A Project Stage I Report on HYDROGEN POWERED BIKE

Submitted To Mr. Rahul Goyal Reader

Submitted By Dinalkhakhkhar

Sunil Kumar Vikas Kumar Thelesh Sharma

Department Of Mechanical Engineering VIT-EAST JAIPUR

Certifacate

This is to certify that Mr. /Miss. __________________________________________________________ Of ____________________________________ branch, Roll No. 10EVVME201 Has satisfactorily completed his/her project work. In ___________________________________________________for the term ending in _______________2012.

Date: _______

Sign Of Teacher

Head of the Department

Mechanical Engineering Department Vivekananda Institute Of Technology-East Jaipur.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

It is my pleasure to be indebted to various people, who directly or indirectly contributed in the development of this project and who influenced my thinking, behaviour, and acts during the course of study. I express my sincere gratitude to Mr for providing me an opportunity to complete a project report. I also extend my sincere appreciation to Mr/Ms. who provided his valuable suggestions and precious time in accomplishing my project report. Lastly, I would like to thank the almighty and my parents for their moral support and my friends with whom I shared my day-to-day experience and received lots of suggestions that improved my quality of work.

INDEX

1.introduction
1.1Backgroundon hydrogen-poweredvehicles Hydrogen-powered vehicles canbebasedaroundaninternalcombustionengine orafuel cell.Hydrogen internalcombustionengine vehiclestendtohave a limitedrange and reduced luggagespace compared with conventional vehicles. However, thereis extensiveknowledge inengine designand performanceand thefundamentaltechnology isavailable today.Some internalcombustionengines can runonhydrogenas wellason conventionalfuels,orvariousblendscanbeused.Theyareoftenconsidered,therefore, abridging technology towards themore widespreaduseof hydrogen.Burninghydrogen incombustionengines produces nitrousoxides,butthese can be upto90%lower than petrolengines becausethe enginecanoperateintheso-calledlean-burn modewithan excessofair (InternationalEnergyAgency,2005).Suchenginescanachieve anoverall efficiencyof38%,whichis20-25%betterthanatypicalpetrolengine. Hydrogenfuelcellvehicles have anelectricalpowertrain.Hydrogen(or ahydrogen-rich fuel)ischemicallyconverted intowater, electricityand heat.The processishighly efficientandtherearenoharmfulemissionsat thepointofuse.Fuelcellsareoftenseen asalongertermstage inthedevelopmentofroadvehicles. Nevertheless,anumberof majormanufacturershavefuelcellcarsattheprototypetechnologydemonstration stage. The storageof hydrogenon-boardthevehicle representsatechnicalchallenge. Inorder to achieveareasonable energy density itis currentlystored as acompressed gasorasa liquid at verylow temperature.Researchisalsobeing carriedoutintosolid-state storage,usingabsorberssuchashydrides.

1.2

The properties ofhydrogenrelevant tovehicle safety

Hydrogeniscolourlessandodourless andthereforepotentially harder to detect than gasolinevapour andnaturalgas,whichtypicallyhaveanodorantadded.Furthermore, hydrogenburnswitha paleblueflamethatisalmostinvisible indaylight.Table1 comparessomeofthekeypropertiesofhydrogenwiththoseofotherfuels.Average data isprovidedfromStephensetal. (2009).

Table1:Hydrogenpropertiescompared withnaturalgas and gasoline

Property Buoyancy(densityasapercent age ofair,%) Diffusioncoefficient(cm/s2) Lower flammabilitylimit (%) Upper flammabilitylimit (%) Lowerdetonationlimit (%) Upperdetonationlimit (%) Minimumignitionenergy(mJ) Minimumquenching distance (mm)

Hydrogen 7 0.61 4 75 18 59 0.02 0.6

Naturalgas 55 0.16 5 15 6 14 0.3 1.2

Gasoline 400 0.05 1 8 1 3 0.2 2.8

Hydrogenis thelightestelementanda gas at normaltemperatureand pressure.It has a very high diffusionrate,is thereforeverybuoyant, andwilldisperserapidly when released inair.Hydrogendiffusesaround fourtimesfaster thannaturalgasandaround tentimes faster thangasoline vapours.Hydrogendispersiontendstobe upandaway fromthesource,comparedwithgasoline vapour, which tends toremainaroundground level. Moleculesofhydrogengasaresmaller thanallothergases.Hydrogencantherefore diffuse orleakmoreeasilythroughporous materials,cracks orjoints thanothercommon gasesatequivalentpressures.Infact,itcan diffusethroughmanymaterialsconsidered impermeabletoothergases.While hydrogenleaksdisperse orevaporate quickly,they posea riskoffire when theymixwithair. Flammability limitsare therangeofconcentrationsbetweenwhicha gasisflammable (theactual limitsvary withpressure,temperatureandwatervapour content).The lower flammabilitylimitis ameasureof how muchreleased fuelisneeded tocreatea flammableatmosphere.Gasolinevapour hasthelowestlowerflammabilitylimitofthe fuelscomparedinTable1;however,hydrogenisflammableoveramuchgreaterrange ofconcentrations;4%to75%byvolumewithair,comparedwith1%to8%for gasoline.Similarly, hydrogencan detonate over amuchgreater range thantheother fuels.

Theignitionof aflammablemixturecanresultina deflagration, characterised by aflame thatpropagatesatsubsonic speeds. Anyfirecan beconsideredadeflagration, butthe ignitionofaflammablemixtureinaconfinedspace canalsoresultinasignificantand rapidincreaseinpressureandhencecatastrophic damage.Inadetonation,theflame travelsatsupersonicspeedsandproducesashock wave thatcancausesignificant damageat relativelylargedistances fromthesource oftheblast.The minimumenergy requiredto ignitehydrogen isverylow.For example, relatively smallamountsofstaticelectricitycouldcreateasparksufficienttoignitehydrogenin air.However,theminimumignitionenergyusuallyoccursatnear-

stoichiometricfuel/airmixtures(idealmixturesinwhichboththefueland airareconsumed completely).

theoxygen

in

Hydrogenflameshavethesmallest quenching distanceofthefuelscomparedinTable 1. Flamecan be extinguished(i.e.quenched)whenitentersanarrowpassageway.The minimum quenchingdistanceistheminimum distancethrough whichaflamecan propagate.Ahydrogenflamewilltherefore propagate morereadily thangasoline vapour ornaturalgasflameandwillbepreventedfrompassingthrough feweropenings. Prolongedexposuretohydrogencanleadtoleakageorcatastrophic failuresinsome materials(suchassteel) througha phenomenonknown as hydrogenembrittlement.At certaintemperaturesandpressures,hydrogencan diffuse intothematerialreducing its strengthandleadingtofailure.

2. HISTORY
1975:Research in 1975 examined hydrogen enhanced gasoline in lean combustion. John Houseman and D.J Cerini of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory produced a report for the Society of Automotive Engineers titled "On-Board Hydrogen Generator for a Partial Hydrogen Injection Internal Combustion Engine". F.W. Hoehn and M.W. Dowy, also of the Jet Propulsion Lab, prepared a report for the 9th intersociety Energy Conversion Engineering Conference, titled "Feasibility Demonstration of a Road Vehicle Fuel with Hydrogen Enriched Gasoline".

2002:Research done in 2002 shows that the "addition of hydrogen to natural gas increases the burn rate and extends the lean burn-limit". Also concluded was that "hydrogen addition lowers HC emissions", and with properly "retarded ignition timing" also reduces NOx emissions. Further research in 2002 achieved results showing "a reduction of NOx and CO2 emissions", by modelling an on-board hydrogen reformer and "varying the efficiency".The research was specifically a "numerical investigation" done to "foresee performances, exhaust emissions, and fuel consumption of a small, multi valve, spark ignition engine fuel by Hydrogen Enriched Gasoline.

2003:In 2003 Tsolakis et al. of the University of Birmingham showed that "partial replacement of the hydrocarbon fuel by hydrogen combined with EGR resulted in simultaneous reductions of smoke and nitrogen oxides emissions (NOx) without significant changes to engine efficiency". Similar results have been presented by a team of scientists from Zhejiang 2 University, China, which found that "a little amount of hydrogen supplemented to the

gasoline-air mixture can extend the flammability of the mixture improving the economy and emissions of engines

2004:Test results in 2004 show "that the H2-rich reformate gas was an excellent NOxreductant, and can outperform raw Diesel fuel as a reductant in a wide range of operating conditions". This is referring to Diesel fuel being used in excess, as a reductant, to cool the combustion reaction, which indeed has a mitigating effect on NOx production. In 2004 research was conducted concluding that an "SI engine system fuelled by gasoline and hydrogen rich reformate gas have been demonstrated" to achieve a "dramatic reduction of pollution emissions". This was achieved by "extending EGR operation" in addition to consuming "gasoline and hydrogen rich reformate". Emissions results show that "HC emissions as well as NOx-emissions could be reduced to near zero". Overall a 3.5% reduction in CO2 emissions was achieved during the "FTP test cycle". The research also concluded that the exhaust after treatment system can be simplified, "resulting in cost reduction for the catalysts". To date, Hydrogen fuel enhancement products have not been specifically addressed by the EPA. No research devices or commercial products have reports available as per the "Motor Vehicle Aftermarket Retrofit Device Evaluation Program. In general there are no references available for the US Government addressing the concept of hydrogen fuel enhancement.

3. The use ofmixtures of natural gas and hydrogen to power vehicles

3.1 The present situation

Hydrogen-powered vehiclesmust meet the requirements of Regulation (EC) No.79/2009.VehiclesthatrunoncompressednaturalgasmustmeettherequirementsofUN ECERegulation 110.Neither of thesetype-approvalregulations includes provisions for vehiclesthatusemixturesofnaturalgasandhydrogen.Itisunclear,therefore,how suchavehiclewouldgain approval. Thecompositionofnaturalgascan vary,dependingonitssource.Thesevariationscan affectthe performanceandemissions of anengine. Methane is themaincomponentof naturalgas (typically88-96%),witha proportionof non-methane alkanes (i.e.ethane, propane,butane,etc).Othercomponents arenitrogen,carbondioxide,water, oxygen andtrace amounts oflubricatingoil,andsulphur compounds. There mayevenbesmall quantities ofhydrogen (i.e.0.1%). GascompositionismentionedinUNECE Regulation110withrespectto the service conditionsthateachcylindershouldbecapable ofwithstanding.Theregulationstates thateach cylindershould be designedtotolerate beingfilledwithnaturalgasmeeting oneof three setsofconditions.Thefirst setofconditionsisSAE J1616(anaturalgas qualitystandard).Thesecondsetofconditionsrelatetoadrygas(i.e.water vapour 3)andincludelimitsforhydrogenof2%by normallylimitedtolessthan32mg/m volumewhenthecylindersaremanufacturedfromasteelwithan ultimate tensile strengthexceeding950MPa.Thefinalsetofconditions relates to awet gas(i.e.water content greater than above)andlimitshydrogen to0.1%. The hydrogenregulation(ECNo.79/2009)andthe naturalgasregulation(UNECE Regulation110) includerequirementsandteststhatareappropriatetostoragesystems forcompressedgaseousfuels. However,eachregulationisaimedattheparticular propertiesofeachfuel.This isparticularlyimportantforthehydrogenregulationdueto the characteristicsofhydrogen andthepotentialimplicationsfor vehiclesafety. 3.2

State-of-the-art

Internalcombustionenginesfuelled with naturalgas produce fewerregulatedpollutants andcarbondioxideemissionsthanpetrolengines(Ristovskietal.,2004).However, some disadvantages have beenreported,suchas alowerefficiency (Melloetal.,2006). The additionof small amounts of hydrogento natural gas (5-30% by volume) has the potentialto overcome this trade-off, thus increasingefficiency andreducingemissions (Ortenzietal.,2008).Furthermore,somestakeholders havesuggested thatthe use of hydrogeninsuchmixturesmightencouragethebuildingoftheinfrastructurerequired formorewidespreaduse ofhydrogen in theautomotivesector. There isasubstantial bodyofresearchonthe useofmixturesofnaturalgas and hydrogen.Thestudiestendtobe basedaroundexperimentsusingan engine testbed. Thefuelsare mixedatvariousratios usinga gasmixer.However, inrealvehicle applications,itseemsmore likelythat thefuelwillbepre-mixed.Thiswouldreduce the complexityofthevehicle byremoving theneedforseparatefueltanksandmixing equipmentand software. Mixturesof naturalgas and hydrogenhavealready reachedcommercialisation.One exampleisHythane,a blendof 80%naturalgasand20% hydrogen. TheHythane Corporation intends to deploy theHythaneSystem,whichintegratesthe technologyinto existingnaturalgas fuellingstations andvehicles,incitiesthroughouttheworld (www.hythane.com).FuelstationshaverecentlybeensetupinIndiaincollaboration

withtheIndianOilCompany.Inthescientificliterature,MorroneandUnich(2009) presentedaschematicofaplantlayoutforhydrogenproductioninacompressednaturalgasf uelstation.Theworkwaspartofacostanalysistoevaluatetheeconomicaspects of localisedmedium quantityhydrogenproductionplantsforuseinblendedfuels. The gaseousfuelmixture would be stored intanksand deliveredto roadvehicles when required. The levelof hydrogen contentinHythaneandin the experimentalblends describedin theliterature,mean thatnaturalgascylindersandenginescanbeusedwithrelatively fewmodifications. However, most of the studies onhydrogenmixturesare basedaround combustionanalysesthatfocusonthe environmentalandperformance benefitsof the blendedfuel. Itappearsthatthesafetyimplicationshave not beenexaminedinany detail.Thefuelshaveverydifferentpropertiesandalthoughnaturalgas(which isthe majorcomponentof theblend)is lessreactivethanhydrogen, there couldbesignificant risks. The NaturalHyprojectincludedsomework onthesafetyofnaturalgasand hydrogen mixtures,although itwasnotrelateddirectly tovehicle-basedapplications.NaturalHy waspartiallyfundedby theCommissionasanIntegratedProjectoftheSixthFramework Programme. Theprojectstudied thepotential fornatural gaspipelinenetworksto transporthydrogenfrommanufacturing sites to hydrogenusers. Thehydrogen would be introducedintothepipelinenetworkandmixwiththenaturalgas.Themixturecould thenbeuseddirectlyasafuelwithinexistinggas-poweredequipment,withthebenefit oflowercarbonemissions.Alternatively,the hydrogencouldbe extractedfor use in hydrogen-poweredengines orfuelcellapplications.The projectincludedasafety work packagethatexaminedtherisksofusingthisexistinginfrastructureinthisnewway. Theoverallconclusionwas thatupto30%byvolumeofhydrogencouldbeaddedtothe naturalgaswithinthe current gasinfrastructurewithoutadverselyaffecting the risk to the publicsignificantly and without any additional mitigation measures (NaturalHy, 2009).However,it is unclearwhetherthisfinding isatallrelevanttovehicle-based applicationswherethehydrogen isstoredathigh pressure.

Reviewof thehydrogen implementingregulation

3.3

regulation

and

The hydrogenregulation(ECNo. 79/2009)identifieshydrogenmixturesasapotential transitionfuel towardsthe useofpure hydrogen,tofacilitate theintroductionof hydrogenpoweredvehicles inMember Stateswhere the naturalgas infrastructureis good.Onthatbasis,theregulationstates thattheCommissionshould develop requirements for the use of mixtures of hydrogen and natural gas/biomethane. Particularconsiderationmust be giventothemixing ratio of hydrogenand gaswhich takesaccountofthetechnicalfeasibilityandenvironmentalbenefits. Itappearsthatmostcurrentblendscan beused inwhatareessentially naturalgas systems andvehicles. Consideration mustbe given, therefore, as to the most appropriateapproach totakeforanyfuture requirements.The hydrogenregulationand theimplementingregulationcouldbeappliedtovehiclesintendedtorunonmixtures, but itmaybethecasethat therequirementsaremorestringentthan are necessaryfora blendedfuel. Similarly,thenaturalgasregulation(UNECERegulation110)couldbe applied,but itmay not addresscertainpropertiesofhydrogen,whichmay beimportant, evenwhenit ispresentinrelativelysmallvolumes.Unfortunately,verylittle published researchisavailable ofthesafety aspectsofhydrogenmixturesfromwhichtodraw conclusionsforthisproject.

4
4.1

Regulating thetype-approvalof Lcategory vehicles

The present situation

Two, threeandsomefourwheelvehiclesarenot includedintheframeworkdirective for MandNcategory vehicles(Directive2007/46/EC).Instead,thesearetermedLcategory vehiclesandadifferentframeworkdirective . This became mandatory inMay 2003anddrawsonanumberofseparate technicaldirectivesinmuch thesamewayas2007/46/ECdoes.Itappliestolightvehiclesintendedtobeusedon the roadwith a maximum speed greater than 6 km/h. 4.2 Thestate-of-the-art

One of thechallenges for hydrogen-poweredvehiclesisto deliver therangeand performance thatconsumers havecometoexpectfrom their motorvehicles. Although thereare clear efficiency andenvironmentalbenefits9999of hydrogen(dependingon the way itisproduced),ithasalowerenergydensitythanconventionalfuels, evenwhen itis compressed.However,Lcategory vehiclesarelighterandneedlessenergy than larger vehicles. Introducinghydrogenforthesevehiclesmight,therefore,be lessdemanding. The main developmentshave beenintwo-wheelvehiclesandhavefocussedonfuelcells ratherthanhydrogeninternalcombustionengines.Typically,ahybridsystemisused thatcombinesthefuelcellwithabattery.Themainadvantageofthisarrangementis thatthesize(andhence cost)ofthefuelcellcan bereduced(Lin2000).Inmany applications,theaverage speed isrelatively lowandhenceareducedpowerfuelcell stackcanmeetthepower requirementsofthevehicle(Mirzaeietal.,2007). Some importantstudieshavebeencarriedout inEurope,withthesupportofthe Commission.Forinstance,theFRESCOprojectwas partiallyfundedbytheCommission under theFifth Framework Programme. The projectdemonstrated the technical feasibilityoffuelcellpropulsionforscooters.Adedicatedfuelcellsystemwas developed andintegratedinamass-producedPiaggioscooter.The scooterwascapable ofa top speedof45 mphwitharangeof75miles(FuelCellsBulletin,2006).Thefuelcellstack produced6kW ofelectricpowerandwas combinedwitha45Whichsuper capacitor,with regenerative braking to boost overallefficiency. The on-board hydrogensupply compriseda525bartankwithacarbon-reinforcedliner.However,thevehiclewas drivenonatestcircuitonly:noattemptwas made togaintype-approval.Unfortunately, thevehicle did not progress beyond the FRESCO project.Instead, Piaggiohas concentrated onhybridvehiclesthat combinea conventionally-fuelled combustion enginewithasmallbattery. TheHYCHAINMINI-TRANS project isamorerecentIntegratedProject of theSixth FrameworkProgrammed(www.hychain.org).The projectisdeploying severalfleetsof innovativefuelcellvehiclesinfourregionsofEurope (inFrance,Spain,Germanyand Italy).The vehiclesincludescooters, tricycles, smallutilityvehicles, minibuses and wheelchairs.Theprojectcomprisestwophases:20062007was spentmanufacturing thevehicles and developing the infrastructureandin20082010, the vehicles willbe tested underreal worldconditions. Thescooterrunsonahydrogen-fuelledhybrid system witha 2 kW fuel cell stack. The hydrogenis stored at 700 bar in an exchangeablecartridge.Participants intheprojecthavereporteddifficultieswiththe currentregulatory situationwithrespect to L category vehicles and the implicationsfor thedeploymentoffleetsin Europe (Barth,2006). Powered two-wheelvehicles canplayanimportantroleinurbantransportation. They are particularlypopular inAsiancities.Attemptstotackleincreasingairandsoundpollution fromthese vehicles have includedthe developmentoffuelcellvehicles.These developmentsare interestingbecause theydonotalwaysemploy themostconventional methodsof hydrogen storageinvehicles (i.e.compressedgaseous or liquid hydrogen). For example,Lin(2000) presentedaconceptualfuelcellscooter designwithcompact metalhydridestorage.Abatteryhybridsystemwas developed,whichallowedasmaller

fuelcellto be usedandenergyto bestoredthroughregenerative braking.Samsung Engineeringdevelopedandpilot-testedafuel cellscooterthatusedhydrogenstorage technology basedonasolutionof sodiumborohydride(FuelCells Bulletin, 2005).Mirzaeietal.(2007)describedthemodelling andoptimisationofahybridfuelcellsystemfora motorcyclebasedonmoreconventionalcompressedhydrogenstorage.

4.3

Reviewof thehydrogen regulation and implementingregulation

Lcategoryvehiclesmightbeearlyadoptersofhydrogenasafuel,but itwillbeessential toidentifyanysafetyrisksandtoconsiderhowtheserisksshouldbemitigated.Themainconc ernis thesafety of hydrogenstorageon-boardthe vehicle (andany componentsincontactwithhydrogen). Regulation(EC)No. 79/2009(the hydrogen regulation) andRegulation(EU)No. 406/2010(theimplementingregulation)mitigate theseconcernsforMandNcategoryvehicles.While itwouldbelessappropriateto includeLcategory vehiclesinthe hydrogenregulationandtheimplementingregulation (becausetheyarepartofaseparatelegislativeframework)theymightformthebasis fornewtype-approvalrequirementsspecificallyforL category vehicles. Therequirementsofthehydrogenregulationare setout inaseriesofArticles. cases,theArticle referencesaseparateAnnex. ThekeytechnicalArticlesare: Article5:Generalrequirements forhydrogencomponentsandsystems; Article6:Requirements for hydrogencontainersdesignedtouseliquidhydrogen; Article7:Requirements for hydrogen components, other than containers, designedtouseliquidhydrogen; Article8:Requirements for hydrogen containers designed to use compressed (gaseous)hydrogen; Article9:Requirements for hydrogen components, other than containers, designed tousecompressed(gaseous)hydrogen; Article10:Generalrequirementsfortheinstallationofhydrogencomponentsand systems. The mainelements ofthe hydrogenregulation arerelevantforLcategoryvehicles. The requirementsforhydrogencomponentsandsystems(i.e.Articles 5to9)couldbe adoptedrelativelyeasily. However, therequirementsfor the installationof hydrogen componentsandsystems(Article 10)mightneedto be amendedforcertainLcategory vehicles. Asimilar judgmentwas madeinawhite paper prepared during theHYCHAINproject. Thisconcludedthatmanyoftheprovisionsandspecifications inthehydrogenregulation areindependentofvehicletypeandcouldthereforebeappliedtohydrogen-powered Lcategoryvehicleswithoutamendment(HYCHAIN,2007).However,somepotentially vehicle-specificrequirementswerefoundinAnnex VIofthe hydrogenregulation.This AnnexisreferencedbyArticle10andsetsoutgeneralrequirementsfortheinstallation of hydrogen componentsand systems. There are 16 requirementsand these are reviewedinfullinAppendixA.Aselectionofthenumbereditemsinthe listbelow highlights therequirementsthat mayneedtobeamendedforL category vehicles: 1. The hydrogensystemmust beinstalledinsuchaway thatitis protectedagainst damage.It mustbeisolatedfromheatsources inthevehicle. WhilethisrequirementisappropriateforLcategoryvehicles,itmight bechallenging forcertaincategories. For instance, the frameand bodyworkofa typicaltwo-wheel vehicle is unlikely to provide the same level of protection as the chassis and bodyworkofathree orfourwheel vehicle. Insome

2.

Thehydrogencontainermayonlyberemovedforreplacementwithanother hydrogencontainer,forthe purposeof refuellingor formaintenance.In the case ofaninternalcombustionengine,thecontainermustnotbeinstalledinthe enginecompartmentof thevehicle.

Thisrequirementisgenerallyindependentofvehicletypeorcategory.However, someLcategoryvehicles,suchastwoorthreewheelvehicles,maynothavea clearlydefinedengine compartment. This requirementwould need to be reworded to reflect thelayoutoftwo andthreewheelLcategoryvehicles. 5.The hydrogen containermustbe mountedandfixed so thatthe specified accelerationscan be absorbedwithout damageto thesafety relatedpartswhen thehydrogencontainersarefull.

Theimplementingregulationsetsoutspecificaccelerationsaccording to(MandN) vehiclecategory. Theprovisionsdonotapply ifthevehicle isapprovedaccordingto thefrontandside impactdirectives.LcategoryvehiclesarelighterthanMandN category vehiclesand might besubjected tohigheraccelerations,althoughtheir impactscenariosare also likelytobedifferent.Itmaybenecessarytospecify accelerationlevelsaccordingtoeachL category. 11.Theventingorheatingsystemforthepassengercompartmentandplaceswhere leakageor accumulationof hydrogenis possible mustbe designedso that hydrogenisnotdrawn intothevehicle. Some Lcategoryvehicles do nothaveapassengercompartment.Itcouldbeargued, therefore,thatthesevehiclesare notexposedto therisksassociatedwiththe accumulationof hydrogeninanenclosedspace.Nevertheless, itmaybenecessary to reword thisrequirement forL category vehicles. 13.Thepassengercompartmentofthevehiclemustbeseparatedfromthehydrogen systemin order to avoidaccumulationof hydrogen. Itmust be ensured thatany fuel leaking from the container or its accessories does not escape to the passenger compartment ofthevehicle. Asdiscussedabove,someLcategoryvehiclesdonothavepassengercompartments; however,hydrogen accumulation maynotbeaproblem in thesevehicles. 14.Hydrogencomponentsthatcouldleakhydrogenwithinthepassengerorluggage compartmentorothernon-ventilated compartmentmust beenclosedbya gastight housingorbyanequivalent solution asspecifiedin theimplementing measures. As above, some L category vehicles do not have passenger or luggage compartments. 16.Labels or other means of identification must be used to indicate to rescue servicesthatthe vehicle is poweredby hydrogenandthat liquidorcompressed (gaseous) hydrogen is used. Thisrequirementisindependentofcategoryandcouldbe appliedto Lcategory vehicles. However, there may be issuestoconsider regarding the size and placement ofsuchlabelsfor smallerL category vehicles. Thisanalysis hasfocussedonRegulation(EC)No. 79/2009(the hydrogenregulation). Thesefundamentalprovisions couldbeadoptedforLcategory vehiclesrelativelyeasily. However,some adjustments would be neededto take accountof theparticular features ofLcategory vehicles,especiallythosewithtwoor threewheels.

5. HYDROGEN PROPERTIES
5.1 Atomic Structure
Hydrogen is by far the most plentiful element in the universe, making up 75% of the mass of all visible matter in stars and galaxies.

Hydrogen is the simplest of all elements. You can visualize a hydrogen atom as a dense central nucleus with a single orbiting electron, much like a single planet in orbit around the sun. Scientists prefer to describe the electron as occupying a probability cloud that surrounds the nucleus some-what like a fuzzy, spherical shell.

Figure 1-1 Atomic Structure of a Hydrogen Molecule

In most hydrogen atoms, the nucleus consists of a single proton, although a rare form (or isotope) of hydrogen contains both a proton and a neutron. This form of hydrogen is called deuterium or heavy hydrogen. Other isotopes of hydrogen also exist, such as tritium with two neutrons and one proton, but these isotopes are unstable and decay radioactively. Most of the mass of a hydrogen atom is concentrated in its nucleus. In fact, the proton is more than 1800 times more massive than the electron. Neutrons have almost the same mass as protons. However, the radius of the electrons orbit, which defines the

size of the atom, is approximately 100,000 times as large as the radius of the nucleus! Clearly, hydro-gen atoms consist largely of empty space. Atoms of all elements consist largely of empty space, although all others are heavier and have more electrons. A proton has a positive electrical charge, and an electron has a negative electrical charge. Neutrons do not carry a charge.

Together, the charges associated with the proton and electrons of each hydrogen atom cancel each other out, so that individual hydrogen atoms are electrically neutral. Chemically, the atomic arrangement of a single electron orbiting a nucleus is highly reactive. For this reason, hydro-gen atoms naturally combine into molecular pairs (H2 in-stead of H). To further complicate things, each proton in a hydrogen pair has a field associated with it that can be visualized and described mathematically as a spin. Molecules in which both protons have the same spin are known as orthohydrogen. Molecules in which the protons have opposite spins are known as Para-hydrogen. Over 75% of normal hydrogen at room temperature is orthohydrogen. This difference becomes important at very low temperatures since orthohydrogen becomes unstable and changes to the more stable Para-hydrogen arrangement, releasing heat in the process. This heat can complicate low temperature hydrogen processes, particularly liquefaction.

Composition of Other Fuels:It is natural for us to compare hydrogen to other hydrocarbon fuels with

which we are more familiar. All hydrocarbon fuels are molecular combinations of carbon and hydrogen atoms. There are thousands of types of hydrocarbon com-pounds, each with a specific combination of carbon and hydrogen atoms in a unique geometry. The simplest of all hydrocarbons is methane, which is the principal constituent of natural gas. (Other components of natural gas include ethane, propane, butane and pentane as well as impurities.) Methane has the chemical formula CH 4, which means that each molecule has four hydrogen atoms and one carbon atom.

Other common hydrocarbons are ethane (C2H6), propane (C3H8) and butane (C4H10). These are all considered light hydrocarbons since they contain less than five carbon atoms per molecule and therefore have low molecular weight (a carbon atom is almost 12 times as heavy as a hydrogen atom).

Gasoline is composed of a mixture of many different hydro-carbons, but an important constituent is heptane (C7H16). Gasoline, diesel, kerosene, and compounds found in asphalt, heavy oils and waxes, are considered heavy hydrocarbons as they contain many carbon atoms per molecule, and therefore have high molecular weight. The lightest hydrocarbons are gases at normal atmospheric pressure and temperature. Heavier hydrocarbons, with 5 to 18 carbon atoms per compound, are liquid at ambient condi-tions and have increasing viscosity with molecular weight.

Other chemical fuels include alcohols whose molecules com-bine an oxygen/hydrogen atom pair (OH) with one or more hydrocarbon groups. Common alcohol fuels are methanol (CH3OH) and ethanol (C2H5OH). These may be blended with hydrocarbons for use in internal combustion engines. .

5.2 Physical Properties

5.2.1 State:All substances exist on earth as either a gas, liquid or solid. Most substances will change from one of these states to another depending on the temperature and pressure of their surroundings. In general, a gas can be changed into a liquid by reducing its temperature, and a liquid to a solid by reducing its temperature further. To some extent, an increase in pressure will cause a substance to liquefy and solidify at higher temperature than would otherwise be required.

The transition from liquid to gas is known as boiling and the transition from liquid to solid as freezing. Accordingly, each substance has a characteristic boiling temperature and freezing temperature (at a given pressure). The opposite transitions, from gas to liquid and solid to liquid, are known as condensation and melting respectively. The condensation temperature is the same as the boiling temperature and the melting temperature is the same as the freezing temperature. The process of condensation is also known as liquefaction and the process of freezing is also known as solidification. Boiling and freezing temperatures are most meaningfully compared relative to absolute zero. Absolute zero (0 R; 0 K; 459.69 F; 273.15 C) is the lowest temperature in the universe at which all molecular motion stops. Hydrogen has the second lowest boiling point and melting points of all substances, second only to helium. Hydrogen is a liquid below its boiling point of 20 K (423 F; 253 C) and a solid below its melting point of 14 K (434 F; 259 C) and atmospheric pressure.

Obviously, these temperatures are extremely low. Temperatures below 100 F (200 K; 73 C) are collectively known as cryogenic temperatures, and liquids at these temperatures are known as cryogenic liquids. The boiling point of a fuel is a critical parameter since it defines the temperature to which it must be cooled in order to store and use it as a liquid. Liquid fuels take up less storage space than gaseous fuels, and are generally easier to transport and handle. For this reason, fuels that are liquid at atmospheric conditions (such as gasoline, diesel, methanol and ethanol) are particularly convenient. Conversely, fuels that are gases at atmospheric conditions (such as hydrogen and natural gas) are less convenient as they must be stored as a pressurized gas or as a cryogenic liquid.

The boiling point of a pure substance increases with applied pressure up to a point. Propane, with a boiling point of 44 F (42 C), can be stored as a liquid under moderate pres-sure, although it is a gas at atmospheric pressure. (At temperatures of 70 F (21 C) a minimum pressure of 111 psig (7.7 barg) is required for liquefaction). Unfortunately, hydro-gens boiling point can only be increased to a maximum of -400 F (240 C) through the application of approximately 195 psig (13 barg), beyond which additional pressure has no beneficial effect.

5.2.2 Odour, Colour and Taste:Pure hydrogen is odourless, colourless and tasteless. A stream of hydrogen from a leak is almost invisible in daylight. Com-pounds such as mercaptans and thiophanes that are used to scent natural gas may not be added to hydrogen for fuel cell use as they contain sulphur that would poison the fuel cells. Hydrogen that derives from reforming other fossil fuels is typically accompanied by nitrogen, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide and other trace gases. In general, all of these gases are also odourless, colourless and tasteless.

5.2.3 Toxicity
Hydrogen is non-toxic but can act as a simple Asphyxiate by displacing the oxygen in the air.

Asphyxiation:-

Oxygen levels below 19.5% are biologically inactive for humans. Effects of oxygen deficiency may include rapid breathing, diminished mental alertness, impaired muscular coordination, faulty judgements, and depression of all sensations, emotional instability and fatigue. As asphyxiation progresses, dizziness, nausea, vomiting, prostration and loss of consciousness may result, eventually leading to convulsions, coma and death. At concentrations below 12%, immediate unconsciousness may occur with no prior warning symptoms. In an enclosed area, small leaks pose little danger of asphyxiation whereas large leaks can be a serious problem since the hydrogen diffuses quickly to fill the volume. The potential for asphyxiation in unconfined areas is almost negligible due to the high buoyancy and diffusivity of hydrogen.

5.2.4 Density and Related Measures

Hydrogen has lowest atomic weight of any substance and therefore has very low density both as a gas and a liquid. Density:-

Density is measured as the amount of mass contained per unit volume. Density values only have meaning at a specified temperature and pressure since both of these parameters affect the compactness of the molecular arrangement, especially in a gas. The density of a gas is called its vapour density, and the density of a liquid is called its liquid density.

Specific Volume:-

Specific volume is the inverse of density and expresses the amount of volume per unit
3 3 3

mass. Thus, the specific volume of hydrogen gas is 191.3 ft /lb (11.9 m /kg) at 68 F (20 C) and 1 atm, and the specific volume of liquid hydrogen is 0.226 ft /lb (0.014 m /kg) at 423 F (253 C) and 1 atm.
3

Specific Gravity:-

A common way of expressing relative density is as specific gravity. Specific gravity is the ratio of the density of one substance to that of a reference substance, both at the same temperature and pressure.
3 3

For vapours, air (with a density of 0.0751 lb/ft ; 1.203 kg/m ) is used as the reference substance and therefore has a specific gravity of 1.0 relative to itself. The density of other vapour is then expressed as a number greater or less than 1.0 in proportion to its density relative to air. Gases with a specific gravity greater than 1.0 are heavier than air; those with a specific gravity less than 1.0 are lighter than air.
3

Gaseous hydrogen, with a density of 0.00523 lb/ft , has a specific gravity of 0.0696 and is thus approximately 7% the density of air.
3 3

For liquids, water (with a density of 62.4 lb/ft ; 1000 kg/m ) is used as the reference substance, so has a specific gravity of 1.0 relative to itself. As with gases, liquids with a specific gravity greater than 1.0 are heavier than water; those with a specific gravity less than 1.0 are lighter than water.
3

Liquid hydrogen, with a density of 4.432 lb/ft , has a specific gravity of 0.0708 and is thus approximately (and coincidentally) 7% the density of water.

Expansion Ratio:-

The difference in volume between liquid and gaseous hydro-gen can easily be appreciated by considering its expansion ratio. Expansion ratio is the ratio of the volume at which a gas or liquid is stored compared to the volume of the gas or liquid at atmospheric pressure and temperature. When hydrogen is stored as a liquid, is vaporizes upon expansion to atmospheric conditions with a corresponding increase in volume. Hydrogens expansion ratio of 1:848 means that hydrogen in its gaseous state at atmospheric conditions occupies 848 times more volume than it does in its liquid state.

Figure1-3 Hydrogen Liquid to Gas Expansion Ratio

When hydrogen is stored as a high-pressure gas at 3600 psig (250brag) and atmospheric temperature, its expansion ratio to atmospheric pressure is 1:240. While a higher storage pressure increases the expansion ratio somewhat, gaseous hydrogen under any conditions cannot approach the expansion ratio of liquid hydrogen.

Hydrogen Content:-

Even as a liquid, hydrogen is not very dense. Ironically, every cubic meter of water (made up of hydrogen and oxy-gen) contains 111 kg of hydrogen whereas a cubic meter of liquid hydrogen contains only 71 kg of hydrogen. Thus, water packs more mass of hydrogen per unit volume, be-cause of its tight molecular structure, than hydrogen itself. This is true of most other liquid hydrogen-containing com-pounds as well; a cubic meter of methanol contains 100 kg of hydrogen and a cubic meter of heptane contains 113 kg. Hydrocarbons are compact hydrogen carriers with the added advantage of having higher energy density than pure hydrogen. When used as vehicle fuel, the low density of hydrogen necessitates that a large volume of hydrogen be carried to provide an adequate driving range.

5.2.5 Leakage
The molecules of hydrogen gas are smaller than all other gases, and it can diffuse through many materials considered airtight or impermeable to other gases. This property makes hydrogen more difficult to contain than other gases. Leaks of liquid hydrogen evaporate very quickly since the boiling point of liquid hydrogen is so extremely low.

Hydrogen leaks are dangerous in that they pose a risk of fire where they mix with air. However, the small molecule size that increases the likelihood of a leak also results in very high buoyancy and diffusivity, so leaked hydrogen rises and becomes diluted quickly, especially out-doors. This results in a localized region of flammability that disperses quickly. As the hydrogen dilutes with distance from the leakage site, the buoyancy declines and the tendency for the hydrogen to continue to raise decreases. In contrast, leaking gasoline or diesel spreads laterally and evaporates slowly resulting in a widespread, lingering fire hazard. Propane gas is denser than air so it accumulates in low spots and disperses slowly, resulting in a protracted fire or explosion hazard. Heavy vapours can also form vapour clouds or plumes that travel as they are pushed by breezes. Methane gas is lighter than air, but not nearly as buoyant as hydrogen, so it disperses rapidly, but not as rapidly as hydrogen. For small hydrogen leaks, buoyancy and diffusion effects in air are often overshadowed by the presence of air currents from a slight ambient wind, very slow vehicle motion or the radiator fan. In general, these currents serve to disperse leaked hydrogen even more quickly with a further reduction of any associated fire hazard. When used as vehicle fuel, the propensity for hydrogen to leak necessitates special care in the design of the fuel system to ensure that any leaks can disperse with minimum hindrance, and the use of dedicated leak detection equipment on the vehicle and within the maintenance facility.

5.3 Chemical Properties

5.3.1 Reactivity
High reactivity is characteristic of all chemical fuels. In each case, a chemical reaction occurs when the fuel molecules form bonds with oxygen (from air) so that the final, reacted molecules are at a lower energy state than the initial, unreacted molecules. As the molecules react, the change in chemical energy state is accompanied by a corresponding release of energy that we can exploit to do useful work. This is true in both a combustive reaction (as in an internal combustion engine where the energy is released explosively as heat) or in an electrochemical reaction (as in a battery or fuel cell where the energy is released as an electrical potential and heat).

This chemical energy release is analogous to that which occurs when water flows from a high level to a low level. The water at the high level has potential energy that is released as it falls to the low level. This energy can be harnessed to do useful work, such as turning a turbine.

Once at the low level, the energy is spent and it cannot do further work at that level. In order to do further work, it must either fall to an even lower level, or be raised back to the high level through some external agency that inputs energy. The natural cycle of evaporation, condensation, and precipitation that returns water to a higher level is driven by solar and wind energy. Alternatively, a pump can return the water to a higher level, but the pump consumes a corresponding amount of energy.

Figure 1-5 Chemical Energy States

Chemical reactions of this type often require a small amount of activation energy to get started, but then the energy re-leased by the reaction feeds further reaction in a domino effect. Thus, when a small amount of activation energy in the form of a spark is provided to a mixture of hydrogen and oxygen, the molecules react vigorously, releasing a substantial amount of heat, with water as the final product. We experience this reaction as a fire or explosion, and the resulting water vaporizes and is invisible to us since it is a superheated vapour. (This water vapour can condense and become visible as it cools; this is the cloud we see when the space shuttle takes off.)

Chemical By-Products of Fuel Reactions:-

All of the atoms present at the start of a reaction are present at the end of the reaction although they may be reorganized into different molecules. Hydrocarbon fuels, in addition to hydrogen and carbon, may contain other impurities such as sulphur. Air, in addition to being a ready source of oxygen, also consists of 78% nitrogen and 1% trace gases. The presences of carbon, nitrogen and sulphur (as well as unreacted hydrocarbon) result in chemical compounds during combustion that cause smog with serious health and environmental consequences: Oxygen reacts with carbon to form carbon monoxide (CO) and carbon dioxide (CO 2). CO2 is benign to human beings and does not produce smog, but is a greenhouse gas and contributes to global warming. CO, on the other hand, is poisonous to humans and severely limits the bloods ability to transport oxygen to body tissues resulting in dizziness, headaches, impaired coordination and death. The formation of CO is favoured by lack of air during combustion and therefore leaner running engines emit less CO. Any reduction in CO formation is accompanied by a proportional increase in CO2 formation.

Oxygen reacts with nitrogen to form oxides of nitrogen (NOx). Oxides of nitrogen damage lung tissue and act as a precursor to ozone, which irritates the respiratory tract and eyes, decreases the lungs ability to work, and causes both cough and chest pain. The formation of NOx is favoured by high combustion temperatures (2700 F; 1480 C); thus, advanced ignition and increased pressure ratios tend to increase NOx emissions since these increase the combustion temperature. Lean burning engines typi-cally reduce NOx emissions. Diesel engines, however, generate high NOx emissions when operating lean under low load conditions.

Oxygen reacts with sulphur to form oxides of sulphur (SOx). Sulphur also forms the basis for soot, which is a form of particulate matter. Large soot particles are visible and can be filtered out of the air, or coughed out of the respiratory system. Very small soot particles (<2.5 microns) are not visible and can lodge in the lungs and cause cancer.

Hydrocarbon emissions pass into the atmosphere through incomplete combustion and evaporation. Hydro-carbons are either volatile organic compounds (VOCs) or reactive

hydrocarbons (RHC). The RHCs, such as gasoline, produce photochemical smog (visual pollution). VOCs, such as natural gas, do not produce smog. Un-burned hydrocarbons act as precursor to ozone just like NOx emissions. The type of fuel and the use of post-combustion catalytic converters affect the amount and type of smog pollution. Light hydrocarbons are relatively rich in hydrogen and there-fore provide less carbon atoms for CO and CO2 formation. Non-sulfur containing fuels eliminate SOx and soot. Hydrogen is a nearly ideal fuel in terms of smog reduction when combusted. Hydrogen contains no carbon or sulphur, so no CO, CO2 or SOx or soot is produced during combustion (although the combustion of lubricating oil may result in trace amounts). Hydrogen allows for leaner combustion, resulting in lower combustion temperatures and very low NOx emissions. Hydrogen is non-toxic so un-combusted hydrogen does not pose a direct health risk.

6 Conclusions

6.1

Theuseof mixturesof naturalgas andhydrogen to power vehicles Fuelmixturesofnaturalgasandhydrogentypicallycontainbetween5% and30% hydrogenbyvolume.Withsuch blends, thefuel couldbe used inwhat areessentially naturalgassystemsandvehicles.This presentsachallenge fortype-approval.The legislationfor naturalgasvehiclescould be adoptedforvehicles thatrunonmixtures ofnaturalgasandhydrogen.Withthisapproach,therewouldbeariskthatany safety issuesresulting fromthepresenceofhydrogen inthemixture wouldnotbe examined.Unfortunately,the potentialeffectsofadding evensmallamountsof hydrogento naturalgasvehicle systemshavenotbeenreportedinthe literature.A cautiousapproach, therefore,wouldbe to adoptthe hydrogenregulationandthe implementingregulationforvehiclesdesignedtorunonmixtures.However,thereis ariskthatsuchanapproachmight beperceivedasplacingoverlystrictrequirements onsomevehicles, particularly thosedesignedtooperatewith lowervolumesof hydrogen.

6.3

Regulatingthetype-approvalof L category vehicles The frameworkdirectiveforLcategory vehicles (Directive 2002/24/EC)contains no specificprovisionshydrogen-poweredvehicles.Amending the framework directive wouldremove anypotentialbarrierstothe approvalof hydrogen-poweredLcategory vehicles and would therefore reduce the risk of a fragmented, internal market forminginindividualMemberStates. Therearecurrentlynotechnicalrequirementsfor hydrogenstorage onLcategory vehicles:the hydrogenregulationandthe implementingregulationare generally appropriate forLcategoryvehicles,but they arepartofthetype-approvalframework forM andN categoryvehicles. Itmay beinappropriatetosimply amend theseacts to includeLcategoryvehicles,butthey could formthebasisfor newrequirements.

7.Literature riview

7.Acknowledgements
Theauthorsare gratefultothemembers stakeholdersthat assistedwiththisstudy. oftheHydrogenWorkingGroupandother

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