ISSN 0097 8078, Water Resources, 2010, Vol. 37, No. 2, pp. 160171. Pleiades Publishing, Ltd., 2010.

. Original Russian Text M.V. Mikhailova, 2010, published in Vodnye Resursy, 2010, Vol. 37, No. 2, pp. 164175.

WATER RESOURCES AND THE REGIME OF WATER BODIES

HydrologicalMorphological Processes in the Mouth Area of the Orinoco (Venezuela)

M. V. Mikhailova
Water Problems Institute, Russian Academy of Sciences, ul. Gubkina 3, Moscow, 119333 Russia
Received February 17, 2009

AbstractThe peculiarities of the hydrological regime of the Orinoco River and the coastal zone of the Atlantic Ocean that affect the hydrologicalmorphological processes in the mouth area of the Orinoco River are considered. The major features of the delta water regime, including its inundation, runoff distribution over the delta branches, water and sediment balance, and the processes of river and sea water mixing are described. Special attention is paid to the morphological processes at the Orinoco mouth (delta evolution and modern processes at its coastline). Key words: river, ocean, mouth area, delta, water and sediment runoff, delta branches, estuary widenings. DOI: 10.1134/S0097807810020041

INTRODUCTION Orinoco R. mouth is among the least studied in the world. Until the late 20th century, almost no publica tions on this subject were available in the scientific lit erature. Data on Orinoco delta in the Russian litera ture on river mouths are still limited to a small section in [7]. However, the delta and the nearshore of the Orinoco have some geomorphological, hydrological, and ecological features associated with the peculiar regime of the river and the oceanic coastal zone. These features are of scientific interest. The interest to studying the hydrologicalmorpho logical processes at Orinoco mouth has abruptly rose in recent years in connection with the large scale works involving oil exploration and production. In the late 20th century, the State Oil and Gas Company of Venezuela (Petrleos de Venezuela) sponsored studies of the Orinoco delta with the aim to obtain data on physical processes in the delta, its geomorphology, geology, and ecosystems. The objective of this study was to assess the present day state of the delta and to develop measures to reduce the effect of economic development of the delta (primarily, the exploration and production of oil) on its natural complex. Some results of these studies are given in [8, 24, 25]. This paper generalizes data on Orinoco delta pub lished abroad and poorly known by Russian research ers. Special attention is focused on the description of the river mouth area as a specific geographic object, occupying an intermediate position between the river basin and the coastal zone of the Atlantic Ocean, and the characteristic of the hydrologicalmorphological processes taking place in it.

GEOGRAPHICHYDROLOGICAL CHARACTERISTIC OF ORINICO BASIN AND THE COASTAL ZONE OF THE OCEAN Geography of the Orinoco River The Orinoco, one of the largest rivers in the World, flows in Venezuela and Columbia (Fig. 1). According to different data, its length is 2740 [3, 22], 2800 [20] km, and the basin area is 0.985 [10], 0.990 [20], 1.0 [3, 22], 1.039 [12], and 1.1 [25] million km2. The river origi nates from the southwestern part of Guayana Shield, on the western slopes of Sierra Parima Mountains at an elevation of 1047 m. Part of Orinoco basin lies in Brazil. The river is commonly divided into the Upper, Middle, and Lower Orinoco. The Upper Orinoco is a reach from the source to the inflow of the left tributary Guaviare. From its source, the Orinoco flows west northwestward. Downstream of Los Esmeralda town, the river is divided by a block of rocks into two branches: the major (Orinoco proper) and a lateral (or the Casiquiare River) branch, which flows southwest ward and empties into the Rio Negro River, a large left tributary of the Amazon. During spring flood in the Orinoco, part of the runoff of its upper reaches enters the Rio Negro network, while during high water period in the Rio Negro basin, part of runoff from the upper reaches of this river flows through the Casiqui are into the Orinoco. This situation exemplifies a rare natural phenomenonincomplete interception of the runoff of a large river by another large river (the Amazon). Downstream of the separation of the Casiquiare, the Orinoco turns northwestward and receives the Ventuari tributary from the right. Next the river flows westward. The Guaviare River empties

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HYDROLOGICALMORPHOLOGICAL PROCESSES IN THE MOUTH AREA N South America Venezuela CARIBBEAN SEA S

161

15 Orinoco 9 8 7 6 Columbua 5 4 3 5 2 1 10 11 13 14 12
Guyana

16

1 2

Columbua

Brazilia

400 km

Fig. 1. Schematic map of the Orinoco basin according to [25]. Tributaries: (1) Ventuari, (2) Guaviare, (3) Vichada, (4) Tomo, (5) Sineruco, (6) Capanaparo, (7) Meta, (8) Arauca, (9) Apure, (10) Cuchivero, (11) Caura, (12) Caroni; hydrometric stations in the lower reaches of the river: (13) Musinacio, (14) Ciudad Bolivar (Puente Angostura hydrometric section), (15) Ciudad Guayana, (16) Guri Dam. (1) Basin boundary, (2) state boundary.

from the right into the Orinoco near San Fernando de Atabapo town. The Middle Orinoco is the reach from the Guaviare mouth to the Maipures rapids. Down stream of San Fernando de Atabapo town, the river flows northward and becomes part of the boundary between Venezuela and Columbia. Here the river forms numerous rapids and waterfalls. The major trib utaries of the Orinoco in this reach are the Guayapo, Sipapo, Autana, and Cuao (right), Vichada, and Tomo (left). The Lower Orinoco is the reach from Maipures rapids to the ocean. Here the river receives large left tributaries the Meta, Sinaruco, Capanaparo, Arauca, and Apure. After the inflow of the Apure River, the Orinoco turns eastward, flows along the right margin of the Llanos Orinoco plains and receives the tributar ies Cuchivero, Caura (right), Manapire, Suat?, Pao, and Caris (left). The tributary Caroni empties into the Orinoco from the right downstream of Ciudad Bolivar.
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The Orinoco forms a large delta at its emptying into the Atlantic Ocean. Climate of the Basin Orinoco basin lies in the tropical climate zone. Two distinct seasons can be identified: the rainy season (MayNovember) and the dry season (December April). Air temperature varies only slightly within the year. The seasons differ mostly by the amount of pre cipitation. Rainy season begins in the summer under the effect of equatorial air masses, while dry trade winds blow in winter. Mean monthly air temperatures vary within the year from 27 to 30 [21]. In coastal plains and the plains of Llanos Orinoco, the climate is hot and air humidity is high. Mean daily air tempera ture in the delta (~26C) is close to the mean annual value [8]. The mean annual precipitation in Orinoco

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Annual distribution of the Orinoco water runoff at Puente Angostura hydrometric section over 19231989, according to [16] Characteris tic Q,m3/s % Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec. July Nov. Year Oct. June

13100 8830 7110 9130 19300 35800 53100 65300 62100 45900 31500 21200 22600 14600 31100 3.5 2.4 1.9 2.4 5.2 9.6 14.3 17.5 16.7 12.3 8.5 5.7 60.8 39.2 100.0

basin varies from 1000 mm in its northern part to 4000 mm in the southern part [21], the potential evap oration is 1700 mm [13]. Hydrological Regime of the Orinoco Rivers of Orinoco basin are mostly rain fed. The left tributaries also receive glacier derived nourish ment, though its contribution to the water runoff is not large. Groundwater plays an appreciable role in rivers' runoff formation. Water reserves accumulated in aqui fers during wet years become an important source of river nourishment during drier years. The high degree of natural runoff regulation in Orinoco basin is due to the presence of vast lowland areas, which are often waterlogged and inundated by flood. Water balance components for Orinoco basin are as follows: precipitation is 1990 mm, runoff is 914 mm, evaporation is 1076 mm, and runoff coefficient is 0.46 [3]. The literary data on the water runoff in the lower reaches of the Orinoco are very contradictory. The mean Orinoco water flow at Ciudad Guayana town upstream of the delta, according to [8, 21], is ~36000 m3/s (1136 km3/year). According to [10], the mean water flow at the mouth is 28857 m3/s (911 km3/year). According to [20], water runoff at the mouth is 1100, and according to [17], it is 1200 km3/year. Russian experts estimated water flow at Orinoco mouth at 914 [3] and 1010 [22] km3/year. The longest series of runoff observations is available for Puente Angostura hydrometric section at Ciudad Bolivar gauging station (the basin area is 836000 km2) in the lower reaches of the Orinoco, 390 km from the sea [16]. The author used these data for evaluating the mean annual water flow over 19251989 to obtain 31100 m3/s (980 km3/year) (table). Some cyclic com ponent was revealed in the long term variations in the annual runoff. Phases of higher water abundance were recorded in 19421956 and 19661989. Water runoff was below the mean in 19251941 and 19571966. The largest mean annual water flow over the period 19251989 was recorded in 1954 (37620 m3/s), 1981 (37610), and 1943 (36900 m3/s), while its least values were recorded in 1926 (21600), 1974 (24800) and 1965 (26500 m3/s). The ratio of the maximal mean annual water flow to the minimal one was as little as 1.74, suggesting the low variability of annual runoff. According to [22], the variation coefficient of Orinoco annual runoff is low (0.15). No trends were found to

exist in long term variations of the annual runoff. According to [12], the mean annual water runoff at the Puente Angostura hydrometric section is 984 and that at Orinoco mouth is 1129 km3/year. If we assume that river runoff between Puente Angostura and the mouth increases in proportiom to the increase in basin area (from 836 to 1000 thous. km2, i.e., by 19.6%), Orinoco runoff at the mouth, according to the authors calcu lations, will be ~1170 km3/year. By water runoff, the Orinoco ranks third after the Amazon and the Congo. The largest tributaries of the Orinoco in terms of runoff are the Guaviare (mean water flow is 8200 m3/s or 259 km3/year), Caura (~3000 m3/s or 94.7 km3/year), and Caroni (~4850 m3/s or 153 km3/year). A chain of HPPs was constructed on the Caroni: the Guri, Caruachi, Macagua I, Macagua II, and Macagua III with a total capacity of 15.9 million kW. These HPPs account for ~70% of the electric power produced in Venezuela. The water regime of the Orinoco is typical of sub equatorial rivers: water flow increases during rain floods and rapidly decreases during dry periods. The wet season lasts from May to November; and the dry period, from December to April. The most water abundant months in the lower reaches of the river are July, August, and September (a flood peak is com monly recorded in late Augustearly September), while February, March, and April are the driest months (the minimal flow falls on late Marchearly April). Mean monthly water flows in the lower reaches of the Orinoco at Musinacio hydrometric section (downstream of the mouth of the Caura with the basin area of 787000 km2) varied from 1330 to 81100 m3/s over period 19701981, depending on the season of the year [24, 25]. According to long term observational data at Puente Angostura hydrometric section (Table), July October account for ~61% and the rest of the year (NovemberJune), for 39% of the annual runoff. The water abundance is the largest in August (17.5) and the least in March (1.9% of the annual runoff). The ratio of the mean runoff of these months is >9, suggesting the strong nonuniform distribution of water flow over the year. The mean monthly water flow commonly attains its maximum in August (86000 m3/s in 1976), while its minimums are attained most often in March or April (35003900 m3 in 1926 and 1959, respec tively) [16]. Variations in water levels during the year are also very wide. Large areas in the river basin are inundated
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during the rain season. Measurements at Mucinacio gauging station show that the difference between water levels in the dry and flood periods reaches 17 m [21]. The mean value of seasonal variations in water level at Ciudad Bolivar gauging station 190 km upstream of the delta head is 14 m (Fig. 2). The lowest level is recorded in March, and the highest level, in August. The mean sediment runoff of the Orinoco varies from 150 to 212 million t/year according to different sources [8, 18, 25]. The major portion of sediments (up to 90%) forms in the basins of the left tributaries of the river. According to [18], the regulation of some tributaries has resulted in a decrease of Orinoco sedi ment runoff from 210 [19] to 150 million t/year. The mean water turbidity in the lower reaches has dropped from 170 to 130 g/m3. The runoff of dissolved solids in the Orinoco is 28.0 [20] or 28.6 [8] million t/year. Seasonal variations in suspended sediment runoff and water turbidity in the lower reaches of the Orinoco differ from such variations in most major rain fed riv ers of the world. While the Amazon, Ganges, Brah maputra, Mekong, etc. feature one peak in sediment discharge per year, the Orinoco has two such peaks (Fig. 2). The first peak (as in many other rivers) is recorded at the rise of flood (in AprilMay in this case), and the second peak (not typical of most other rivers) is attained during flood recession (October November). During flood peak (AugustSeptember), sediment runoff attains its minimum. The second minimum is recorded in the winter dry period (Janu aryMarch). According to [25], the unusual changes in the sediment content of Orinoco water are due to the large masses of sediments that are deposited in the channel and on the floodplain in the end of the previ ous flood and enter the river during the following flood. These are supplemented by the sediments that have accumulated on river banks under the effect of winds during dry winter season. Water level rise in the main river during flood peak creates backwater level rise in numerous tributaries, resulting in the inunda tion of vast areas. This causes large scale accumula tion of sediments and reduces their input into the main river. The backwater effect declines during flood reces sion, and the previously accumulated deposits are again involved in the motion, thus forming a second peak in sediment discharge. During the dry season, 30 or 40% of bottom sediments may dry out and start moving under the effect of strong northeastern winds. Such deposits will be washed out into rivers during the rise of the next flood. Hydrological Regime of the Coastal Oceanic Zone The long term rise in the Atlantic level is similar to the level rise of the entire World Ocean. According to [9], they averaged 1.52.0 mm/year in the 20th cen tury, while in the late 20thearly 21st century, they rose to 3.03.5 mm/year. According to forecasts [9], the ocean level can rise by more than 1 m by the end of
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s, g/m3 300

200

12

100

0
Jan. Feb.
Mar. Apr.May June July Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec. .

0 Months

Fig. 2. Annual variations in (1) mean monthly water level H, m, above the mean sea level and (2) water turbidity s, g/m3, at Ciudad Bolivar gauging station according to [25].

the 21st century. Variations in the mean water level over the year in the ocean near Orinoco mouth do not exceed 4 cm [2]. The tides in Orinoco nearshore are semidiurnal. According to [11], the mean range of tides is 1.8 m. According to [8, 23], the ranges of tides in the near shore vary from 1.301.40 m at Pedernales town to 1.601.87 m at the Boca Grande mouth. The largest range of tides in the southern part of the coastal zone is 2.9 m [2]. Eastern trade winds predominate in Orinoco near shore during the year [8]. The wide and flat nearshore along with individual storms and hurricanes facilitate the formation of weak and moderate waves (mean wave height is 1.2 m [10]). According to data of [2], the mean wave height and period are <1 m and 6 s, respec tively, and their maximum values are 5.0 m in February and 7.5 m in August and 12 s, respectively. Northeast ern winds with high recurrence create permanent storm surges in delta branches. The permanent warm northwestern alongshore Guayana Current with a speed of 5075 cm/s in the spring and 2540 cm/s in the autumn dominates on the Orinoco shelf [14, 25]. The Guayana Current annually transports ~200 million t of Amazon sedi ments from southeast. This amount is comparable with the sediment runoff of the Orinoco. Therefore, more than half the sediments accumulating on the Orinoco shelf have Amazon origin [8]. Air and water temperature in the Orinoco coastal zone are almost equal and vary only slightly within the year (from 26 to 28 on the average [2]). Water salin ity at the outer boundary of the coastal zone varies from 34.5 in February (during the low water period in the Orinoco) to 32 in August (during flood) [2].

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Gulf of Paria
12 14 11 10 9 7 6 5

N S

13

Trinidad Isl. Atlantic Ocean

17 4 3 3

Mariusa, Boca de Macareo, Boca de Cocuina, etc.). The hydrographic network also includes the lower reaches of lateral watercourses flowing from the Coastal Range: the Amana, Guanipa, Tigre, and Mor ichal Largo. The Tigre, and Morichal Largo water courses merge with the northernmost major branch and empty into the Gulf of Paria.

The Orinoco delta coastline (DC) >200 km in length extends from Pedernales town on the shore of the Gulf of Paria in the northwest to the Boca Grande 8 2 mouth in the southeast. The left part of the Orinoco 16 Tucupita T. 1 nearshore is the semiclosed Gulf of Paria, and its right 19 Barrancas T. part is the open coastal zone of the Atlantic Ocean or 18 the Orinoco shelf. The Gulf of Paria (the maximal depth is 40 m) is separated from the ocean by Trinidad Rio Grande Branch Island and is connected with the ocean by two narrow 0 100 km straits: Boca de Serpientes in the south and Bocas del Dragon in the north [24]. The Orinoco shelf is up to 30 km in width, and its slope varies from 0.02 to 0.05% Fig. 3. Schematic map of the Orinoco delta according to [25]. A navigation channel, starting in the Boca [25]. Delta branches: (1) Araguao, (2) Guiniquina, Grande mouth and connecting the Orinoco with the (3) Mariusa, (4) Macareo, (5) Cocuina, (6) Capure, ocean, cuts the shelf. The channel is 120 m in width (7) Pedernales, (8) Manamo; lateral tributaries: (9) Mor ichal Largo, (10) Tigre, (11) Guanipa; capes (12) Punta and more than 10 m in depth [14].
Pedernales, (13) Punta Pescadores; straits: (14) Boca de Serpientes, (15) Bocas del Dragon; DC zones: (16) fluvial tidal dominated zones, (17) littoral current dominated zones, (18) navigational canal at the Boca Grande mouth; (19) Volcn dam.

HYDROGRAPHY AND LANDSCAPES OF ORINOCO MOUTH AREA Hydrography The Orinoco mouth area is of the estuarinedeltaic type. The delta occupies part of a vast coastal plain. It is bounded by Guayana Shield from the south, the Coastal Range from the west, the Gulf of Paria and Boca de Serpientes from the north, and an open coastal zone of the Atlantic Ocean from the east (Fig. 3). The delta has almost classic triangular shape. According to different data, the area of the Orinoco delta is ~20000 [8], ~22000 [24], 29640 [11] km2. The delta head (DH) lies near Barrancas town (~200 km from the ocean), where the river starts separating into delta branches. The sources of dozens of delta branches and many small distributaries are located in the upper part of the delta. The southernmost and largest branch is the Rio Grande. The branches of Ara guao, Guiniquina, and Mariusa are located north of the Rio Grande (counterclockwise). Distributary sys tems Cocuina, Pedernales, and Manamo are located in the northern part of the delta. Many branches emptying into the Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf of Paria form mouths (estuarine widen ings) with the same names. The Rio Grande branch forms the mouth Boca Grande, and other branches form the mouths of Araguao, Guiniquina, Mariusa, Macareo, Cocuina, etc. (in Spanish maps, they are called Boca de Araguao, Boca de Guiniquina, Baca de

The researchers of the Orinoco identify two major elements of the delta channel network: first, the major delta branches or major distributaries [8] (or river dis tributaries [23], or muddy distributaries [24]) and, second, caos [8] or small distributaries. The caos are mostly confined to the left part of the delta; while the major branches, to its right part. The major branches are directly connected with the river, transfer the major portion of river water and sediments into the ocean, and flow in well defined sand channels. In [8] the major branches are referred to as fluvial domi nated distributaries. These include the Araguao, Mar iusa, Macareo, and Manamo (before regulation). In [8] the Rio Grande is also identified as a major branch (distributary). The major branches are 0.5 to 1.0 km in width and 1020 m in depth. The channel bed is cov ered by deposits from silty sand to medium sand. The channel is bordered by natural levees 35 m in height and 100200 m in width, composed of silty sand and sandy silt. The major branches are often referred to as brown water rivers [23]. Small breakthroughs with fan like channel network branch off from the Man amo and Macareo branches in their upper reaches. Each fan covers an area of up to 5 km2 and consists of brown and grey silty sand (the layer thickness is up to 5 m). The caos (small distributaries) include the watercourses of Tucupita, Pedernales, Cocuina, Caiguara, etc. They receive small amounts of river water and sediments, but they drain interdistributary plain basins, which are rich in organic matter. Distrib utary water is rich in humic acids and low in mineral matter. The small distributaries are referred to as black water caos or black water streams [8, 23, 24]. The caos are 100200 m in width and 5 to 10 m in depth. Their banks are covered by vegetation.
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Near DC, the major branches and caos feature lesser meandering than in the upper part of the delta, they become wider, divide up, and deviate northwest ward in the northwestern part of the delta. In some cases, watercourses near the DC more often join than divide up (e.g., the Capure and Cocuina caos). Over bank flooding becomes more frequent toward the sea shore. This is due to a decrease in the height and width of the natural levees. At the same time, the sand con tent of the natural levees decreases, while that of silt and peat increases. The banks of the major branches near the DC are covered by red mangroves (Rhizo phora) [8]. Delta Landscapes The delta landscapes identified in [8] include flu vial dominated interdistributary flood basins, fluvial marine transitional environments, and marine influ enced coastal environments. The interdistributary flood basins, covered by for ests and bogs, occupy the major portion of the delta plain. These areas are seasonally or permanently inun dated because of overbank flooding and the effect of tides and local precipitation. The upper part of the delta plain is mostly covered by bogs that have formed as the result of forest cutting in the delta and its sea sonal inundation. The substrate of the interdistribu tary flood basins is grey silt, dark grey organic silt, and small amounts of peat and peaty clay. The interdistrib utary flood basins in the near sea part of the delta plain are permanently moistened because of large rainfall; they are covered by forest and bogs [8, 24]. The fluvial marine transitional environments (10 20 km in width) in the lower part of the delta include the zone of bogs and swamps extending northwest. These areas are often inundated during rains and, to a lesser extent, during tides. Some bogs, underlain by a 10 m thick bed of peat and humus clay, cover areas of >200 km2. The marine influenced coastal environments are parallel to the marine coastline and extend into the land over distances of up to 20 km. These areas include tidal channels and silty awash areas, thick mangroves, and forested and grassy bogs. Except for narrow sand beaches, these areas are permanently either inundated or waterlogged by tides and rains. HYDROLOGICAL PROCESSES IN THE ORINOCO MOUTH AREA Water Regime of the Delta As shown above, the Orinoco DH receives water runoff averaging 1170 km3/year. The year to year variations in river runoff are small; therefore, the delta water regime, depending mostly on seasonal variations in river water runoff, generally varies only slightly from year to year. The delta water regime experiences the
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influence of not only the river water runoff, but also of tides, local rainfall, and land subsidence. At the Ciudad Bolivar gauging station, about 190 km upstream of the DH and 390 km from the ocean, the range of seasonal variations in water level averages 14 m: the level falls to the mark of 3 m above the mean sea level (m.s.l.), and in flood peak it increases to 17 m above m.s.l. (Fig. 2). The extrapolation of these variations further down stream yields the range of seasonal level variations in DH of 810 m. The seasonal variations within the delta decrease toward the DC to 1.82.0 m (the range of tidal variations [25]). The relatively wide variations in water levels within the delta during the year, the low relief of its surface, the dense channel network, and the lack of artificial levees determine the permanent waterlogging of the delta. According to [25], >80% of delta area is always inundated, thus significantly limiting the economic development of the delta. The effect of the permanently inundated delta on river water discharge into the ocean can be evaluated from delta water balance. According to [5], under the conditions of sufficient, and even more so, excessive moistening in the deltas of large rivers (the Amazon, Mekong, Niger, and others), the precipitation being larger than evaporation results in additional supply of water, because of which the ocean receives more water than that transported by the river into the delta. According to [5], runoff losses due to evaporation in moistened delta are near the potential evaporation. The first attempt to evaluate the Orinoco delta water balance was made in [5]. According to [1], the annual rainfall in the Orinoco delta varies from 1200 mm in the west to 1600 mm in the east with the mean of 1400 mm. The potential evaporation was taken equal to 1300 mm/year according to [1]. Thus, the difference between precipitation and water losses through evaporation is 100 mm/year, and the addi tional water discharge at the delta area assumed to be 24500 km2 is 2.45 km3/year, or 0.22% of the annual river runoff (1130 km3/year). New data on rainfall within the Orinoco delta allowed the author to more accurately estimate the additional runoff that forms within the delta. Accord ing to [8], the mean annual rainfall in the delta increases from 1500 mm in its western part to 2000 mm in the eastern part. If we take the mean annual rainfall in the delta to be 1750 mm, and the potential evaporation, according to [1], to vary from 1250 to 1500 mm (with the mean of 1375 mm), the improved estimate of the rainfallevaporation differ ence becomes 1750 1375 = 375 mm. With the delta area of 22000 km2 [25], the additional runoff will be 8.25 km3/year or 0.71% of the total river runoff (1170 km3/year). The obtained value is not large, lying within the accuracy of the river runoff estimate. Thus, we can conclude that the amount of water discharge by

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the Orinoco into the ocean is about the same as that entering the delta. The near zero contribution of the Orinoco delta to the river runoff is due to the moisten ing balancing at the edge between sufficient and insuf ficient, when the ratio of potential evaporation z0 to rainfall x is equal to 1. The value of z0/x ratio for the Orinoco delta is 0.78. The maximum of seasonal inundation of the Orinoco delta falls on AugustSeptember. The maxi mum of local rainfall, which also affects delta inunda tion, is attained from May to October [8, 25]. While the effect of water level variations due to river water runoff decreases downstream toward the DC, the effect of tides increases in this direction and decreases toward the river. According to [8, 23, 25], the range of tidal variations in water level decreases toward the middle part of the delta from 1.82.0 to 0.91.2 m. In the DH, this range averages 0.6 m and manifests itself only during dry season. The extrapola tion of these data upstream the river allows us to approximately evaluate the maximal distance of tide propagation into the river, which amounts to ~300 km from the DC (100 km upstream of the DH). Soil subsidence in the Orinoco delta is due to the continuing tectonic processes in the East Venezuela Basin, as well as to the slow compaction of the bed of Holocene deltaic deposits in the middle and lower parts of the delta plain with a thickness of 30 and 70 m, respectively. Land subsidence in the delta leads to a slow rise in water level. This level rise adds to the eustatic rise in ocean level and can be large in deltas. Such effect was called the relative sea level rise. The rate of land subsidence is estimated in [24] by the formula S = [SedTh (SL + WD + El)]/A, where S is the rate of land subsidence, SedTh is sedi ment thickness to dated horizon, SL is sea level (below present mean sea level) at time of deposition, WD is water depth at time of deposition, El is the delta plain elevation where the core was recovered, A is the age of the dated horizon. The estimates of land subsidence rate are com monly based on radiocarbon dating of peat and large tree fragments in core samples. The land subsidence rates in the Orinoco delta were found to increase from the DH to the DC and vary along the latter. Thus, the subsidence rate is 0.81.0 mm/year in the upper part of the delta and 0.82.0 in its middle part; it varies from 2.8 to >6.0 at the DC near Punta Pescadores and from 0 to 3.3 mm/year near the Guanipa mouth. The land subsidence rate on the shore of the Gulf of Paria varies from 2.2 to 4.6 mm/year. In [24], this difference is attributed to a zone of active geological faults that may be located near the Guanipa mouth and Punta Pescadores or to the fact that different parts of the delta feature different extent of dewatering, compac tion, drying, and deformation of delta deposits. The rate of land subsidence in the Orinoco delta in many

cases is appreciably greater than the eustatic ocean level rise, which in the 20th century was ~1.5 2 mm/year [9]. The total effect of the eustatic ocean level rise and land subsidence on water level in the delta may increase in the future. Estimating the distribution of water runoff over Orinoco delta branches is hampered by the compli cated structure of delta channel network and the per manent inundation of its surface. Approximate data on the character of water runoff distribution over delta branches is given in [25]. The left branch Manamo (Fig. 3) was closed by the Volcn dam in 1965. The dam was designed to protect Tucupita town and agri cultural fields in the delta from floods and to raise the level in the adjacent Rio Grande branch to make its depth large enough for navigation. Two large left branchesthe Manamo and the Macareo (Fig. 3) before 1965 accounted for ~20% of total river water runoff in the DH, while the runoff was divided between these branches in about the same parts. The entire right hand part of the delta received ~80% of river runoff in the DH. With the branching of numer ous left distributaries from the main Rio Grande branch, its runoff decreased from its beginning to the mouth from 80 to ~15% of river runoff. The distribu tion of runoff over delta watercourse has changed after damming the Manamo branch. The runoff in the head of the Rio Grande branch increased to ~85% and that in the mouth, to 20%. The share of runoff in the Mac areo branch, adjacent to the Manamo branch also somewhat increased. No data are available on the seasonal changes in water runoff distribution over delta branches; however, by analogy with hydrological processes in other large deltas of the world [4], we can suppose that in dry peri ods at low water level in the delta, the runoff concen trates in the deepest branches, which have clear entries and relatively free (moreover, artificially deepened) exits into the ocean. The opposite process takes place during floodsthe runoff distributes over the delta area. The runoff share of the Rio Grandethe deep est branch, artificially deepened at the exit to the oceanseems to radically increase during dry period in the Orinoco delta. Sediment balance in the Orinoco delta signifi cantly differs from its water balance. According to [25], out of the mean annual amount of 150 million t of river sediments, entering the delta, ~50% is depos ited within its boundaries, both in the branches and on the surface, which is annually inundated by river water. At first sight, the 50% share of river sediments depos ited in the delta appears to be an overestimation. How ever, the comparison of these data with estimates of sediment balance in other large deltas existing under natural conditions (i.e., without artificial levees), shows that in such deltas, especially when they have low relief, dense channel network, and many bogs and lakes, the share of retained sediments can be 50% of river sediment runoff and even more. Thus, the shares
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of sediments deposited in the deltas of the Indigirka, Selenga, Ob, and Lena is 50, 58, 63, and 75%, respec tively [6]. According to [25], sediment runoff distribution over delta branches (at least in their sources) is approx imately proportional to water runoff distribution and has changed in the appropriate manner after damming the Manamo branch. Nowadays, 85% of river sedi ment runoff enters the Rio Grande branch [8]. The sediment runoff in the Manamo branch decreased from 25 million t/year to zero due to the construction of the dam [24]. The sediment runoff in the lower part of this branch is partially compensated for by the sed iments delivered by the Tigre and Morichal Largo watercourses, emptying into it. Data on the distribution of sediments in the near shore and the character of Orinoco bottom sediments are given in [14]. Bed soil samples were taken during oceanographic studies in July 1971 in the Boca Grande mouth, in the navigation canal, and in the upper part of the shelf slope at depths of 120 m from La Salle research vessel. The results of sample analyses were as follows: The Orinoco nearshore deposits are mostly a fine mixture of silt and clay material with a small por tion of sand (<10%). The sand in the upper outer boundary of the estuarine widening of the Boca Grande is composed of quartz particles mixed with small amounts of other minerals (feldspar and mica). Two types of deposits were identified: east of the navigation canal, at depths of >3 m, where fine clays with shell fragments predominate, and west of the nav igation canal, in shallower areas with the alternation of fine and coarse deposits, containing woody detritus, seeds, and other plant remains. River and Sea Water Mixing Processes The tidal estuaries at the mouths of Orinoco branches have a feature, which is typical of classic estuaries, i.e., seasonal and tidal upstream and down stream migration of zones with the predominance of direct (on the surface) and reverse (at the bottom) cur rents, averaged over the tidal cycle; the zones of river and sea water mixing and salinity field; and the zone of maximal turbidity. Measurements carried out during floods in 1971 and 1974 at the mouth of the Rio Grande branch and along the navigation canal, issuing from this branch and ending at the shelf edge, were used to study the processes of river and sea water interaction [14]. The dynamic interaction and mixing of river and sea water during floods were found to follow the type of salt wedge. Such type is characteristic of the conditions where the effect of river runoff on the mouth processes predominates over the effect of tides [4, 15]. A distinct stratification was found to exist at the mouth of the Rio Grande and in the navigation canal,
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including three layers: the upper freshened layer with low turbidity water; the medium layer representing a salt wedge; and the bottom water layer, consisting of fluid mud (Fig. 4). Water salinity S on the surface was 0.20.5, reaching ~1 only near the shelf edge. The value of salinity S was 125 within the wedge and 30 35 at the bottom near the seaward end of the canal. The length of the wedge was 5060 km. The transition from the fluid mud to the salt wedge is rather sharp, but boundary between the upper freshened layer and salt wedge is more diffuse, though the halocline is well pronounced (Fig. 4a). Within this layer, the value of S varies from 5 to 30 over a vertical distance of ~2 m. Thus, the vertical gra dients of S in the halocline are large (~12.5 per 1 m). According to [4, 15], thesalt wedge can be asso ciated with a value of the so called stratification parameter n > 1, where n = S/Smean,, S = Sbott Ssurf, Smean = 0.5(Sbott + Ssurf), Ssurf and Sbott are water salinity values on the surface and at the bottom, respectively. The above mentioned observational data show the value of n for the major part of the salt wedgeat the mouth of the Rio Grande to vary within 1.82.0. The difference between water temperature in the surface and near bottom layers is not largefrom 27.7 to 27.5 (Fig. 4b). Therefore, the vertical distri bution of water temperature has almost no effect on the density stratification in the zone of the wedge. The difference between water turbidity at different depths is greater (Fig. 4c). Water turbidity in the sur face layer is 0.30.5, while at the bottom it abruptly rises to 100200 kg/m3. In the major portion of the water body in the mixing zone of river and sea water, water turbidity is much greater than in the river or in the ocean. A layer with higher water turbidity (up to 500 kg/m3) lies at the bottom of the navigation canal. This zone is up to 50 km in length, and the layer thick ness is up to 6 m. Such layer is referred to as fluid mud. This layer is limited only to the navigation canal, while water turbidity in other parts of both the branch and the shelf does not exceed 0.7 kg/m3. A layer with lower turbidity is separated from the fluid mud layer by a dis tinct interface, which can be clearly seen in sounding graphs and is referred to as a double bottom pattern. A zone of maximal water turbidity is located at a distance of 4050 km from the seaward end of the canal. The authors of [14] have come to the conclusion that the maximal turbidity zone in the Boca Grande practically coincides with the apex of the salt wedge near the so called nodal point (or null point), where the flow velocity at the bottom, averaged over the tidal cycle, is nearly zero. The sources of sediments in the Boca Grande which form fluid mud on the bottom are as follows: the

168 S, 0

MIKHAILOVA (a)
0.5

0. 2

4 8 12 16

0.2 0.2

1
25

30

35

10 20 15
15
20

5
10

T, C 0
27.5
27.7
27.5 27.5 27.5

(b)
27 .7 27.5 27.0
.0 28

4 8
27.7

27.3
27.7

27.5
.5 27
.5 27

27.0

12 16

27.5 27.527.5

5 27.

s, kg/m3 0
0.3

(c)
5 0.

0.5 0.1 0.3

0.3

8 12 16

0.5

0.3 0.1

0.5

0.3

100
100 200 300 500
400

1. 0

0 1.

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0 L, km

Fig. 4. The distribution of (a) water salinity S, (b) temperature T, and (c) turbidity s at Rio Grande branch mouth and in the nav igation canal according to [14]. The dashed line is the upper surface of the fluid mud bed (double bottom). L is the distance from the seaward end of the canal (mouth shelf edge) at a depth of 14 m.

deposition of river sediments, retained near the nodal point; sediments subject to secondary roiling seaward from the nodal point and transferred by the resulting landward currents at the bottomd; marine sediments also transferred landward.

According to [25], the flow of freshened and mod erately turbid river water in the surface layer propa gates far into the ocean above the seaward slope of the Orinoco shelf. This surface layer was called buoyant suspension. This layer is only slightly affected by the
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underlying alongshore northwestward current [25]. As the buoyant layer spreads westward, particulate matter (first coarser and next finer) deposits from it onto the bottom. MORPHOLOGICAL PROCESSES IN THE ORINOCO DELTA Evolution of the Orinoco Delta The modern Orinoco delta is the latest formation among the Tertiary and Quaternary deltas that have prograded into the Eastern Venezuela Basin. The for mation of the wide shelf in the Pleistocene had a strong effect on the structure of the modern shelf, the hydrodynamics of the coastal zone, and, accordingly, the formation of the modern delta. The modern sedi mentation began when the postglacial rise in the ocean level slowed in the Early Holocene (~95006000 years ago) [24]. In this period, river sediment input exceeded the ability of the coastal and near shore pro cesses to remove river sediments from the mouth area. The river sediment runoff in the Early Holocene was large; a vast fluvial dominated delta plain existed near the shore. The accumulation of sediments in the near shore was considerable in that time. In the Middle Holocene (~60003000 years ago), the delta plain continued extending, the slopes of its surface decreased, and the effect of marine factors, such as tides, on it grew stronger. The seaward progra dation of the delta narrowed the Boca de Serpientes Strait, thus dividing the East Venezuela Basin into two submarine accumulation zones. The input of Amazon sediments increased the input components of sedi ment balance near the shore and on the shelf of the Orinoco. The Orinoco delta plain continued extending in the Late Holocene (~30001500 years ago). This reduced the alluvial sediment input into some parts of the delta plain, thus facilitating the formation of a peat layer. The extension of the delta plain also changed deltaic ecosystems subject to the joint effect of river runoff, land subsidence, local precipitation, tides, and marine currents. The continuing filling of the East Venezuela Basin by sediments and the narrowing of the Boca de Seprientes Strait progressively enhanced the effect of the near shore currents on the shelf on the delta. This, in turn, caused the formation of mudcapes along the shore and restricted sediment accumulation on the shelf bottom [24]. The Holocene climate in northeastern South America was mostly tropical with distinct dry season. During the Holocene, the air temperature, rainfall, and wind regime featured considerable variations. Such climate changes had an appreciable effect on the river and coastal processes, as well as on biota compo sition and the structure and distribution of landscapes on the delta plain [24].
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The wave and current regime along the Guyana coast and Orinoco delta and the development of the delta during Holocene were also subject to the effect of the alongshore Guayana Current, Amazon sediment input to the Orinoco shelf, and climate changes. The result was the formation of numerous specific relief forms of the Orinoco delta plain. The Holocene evolution of the Orinoco delta has some features in common with the development of the Nile and Danube deltas [24]. These features are as fol lows: the delta consisted of several large branches within a single cone like accumulation center; the runoff of the large branches and their positions varied over time, but their progradation into the sea was gen erally uniform without considerable regression cycles; sediment deposition zones were generally associated with tectonic setting areas; alongshore current played important delta forming role along the shelf and the seashore; considerable progressing changes were found to take place in the character of all deltas because of changes in the effect of river sediment run off. As the result, the effect of marine processes became stronger. Present Day Morphological Processes Present day delta formation processes in the Orinoco mouth area include, first, large scale deposi tion of alluvial sediments on delta surface and in its branches; second, the slow progradation of mouth bars into the ocean at the mouths of largest delta branches; third, coastal processes along the DC, asso ciated with the effect of alongshore currents and waves. Alluvial sediment accumulation processes, channel processes in the branches, and the formation of mouth bars at the Orinoco mouth have received very little attention. The specific features of manifestation of coastal processes were considered in [8, 25]. Two major zones were identified in the Orinoco DC by the character of coastal processes (Fig. 3): the southern zone, where the influence of the river and tides predominates and a powerful freshwater flow, propagating from the delta onto the shelf, has a strong effect on shore formation; and the northeastern, littoral current dominated zone. The northwestward littoral currents play a signif icant role in sediment transport and deposition along the shelf, in the formation of tidal silty awash areas and the generally smooth, arc like shape of the northern coast of the delta [8]. Alongshore currents, along with waves and tides govern the protrusion of the modern delta into the ocean in some zones (e.g., the formation of silty protrusions of Punta Pescadores and Punta Mariusa in the northern part of the DC). The silty pro trusions are accumulative formations extended along the DC in the Orinoco nearshore (mostly in the mid dle and northwestern parts of the DC). These protru sions are similar to the spits and barrier bars, but the former are composed of silt, rather than sand. Silty

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protrusions are commonly located north or northwest of the mouths of delta branches. The sitly protrusions are 510 km in width and extend along the shore over up to 100 km; they are often covered by mangroves [24]. In the Orinoco delta, they are similar to such for mation on the shores of Guyana and Surinam. CONCLUSIONS The Orinoco mouth area is of the estuarinedeltaic type. The delta occupies part of the vast coastal plain and has almost classic triangular shape. The delta head lies at Barrancas town, where the river starts dividing up into branches. Researchers of the Orinoco identify two major elements of the delta channel network: major branches or major distributaries and ca?os or small distributaries. Many branches, emptying into the Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf of Paria, form mouths (estuarine widenings) with the same names. Water runoff through the Orinoco delta head aver ages 1170 km3/year. In terms of runoff, the Orinoco ranks third after the Amazon and Congo. The mean sediment runoff of the river is now 150 million t/year. Seasonal variations in river runoff, tides, and land subsidence have the strongest effect on the delta water regime. The Orinoco delta, which has a low relief, dense channel network, and many bogs, is subject to annual inundation, hampering its economic develop ment. The maximal propagation length of tides into the river reaches 300 km from the DC (100 km upstream of the DH). The rate of land subsidence is 0.81.0 mm/year in the upper part of the delta and 0.82.0 mm/year in the middle part of the delta; along the DC, this characteristic varies from 0 to >6.0 mm/year. The land subsidence in the Orinoco delta notably exceeds the eustatic rise in the ocean level, which in the 20th century was ~1.52 mm/year. The tidal estuaries at the mouths of Orinoco branches and the navigation canal have a feature, which is typi cal of classic estuaries, i.e., seasonal and tidal upstream and downstream migration of zones with the predominance of direct (on the surface) and reverse (at the bottom) currents, averaged over the tidal cycle; the zones of river and sea water mixing and salinity field; and the zone of maximal turbidity. The present day delta formation processes in the Orinoco mouth area include the large scale deposi tion of alluvial sediments on delta surface and in its branches and the slow progradation of mouth bars into the ocean at the mouths of largest delta branches. Moreover, the alongshore currents in combination with waves and tides determine the progradation of the modern delta into the ocean in some zones (e.g., the formation of silty protrusions Punta Pescadores and Punta Mariusa in the northern part of the DC).

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This study was supported by the Russian Founda tion for Basic Research, projects nos. 07 05 00406, 08 05 00305. REFERENCES
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HYDROLOGICALMORPHOLOGICAL PROCESSES IN THE MOUTH AREA 18. Meade, R.H., Suspended Sediments of the Modern Amazon and Orinoco Rivers, Quatern. Int., 1994, vol. 21, pp. 2939. 19. Milliman, J.D. and Meade, R.H., World Wide Deliv ery of River Sediment to the Oceans, J. Geol., vol. 91, no. 1, pp. 121. 20. Milliman, J.D., Rutkowski, Ch., and Meybeck, M., River Discharge to the Sea. A Global River Index (GLORI), LOICZ Reports and Studies, 1995. 21. Schot, P.P., Poot, A., Vonk, G.A., and Peeters, W.H.M., A Surface Water Model for the Orinoco River Basin. Technical report // www.mk.geo.uu.nl.homepage/Paul/ Orinoco_rap_ 9.pdf

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