, the sample is subjected to an accelerated oxidation test under standardized conditions and a suitable endpoint is chosen to determine signs of oxidative deterioration. Several parameters (e.g. temperature, metal catalysts, oxygen pressure, shaking) are manipulated to accelerate oxidation and the development of rancidity in oils and emulsions. The induction period (I.P.) is measured as the time required to reach an endpoint of oxidation corresponding to either a level of detectable rancidity or a sudden change in the rate of o:ddation. Measurements of I.P. under standard condition:~ are generally used as an index of antioxidant effectiveness. For practical purposes, however, predictions of oxidative stability in foods and oils based on measurements of I.P. should be related to measured product shell' life. Accelerated oxidation tests should be calibrated {br each formulation, and the conditions used should be maintained as close as possible to those under which the l'ood Lipid oxidation leading to rancidity is often the decisive is stored. factor determining the useful storage life of food prodHeating is the most common and effective means of ucts, even when their fat content is very low. Much accelerating oxidation. In the presence of antioxidants, research has been conducted to understand better the the activation energy of lipid oxidation is increased mechanism of oxidation of polyunsaturated lipids, because antioxidants lower' the rates of oxidation reacantioxidant action, and the effects of decomposition tions by increasing the overall energy of activation. An products of lipid oxidation on the development of ran- Arrhenius plot of log(overall reaction constant) versus cidity in foods. In the past 15-20 years, special attention I IT shows that the antioxidant effectiveness increases as has been given to the use of natural antioxidants T (the temperature) decreases. According to Ragnarsson because of the possible, but not well established, haz- and Labuza*, the overall protection predicted at high ardous effects of synthetic antioxidants. temperature for an antioxidant will usually be less than The literature on stability evaluations of tbod lipids is that found at lower temperatures. Therefore, the temextensive *-~. However, the published data comparing the perature coefficients are different tbr a natural fat coneffectiveness of various antioxidants are often difficult taining low levels of antioxidants and the same fat conto interpret because of questionable methodology, par- taining added antioxidants. The order of activity and ticularly the choice of methods utilizing inappropriate ranking of different antioxidants depend on whether oxidation conditions t. Natural antioxidants have been they are tested at high or low temperatures. Conseespecially difficult to evaluate because of the use of quently, any prediction for lower temperatures requires testing at several different temperatures. Accelerated methods of testing product shelf life have E.N.Frankelis at tile Departmentof FoodScience& Technology,University been comprehensively reviewed by Ragnarsson and ~f California,Davis.CAq5616,USA. Labuza* and by Rossell 3. Conventional stability tests are
~J.) ~ I ~l~* ~ I I,e~ II,I ~ ,enL v I'uhh~het, | I d 4. k~ 0 " 2 4 -2244 q | S|lh.OI~

Trends in FoodScience& TechnologyJuly 1993 IVol. 41

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Table 1. Standard accelerated stability tests

listed in Table 1 in increasing order of severity of the oxidation conditions used. Although testing stability under ambient conditions may approximate real storage conditions of foods, the procedure is too slow to be of practical value. Furthermore, under slow oxidation, the reproducibility of results is compromised by many variables that are difficult to control over prolonged storage periods. Methods using light- and metai-catalysed oxidation provide rapid screening tests. However, in the presence of sensitizers the mechanism of photo-oxidation is different from that of the free-radical autoxidation that usually occurs in foods. Photo-oxidation results in the formation of different flavour precursors with different volatile breakdown products and flavour significance ~. Similarly, oxidation catalysed by metals may result in a higher proportion of breakdown carbonyl products relative to the level of primary hydroperoxides. The weight-gain method, b~sed o:~ an increase in weight due to oxygen absorption, is not very sensitive. The endpoint requires a level of oxidation that is beyond the point where flavour deterioration is detectable in polyunsaturated oils. The Schaal oven test, run at 60-70C, has fewer limitations associated with iP. The endpoint represents a lower degree of oxidation and results correlate well with evaluations of actual shelf iifes. At 60C a number of side reactions are minimized; at temperatures of 100C and above these reactions give misleading results ~. High-temperature tests including oxygen uptake, oxygen bomb, the active oxygen method (AOM), and RancimaP are unreliable because the mechanism of lipid oxidation changes significantly at elevated temperatures. Levels of volatile acids measured by the automated AOM ~ and Rancimat methods are only significant at elevated temperatures and therefore may not be relevant to normal storage conditions. The linlitations of high-temperature stability tests include the tbilowing:

Test Ambient storage Light Metal catalysts Weight-gain method Schaal oven Oxygen uptake ~xvgen bomb (ASTM)1 ' Acive oxygen (AOM)

Conditions Room temperature, atmospheric pressure Room temperature, atmospheric pressure Room temperature, atmospheric pressure 30-80C, atmospheric pressure 60-70C, atmospheric pressure 80-100C, atmospheric pressure _q9C, 65-I 15 psi O, 98C, air bubbling 100-140C

Characteristics Too slow Different mechanism More decomposition Endpoint questionable Fewest problems Differenl mechanism Different mechanism Different mechanism

Rancimaf'

Endpointquestionable

'~ASTM,AmericanSocietyforTestingMaterials b Producedby MetrohmLid,CH-9100,Herisau,Switzerland

The determination of peroxide values (P.V.), conjugated dienes or carbonyl values of oils that have been oxidized at IO0C (AOM and Rancimat conditions) is unreliable because the primary hydroperoxides formed decompose at elevated temperatures. In addition, side reactions such as polymerization and cleavage reactions become significant and undermine the reliability of the results. The significance of the I.P. depends on the degree of unsaturation of the particular oils tested. The choice of a high P.V. (50-100) as the endpoint is questionable since flavour and quality deterioration may occur in soybean oil at peroxide values lower than IO (Ref. 12). Several examples from the literature illustrate how conflicting results can be obtained when antioxidants the rates of oxidation become dependent on oxygen are evaluated under different testing conditions. concentration, because the solubility of oxygen Discrepancies in the relative antioxidant activities of dill decreases at elevated temperatures: ferent tocopherol homologues and of ascorbic acid and oxidation occurs rapidly and results in drastic changes ascorbyl palmitate have been reviewed previously ~3.t4. in oxygen availability: Phosphatidylethanolamine (PE) is the most active the I.P. occurs at an oxidation level that is too high of the phospholipids in stabilizing soybean oil and and beyond the point at which rancid flavours are lard under Rancimat conditions at 100C (Ref. 15). However, soybean oil also contains natural tocopherols detected: and phospholipids that act synergistically with tocside reactions such as polymerization and cyclization opherols, an effect that is strongly temperature depenbecome important and may not be relevant to normal dent. Thus, in a study comparing the effects of phosphostorage temperatures: lipids and tocopherols at 100C, PE showed syneranalyses of oxidation under these conditions are of gistic activity with tocopherols. However, another study t~, showed that dipalmitoylphosphatidylethanolamine questionable value: (DDPE) has synergistic activity only at temperatures volatile antioxidants such as butylated hydroxyanisole above 80C. At 60C, DPPE has very little or no syner(BHA) and butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) are sub- gistic activity with o~-tocopherol. The reason lbr this ject to significant losses at elevated temperatures: effect of temperature on synergism is apparent from the phenolic antioxidants in natural extracts decompose at work of Husain et aL t7` who showed that at elevated temperatures phospholipids develop browning products elevated temperatures.
221

Trends in Food Science & Technology July 1993 IVol. 41

that have antioxidant activity. These workers evaluated the activity of egg yolk phospholipids in stabilizing methyl linoleate against oxidation at 50C. On heating at 180C, both phosphatidy!choline (PC) and PE formed browning products that effectively inhibited the formation of linoleate hydroperoxides. Saturated PC and PE showed no synergistic effects with t~-tocopherol. Therefore, the high synergistic activity observed for phospholipids, especially PE, is evidently due to the formarion of browning materials at elevated temperatures. In another study the oxidative stability of soybean oil w a s compared with that of canola oil and sunflower oil at two temperatures using P.V. as an index of lipid oxidation ~8. At 60C soybean oil was the most stable, followed by canola oil and sunflower oil. In contrast, at 100C, under AOM and Rancimat conditions, canola oil was the most stable followed by soybean and sunflower oils. Results for the oxidative stability based on P.V. obtained at 60C were in agreement with sensory evaluations and analyses of volatiles by gas chromatography. Thus, soybean oil had significantly higher flavour scores and lower total volatile contents than canola and sunflower oils. This study illustrates how marked differences in the oxidative stabilities of different vegetable oils can be obtained depending on the temperature of oxidation used in the stability tests and the analytical methods used to measure oxidation. Therefore, in agreement with Ragnarsson and Labuza ~, valid comparisons of the stabilities of various oils requires testing at different temperatures.

Lipid oxidation methods

The various methods of determining lipid oxidation have been reviewed previously *-K. Their application to evaluating oxidative stability involves measuring lipid oxidation after the sample has been oxidized under standardized conditions to a suitable endpoint, in this context, the methods can be ranked on the basis of their usefulness in p~dicting the stability, shelf life and consumer acceptability o f the product, in the following order of decreasing usefulness: sensory > headspace volatiles > oxygen absorption > P.V. > thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) > carotene bleaching by co,oxidation with linoleic acid > conductivity caused by short-chain acids produced at the elevated temperatures of the Rancimat test. The rationale for this ranking is discussed below. Sensory methods, based on odour and flavour evaluations, provide the most useful information related to consumer acceptance of the food product. Although these methods are very sensitive, they are highly dependent on the quality of training the taste panel received. The scoring by taste or odour panelists for the same food may vary greatly from laboratory to laboratory. Analysis of volatiles by gas chromatography is closely related to flavour evaluation and is therefore the most suitable method for comparison with the results of sensory panel tests~'~ The gas chromatography method can also provide useful data on the origin of flavour and odour volatiles and their precursors. While levels of total and individual
222

volatiles can be correlated with flavour scores, the flavour significance of volatiles and their impact on the flavour stability of food lipids are often difficult to determine. Oxygen absorption methods have limited sensitivity and require high levels of oxidation as the endpoint for induction periods. Determination of the P.V. provides an empirical measure of lipid oxidation that is less sensitive and precise than sensory and headspace methods for volatiles. The information provided by both oxygen absorption and P.V. methods is related to the amounts of hydroperoxides that are readily decomposed at temperatures above 60C. Peroxide values of lipids heated under AOM conditions have little or no relation to the degree of oxidation under normal storage conditions. The thiobarbituric acid (TBA) method is based on the colour reaction between TBA and oxidation products of polyunsaturated lipids. This simple test is sensitive and very precise, but the information provided can be misleading. The test is not specific because many secondary oxidation products form TBARS. The test is more sensitive when used with polyunsaturated fatty acids containing three or more double bonds, and is not suitable for the measurement of oxidation products of lipids containing mainly oleic and linoleic acids. TBA values may overestimate the extent of oxidation since other components, such as browning reaction products and protein and sugar degradation products, interfere with the formation of the TBA colour complex 2. The spectrophotometric method 2~ for carotene bleaching by co-oxidation of linoleic acid is simple and sensitive but is not specific and is subject to interference from oxidizing and reducing agents present in crude extracts, Furthermore, linoleic acid is not an appropriate substrate since food lipids are mainly triglyceride in nature. The Rancimat is an automated instrumental test that measures the conductivity of low molecular weight fatty acids (e.g. tbrmic acid) produced during the autoxidation of fats at i 00C or above. This method requires a somewhat higher level of oxidation (P.V. > 100) than other methods in order to obtain measurable results ~. Again, the endpoint oxidation indices are unreliable because high temperatures are required to obtain detectable organic acids, resulting in levels of rancidity far in excess of normal.

Natural antioxidants
Much interest has developed in recent years in naturally occurring antioxidants because of the worldwide trend toward the usage of natural additives in tbods. Natural antioxidant substances are presumed to be safe since they occur in plant foods, and are seen as more desirable than their synthetic counterparts. Interest in natural antioxidants in the food industry and in medicine also stems from their potential health benefits. Plant phenolic compounds are known to have antimutagenic and anticarcinogenic activity, and to act as modulators of arachidonic acid metabolism::. Several comprehensive reviews of the literature on natural antioxidants have appeared recently :-~-:9.
Trends in Food Science & Technology July 1993 [Vol. 41

Table 2. Chronological list of selected references on evaluations of natural antioxidants Natural antioxidant
Spices Hydroxyflavones Flavonoids Rosemary Polyphenolics (leaves) Rosemary, sage, cocoa shells Rosemary Polyhydroxyflavonoids Hydroxyisoflavones Rosemary Flavonoids (peanuts) Rosemary quinone Carnosol. rosmanol Catechins (lea) Vanillin Rosemary, carnosic acid and synergists Flavones, flavanones, flavonoids Rosemary Oal extracls Isoflavones (soybean)

Substrate
Corn oil emulsion Lard, pie crust Me linoleate emulsion Lard Chicken fat Soybean oil Lard, soybean 03 Chickenfat, potato flakes Lard Lard Lard

Stability test
Warburg AOM Co catalyst Fe catalyst Oven Oven Astella Oven Oven Rancimat Rancimat Bleaching Oven AOM AOM Rancimat Rancimat Rancimat Room Oven Rancimat Oven Bleaching Rancimat Rancimat Lipoxygenase

Temperature/ conditions
40C

Method

(endpoin|)
02 uptake P.V. 02 uptake P.V. I.P. (P.V. 25) P.V. Sensory I.P., P.V. I.P. Headspace, residual 02, sensory, carotenoids P.V. Conductivity Conductivity TBARS Visible (470 nm) P.V. P.V. P.V. Headspace, sensory, residual 02 Conductivity Conductivity Conductivity (P.V. 50) Headspace(pentane)

n_e ileal.

3O 31 32 33 34 35

98C Room Room 60C

60C Room

100C

90C UV 60C
140C 100C

36 37 38 39 4O 41,42 43 44 45 24 25 26

Linoleic acid
Carotene-linoteic acid Lard Lard Lard Cereal flakes Lard, peanut oil Lard Stripped oil, lard corn Polato flakes, wheat flakes, pork patties Soybean oil Chicken fat, chicken olein, carotene, linoleic acid Chicken fat Lard, linoleic acid

Room TLC 60C 98C

98C Room

100C 140C 100C

20C 32C, 60~C

180C 100C

P.V. (I.P.) Conjugated dienes Conductivity HPLC (234 nm) Visible (450 nm)
I.P., rancidity I.P. IC5o

37C UV
100C 1 ! OC 22C

Polyphenols (green tea) Rosemary, carnosic acid, ursolic acid

AOM,Activeoxygenmethod HPLC,High-performanceliquid chromatography

I.P., Induction period IC~0, Concentration necessaryfor 50% inhibition Me linoleate, Methyl linoleate ,i See Ref. 3

P.V., Peroxide value TBARS, Thiobarbituric acid reactive substances TLC, Thin-layer chromatography UV, Ultraviolet

Unfortunately, as with the evaluation of lipid oxidation in general, the published data comparing the antioxidant activities of plant extracts and spices is difficult to evaluate because of the diverse testing methods used and the questionable conditions of oxidation. Stability tests to evaluate natural antioxidants use a wide variety
Trends in Food Science & Technology July 1993 IVol. 41

of oils and food lipid substrates, oxidation conditions varying from room temperature to 180C, various endpoints, and a wide range of methods to measure lipid oxidation (Table 2). Comparison of the antioxidant activities of crude plant extracts is further complicated by the use of varying

223

amounts of test materials with no knowledge of the con- must be kept as close as practical to the conditions centration of active phenolic components present. Much under which protection against autoxidation is required. The degree of oxidation should be determined at suitattention has been focused on evaluating the antioxidant activity of rosemary extracts, the only commercially able time intervals by more than one method and by available natural antioxidant. The active components of measuring different types of products, including initial rosemary extracts have now been identified and in- and decomposition products of lipid oxidation. Initial clude rosm~nic acid, carnosol, carnosic acid, rosmari- products of oxidation such as hydroperoxides can be dipheno~ and carsolic acid -'7. Carnosoi is reported to be estimated by determining the P.V. or level of conjugated res~nsible for 90% of the antioxidant activity of dienes by ultraviolet spectrophotometry. Decomposition rosemary extract27. By measuring pentane formation in products of oxidation can be measured by analyses of potato flakes stored at 20C, L61iger~7 reported the carbonyl compounds or volatiles by gas chromatogfollowing decreasing order of antioxidant activity: raphy~'-a. Initial products provide information on precur2 ~ ppm of a l : ! mixture of BHA and BHT > 500 ppm sors of flavour compounds, and decomposition products rosemary extract > 500 ppm tea extract. However, such are directly related to the flavour compounds affecting comparisons are difficult to interpret without some quality. knowledge of the amount of active components in the The efficacy of various natural antioxidants should be antioxidant extracts tested. compared at the same molar concentration with reference More recent studies on the effectiveness of com- to pure standards such as ot-tocopherol, BHA or BHT. ponents of tea leaves in stabilizing lard under AOM con- More valid comparisons of the levels of natural antiditions have shown these components to be more active oxidants in crude plant extracts should be made either than (+)-t-tocopheroi or BHA 44. The following order of on the basis of active components such as phenelic comactivities has been reported for tea catechins: epigallo- pounds, or on the basis of the calculated concentration catechin gallate > epigallocatechin > epicatechin gallate of phenolics necessary to obtain 50% inhibition. > epicatechin. A spin trapping method has been used to determine scavenging activity on active oxygen species: References a water extract fraction of green tea and crude green tea 1 Ragnarsson,I.O. and Labuza, T.P. (19771 FoodChem. 2, 291-308 polyphenols showed greater antioxidant activity than 2 Kochhar,S.P. and Rossel], J,8. I1990)in FoodAntioxidants ascorbic acid and rosemary extracts-~.Such comparative (Hudson, J.E.,ed.), pp. 19-64, Elsevier evaluations of crude extracts are often made in the litera3 Rossell,J.B. (1983) in Rancidity in Foods (Allen, J.C. and Hamilton, R.J., eds), pp, 21-45, Elsevier ture (Table 2), but are difficult to interpret without relat4 Porter,W. (1980) in Autoxidation ill Food and Biological Systems ing the antioxidant activity to the concentration of active ISimic, M.G. and Karel, M., eds), pp. 295-365, Plenum Press components. For example, the higher concentration of 5 Frankel, E.N., Huang, S-W., Kanner, J. and German, I.B. (1993) Inform total polyphenolic compounds in virgin olive oils, pre4, 529 pared by traditional pressing methods, accounted lbr 6 Gray,I.I.(19781J, Am, Oil Chem, Soc,55, 539-546 their higher oxidative stability than that of industrially 7 Mellon, S.L. (1981) Food TechnoL 3(7), 105-111 extracted olive oils"~. Similarly, on the basis of concen8 Gray, I.I. and Monahan, F.I. (1992) Trends Food Sci. TechnoL I, trations of total phenolics, the antioxidant activities of 315-319 mixtures of wine phenolic compounds in inhibiting the 9 Frankel,E.N. (1985) Pro~. LipidRes. 23, 197-221 oxidation of human low-density lipoprotein were tbund 10 L;iubli,M,W. and Brullel, P.A. 11986)I, Am. Oil Chem. Sot'. 63, 792-795 to be significantly higher than that of 0t-tocopherol and 11 deMan,J.M., Tie, F. and (leMan, L. (1987) J, Am. Oil Chem. Sot'. 64, 993-996 to be of the same order as that of quercetin ~'. Recommended testing protocol for oxidative stability Given the tremendous interest in the antioxidant properties of plant materials and the necessity to provide reliable intbrmation, it is critical to establish as clearly as possible the influence of the methodology used and the nature of the materials being evaluated on the experimental data. There is a need for standardization of methods to determine the oxidative stability of different tbod lipid systems and different antioxidant systems. To eliminate the contbunding effects of tocopherols and other natural antioxidants, evaluations need to be made with polyunsaturated edible oils stripped of natural tocopherols. Valid comparisons of oxidative stabilities of edible oils and of the activity of antioxidants in food lipid systems require testing at different storage temperatures, preferably 40-60C depending on the rate of oxidation, and with efficient shaking. Each test should be calibrated for each fat or tbod tbrmulation, and accelerated conditions
Frankel,E.N. (I 980) in Handhook of Soy Oil Processing and Utilization (Erickson, D.R., Pryde, E.H., Brekke, O.L., Mounts, T.L and Fall), R.A., eds), pp. 229-244, American SoybeanAssociation and American Oil Chemists' Sociely 13 Lahuza, T.P. (1971) CRC Crit. Rev. Food Technol. 2, 355-405 14 Frankel, E.N. (1989)BibL Nutr. Dieta 43, 297-312 15 Hudson, 8.J.F. and Ghavami, M. (1984) Lebensm. Wiss. Technol. 17, 12

191-194 16 Dziedzic,S.Z.and Hudson,B.I.F.(1984)Food Chem. 14, 45-51

17

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Stllulea, P. (1990)il, Food Antioxidants (Hudson, B.J.E.,ed.), pp. 99-I 70, Elsevier Pratt,D.E. and Hudson, B.J.F.(1990)in FoodAntioxidants (Hudson, B.J.E.,ed.), pp. 171-191, Elsevier Namiki,M. (1990) CRCCrit. Rev. FoodSci. Nutr. 29, 273-300 L61iger,J. (I 991 ) in Free Radicalsand Food Additives (Aruoma, O.I. and Halliwell, 8., eds!, pp. 121-150, Taylor & Francis Huang,M-T., Ho, C-T. and Lee,C.Y., eds (1992) Phenolic Compounds
in Food and their Effectson Health I and II (ACS SymposiumSeries 507), American Chemical Society Shahidi,F. and Wanasundara,P.K.J.P.D.(1992) CRC Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 32, 67-103 Chipault,LR., Mizuno, G.R. and Lundberg,W.O. (1955) Food Res.20,

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443-448 Simpson,T.H. and Uri, N. (1956) Chem. Ind. (London) 15 September, 956-957 Mehla,A.C. and Seshadri,T.R. (1959) I. Sci. Ind. Res. 18B, 24-28 Chang,S.S.,Ostrich-Malijasevic, B., Huang, C.L. and Hsieh, A.L (19761 US Patent 3 950 266 Hudson, B.I.F.and Mahgoub,S.E.O.(1980) J. Sci. FoodAftric. 31, 646-650 gracco,U., L61igerand Vivet, I-L. (1981) J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 58, 686-690 Wu, J.W., Lee, M-H., Ho, C-T. and Chang, S.S.(1982) I. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 59, 339-345 Hudson,B.J,F.and Lewis,J.I. (1983) Food Chem. 10, 111-120 Dziedzic,S.Z. and Hudson, B.I.F.(1983) Food Chem. 11,161-166

61,96-98 42 Houlihan,C.M., Ho, C.T. and Chang, S.S.(1985)I. Am. Oil Chem. 5oc. 62, 96-98 43 Nakatani,N. and Inatani, R. (1984) Agric. Biol. Chem.48, 2081 44 Matsuzaki,T. and Hara, M. (1985) Nippon Nogei Kagaku59, 129 4.$ Burri,J., Graf, M., Lambelet,P. and Lc!i~,er,J. (1989)I. Sci. Food Agric. 48, 49-56 46 Duve,KJ. and White, P.J.(1991) J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 68, 365-370 47 Floury,Y., Welti, D.H., Philippossian,G. and Magnolato, D. (1992) in
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pp. 98-113, AmericanChemical Society Lunder,T./. (1992) in Phenofic Compounds in Food and their Effects on Health I and II (ACSSymposiumSeries 507) (Huang, M-T., Ho, C-T. and Lee,C.Y., eds), pp. 114-120, American ChemicalSociety 49 hen,Q., Shi, H. and Ho, C-T. (1992)/. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 69, 999-1002 50 Zhao,B., Li, X., He, R-G., Cheng, S-J.and Wenjuan, X. (1989) Cell Biophys. 14, 175-185 51 Nergiz,C. and Unal, K. (1991) l. Sci. Food Agric. 56, 79-84 .$2 Frankel,E.N., Kanner,J., German, J.B., Parks,E. and Kinsella,J.E. (1993) Lancet341,454-457 48

EHEDG Update
If food-processing equipment is of poor hygienic design, it will be difficult to clean and to free of all harmful microorganisms thai may affect product quality and safety. This paper summarizes the survey of hygienic equipment design criteria prepared by the Design Principles subgroup of the European Hygienic

Hygienic equipment design criteria

Sometimes hygienic design requirements may conflict with functional design requirements. Usually, in such Equipment Design Group (EHEDG) and approved by the cases, an acceptable compromise can be found. Where EHEDG. This is the ninth in a series of articles featuring the this is not the case, hygienic design requirements must EHEDG to be published in Trends in Food Science & prevail, and adverse consequences for the function of Technology. The EHEDG is an independent consortium formed the equipment will have to be accepted, to ensure the to develop guidelines and test methods for the safe and hy- microbiological safety of the product. Engineers who design equipment for food processing usually have a gienic processing of food. The group includes representatives good understanding of the requirements and design from research institutes, the food industry, equipment manu- solutions for safety, electrical, mechanical, mass transfacturers and government organizations in Europe.* fer and energy transfer aspects. However, this is very often not true for hygienic aspects, which in many cases are of great importance to food businesses from the viewpoint of both the microbiological safety and the Microbial product contamination may originate from raw materials, or the product may be contaminated with quality of their products. Hygienic design should be based on an appropriate microorganisms during processing and packaging. For example, if equipment is of poor hygienic design, it will combination of mechanical, process and microbiological be difficult to clean and difficult to free from micro- requirements. It should be well appreciated that upgradorganisms, which may then survive and multiply in ing existing designs to meet hygienic requirements can be prohibitively expensive and may be unsuccessful. product residues in crevices and dead areas. Therefore, hygienic requirements should be taken into *Readers requiring further information on the EHEDG are referred to Trends account at the initial design stage. Complying with hygienic requirements may increase the life expectancy in Food Science & Technology(1992)Vol. 3(11), p. 277.
Trends in Food Science & Technology July 1993 lVol. 41 v~,r~.El~e,,ier . . . . . Sci
Puhli',l ..... Lid.

,UK, .,U4 -2-44',J~IS.f,.,

225