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SOLAR CELLS

Earth receives 174PW of incoming solar radiation. Of which 30% of the energy is reflected back to the space while the rest is absorbed by clouds, oceans and land masses. Solar energy that is incident on the earth can be harnessed by the use of various solar modules. The heart of the solar modules is SOLAR CELL. The solar cell is made up of silicon. Silicon is used because of its atomic structure. Silicon has four electrons in its valence band hence it can be available in the crystalline structure surrounded by other four silicon atoms. The silicon is used because of its properties i.e. behaving as a semiconductor. Pure silicon cannot be used here hence it is doped with boron or phosphorous (Trivalent or Pentavalent impurities) Silicon is the

second most abundant element that is present in the earth crust but in the combined state. The first target lies in the extraction of pure silicon from its combined state. Silicon is mostly present in the form of SiO2 i.e. sand. We have three types of solar cells. They are Mono crystalline, Poly Crystalline and amorphous form of solar panels. CONVERSION OF SAND TO PURIFIED SILICON The silicon dioxide is present in two forms. They are: Quartzite gravel and Crushed quartz. Silicon can obtained from SiO2 by removing the oxygen from SiO2. So SiO2 is placed into an electric arc furnace where a carbon arc is then applied to release the oxygen. The products formed are carbon dioxide and molten silicon. This simple process yields silicon with one percent impurity, useful in many industries but not the solar cell production industry. The 99 percent pure silicon is purified even further using the floating zone technique. A rod of impure silicon is passed through a heated zone several times in the same direction. This procedure "drags" the impurities toward one end with each pass. At a specific point, the silicon is deemed pure, and the impure end is removed. The pure silicon can be in the form of granular or chunk polysilicon. There are two types of solar cells depending on the raw material used for the preparation of silicon wafers. Mono Crystalline solar wafers are cut from the single silicon ingot or boule of silicon where as Poly Crystalline solar wafers are cut from the silicon ingot which is made up of different crystals. Each type of solar cell has its own pros and cons.

PREPARATION OF INGOTS FROM POLYSILICON The process of conversion of Mono crystalline silicon to Ingot involves a process called Czochralski process. It is the method of crystal growth used to obtain single

crystals of semiconductors , metals, salts, and synthetic gemstones.

High-purity, semiconductor-grade silicon is melted in a crucible, usually made of quartz. Dopant impurity atoms such as boron or phosphorus can be added to the molten silicon in precise amounts to dope the silicon, thus changing it into p-type or n-type silicon, with different electronic properties. A precisely oriented rod-mounted seed crystal is dipped into the molten silicon. The seed crystal's rod is slowly pulled upwards and rotated simultaneously. By precisely controlling the temperature gradients, rate of pulling and speed of rotation, it is possible to extract a large, single-crystal, cylindrical ingot from the melt. Occurrence of unwanted instabilities in the melt can be avoided by investigating and visualizing the temperature and velocity fields during the crystal growth process. This process is normally performed in an inert atmosphere, such as argon, in an inert chamber, such as quartz. Whereas for multi-crystalline silicon, the poly-silicon material is melted and then cast into bricks.

Fig: Mono Crystalline Ingot

Fig: Poly Crystalline Ingot

SLICING OF WAFERS FROM INGOTS The mono-crystalline silicon ingot is then slice into wafers. As for the poly-crystalline silicon, the silicon brick is first diced into bars and then sliced into wafers. Hence Poly crystalline wafers exist in perfect square and Mono crystalline wafers does not exist in perfect shapes. Usually they are cut at the edges. MAKING SOLAR CELLS FROM SOLAR WAFERS The solar wafers that are manufactured in the previous step are checked for quality and efficiency. Wafers are cut into standard sizes. The silicon wafer is treated with potassium hydroxide (KOH), a strong alkali. The solution removes defects and creates minute pyramidal structures on the wafer surface. These help the cell trap more light by reducing reflectivity, thus increasing power output. A P-N junction is created on the wafer surface by using high temperatures to bind a layer of phosphorous over the silicon surface. This junction is responsible for electricity in the cell. The sides of the cell are shaved off using plasma etching. This insulates the top and bottom of the cell and prevents unwanted current flow. A layer of silicon nitride (SiN) is deposited on the cell surface to further reduce reflection and improve power output. Silver electrodes and an aluminum layer are screen-printed on the front and back of the cell respectively. The cell is completed when ceramic powder is bonded to the cell surface through a high-heat process called sintering.

Figure describing the complete manufacturing process of solar cells.

The solar cells that are manufactured are about (14-18) % efficient. The solar cells that are manufactured gives current when light is incident on the solar cell and has output wattage. The solar cells are distinguished based on the output wattages of the cell. The solar cells are then undergone some steps to take a form of solar panel that are used for the production of power.

FLOWCHART DESCRIBING THE MANUFACTURING PROCESS OF SOLAR PANELS

The solar cells are received and are classified based on the output wattages.

The solar cells are scribed according to the dimensions given and sent to production floor

Tabbing

Damaged cell

Stringing

Bus

Tedlar

Lay up EVA

Glass

Final verification

Lamination

Edge Cutting

RTV

Junction box

Mechanical Assembly

Aluminium frame

Rejected Module Testing

Packing

Thus the solar panels are manufactured depending on the output wattages prescribed by the customer. These solar panels can be used for various purposes depending on the requirement. The products designed by our company are Solar Lanterns, Home Lightening Systems, Street Lightening Systems, Water Pumps and Power Packs.

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