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J. Luis Dizon
The eighteenth century enlightenment saw the rise of the historical-critical method of approaching scripture. This method is concerned with getting behind the text to determine how the text arrived at its present form, hence its being called a diachronic approach to scripture. This is done through form criticism (the study of how the traditions that are found in the text developed), source criticism (the study of the sources used to produce the text) and redaction criticism (the study of how the text was shaped into its present form). This method also concerns the authorship and dating of the various biblical books, with many of its proponents developing theories that are based on the idea that many of the books of the Bible are not actually written by the persons to whom they ascribed, but are written much later (sometimes centuries later). Understandably, this kind of approach is met with criticism by conservative Evangelicals, who have presented criticisms of these theories and have proposed alternative views that preserve the integrity of scripture and the traditional views regarding its dating and authorship. The purpose of this article is to provide a short survey of various higher-critical theories that are common amongst Biblical academia, as well as the responses to these theories that have been provided by conservative scholars, thus presenting the various flaws that exist in the various historical-critical theories, as well as those of the method itself as it has been applied by most liberal scholars past and present.
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First of all, it is worth looking at the various theories that fall under the rubric of the historical-critical method. One such theory is the Graf-Wellhausen hypothesis, which is named after Karl Heinrich Graf and Julius Wellhausen. According to this theory, the Pentateuch, rather than being the work of Moses, is actually the result of four documents (the Yahwist, Elohist, Deuteronomic code and Priestly code) being joined together and redacted into its present form several centuries later. This conclusion was arrived at based on perceived discrepancies in language and style (for example, the Yahwist referred to God as Yahweh, while the Elohist and Priestly code referred to Him as Elohim).1 Although the roots of the theory go back further than them, Graf and Wellhausen are known for developing the theory and giving it the form by which it is best known.2 In addition to this hypothesis, several other theories concerning other biblical books have arisen as a result of the historical-critical method. For example, the Deutero-Isaiah theory posits separate authors for chs. 1-39 and 40-66 of Isaiah, since chs. 40-66 appear to have been written during the exile, nearly two centuries after Isaiahs
Wellhausen, Julius. Prolegomena to the History of Ancient Israel (Cleveland, Ohio: Meridian Books, 1965), 6-12. 2 Archer, Gleason L. A Survey of Old Testament Introduction (Chicago, Ill.: Moody Publishers, 2007), 71-78. Here, Archer names several of the early proponents of this theory who would later influence Graf and Wellhausen, such as Jean Astruc, Johann Gottfried Eichhorn, Eduard Reuss and Hermann Hupfeld, among others.
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lifetime. This later gave way to a Trito-Isaiah theory where a third author is posited to have written chs. 56-66 during Ezras time (circa 450 B.C.).3 A similar theory is proposed for Daniel, which is said to have been written during the second century as a work of historical fiction intended to encourage the Maccabean revolt against Antiochus Epiphanes, on the grounds that the books use of language and terminology better reflect that context rather than the context of the Babylonian exile. Similar theories are proposed for the New Testament books; Six out of thirteen of Pauls epistles are now considered by historical-critical scholars as being pseudepigrephal.4 The same is said about most of the general epistles, especially 2 Peter, which has been placed by some scholars as late as the 2nd century. 5 These theories continue to be promulgated in most scholarly circles today, centuries after they were first developed. A notable book detailing these theories as they apply to the New Testament is Bart Ehrmans Forged. As the title suggests, Ehrmans contention is that most of the books of the New Testament were not written by the authors to whom they have traditionally been attributed. His distinct contribution to these theories, however, is the rejection of the common idea that the use of a false name was done in good conscience and was not meant to deceive anyone, and the promotion of the thesis that the false attributions of authorship were deliberate acts of deception and forgery.6
Ibid., 310. Raymond E. Brown and Raymond F. Collins, Canonicity, The New Jerome Biblical Commentary (Prentice Hall, 1990), 1044-5. 5 Ibid., 1048-9. 6 Bart D. Ehrman, Forged: Writing in the Name of GodWhy the Bibles Authors Are Not Who We Think They Are (New York: HarperOne, 2011), 119123.
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Introduction (a widely used text in Evangelical seminaries) tracing the origins of this theory and examining its foundations. One of the main pillars of this theory is that the alternate usage of Yahweh and Elohim indicate different sources, yet Archer points out that this would mean that passages that are otherwise obviously unified would have to be divided into separate sources (eg. Gen. 21:1-2, 30:23-24).8 In defence of Mosaic authorship, he points out that the author of the Pentateuch shows great familiarity with Egyptian names and terms, as well as uses phrases that are characteristically Egyptian. As Archer notes: The titles of the court officials, the polite language used in the interviews with Pharaoh, and the like are all shown to be true to Egyptian usage.9 He also notes that Deuteronomy follows the form of a Hittite suzerainty treaty. This is significant because this literary form was discontinued at the end of the 13th century B.C., preventing Deuteronomy from being dated much later than that (as most historical critics do).10 Another Evangelical scholar, E.J. Young, corroborates this by pointing to excavated business documents from the Hurrians (referred to in Gen. 14:6 as Horites). He notes how many of the customs mentioned in Genesis, such as designating an adopted son as ones heir (Gen. 15:3), the validity of oral blessings (Gen. 27:1ff), and bowing seven times towards a superior (Gen. 33:3), are well attested in the documents. This demonstrates that Genesis could not have been written centuries later by authors who were unaware of these practices.11
Archer, A Survey of Old Testament Introduction, 106-7. Ibid., 95. 10 Ibid., 83. 11 Edward J. Young, Thy Word is Truth: Some Thoughts on the Biblical Doctrine of Inspiration (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 1957), 201204.
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Similar critiques have been raised by Evangelical scholars against historical-critical theories regarding the dating and authorship of other Old Testament books as well. With the book of Daniel, for example, many of the arguments that were traditionally raised in support of a second century date have been shown to be unfounded. This is seen in two articles by Dr. Edwin Yamauchi, The Archaeological Background of Daniel and Hermeneutical Issues in the Book of Daniel. In the former article, he notes various lines of evidence that have traditionally been interpreted as pointing to a 2nd century B.C. datingthe Babylonian names, the use of Chaldean as a professional term, the mention of Belshazzar as the successor of Nebuchadnezzar, the mention of Darius the Mede, and the presence of Greek loanwords, and demonstrates how these do not demonstrate a 2nd century B.C. date and could be harmonized with a 6th century B.C. date.12 His discussion of scholarly studies on the Aramaic of Daniel is particularly enlightening: During 1929, H.H. Rowley did a study of the Aramaic of Daniel and concluded that it is compatible with a 2nd century B.C. date. However, in a similar study, Evangelical scholar K.A. Kitchen refuted many of Rowleys arguments, and Israeli scholar E.Y. Kutscher later confirmed K.A. Kitchens findings using 5th century B.C. papyri. The conclusion was that the Aramaic could just as easily support a 6th century B.C. date as it could a 2nd century B.C. date.13 In his second article, Yamauchi expands on the historicalcritical issues surrounding Daniel, and their impact on the
Edwin M. Yamauchi, The Archaeological Background of Daniel: Archaeological Backgrounds of the Exilic and Post Exilic Era Part 1, Bibliotheca Sacra 137 (1980), 4ff. 13 Ibid., 10-11. 3
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interpretation of the book. He discusses the four empires in Daniel 2 and 7, where he points out how the empires were traditionally interpreted as referring to the Babylonian, Medo-Persian, Hellenistic and Roman empires, whereas higher-critical scholars interpret them as referring to the Babylonian, Median, Persian and Hellenistic empires, on the assumption that the author could not have predicted the rise of the Roman Empire after the time of the Maccabeans. However, this is an unfounded rationalist assumption which omits the fact that there was never a separate Median empire.14 Further on, he discusses the prophecy of Daniel 11, refuting the claim that the prophecy must have been written after the event. Just like with Daniel 2 and 7, the claim that Daniel 11 was written vaticinia ex eventu is based on the assumption that predictive prophecy cannot take place.15 In addition to the Old Testament, historical-critical issues regarding the New Testament have also been tackled by Evangelical scholars. Although Markan priority is accepted by most scholars, there is considerable disagreement as to its dating, as well as that of the other gospels. Carson, Moo and Morris in their Introduction to the New Testament conclude based on internal evidence that Mark was most likely written in the late fifties, although they point out that various dates have been proposed between the 40s to AD 70.16 They also place the date of Matthew and Luke during the 60s,17 while with Johns Gospel the date is much less decisive, as almost any date
between 55 and 95 is possible.18 Even though there is a tendency for historical critical scholars to favour later dates, Carson, Moo and Morris point out that there is no compelling reason to favour late dates for any of the Gospels, and that attempts to date the Synoptic Gospels after AD 70 are based on the a priori denial of predictive prophecy (ie. the predictions of the fall of the temple must have been written after the fact).
Edwin M. Yamauchi, Hermeneutical Issues in the Book of Daniel. JETS 23, no. 1 (1980), 16. 15 Ibid., 16-19. 16 D.A. Carson, Douglas J. Moo, and Leon Morris. An Introduction to the New Testament (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Zondervan, 1992), 96-99. 17 Ibid., 76-79, 116-117. 4
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the authority of scripture in faith, and interpret the findings of their historical research in that light.20 Finally, one article of interest is Gerhard Maiers Concrete Alternatives to the Historical-Critical Method, where he points out that modern exegetes who rely too heavily on Historical criticism no longer hold to the unity of scripture, and thus inevitably see contradictions in texts that could otherwise be easily harmonized. He also points out that progress could no longer be made in biblical studies with the historical-critical method as it currently exists due to numerous flaws in its presuppositions.21
commonly held dates for most of the books by Historical Critical scholars. Geisler, Norman L. and William E. Nix. A General Introduction to the Bible (Revised and Expanded). Chicago, Ill.: Moody Publishers, 1986, Maier, Gerhard. Concrete Alternatives to the Historical-Critical Method. Evangelical Review of Theology 6, no. 1 (1982): 2336. Provides a general critique of the Historical Critical method.
SUGGESTED READINGS
As Historical Criticism involves specialized knowledge in various fields of biblical studies, it is not always easy to get a hold of useful information on these issues. Thus, a list of suggested readings is provided below. Most (though not all) of the books listed below have been cited in this article, and they all contain information that is useful for knowing more about Historical Critical methodology, as well the Evangelical response to the theories derived from that methodology.
GENERAL INFORMATION
Brown, Raymond E. and Raymond F. Collins. Canonicity. The New Jerome Biblical Commentary. Prentice Hall, 1990. 1034-54. Provides brief background information on what are the
Young, Thy Word is Truth, 189-197. Gerhard Maier, Concrete Alternatives to the Historical-Critical Method, Evangelical Review of Theology 6, no. 1 (1982): 24-25.
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and scholarly Old Testament reference resources available. Highly recommended. Kitchen, Kenneth A. Proverbs and Wisdom Books of the Ancient Near East: The Factual History of a Literary Form. The Tyndale Biblical Archaeology Lecture (1976): 69-114. Provides historical information specific to the book of Proverbs. Wellhausen, Julius. Prolegomena to the History of Ancient Israel. Cleveland, Ohio: Meridian Books, 1965. This is the book that is responsible for popularizing the Graf-Wellhausen Hypothesis and giving it the form by which it is most well known today. Yamauchi, Edwin M. The Archaeological Background of Daniel: Archaeological Backgrounds of the Exilic and Post Exilic Era Part 1. Bibliotheca Sacra 137 (1980): 3-16. Discusses historical, linguistic and archaeological issues specific to the book of Daniel. __________. Hermeneutical Issues in the Book of Daniel. JETS 23, no. 1 (1980): 13-21. A continuation of the discussion that is provided in the Yamauchi article previously listed. Young, Edward J. Thy Word is Truth: Some Thoughts on the Biblical Doctrine of Inspiration. Grand Rapids, Mich.: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 1957. One of the older books that were written in response to Historical Critical theories. His arguments are still