Theory of Machines (Basic Concepts)

Machine and Mechanism

There is a difference between a machine and a mechanism: All machines transform energy to do work, but only some mechanisms are capable of performing work. The term machinery means an assembly that includes both machines and mechanisms. Figure (a) illustrates a cross section of a machinean internal combustion engine. The assembly of the piston, connecting rod, and crankshaft is a mechanism, termed a slider-crank mechanism. The basic schematic drawing of that mechanism,Fig.(b), called a skeleton Outline, shows only its fundamental structure without the technical details explaining how it is constructed.
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Actual I.C Engine and its Skeleton Diagram

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Efficiency of Machine
The efficiency of a machine is the ratio of its output to its input, if both input and output are expressed in the same units of energy or power. This ratio is always less than unity, and it is usually expressed in percent by multiplying the ratio by 100.

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Mechanical Advantage
The mechanical advantage of a mechanism or system is the ratio of the load or weight W, typically in pounds or kilograms, divided by the effort or force F exerted by the initiating entity or operator, also in pounds or kilograms. If friction has been considered or is known from actual testing, the mechanical advantage, MA, of a machine is:
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Velocity Ratio
Machines and mechanisms are used to translate a small amount of movement or distance into a larger amount of movement or distance. This property is known as the velocity ratio: it is

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Concept of Mechanical Advantage MA

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Pulleys to achieve MA

The operator or other power source must exert a force F through a distance S=4h so that the velocity ratio of s to h is 4.
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Screw Jack to achieve MA

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Levers and its class

Levers are the simplest of mechanisms; A lever is a rigid beam that can rotate about a xed point along its length called the fulcrum. Physical effort applied to one end of the beam will move a load at the other end. Each is capable of providing a different level of mechanical advantage. These levers are called Class 1, Class 2, and Class 3. The differences in the classes are determined by: Position along the length of the lever where the effort is applied Position along the length of the lever where the load is applied Position along the length of the lever where the fulcrum or pivot point is located 07/16/2012 Prof.Irfan Shaikh 10

Class 1 - Lever

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Class 2 - Lever

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Class 3 - Lever

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Link or Linkage
Each part of a machine, which moves relative to some other part, is known as a element. A link may consist of several parts, which are rigidly fastened together A linkage is a mechanism formed by connecting two or more levers together. Linkages can be designed to change the direction of a force or make two or more objects move at the same time. Linkages can be classied according to their primary functions: Function generation: the relative motion between the links connected to the frame Path generation: the path of a tracer point Motion generation: the motion of the coupler link
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Types of Links
1. Rigid link. A rigid link is one which does not undergo any deformation while transmitting motion. Strictly speaking, rigid links do not exist. However, as the deformation of a connecting rod, crank etc. of a reciprocating steam engine is not appreciable, they can be considered as rigid links. 2. Flexible link. A flexible link is one which is partly deformed in a manner not to affect the transmission of motion. For example, belts, ropes, chains and wires are flexible links and transmit tensile forces only. 3. Fluid link. A fluid link is one which is formed by having a fluid in a receptacle and the motion is transmitted through the fluid by pressure or compression only, as in the case of hydraulic presses, jacks and brakes.
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Machine and Structure

1. The parts of a machine move relative to one another, whereas the members of a structure do not move relative to one another. 2. A machine transforms the available energy into some useful work, whereas in a structure no energy is transformed into useful work. 3. The links of a machine may transmit both power and motion, while the members of a structure transmit forces only.
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Kinematic Pair
The two links or elements of a machine, when in contact with each other, are said to form a pair. If the relative motion between them is completely or successfully constrained (i.e. in a definite direction), the pair is known as kinematic pair.

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Completely constrained motion

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Incompletely constrained motion

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Successfully constrained motion

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Classification of Kinematic Pair

Sliding Pair

Rolling Pair

Turning Pair

Turning Pair

Screw Pair

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Kinematic Chain
When the kinematic pairs are coupled in such a way that the last link is joined to the first link to transmit definite motion (i.e. completely or successfully constrained motion), it is called a kinematic chain. In other words, a kinematic chain may be defined as a combination of kinematic pairs, joined in such a way that each Link forms a part of two pairs and the relative motion between the links or elements is completely or successfully constrained.
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Equation of Kinematic Chain

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Definition of Mechanism
When one of the links of a kinematic chain is fixed, the chain is known as mechanism. It may be used for transmitting or transforming motion e.g. engine indicators, typewriter etc. A mechanism with four links is known as simple mechanism, and the mechanism with more than four links is known as compound mechanism. When a mechanism is required to transmit power or to do some particular type of work, it then becomes a machine. In such cases, the various links or elements have to be designed to withstand the forces (both static and kinetic) safely. A little consideration will show that a mechanism may be regarded as a machine in which each part is reduced to the simplest form to transmit the required motion.
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Number of Degrees of Freedom for Plane Mechanism

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Arrest of Degrees of Freedom of Linkages

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Types of Kinematic Chain & Grashof s law

1. Four bar chain or quadric cyclic chain, 2. Single slider crank chain, and 3. Double slider crank chain. Grashof s law According to Grashof s law for a four bar mechanism, the sum of the shortest and longest link lengths should not be greater than the sum of the remaining two link lengths if there is to be continuous relative motion between the two links.
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Four bar Chain or Simple Planer Linkages

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Beam Engine and Coupler Mechanism

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Single Slider Crank chain mechanism

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Pendulum Pump and Oscillating Cylinder Engine

Oscillating Cylinder Engine Pendulum Pump

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Rotary Internal Combustion Engine

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Crank and Slotted lever Quick Return Motion Mechanism

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Theory of Quick Return

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Whitworth Quick Return Mechanism

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Elliptical Trammell

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Equation of elliptical trammel

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Scotch Yoke Mechanism

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Oldhams Coupling

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Straight Line Mechanisms

One of the most common forms of the constraint mechanisms is that it permits only relative motion of an oscillatory nature along a straight line. The mechanisms used for this purpose are called straight line mechanisms. These mechanisms are of the following two types: 1. In which only turning pairs are used, and 2. In which one sliding pair is used. These two types of mechanisms may produce exact straight line motion or approximate straight
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Peaucellier mechanism

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Harts mechanism

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The tracing point P traces out an approximate straight line over certain positions of its movement, if PB/PA = O1A/OB.

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Roberts mechanism.

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Grasshopper mechanism

OA = (AP)2 / AQ.

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Pantograph
A pantograph is an instrument used to reproduce to an enlarged or a reduced scale and as exactly as possible the path described by a given point. It consists of a jointed parallelogram ABCD as shown in Fig.

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Pantograph
It is made up of bars connected by turning pairs. The bars BA and BC are extended to O and E respectively, such that OA/OB = AD/BE

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Engine Indicator Diagram

The application of straight line motions is mostly found in the engine indicators. In these instruments, the cylinder of the indicator is in direct communication with the steam or gas inside the cylinder of an engine. The indicator piston rises and falls in response to pressure variation within the engine cylinder. The piston is resisted by a spring so that its displacement is a direct measure of the steam or gas pressure acting upon it. The displacement is communicated to the pencil which traces the variation of pressure in the cylinder (also known as indicator diagram) on a sheet of paper wrapped on the indicator drum which oscillates with angular motion about its axis, according to the motion of the engine piston. The variation in pressureProf.Irfan Shaikh is recorded to an enlarged scale. 53 07/16/2012

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Watts Indicator

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Universal or Hookes Joint

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Davis Steering Gear

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