Enlightenment (spiritual)

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Enlightenment refers to the "full comprehension of a situation".[web 1] It is commonly used to denote the Age of Enlightenment, "mankind's final coming of age, the emancipation of the human consciousness from an immature state of ignorance and error."[1] The term "enlightenment" is also used in Western cultures in a religious context. It translates several Buddhist terms and concepts, most notably bodhi, kensho and satori. When referring to the Enlightenment of the Buddha (samma-sambodhi) and thus to the goal of the Buddhist path, the word enlightenment is normally translating the Pali and Sanskrit word bodhi. Related terms from Asian religions are moksha (liberation) in Hinduism and Kevala Jnana in Jainism. In Christianity, the word "enlightenment" is rarely used, except to refer to the Age of Enlightenment and its influence on Christianity. Equivalent terms may be revelation, metanoia and conversion.
Contents
[hide]

1 Western understanding

o o o

1.1 As 'Aufklrung' 1.2 Romanticism and transcendentalism 1.3 Enlightenment and experience

2 Asian cultures and religions

o o

2.1 Buddhism 2.2 Hinduism

2.2.1 Advaita Vedanta

2.2.1.1 Philosophical system 2.2.1.2 Neo-Vedanta 2.2.1.3 Neo-Advaita

2.2.2 Yoga

o
2.3 Jainism

2.2.2.1 Jnana yoga 2.2.2.2 Bhakti yoga 2.2.2.3 Karma yoga

3 Western culture

o o

3.1 Christianity 3.2 Western esotericism and mysticism

4 See also

5 Notes 6 References

o o

6.1 Written references 6.2 Web references

7 Sources 8 External links

[edit]Western

understanding

In the Western world the concept of enlightenment in a religious context acquired a romantic meaning. It has become synonymous with self-realization and the true self, being regarded as a substantial essence being covered over by social conditioning.

[edit]As

'Aufklrung'

Main article: Age of Enlightenment The use of the Western word enlightenment is based on the supposed resemblance of bodhi with Aufklrung, the independent use of reason to gain insight into the true nature of our world. As a matter of fact there are more resemblances withRomanticism than with the Enlightenment: the emphasis on feeling, on intuitive insight, on a true essence beyond the world of appearances.[2]

[edit]Romanticism

and transcendentalism

See also: Buddhist modernism, Transcendentalism, and Perennial philosophy This romantic idea of enlightenment as insight into a timeless, transcendent reality has been popularized especially by D.T. Suzuki.[web 2][web 3] Further popularization was due to the writings of Heinrich Dumoulin.[3][4][web
4]

Dumoulin viewed metaphysics as the expression of a transcendent truth, which according to him was

expressed by Mahayana Buddhism, but not by the pragmatic analysis of the oldest Buddhism, which emphasizes anatta.[5] This romantic vision is also recognizable in the works of Ken Wilber.[6] In the oldest Buddhism this essentialism is not recognizable.[7][web 5] According to critics it doesn't really contribute to a real insight into Buddhism:[web 6] ...most of them labour under the old clich that the goal of Buddhist psychological analysis is to reveal the hidden mysteries in the human mind and thereby facilitate the development of a transcendental state of consciousness beyond the reach of linguistic expression.[8]

[edit]Enlightenment

and experience

Main article: Religious experience

A common reference in Western culture is the notion of "enlightenment experience". This notion can be traced back to William James, who used the term "religious experience" in his book, The Varieties of Religious Experience.[9] Wayne Proudfoottraces the roots of the notion of "religious experience" further back to the German theologian Friedrich Schleiermacher (17681834), who argued that religion is based on a feeling of the infinite. The notion of "religious experience" was used by Schleiermacher to defend religion against the growing scientific and secular citique. It was adopted by many scholars of religion, of which William James was the most influential.[10][note 1] The notion of "experience" has been criticised.[15][16][17] Robert Sharf points out that "experience" is a typical Western term, which has found its way into Asian religiosity via western influences.[15][note 2] The notion of "experience" introduces a false notion of duality between "experiencer" and "experienced", whereas the essence of kensho is the realisation of the "non-duality" of observer and observed.[19][20] "Pure experience" does not exist; all experience is mediated by intellectual and cognitive activity. [21][22] The specific teachings and practices of a specific tradition may even determine what "experience" someone has, which means that this "experience" is not the proof of the teaching, but a result of the teaching.[23] A pure consciousness without concepts, reached by "cleaning the doors of perception",[note 3] would be an overwhelming chaos of sensory input without coherence.[25] Nevertheless, the notion of religious experience has gained widespread use in the study of religion [26], and is extensively researched.[26] Yet, just like the very notion of "religious experience" is shaped by a specific discourse and habitus, the "uniformity of interpretation"[27] may be due to the influence of religious traditions which shape the interpretation of such "experiences".[27][15][28]

[edit]Asian

cultures and religions

[edit]Buddhism
Main article: Enlightenment in Buddhism The English term "enlightenment" has commonly been used to translate several Sanskrit, Pali,[web 7] Chinese and Japanese terms and concepts, especially bodhi, prajna, kensho, satori and buddhahood. Bodhi is a Theravada term. It literally means "awakening" and "understanding". Someone who is awakened has gained insight into the workings of the mind which keeps us imprisoned in craving, suffering and rebirth,[web
1]

and has also gained insight into the way that leads to nirvana, the liberation of oneself from this

imprisonment. Prajna is a Mahayana term. It refers to insight into our true nature, which according to Madhyamaka is empty of a personal essence in the stream of experience. But it also refers to the Tathgata-garbha or Buddha-nature, the essential basic-consciousness beyond the stream of experience.

In Zen, kensho means "seeing into one's true nature".[29] Satori is often used interchangeably with kensho, but refers to the experience of kensho.[29] Buddhahood is the attainment of full awakening and becoming a Buddha. According to the Tibetan Thubten Yeshe,[web 8] enlightenment [means] full awakening; buddhahood. The ultimate goal of Buddhist practice, attained when all limitations have been removed from the mind and one's positive potential has been completely and perfectly realized. It is a state characterized by infinite compassion, wisdom and skill.[web 9] According to U. G. Krishnamurti there is no such thing as enlightenment, and "there is nothing to understand".[30]

[edit]Hinduism
In Indian religions moksha (Sanskrit: moka; liberation) or mukti (Sanskrit: ; release both from the root muc "to let loose, let go") is the final extrication of the soul or consciousness (purusha) from samsara and the bringing to an end of all the suffering involved in being subject to the cycle of repeated death and rebirth (reincarnation). In the West, the two best-known Hindu traditions aiming at moksha are Advaita Vedanta and yoga.

[edit]Advaita Vedanta
Main articles: Advaita Vedanta and Neo-Advaita Advaita Vedanta (IAST Advaita Vednta; Sanskrit: [dait ednt]) is a philosophical

concept where followers seek liberation/release by recognizing identity of the Self (Atman) and the Whole (Brahman) through long preparation and training, usually under the guidance of a guru, that involves efforts such as knowledge of scriptures, renunciation of worldy activities, and inducement of direct identity experiences. Originating in India before 788 AD, Advaita Vedanta is widely considered the most influential[31] and most dominant[32][33] sub-school of the Vednta (literally, end or the goal of the Vedas, Sanskrit) school of Hindu philosophy.[34] Other major sub-schools of Vednta are Viishdvaita and Dvaita; while the minor ones include Suddhadvaita, Dvaitadvaita and Achintya Bhedabheda. Advaita (literally, non-duality) is a system of thought where "Advaita" refers to the identity of the Self (Atman) and the Whole (Brahman).[note 4] Recognition of this identity leads to liberation. Attaining this liberation takes a long preparation and training under the guidance of a guru. The key source texts for all schools of Vednta are the Prasthanatrayithe canonical texts consisting of the Upanishads, the Bhagavad Gita and the Brahma Sutras. The first person to explicitly consolidate the

principles of Advaita Vedanta wasShankara Bhagavadpada,[35] while the first historical proponent was Gaudapada, the guru of Shankara's guru Govinda Bhagavatpada.

[edit]Philosophical system
Shankara systematized the works of preceding philosophers.[36] His system of Vedanta introduced the method of scholarly exegesis on the accepted metaphysics of the Upanishads. This style was adopted by all the later Vedanta schools.[citation needed] Shankara's synthesis of Advaita Vedanta is summarized in this quote from the Vivekacmai, one of his Prakaraa grathas (philosophical treatises):[note 5] In half a couplet I state, what has been stated by crores of texts; that is Brahman alone is real, the world is mithy (not independently existent), and the individual self is nondifferent from Brahman.[37][note 6]

[edit]Neo-Vedanta
Main articles: Hindu reform movements, Swami Vivekananda, and Ramakrishna Mission In the 19th century Vivekananda played a major role in the revival of Hinduism,[38] and the spread of Advaita Vedanta to the West via the Ramakrishna Mission. His interpretation of Advaita Vedanta has been called "NeoVedanta".[39] In a talk on "The absolute and manifestation" given in at London in 1896 Swami Vivekananda said, I may make bold to say that the only religion which agrees with, and even goes a little further than modern researchers, both on physical and moral lines is the Advaita, and that is why it appeals to modern scientists so much. They find that the old dualistic theories are not enough for them, do not satisfy their necessities. A man must have not only faith, but intellectual faith too".[web 10] Vivekananda emphasized samadhi as a means to attain liberation.[40] Yet this emphasis is not to be found in the Upanishads nor in Shankara.[41] For Shankara, meditation and Nirvikalpa Samadhi are means to gain knowledge of the already existing unity of Brahman and Atman,[40] not the highest goal itself: [Y]oga is a meditative exercise of withdrawal from the particular and identification with the universal, leading to contemplation of oneself as the most universal, namely, Consciousness. This approach is different from the classical yoga of complete thought suppression.[40] Vivekenanda's modernisation has been criticized:[39][42] Without calling into question the right of any philosopher to interpret Advaita according to his own understanding of it, [...] the process of Westernization has obscured the core of this school of thought. The basic correlation of renunciation and Bliss has been lost sight of in the attempts to underscore the cognitive

structure and the realistic structure which according to Samkaracarya should both belong to, and indeed constitute the realm of my.[39]

[edit]Neo-Advaita
Main article: Neo-Advaita Neo-Advaita is a new religious movement based on a modern, Western interpretation of Advaita Vedanta, especially the teachings of Ramana Maharshi.[43] Neo-Advaita is being criticized[44][note 7][46][note 8][note 9] for discarding the traditional prerequisites of knowledge of the scriptures [47] and "renunciation as necessary preparation for the path of jnana-yoga".[47][48] Notable neo-advaita teachers are H. W. L. Poonja,[49][43] his students Gangaji[50] Andrew Cohen,[note 10] and Eckhart Tolle.[43]

[edit]Yoga
Main article: Yoga The prime means to reach moksha is through the practice of yoga (Sanskrit, Pli: , /j/, yoga) is a

commonly known generic term for physical, mental, and spiritual disciplines which originated in ancient India.[52][53] Specifically, yoga is one of the six stika ("orthodox") schools of Hindu philosophy. It is based on the Yoga Stras of Patajali. Various traditions of yoga are found in Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism.[54][55][56] Prephilosophical speculations and diverse ascetic practices of first millennium BCE were systematized into a formal philosophy in early centuries CE by the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali.[57] By the turn of the first millennium, Hatha yoga emerged as a prominent tradition of yoga distinct from the Patanjali's Yoga Sutras. While the Yoga Sutras focus on discipline of the mind, Hatha yoga concentrates on health and purity of the body.[58] Hindu monks, beginning with Swami Vivekananda, brought yoga to the West in the late 19th century. In the 1980s, yoga became popular as a physical system of health exercises across the Western world. Many studies have tried to determine the effectiveness of yoga as a complementary intervention for cancer, schizophrenia, asthma and heart patients. In a national survey, long-term yoga practitioners in the United States reported musculoskeletal and mental health improvements.[59]

[edit]Jnana yoga
Main article: Jnana yoga Classical Advaita Vedanta follows empahsises the path of jnana yoga, a progression of study and training to attain moksha. It consitsts of four stages:[60][web 16]

Samanyasa or Sampattis,[61] the "fourfold discipline" (sdhana-catustaya), cultivating the following four qualities:[60][web 17]

Nitynitya vastu viveka (

) The ability (viveka) to correctly discriminate

between the eternal (nitya) substance (Brahman) and the substance that is transitory existence (anitya).

Ihmutrrtha phala bhoga virga (

) The renunciation (virga) of

enjoyments of objects (artha phala bhoga) in this world (iha) and the other worlds (amutra) like heaven etc.

amdi atka sampatti (

) the sixfold qualities,

ama (control of the antahkaraa).[web 18] Dama (the control of external sense organs). Uparati (the cessation of these external organs so restrained, from the pursuit of objects other than that, or it may mean the abandonment of the prescribed works according to scriptural injunctions).[62]

Titika (the tolerating of tpatraya). raddha (the faith in Guru and Vedas). Samdhna (the concentrating of the mind on God and Guru). ) The firm conviction that the nature of the world is misery and the intense

Mumukutva (

longing for moksha (release from the cycle of births and deaths).

Sravana, listening to the teachings of the sages on the Upanishads and Advaita Vedanta, and studying the Vedantic texts, such as the Brahma Sutras. In this stage the sudent learns about the reality of Brahman and the identity of atman;

Manana, the stage of reflection on the teachings; Dhyana, the stage of meditation on the truth "that art Thou".

[edit]Bhakti yoga
Main article: Bhakti Th paths of bhakti yoga and karma yoga are subsidiary. In bhakti yoga, practice centers on the worship God in any way and in any form, like Krishna or Ayyappa. Adi Shankara himself was a proponent of devotional worship or Bhakti. But Adi Shankara taught that while Vedic sacrifices, puja and devotional worship can lead one in the direction of jnana (true knowledge), they cannot lead one directly to moksha. At best, they can serve as means to obtain moksha via shukla gati.[citation needed]

[edit]Karma yoga
Main article: Karma yoga Karma yoga is the way of doing our duties, in disregard of personal gains or losses. According to Sri Swami Sivananda,

Karma Yoga is consecration of all actions and their fruits unto the Lord. Karma Yoga is performance of actions dwelling in union with the Divine, removing attachment and remaining balanced ever in success and failure. Karma Yoga is selfless service unto humanity. Karma Yoga is the Yoga of action which purifies the heart and prepares the Antahkarana (the heart and the mind) for the reception of Divine Light or attainment if Knowledge of the Self. The important point is that you will have to serve humanity without any attachment or egoism. [web 19]

[edit]Jainism
Main articles: Jainism, Kevala Jnana, and Mahavira Jainism (pron.: / denzm/; Sanskrit: Jainadharma, Tamil: Samaam, Bengali: Jainadharma, Telugu: Jainamata, Malayalam: Jainmat, Kannada: Jaina dharma), is an Indian

religion that prescribes a path ofnon-violence towards all living beings. Its philosophy and practice emphasize the necessity of self-effort to move the soul toward divine consciousness and liberation. Any soul that has conquered its own inner enemies and achieved the state of supreme being is called a jina ("conqueror" or "victor"). The ultimate status of these perfect souls is called siddha. Ancient texts also refer to Jainism as shramana dharma (self-reliant) or the "path of the nirganthas" (those without attachments or aversions). In Jainism highest form of pure knowledge a soul can attain is called Kevala Jnana ( Sanskrit : Kevala a (Prakrit : )or

). which means absolute or perfect and Jna, which means "knowledge".

Kevala is the state of isolation of the jva from the ajva attained through ascetic practices which burn off one's karmic residues, releasing one from bondage to the cycle of death and rebirth. Kevala Jna thus means infinite knowledge of self and non-self, attained by a soul after annihilation of the all ghtiy karmas. The soul which has reached this stage achieves moksa or liberation at the end of its life span. Mahavira, the founder of Jainism, is said to have practised rigorous austerities for 12 years before he attained enlightenment, During the thirteenth year, in the second month of summer, in the fourth fortnight, the light (fortnight) of Vaisakha, on its tenth day, when the shadow had turned towards the east and the first wake was over, on the day called Suvrata, in the Muhurta called Vigaya, outside of the town Grimbhikagrama on the bank of the river Rjupalika, not far from an old temple, in the field of the householder Samaga, under a Sal tree, when the moon was in conjunction with the asterismUttara Phalguni, (the Venerable One) in a squatting position with joined heels, exposing himself to the heat of the sun, after fasting two and a half days without drinking water, being engaged in deep meditation, reached the highest knowledge and intuition, called Kevala, which is infinite, supreme, unobstructed, unimpeded, complete, and full.[citation needed]

Kevala Jna is one of the five major events in the life of a Tirthankara and is known as Jna Kalyanaka and supposedly celebrated by all gods. Mahaviras Kaivalya was said to have been celebrated by the demi-gods, who constructed theSamosarana or a grand preaching assembly for him.

[edit]Western

culture

[edit]Christianity
See also: Religious conversion and Divinization The word "enlightenment" is not being used in Christian contexts for religious understanding or insight. More common terms in the Christian tradition are religious conversion and revelation. Lewis Sperry Chafer (18711952), one of the founders of Dispensationalism, uses the word "illuminism". Christians who are "illuminated" are of two groups, those who have experienced true illuminism (biblical) and those who experienced false illuminism (not from the Holy Spirit).[63] Christian interest in eastern spirituality has been growing throughout the 20th century. Notable Christians, such as Hugo Enomiya-Lassalle and AMA Samy, have participated in Buddhist training and even become Buddhist teachers themselves. Eastern contemplative techniques have been integrated in Christian practices, such as centering prayer.[web 20] But this integration has also raised questions about the borders between these traditions.[web 21]

[edit]Western

esotericism and mysticism

Main articles: Mysticism, Western esotericism, Perennial philosophy, and New Age Western and Mediterranean culture has a rich tradition of esotericism.[64] The Perennial philosophy, basic to the New Age understanding of the world, regards those traditions as akin to Eastern religions which aim at awakening and developing wisdom. All mystical traditions are supposed to share a "common core",[65] a hypothesis which is central to New Age, but contested by a diversity of scientists like Katz and Proudfoot.[65] Judaism knows the mystical tradition of Kabbalah. Islam includes the mystical tradition of Sufism. In the Fourth Way teaching, enlightenment is the highest state of Man (humanity).[66]

[edit]See

also

Ego death Falun Gong Fana (Sufism) Henosis Light (theology) Light of Christ

Merit (Buddhism) Salvation Tree of Knowledge of Good and Evil

[edit]Notes

1.

^ James also gives descriptions of conversion experiences. The Christian model of dramatic conversions, based on the role-model of Paul's conversion, may also have served as a model for Western interpretations and expectations regarding "enlightenment", similar to Protestant influences on Theravada Buddhism, as described by Carrithers: "It rests upon the notion of the primacy of religious experiences, preferably spectacular ones, as the origin and legitimation of religious action. But this presupposition has a natural home, not in Buddhism, but in Christian and especially Protestant Christian movements which prescribe a radical conversion."
[11]

See Sekida for an example of this influence of William James and Christian
[12]

conversion stories, mentioning Luther thought on Buddhism. 2.

[14]

and St. Paul.

[13]

See also McMahan for the influence of Christian

^ Robert Sharf: "[T]he role of experience in the history of Buddhism has been greatly exaggerated in contemporary scholarship. Both historical and ethnographic evidence suggests that the privileging of experience may well be traced to certain twentieth-century reform movements, notably those that urge a return to zazen or vipassana meditation, and these reforms were profoundly influenced by religious developments in the west [...] While some adepts may indeed experience "altered states" in the course of their training, critical analysis shows that such states do not constitute the reference point for the elaborate Buddhist discourse pertaining to the "path".
[18]

3.

^ William Blake: "If the doors of perception were cleansed every thing would appear to man as it is, infinite. For man has closed himself up, till he sees all things thru' narrow chinks of his cavern."
[24]

4.

^ "Brahman" is not to be confused with Brahma, the Creator and one third of the Trimurti along with Shiva, the Destroyer andVishnu, the Preserver.

5.

^ The authorship of this work is disputed. Most 20th-century academic scholars feel it was not authored by Sankara, andSwami Sacchidanandendra Saraswathi of Holenarsipur concurs.
[citation needed]

6. 7.

^ slokrdhena pravaksmi yadukta granthakotibhih, brahma satya jagat mithy, jvo brahmaiva nparah ^ Marek: "Wobei der Begriff Neo-Advaita darauf hinweist, dass sich die traditionelle Advaita von dieser Strmung zunehmend distanziert, da sie die Bedeutung der benden Vorbereitung nach wie vor als unumgnglich ansieht. (The term Neo-Advaita indicating that the traditional Advaita increasingly distances itself from this movement, as they regard preparational practicing still as inevitable)
[45]

8.

^ Alan Jacobs: Many firm devotees of Sri Ramana Maharshi now rightly term this western phenomenon as 'Neo-Advaita'. The term is carefully selected because 'neo' means 'a new or revived form'. And this new form is not the Classical Advaita which we understand to have been taught by both of the Great Self

Realised Sages, Adi Shankara and Ramana Maharshi. It can even be termed 'pseudo' because, by presenting the teaching in a highly attenuated form, it might be described as purporting to be Advaita, but not in effect actually being so, in the fullest sense of the word. In this watering down of the essential truths in a palatable style made acceptable and attractive to the contemporary western mind, their teaching is misleading. 9.
[46] [web 11] [web 12]

^ See for other examples Conway

and Swartz

10. ^ Presently cohen has distnced himself from Poonja, and calls his teachings "Evolutionary Enlightenment".
[51]

What Is Enlightenment, the magazine published by Choen's organisation, has been

[web 13][web 14][web 15]

critical of neo-Advaita several times, as early as 2001. See.

[edit]References [edit]Written
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

references

^ Porter 2001, p. 1. ^ Wright 2000, p. 181-183. ^ Dumoulin 2005-A. ^ Dumoulin 2005-B. ^ Dumonlin 2000. ^ Wilber 1996. ^ Warder 2000, p. 116-124. ^ Kalupahana 1992-A, p. xi. ^ Hori 1999, p. 47.

10. ^ Sharf 2000, p. 271. 11. ^ Carrithers 1983, p. 18. 12. ^ Sekida 1985, p. 196-197. 13. ^ Sekida 1985, p. 251. 14. ^ McMahan 2008. 15. ^
a b c

Sharf 1995-B.

16. ^ Mohr 2000, p. 282-286. 17. ^ Low 2006, p. 12. 18. ^ Sharf 1995-C, p. 1. 19. ^ Hori 1994, p. 30. 20. ^ Samy 1998, p. 82. 21. ^ Mohr 2000, p. 282.

22. ^ Samy 1998, p. 80-82. 23. ^ Samy 1998, p. 80. 24. ^ Quote DB 25. ^ Mohr 2000, p. 284. 26. ^ 27. ^
a b a b

Spilka 2003, p. 246-289. Spilka 2003, p. 259.

28. ^ Berger 1990. 29. ^

a b

Kapleau 1989.

30. ^ Newland 1988. 31. ^ "Consciousness in Advaita Vednta ," By William M. Indich, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, 1995, ISBN 81-208-1251-4. 32. ^ "Gandhi And Mahayana Buddhism". Class.uidaho.edu. Retrieved 2011-06-10. 33. ^ "The Experience of Hinduism: essays on religion in Maharashtra," By Eleanor Zelliot, Maxine Berntsen, State University of New York Press, 1980, ISBN 0-8248-0271-3. 34. ^ "Advaita Vedanta: A Philosophical Reconstruction," By Eliot Deutsch, University of Hawaii Press, 1988, ISBN 0-88706-662-3. 35. ^ "Thirty-five Oriental Philosophers," By Dian Collinson, Robert Wilkinson, Routledge, 1994, ISBN 0-41502596-6. 36. ^ Nakamura 2004, p. 680. 37. ^ Shankara, Vivekacmai 38. ^ Dense 1999, p. 191. 39. ^ 40. ^
a b c a b c

Mukerji 1983. Comans 1993.

41. ^ Comans 2000, p. 307. 42. ^ Rambachan 1994. 43. ^

a b c

Lucas 2011.

44. ^ Marek 2008, p. 10, note 6. 45. ^ Marek 2008, p. 10 note 6. 46. ^ 47. ^
a b a b

Jacobs 2004, p. 82. Davis 2010, p. 48.

48. ^ Yogani 2011, p. 805. 49. ^ Caplan 2009, p. 16-17. 50. ^ Lucas 2011, p. 102-105. 51. ^ Gleig 2011, p. 10.

52. ^ Baptiste, Sherri; Scott, Megan (2005-12-16). Yoga with Weights for Dummies. ISBN 978-0-471-74937-0. 53. ^ Yogani (2010-12-01). Advanced Yoga Practices Easy Lessons for Ecstatic Living. ISBN 978-09819255-2-3. 54. ^ Denise Lardner Carmody, John Carmody, Serene Compassion. Oxford University Press US, 1996, page 68. 55. ^ Stuart Ray Sarbacker, Samdhi: The Numinous and Cessative in Indo-Tibetan Yoga. SUNY Press, 2005, pp. 12. 56. ^ Tattvarthasutra [6.1], see Manu Doshi (2007) Translation of Tattvarthasutra, Ahmedabad: Shrut Ratnakar p. 102 57. ^ Whicher, pp. 3839. 58. ^ Larson, p. 139140. 59. ^ Birdee, Gurjeet S. et al. "Characteristics of Yoga Users: Results of a National Survey." Journal of General Internal Medicine. Oct 2008, Volume 23 Issue 10. p1653-1658 60. ^
a b

puligandla 1997, p. 251-254.

61. ^ Adi Shankara, Tattva bodha (1.2) 62. ^ note 63. ^ Chafer 1993, p. 1214. 64. ^ Hanegraaff 1996. 65. ^
a b

Hood 2001, p. 32.

66. ^ Ouspensky year unknown.

[edit]Web
1. ^

references
"enlightenment - Definition from the Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary". Merriam-webster.com. 2007-

a b

04-25. Retrieved 2009-11-13. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. ^ Robert H. Sharf, Whose Zen? Zen Nationalism Revisited ^ Hu Shih: Ch'an (Zen) Buddhism in China. Its History and Method ^ Critical introduction by John McRae to the reprint of Dumoulin's A history of Zen ^ Nanzan Institute: Pruning the bodhi Tree ^ David Chapman: Effing the ineffable ^ "The Pali Text Society's Pali-English dictionary". Dsal.uchicago.edu. Retrieved 2009-11-13. ^ Lama Yeshe ^ "Lama Yeshe Wisdom Archive". Lincoln, MA, USA. Retrieved December 5, 2011.

10. ^ "The Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda/Volume 2/Jnana-Yoga/The Absolute and Manifestation Wikisource". En.wikisource.org. 2008-04-05. Archived from the original on 28 June 2011. Retrieved 201106-10. 11. ^ Timothy Conway, Neo-Advaita or Pseudo-Advaita and Real Advaita-Nonduality 12. ^ James Swartz, What is Neo-Advaita? 13. ^ What is Enlightenment? September 1, 2006 14. ^ What is Enlightenment? December 31, 2001 15. ^ What is Enlightenment? December 1, 2005 16. ^ Shankara, Adi; Translator: Charles Johnston. "The Crest Jewel of Wisdom". pp. Ch. 1. Retrieved 200804-28. 17. ^ "Advaita Yoga Ashrama, ''Jnana Yoga. Introduction''". Yoga108.org. Retrieved 2012-09-10. 18. ^ "Antahkarana- Yoga (definition)". En.mimi.hu. Retrieved 2011-06-10. 19. ^ Sri Swami Sivananda, Karma Yoga 20. ^ Contemplative Outreach: Centering Prayer 21. ^ Inner Explorations: Christian Enlightenment?

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